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</div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Quantitative research</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%AB_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%85%D9%8A" title="البحث الكمي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="البحث الكمي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recerca_quantitativa" title="Recerca quantitativa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Recerca quantitativa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvantitativn%C3%AD_v%C3%BDzkum" title="Kvantitativní výzkum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kvantitativní výzkum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymchwil_mesurol" title="Ymchwil mesurol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymchwil mesurol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvantitativ_metode" title="Kvantitativ metode – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kvantitativ metode" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_Sozialforschung" title="Quantitative Sozialforschung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Quantitative Sozialforschung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvantitatiivsed_uurimismeetodid" title="Kvantitatiivsed uurimismeetodid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kvantitatiivsed uurimismeetodid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars%C3%A9rca_quantitat%C3%ACva" title="Arsérca quantitatìva – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Arsérca quantitatìva" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigaci%C3%B3n_cuantitativa" title="Investigación cuantitativa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Investigación cuantitativa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%98%D9%88%D9%87%D8%B4_%DA%A9%D9%85%DB%8C" title="پژوهش کمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پژوهش کمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9thodes_quantitatives" title="Méthodes quantitatives – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Méthodes quantitatives" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taighde_cainn%C3%ADocht%C3%BAil" title="Taighde cainníochtúil – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Taighde cainníochtúil" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigaci%C3%B3n_cuantitativa" title="Investigación cuantitativa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Investigación cuantitativa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%91%EC%A0%81_%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC" title="양적 연구 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="양적 연구" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="मात्रात्मक अनुसंधान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मात्रात्मक अनुसंधान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvantitativno_istra%C5%BEivanje" title="Kvantitativno istraživanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kvantitativno istraživanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penelitian_kuantitatif" title="Penelitian kuantitatif – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penelitian kuantitatif" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ucwaningo_lomngakaniso" title="Ucwaningo lomngakaniso – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ucwaningo lomngakaniso" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megindlegar_ranns%C3%B3knir" title="Megindlegar rannsóknir – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Megindlegar rannsóknir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricerca_quantitativa" title="Ricerca quantitativa – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ricerca quantitativa" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%98%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A7%D7%A8_%D7%9B%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שיטות מחקר כמותניות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שיטות מחקר כמותניות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_quantitativa" title="Via quantitativa – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Via quantitativa" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiekybinis_tyrimas" title="Kiekybinis tyrimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kiekybinis tyrimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%9A%E9%87%8F%E7%9A%84%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="定量的研究 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="定量的研究" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvantitativ_metode" title="Kvantitativ metode – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kvantitativ metode" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvantitativ_metode" title="Kvantitativ metode – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kvantitativ metode" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met%C3%B2des_quantitatius" title="Metòdes quantitatius – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Metòdes quantitatius" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A_%DA%85%DB%90%DA%93%D9%86%D9%87" title="مقداري څېړنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مقداري څېړنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metody_ilo%C5%9Bciowe" title="Metody ilościowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Metody ilościowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesquisa_quantitativa" title="Pesquisa quantitativa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pesquisa quantitativa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Количественные методы исследований – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Количественные методы исследований" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvantitativno_raziskovanje" title="Kvantitativno raziskovanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kvantitativno raziskovanje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Квантитативно истраживање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Квантитативно истраживање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panalungtikan_kuantitatif" title="Panalungtikan kuantitatif – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Panalungtikan kuantitatif" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A4%C3%A4r%C3%A4llinen_tutkimus" title="Määrällinen tutkimus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Määrällinen tutkimus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvantitativ_forskning" title="Kvantitativ forskning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kvantitativ forskning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantitatif_ara%C5%9Ft%C4%B1rma_y%C3%B6ntemi" title="Kantitatif araştırma yöntemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kantitatif araştırma yöntemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nghi%C3%AAn_c%E1%BB%A9u_%C4%91%E1%BB%8Bnh_l%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3ng" title="Nghiên cứu định lượng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nghiên cứu định lượng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%9A%E9%87%8F%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="定量研究 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="定量研究" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%9A%E9%87%8F%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="定量研究 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="定量研究" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q730675#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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href="/wiki/Research_proposal" title="Research proposal">Proposal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">Question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_writing" title="Academic