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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_flightless_birds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_flightless_birds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 In flightless birds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_flightless_birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_giant_turtles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_giant_turtles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 In giant turtles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_giant_turtles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Megafaunal_mass_extinctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Megafaunal_mass_extinctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Megafaunal mass extinctions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Megafaunal_mass_extinctions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Megafaunal mass extinctions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Megafaunal_mass_extinctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Timing_and_possible_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timing_and_possible_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Timing and possible causes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timing_and_possible_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences_of_depletion_of_megafauna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences_of_depletion_of_megafauna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Consequences of depletion of megafauna </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequences_of_depletion_of_megafauna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effect_on_nutrient_transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_nutrient_transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Effect on nutrient transport </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_nutrient_transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_methane_emissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_methane_emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Effect on methane emissions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_methane_emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Gallery </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Gallery subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pleistocene_extinct_megafauna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pleistocene_extinct_megafauna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Pleistocene extinct megafauna </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pleistocene_extinct_megafauna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_extinct_Cenozoic_megafauna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_extinct_Cenozoic_megafauna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Other extinct Cenozoic megafauna </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_extinct_Cenozoic_megafauna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Extant </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Megafauna</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" > 39 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B6%D8%AE%D9%85%D8%A9" title="حيوانات ضخمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حيوانات ضخمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Мегафауна – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мегафауна" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafa%C5%ADno" title="Megafaŭno – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Megafaŭno" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B2%D8%B1%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="بزرگ‌زیاگان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بزرگ‌زیاگان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9gafaune" title="Mégafaune – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mégafaune" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B1%B0%EB%8C%80%EB%8F%99%EB%AC%BC" title="거대동물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="거대동물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80" title="महाप्राणी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="महाप्राणी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%92%D7%94-%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94" title="מגה-פאונה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מגה-פאונה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D9%BC_%DA%98%D9%88%D9%8A" title="غټ ژوي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="غټ ژوي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafaun%C4%83" title="Megafaună – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Megafaună" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Мегафауна – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мегафауна" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%84%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="විසල් සත්ත්ව සංහතිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="විසල් සත්ත්ව සංහතිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Мегафауна – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мегафауна" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="பெருவிலங்குகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பெருவிலங்குகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Megafauna" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Мегафауна – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мегафауна" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%99ng_v%E1%BA%ADt_l%E1%BB%9Bn" title="Động vật lớn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Động vật lớn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Large animals</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about living or extinct large animals. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Megafauna_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Megafauna (disambiguation)">Megafauna (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ngorongoro_Crater,_Tanzania_(2288421918).