writing">Writing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation" title="Citation">Referencing</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Research strategy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimethodology" title="Multimethodology">Multimethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art-based_research" title="Art-based research">Art-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">Philosophical schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of science)"> Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_realism_(philosophy_of_the_social_sciences)" title="Critical realism (philosophy of the social sciences)">Critical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtle_realism" title="Subtle realism">Subtle realism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">Methodology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_research" title="Action research">Action research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_methodology" title="Art methodology">Art methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grounded_theory" title="Grounded theory">Grounded theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_inquiry" title="Narrative inquiry">Narrative inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology)" title="Phenomenology (sociology)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive statistics">Descriptive statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoethnography" title="Autoethnography">Autoethnography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_experiment" title="Field experiment">Field experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-experiment" title="Quasi-experiment">Quasi-experiment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">Field research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Inferential statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview" title="Interview">Interviews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Mapping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mapping" title="Cultural mapping">Cultural mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenography" title="Phenomenography">Phenomenography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_research" title="Secondary research">Secondary research</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> 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software">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Statistical_software" title="Category:Statistical software">Statistics</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Research_sidebar" title="Template:Research sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Research_sidebar" title="Template talk:Research sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Research_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Research sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Quantitative research</b> is a research strategy that focuses on quantifying the collection and analysis of data.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is formed from a <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive</a> approach where emphasis is placed on the testing of theory, shaped by <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivist</a> philosophies.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Associated with the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied</a>, <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a> this research strategy promotes the <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">objective</a> <a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical investigation</a> of observable <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomena</a> to test and understand relationships. This is done through a range of quantifying methods and techniques, reflecting on its broad utilization as a research strategy across differing <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic disciplines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Given_2008_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Given_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are several situations where quantitative research may not be the most appropriate or effective method to use: </p><p>1. When exploring in-depth or complex topics. </p><p>2. When studying subjective experiences and personal opinions. </p><p>3. When conducting exploratory research. </p><p>4. When studying sensitive or controversial topics </p><p>The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical models</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">theories</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a> pertaining to phenomena. The process of <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a> is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. </p><p>Quantitative data is any data that is in numerical form such as statistics, percentages, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Given_2008_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Given_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The researcher analyses the data with the help of <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive statistics">statistics</a> and hopes the numbers will yield an <a href="/wiki/Bias_(statistics)" title="Bias (statistics)">unbiased</a> result that can be generalized to some larger population. <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a>, on the other hand, inquires deeply into specific experiences, with the intention of describing and exploring meaning through text, narrative, or visual-based data, by developing themes exclusive to that set of participants.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quantitative research is widely used in <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">marketing</a>, community health, health & human development, gender studies, and <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>; and less frequently in <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>. Research in mathematical sciences, such as <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, is also "quantitative" by definition, though this use of the term differs in context. In the social sciences, the term relates to empirical methods originating in both philosophical <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_statistics" title="History of statistics">history of statistics</a>, in contrast with <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative research</a> methods. </p><p>Qualitative research produces information only on the particular cases studied, and any more general conclusions are only hypotheses. Quantitative methods can be used to verify which of such hypotheses are true. A comprehensive analysis of 1274 articles published in the top two American sociology journals between 1935 and 2005 found that roughly two-thirds of these articles used quantitative <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hunter_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hunter-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_research&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quantitative research is generally closely affiliated with ideas from <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">'the scientific method'</a>, which can include: </p> <ul><li>The generation of models, theories and <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a></li> <li>The development of instruments and methods for measurement</li> <li>Experimental control and manipulation of <a href="/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)" title="Variable (mathematics)">variables</a></li> <li>Collection of empirical data</li> <li>Modeling and analysis of data</li></ul> <p>Quantitative research is often contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative research</a>, which purports to be focused more on discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships, including classifications of types of phenomena and entities, in a manner that does not involve mathematical models.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approaches to quantitative psychology were first modeled on quantitative approaches in the physical sciences by <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Fechner" title="Gustav Fechner">Gustav Fechner</a> in his work on <a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">psychophysics</a>, which built on the work of <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Heinrich_Weber" title="Ernst Heinrich Weber">Ernst Heinrich Weber</a>. Although a distinction is commonly drawn between qualitative and quantitative aspects of scientific investigation, it has been argued that the two go hand in hand. For example, based on analysis of the history of science, Kuhn concludes that "large amounts of qualitative work have usually been prerequisite to fruitful quantification in the physical sciences".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qualitative research is often used to gain a general sense of phenomena and to form theories that can be tested using further quantitative research. For instance, in the social sciences qualitative research methods are often used to gain better understanding of such things as intentionality (from the speech response of the researchee) and meaning (why did this person/group say something and what did it mean to them?) (Kieron Yeoman). </p><p>Although quantitative investigation of the world has existed since people first began to record events or objects that had been counted, the modern idea of quantitative processes have their roots in <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Positivist" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist">positivist</a> framework.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Positivism emphasized the use of the scientific method through observation to empirically test hypotheses explaining and predicting what, where, why, how, and when phenomena occurred. Positivist scholars like Comte believed only scientific methods rather than previous spiritual explanations for human behavior could advance. </p><p>Quantitative methods are an integral component of the five angles of analysis fostered by the data percolation methodology,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which also includes qualitative methods, reviews of the literature (including scholarly), interviews with experts and computer simulation, and which forms an extension of data triangulation. </p><p>Quantitative methods have limitations. These studies do not provide reasoning behind participants' responses, they often do not reach underrepresented populations, and they may span long periods in order to collect the data.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_of_statistics">Use of statistics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_research&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Use of statistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a> is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research outside of the physical sciences, and also finds applications within the physical sciences, such as in <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>. Statistical methods are used extensively within fields such as economics, social sciences and biology. Quantitative research using statistical methods starts with the collection of data, based on the hypothesis or theory. Usually a big sample of data is collected – this would require verification, validation and recording before the analysis can take place. Software packages such as <a href="/wiki/SPSS" title="SPSS">SPSS</a> and <a href="/wiki/R_(programming_language)" title="R (programming language)">R</a> are typically used for this purpose. Causal relationships are studied by manipulating factors thought to influence the phenomena of interest while controlling other variables relevant to the experimental outcomes. In the field of health, for example, researchers might measure and study the relationship between dietary intake and measurable physiological effects such as weight loss, controlling for other key variables such as exercise. Quantitatively based <a href="/wiki/Survey_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey research">opinion surveys</a> are widely used in the media, with statistics such as the proportion of respondents in favor of a position commonly reported. In opinion surveys, respondents are asked a set of structured questions and their responses are tabulated. In the field of climate science, researchers compile and compare statistics such as temperature or atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. </p><p>Empirical relationships and associations are also frequently studied by using some form of <a href="/wiki/General_linear_model" title="General linear model">general linear model</a>, non-linear model, or by using <a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">factor analysis</a>. A fundamental principle in quantitative research is that <a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">correlation does not imply causation</a>, although some such as <a href="/wiki/Clive_Granger" title="Clive Granger">Clive Granger</a> suggest that a series of correlations can imply a <a href="/wiki/Granger_causality" title="Granger causality">degree of causality</a>. This principle follows from the fact that it is always possible a <a href="/wiki/Spurious_relationship" title="Spurious relationship">spurious relationship</a> exists for variables between which <a href="/wiki/Covariance" title="Covariance">covariance</a> is found in some degree. Associations may be examined between any combination of continuous and categorical variables using methods of statistics. Other data analytical approaches for studying <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal relations</a> can be performed with <a href="/wiki/Necessary_Condition_Analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessary Condition Analysis">Necessary Condition Analysis</a> (NCA), which outlines must-have conditions for the studied outcome variable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement">Measurement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_research&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Views regarding the role of measurement in quantitative research are somewhat divergent. Measurement is often regarded as being only a means by which observations are expressed numerically in order to investigate causal relations or associations. However, it has been argued that measurement often plays a more important role in quantitative research.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Kuhn argued that within quantitative research, the results that are shown can prove to be strange. This is because accepting a theory based on results of quantitative data could prove to be a natural phenomenon. He argued that such abnormalities are interesting when done during the process of obtaining data, as seen below: </p> <dl><dd>When measurement departs from theory, it is likely to yield mere numbers, and their very neutrality makes them particularly sterile as a source of remedial suggestions. But numbers register the departure from theory with an authority and finesse that no qualitative technique can duplicate, and that departure is often enough to start a search (Kuhn, 1961, p. 180).