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Ngorongoro_Crater%2C_Tanzania_%282288421918%29.jpg/320px-Ngorongoro_Crater%2C_Tanzania_%282288421918%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Ngorongoro_Crater%2C_Tanzania_%282288421918%29.jpg/480px-Ngorongoro_Crater%2C_Tanzania_%282288421918%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Ngorongoro_Crater%2C_Tanzania_%282288421918%29.jpg/640px-Ngorongoro_Crater%2C_Tanzania_%282288421918%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/African_bush_elephant" title="African bush elephant">African bush elephant</a> (foreground), Earth's largest extant land animal, and the <a href="/wiki/Masai_ostrich" title="Masai ostrich">Masai ostrich</a> (background), one of Earth's largest extant birds</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, megafauna (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> μέγας megas "large" and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> "animal life") are large animals. The precise definition of the term varies widely, though a common threshold is approximately 45 kilograms (99 lb), with other thresholds as low as 10 kilograms (22 lb) or as high as 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). Large body size is generally associated with other traits, such as having a slow rate of reproduction and, in large herbivores, reduced or negligible adult mortality from being killed by predators. Megafauna species have considerable effects on their local environment, including the suppression of the growth of woody vegetation and a consequent reduction in <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfire</a> frequency. Megafauna also play a role in regulating and stabilizing the abundance of smaller animals. During the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>, megafauna were diverse across the globe, with most continental ecosystems exhibiting similar or greater <a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">species richness</a> in megafauna as compared to ecosystems in Africa today. During the <a href="/wiki/Late_Pleistocene" title="Late Pleistocene">Late Pleistocene</a>, particularly from around 50,000 years ago onwards, <a href="/wiki/Late_Pleistocene_extinctions" title="Late Pleistocene extinctions">most large mammal species became extinct</a>, including 80% of all mammals greater than 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb), while small animals were largely unaffected. This pronouncedly size-biased extinction is otherwise unprecedented in the geological record. Humans and climatic change have been implicated by most authors as the likely causes, though the relative importance of either factor has been the subject of significant controversy. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> One of the earliest occurrences of the term "megafauna" is <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a>'s 1876 work The geographical distribution of animals. He described the animals as "the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms". In the 20th and 21st centuries, the term usually refers to large animals. There are variations in thresholds used to define megafauna as a whole or certain groups of megafauna. Many scientific literature adopt <a href="/wiki/Paul_Schultz_Martin" title="Paul Schultz Martin">Paul S. Martin</a>'s proposed threshold of 45 kilograms (99 lb) to classify animals as megafauna. However, for freshwater species, 30 kilograms (66 lb) is the preferred threshold. Some scientists define herbivorous terrestrial megafauna as having a weight exceeding 100 kilograms (220 lb), and terrestrial carnivorous megafauna as more than 15 kilograms (33 lb). Additionally, Owen-Smith coined the term <a href="/wiki/Megaherbivore" title="Megaherbivore">megaherbivore</a> to describe herbivores that weighed over 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb), which has seen some use by other researchers.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> Among living animals, the term megafauna is most commonly used for the largest <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</a> terrestrial mammals, which includes (but is not limited to) <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giraffe" title="Giraffe">giraffes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus" title="Hippopotamus">hippopotamuses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">rhinoceroses</a>, and larger <a href="/wiki/Bovines" class="mw-redirect" title="Bovines">bovines</a>. Of these five categories of large herbivores, only bovines are presently found outside of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, but all the others were formerly more wide-ranging, with their ranges and populations continually shrinking and decreasing over time. Wild <a href="/wiki/Equines" class="mw-redirect" title="Equines">equines</a> are another example of megafauna, but their current ranges are largely restricted to the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>, specifically in Africa and Asia. Megafaunal species may be categorized according to their dietary type: <a href="/wiki/Herbivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivores">megaherbivores</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Elephants" class="mw-redirect" title="Elephants">elephants</a>), <a href="/wiki/Carnivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivores">megacarnivores</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lions</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Omnivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnivores">megaomnivores</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Bear" title="Bear">bears</a>).<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecological_strategy">Ecological strategy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ecological strategy">edit</a>]</div> Megafauna animals – in the sense of the largest mammals and birds – are generally <a href="/wiki/K-strategists" class="mw-redirect" title="K-strategists">K-strategists</a>, with high longevity, slow population growth rates, low mortality rates, and (at least for the largest) few or no natural predators capable of killing adults.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> These characteristics, although not exclusive to such megafauna, make them vulnerable to human <a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a>, in part because of their slow population recovery rates.<a href="#cite_note-Barnosky2004-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brook2006-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_of_large_body_size">Evolution of large body size</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Evolution of large body size">edit</a>]</div> One observation that has been made about the evolution of larger body size is that rapid rates of increase that are often seen over relatively short time intervals are not sustainable over much longer time periods. In an examination of mammal body mass changes over time, the maximum increase possible in a given time interval was found to scale with the interval length raised to the 0.25 power.