</dd></dl> <p>In classical physics, the theory and definitions which underpin measurement are generally <a href="/wiki/Deterministic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterministic">deterministic</a> in nature. In contrast, probabilistic measurement models known as the <a href="/wiki/Rasch_model" title="Rasch model">Rasch model</a> and <a href="/wiki/Item_response_theory" title="Item response theory">Item response theory</a> models are generally employed in the social sciences. <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a> is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique for measuring social and psychological attributes and phenomena. This field is central to much quantitative research that is undertaken within the social sciences. </p><p>Quantitative research may involve the use of <i><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(statistics)" title="Proxy (statistics)">proxies</a></i> as stand-ins for other quantities that cannot be directly measured. Tree-ring width, for example, is considered a reliable proxy of ambient environmental conditions such as the warmth of growing seasons or amount of rainfall. Although scientists cannot directly measure the temperature of past years, tree-ring width and other climate proxies have been used to provide a <a href="/wiki/VISQ" title="VISQ">semi-quantitative</a> record of <a href="/wiki/Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperature record of the past 1000 years">average temperature in the Northern Hemisphere back to 1000 A.D.</a> When used in this way, the proxy record (tree ring width, say) only reconstructs a certain amount of the variance of the original record. The proxy may be calibrated (for example, during the period of the instrumental record) to determine how much variation is captured, including whether both short and long term variation is revealed. In the case of tree-ring width, different species in different places may show more or less sensitivity to, say, rainfall or temperature: when reconstructing a temperature record there is considerable skill in selecting proxies that are well correlated with the desired variable.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_with_qualitative_methods">Relationship with qualitative methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_research&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relationship with qualitative methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></div> <p>In most <a href="/wiki/Physical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical science">physical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological science">biological sciences</a>, the use of either quantitative or qualitative methods is uncontroversial, and each is used when appropriate. In the social sciences, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, the use of one or other type of method can be a matter of controversy and even ideology, with particular schools of thought within each discipline favouring one type of method and pouring scorn on to the other. The majority tendency throughout the history of social science, however, is to use eclectic approaches-by combining both methods. Qualitative methods might be used to understand the meaning of the conclusions produced by quantitative methods. Using quantitative methods, it is possible to give precise and testable expression to qualitative ideas. This combination of quantitative and qualitative data gathering is often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Mixed-methods_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed-methods research">mixed-methods research</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_research&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Research that consists of the percentage amounts of all the elements that make up Earth's atmosphere.</li> <li>Survey that concludes that the average patient has to wait two hours in the waiting room of a certain doctor before being selected.</li> <li>An experiment in which group x was given two tablets of aspirin a day and group y was given two tablets of a placebo a day where each participant is <a href="/wiki/Randomly" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomly">randomly</a> assigned to one or other of the groups. The numerical factors such as two tablets, percent of elements and the time of waiting make the situations and results quantitative.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, quantitative research is used to analyze <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business enterprises</a> and the factors contributing to the diversity of organizational structures and the relationships of firms with labour, <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> and product markets.<sup id="cite_ref-Moschandreas_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moschandreas-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_research&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Case study research">Case study research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_research" title="Market research">Market research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_marketing_research" title="Quantitative marketing research">Quantitative marketing research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantification_(science)" title="Quantification (science)">Quantification (science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_research&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Quantitative research</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Quantitative+research">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Quantitative+research&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBryman,_Alan2012" class="citation book cs1">Bryman, Alan (2012). <i>Social research methods</i> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958805-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958805-3"><bdi>978-0-19-958805-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751832004">751832004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+research+methods&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751832004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-958805-3&rft.au=Bryman%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBabbie,_Earl_R.2010" class="citation book cs1">Babbie, Earl R. (2010). <i>The practice of social research</i> (12th ed.). Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth Cengage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-59841-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-59841-1"><bdi>978-0-495-59841-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/317075477">317075477</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+practice+of+social+research&rft.place=Belmont%2C+Calif&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Cengage&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F317075477&rft.isbn=978-0-495-59841-1&rft.au=Babbie%2C+Earl+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuijs,_Daniel2010" class="citation book cs1">Muijs, Daniel (29 December 2010). <i>Doing quantitative research in education with SPSS</i> (2nd ed.). Los Angeles. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84920-323-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84920-323-4"><bdi>978-1-84920-323-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/656776067">656776067</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doing+quantitative+research+in+education+with+SPSS&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2010-12-29&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F656776067&rft.isbn=978-1-84920-323-4&rft.au=Muijs%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+research" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Given_2008-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Given_2008_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Given_2008_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiven2008" class="citation book cs1">Given, Lisa M. (2008). <i>The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods</i>. Los Angeles: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-4163-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-4163-1"><bdi>978-1-4129-4163-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+SAGE+Encyclopedia+of+Qualitative+Research+Methods&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-4163-1&rft.aulast=Given&rft.aufirst=Lisa+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorrine2011" class="citation book cs1">Corrine, Glesne (2011). <i>Becoming Qualitative Researchers: An Introduction</i> (4th ed.). Boston: <a href="/wiki/Pearson_plc" title="Pearson plc">Pearson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0137047970" title="Special:BookSources/978-0137047970"><bdi>978-0137047970</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/464594493">464594493</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Becoming+Qualitative+Researchers%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F464594493&rft.isbn=978-0137047970&rft.aulast=Corrine&rft.aufirst=Glesne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hunter-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hunter_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunterLeahey2008" class="citation journal cs1">Hunter, Laura; Leahey, Erin (2008). "Collaborative Research in Sociology: Trends and Contributing Factors". <i>The American Sociologist</i>. <b>39</b> (4): 290–306. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12108-008-9042-1">10.1007/s12108-008-9042-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Sociologist&rft.atitle=Collaborative+Research+in+Sociology%3A+Trends+and+Contributing+Factors&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=290-306&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12108-008-9042-1&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft.au=Leahey%2C+Erin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MIT OpenCourseWare. 11.201 Gateway to the Profession of Planning, Fall 2010. p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn,_Thomas_S.1961" class="citation journal cs1">Kuhn, Thomas S. (1961). "The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science". <i>Isis</i>. <b>52</b> (2): 161–193 (162). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F349468">10.1086/349468</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/228678">228678</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=The+Function+of+Measurement+in+Modern+Physical+Science&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-193+%28162%29&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F349468&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F228678%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Kuhn%2C+Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasim,_R.Alexander,_K.Hudson,_J.2010" class="citation thesis cs1">Kasim, R.; Alexander, K.; Hudson, J. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.uthm.edu.my/268/"><i>A choice of research strategy for identifying community-based action skill requirements in the process of delivering housing market renewal</i></a> (masters). Research Institute for the Built and Human Environment, University of Salford, UK.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=A+choice+of+research+strategy+for+identifying+community-based+action+skill+requirements+in+the+process+of+delivering+housing+market+renewal&rft.inst=Research+Institute+for+the+Built+and+Human+Environment%2C+University+of+Salford%2C+UK&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Kasim%2C+R.&rft.au=Alexander%2C+K.&rft.au=Hudson%2C+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.uthm.edu.my%2F268%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mesly, Olivier (2015). <i>Creating Models in Psychological Research.</i> United States: Springer Psychology: 126 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-15752-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-15752-8">978-3-319-15752-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoertzen2017" class="citation journal cs1">Goertzen, Melissa J. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.ala.org/index.php/ltr/article/view/6325">"Introduction to Quantitative Research and Data"</a>. <i>Library Technology Reports</i>. <b>53</b> (4): 12–18. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0024-2586">0024-2586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Library+Technology+Reports&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Quantitative+Research+and+Data.&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=12-18&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=0024-2586&rft.aulast=Goertzen&rft.aufirst=Melissa+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.ala.org%2Findex.php%2Fltr%2Farticle%2Fview%2F6325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoballeghi,_M.Moghaddam,_G.G.2008" class="citation journal cs1">Moballeghi, M. & Moghaddam, G.G. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.rclis.org/12286/">"How Do We Measure Use of Scientific Journals? A Note on Research Methodologies"</a>. <i>Scientometrics</i>. <b>76</b> (1): 125–133. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11192-007-1901-y">10.1007/s11192-007-1901-y</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientometrics&rft.atitle=How+Do+We+Measure+Use+of+Scientific+Journals%3F+A+Note+on+Research+Methodologies&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=125-133&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11192-007-1901-y&rft.au=Moballeghi%2C+M.&rft.au=Moghaddam%2C+G.G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.rclis.org%2F12286%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriffaOsbornSchweingruberHarris2001" class="citation journal cs1">Briffa, Keith R.; Osborn, Timothy J.; Schweingruber, Fritz H.; Harris, Ian C.; Jones, Philip D.; Shiyatov, Stepan G.; Vaganov, Eugene A. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.climateaudit.info/pdf/others/Briffa.2001.jgr.pdf">"Low-frequency temperature variations from a northern tree ring density network"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>106</b> (D3): 2929–2941. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JGR...106.2929B">2001JGR...106.2929B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2000JD900617">10.1029/2000JD900617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Low-frequency+temperature+variations+from+a+northern+tree+ring+density+network&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=D3&rft.pages=2929-2941&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2000JD900617&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001JGR...106.2929B&rft.aulast=Briffa&rft.aufirst=Keith+R.&rft.au=Osborn%2C+Timothy+J.&rft.au=Schweingruber%2C+Fritz+H.&rft.au=Harris%2C+Ian+C.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Philip+D.&rft.au=Shiyatov%2C+Stepan+G.&rft.au=Vaganov%2C+Eugene+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.climateaudit.info%2Fpdf%2Fothers%2FBriffa.2001.jgr.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+research" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diriwächter, R. & Valsiner, J. 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Vol 7, No. 1, Art. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moschandreas-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moschandreas_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moschandreas, Maria (2000). <i>Business Economics</i>, 2nd Edition, Thompson Learning, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ncVfjhTULyAC&pg=PA410">Description</a> and chapter-preview <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ncVfjhTULyAC&pg=PR5">links</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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