<a href="#cite_note-Evans2012-7">[7]</a> This is thought to reflect the emergence, during a trend of increasing maximum body size, of a series of anatomical, physiological, environmental, genetic and other constraints that must be overcome by evolutionary innovations before further size increases are possible. A strikingly faster rate of change was found for large decreases in body mass, such as may be associated with the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Insular_dwarfism" title="Insular dwarfism">insular dwarfism</a>. When normalized to generation length, the maximum rate of body mass decrease was found to be over 30 times greater than the maximum rate of body mass increase for a ten-fold change.<a href="#cite_note-Evans2012-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_terrestrial_mammals">In terrestrial mammals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In terrestrial mammals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Patagotitan_vs_Mammals_Scale_Diagram_SVG_Steveoc86.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Patagotitan_vs_Mammals_Scale_Diagram_SVG_Steveoc86.svg/440px-Patagotitan_vs_Mammals_Scale_Diagram_SVG_Steveoc86.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Patagotitan_vs_Mammals_Scale_Diagram_SVG_Steveoc86.svg/660px-Patagotitan_vs_Mammals_Scale_Diagram_SVG_Steveoc86.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Patagotitan_vs_Mammals_Scale_Diagram_SVG_Steveoc86.svg/880px-Patagotitan_vs_Mammals_Scale_Diagram_SVG_Steveoc86.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="686" /></a><figcaption>Large terrestrial mammals compared in size to one of the largest sauropod dinosaurs, <a href="/wiki/Patagotitan" title="Patagotitan">Patagotitan</a></figcaption></figure> Subsequent to the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> that eliminated the non-avian dinosaurs about 66 <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a> (million years) ago, terrestrial mammals underwent a nearly exponential increase in body size as they diversified to occupy the ecological niches left vacant.<a href="#cite_note-F.A.Smith-8">[8]</a> Starting from just a few kg before the event, maximum size had reached ~50 kilograms (110 lb) a few million years later, and ~750 kilograms (1,650 lb) by the end of the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a>. This trend of increasing body mass appears to level off about 40 Ma ago (in the late <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a>), suggesting that physiological or ecological constraints had been reached, after an increase in body mass of over three orders of magnitude.<a href="#cite_note-F.A.Smith-8">[8]</a> However, when considered from the standpoint of rate of size increase per generation, the exponential increase is found to have continued until the appearance of <a href="/wiki/Indricotherium" class="mw-redirect" title="Indricotherium">Indricotherium</a> 30 Ma ago. (Since generation time scales with body mass0.259, increasing generation times with increasing size cause the log mass vs. time plot to curve downward from a linear fit.)<a href="#cite_note-Evans2012-7">[7]</a> Megaherbivores eventually attained a body mass of over 10,000 kilograms (22,000 lb). The largest of these, <a href="/wiki/Indricothere" class="mw-redirect" title="Indricothere">indricotheres</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proboscid" class="mw-redirect" title="Proboscid">proboscids</a>, have been <a href="/wiki/Hindgut_fermentation" title="Hindgut fermentation">hindgut fermenters</a>, which are believed to have an advantage over <a href="/wiki/Foregut_fermentation" title="Foregut fermentation">foregut fermenters</a> in terms of being able to accelerate gastrointestinal transit in order to accommodate very large food intakes.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-9">[9]</a> A similar trend emerges when rates of increase of maximum body mass per generation for different mammalian <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a> are compared (using rates averaged over <a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">macroevolutionary</a> time scales). Among terrestrial mammals, the fastest rates of increase of body mass0.259 vs. time (in Ma) occurred in <a href="/wiki/Perissodactyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Perissodactyl">perissodactyls</a> (a slope of 2.1), followed by <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a> (1.2) and proboscids (1.1),<a href="#cite_note-Evans2012-7">[7]</a> all of which are hindgut fermenters. The rate of increase for <a href="/wiki/Artiodactyl" title="Artiodactyl">artiodactyls</a> (0.74) was about a third of the perissodactyls. The rate for <a href="/wiki/Carnivora" title="Carnivora">carnivorans</a> (0.65) was slightly lower yet, while <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>, perhaps constrained by their <a href="/wiki/Arboreal" class="mw-redirect" title="Arboreal">arboreal</a> habits, had the lowest rate (0.39) among the mammalian groups studied.<a href="#cite_note-Evans2012-7">[7]</a> Terrestrial mammalian carnivores from several <a href="/wiki/Eutheria" title="Eutheria">eutherian</a> groups (the <a href="/wiki/Artiodactyl" title="Artiodactyl">artiodactyl</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrewsarchus" title="Andrewsarchus">Andrewsarchus</a> – formerly considered a <a href="/wiki/Mesonychidae" title="Mesonychidae">mesonychid</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Oxyaenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxyaenid">oxyaenid</a> <a href="/wiki/Sarkastodon" title="Sarkastodon">Sarkastodon</a>, and the carnivorans <a href="/wiki/Amphicyon" title="Amphicyon">Amphicyon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arctodus" title="Arctodus">Arctodus</a>) all reached a maximum size of about 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb)<a href="#cite_note-F.A.Smith-8">[8]</a> (the carnivoran <a href="/wiki/Arctotherium" title="Arctotherium">Arctotherium</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hyaenodontid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyaenodontid">hyaenodontid</a> <a href="/wiki/Simbakubwa" title="Simbakubwa">Simbakubwa</a> may have been somewhat larger). The largest known <a href="/wiki/Metatheria" title="Metatheria">metatherian</a> carnivore, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Proborhyaena_gigantea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proborhyaena gigantea (page does not exist)">Proborhyaena gigantea</a>, apparently reached 600 kilograms (1,300 lb), also close to this limit.<a href="#cite_note-Sorkin-10">[10]</a> A similar theoretical maximum size for mammalian carnivores has been predicted based on the metabolic rate of mammals, the energetic cost of obtaining prey, and the maximum estimated rate coefficient of prey intake.<a href="#cite_note-Carbone-11">[11]</a> It has also been suggested that maximum size for mammalian carnivores is constrained by the stress the <a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">humerus</a> can withstand at top running speed.<a href="#cite_note-Sorkin-10">[10]</a> Analysis of the variation of maximum body size over the last 40 Ma suggests that decreasing temperature and increasing continental land area are associated with increasing maximum body size. The former correlation would be consistent with <a href="/wiki/Bergmann%27s_rule" title="Bergmann's rule">Bergmann's rule</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Ashton-12">[12]</a> and might be related to the <a href="/wiki/Thermoregulation" title="Thermoregulation">thermoregulatory</a> advantage of large body mass in cool climates,<a href="#cite_note-F.A.Smith-8">[8]</a> better ability of larger organisms to cope with seasonality in food supply,<a href="#cite_note-Ashton-12">[12]</a> or other factors;<a href="#cite_note-Ashton-12">[12]</a> the latter correlation could be explained in terms of range and resource limitations.<a href="#cite_note-F.A.Smith-8">[8]</a> However, the two parameters are interrelated (due to sea level drops accompanying increased glaciation), making the driver of the trends in maximum size more difficult to identify.<a href="#cite_note-F.A.Smith-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_marine_mammals">In marine mammals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In marine mammals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baleen_whale_sizes.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Baleen_whale_sizes.JPG/330px-Baleen_whale_sizes.JPG" decoding="async" width="330" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Baleen_whale_sizes.JPG/495px-Baleen_whale_sizes.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Baleen_whale_sizes.JPG/660px-Baleen_whale_sizes.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1252" data-file-height="501" /></a><figcaption>Baleen whale comparative sizes</figcaption></figure> Since tetrapods (first <a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">reptiles</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">mammals</a>) returned to the sea in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Permian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Permian">Late Permian</a>, they have dominated the top end of the marine body size range, due to the more efficient intake of oxygen possible using lungs.<a href="#cite_note-Webb2015-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Helm2015-14">[14]</a> The ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Cetacea" title="Cetacea">cetaceans</a> are believed to have been the semiaquatic <a href="/wiki/Pakicetid" class="mw-redirect" title="Pakicetid">pakicetids</a>, no larger than dogs, of about 53 million years (Ma) ago.<a href="#cite_note-poster-15">[15]</a> By 40 Ma ago, cetaceans had attained a length of 20 m (66 ft) or more in <a href="/wiki/Basilosaurus" title="Basilosaurus">Basilosaurus</a>, an elongated, serpentine whale that differed from modern whales in many respects and was not ancestral to them. Following this, the evolution of large body size in cetaceans appears to have come to a temporary halt and then to have backtracked, although the available fossil records are limited. However, in the period from 31 Ma ago (in the <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a>) to the present, cetaceans underwent a significantly more rapid sustained increase in body mass (a rate of increase in body mass0.259 of a factor of 3.2 per million years) than achieved by any group of terrestrial mammals.<a href="#cite_note-Evans2012-7">[7]</a> This trend led to the largest animal of all time, the modern <a href="/wiki/Blue_whale" title="Blue whale">blue whale</a>. Several reasons for the more rapid evolution of large body size in cetaceans are possible. Fewer <a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">biomechanical</a> constraints on increases in body size may be associated with suspension in water as opposed to standing against the force of gravity, and with <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_locomotion" title="Aquatic locomotion">swimming movements</a> as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_locomotion" title="Terrestrial locomotion">terrestrial locomotion</a>. Also, the greater heat capacity and thermal conductivity of water compared to air may increase the <a href="/wiki/Thermoregulation" title="Thermoregulation">thermoregulatory</a> advantage of large body size in marine <a href="/wiki/Endotherm" title="Endotherm">endotherms</a>, although diminishing returns apply.<a href="#cite_note-Evans2012-7">[7]</a> Among the toothed whales, maximum body size appears to be limited by food availability. Larger size, as in <a href="/wiki/Sperm_whale" title="Sperm whale">sperm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beaked_whale" title="Beaked whale">beaked whales</a>, facilitates deeper diving to access relatively easily-caught, large cephalopod prey in a less competitive environment. Compared to odontocetes, the efficiency of baleen whales' <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter feeding">filter feeding</a> scales more favorably with increasing size when planktonic food is dense, making larger sizes more advantageous. The <a href="/wiki/Lunge_feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunge feeding">lunge feeding</a> technique of <a href="/wiki/Rorqual" title="Rorqual">rorquals</a> appears to be more energy efficient than the <a href="/wiki/Ram_feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Ram feeding">ram feeding</a> of <a href="/wiki/Balaenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Balaenid">balaenid</a> whales; the latter technique is used with less dense and patchy plankton.<a href="#cite_note-Goldbogen2019-16">[16]</a> The cooling trend in Earth's recent history may have generated more localities of high plankton abundance via wind-driven <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwellings</a>, facilitating the evolution of gigantic whales.<a href="#cite_note-Goldbogen2019-16">[16]</a> Cetaceans are not the only marine mammals to reach tremendous sizes.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The largest mammal <a href="/wiki/Carnivora" title="Carnivora">carnivorans</a> of all time are marine <a href="/wiki/Pinniped" title="Pinniped">pinnipeds</a>, the largest of which is the <a href="/wiki/Southern_elephant_seal" title="Southern elephant seal">southern elephant seal</a>, which can reach more than 6 m (20 ft) in length and weigh up to 5,000 kg (11,000 lb). Other large pinnipeds include the <a href="/wiki/Northern_elephant_seal" title="Northern elephant seal">northern elephant seal</a> at 4,000 kg (8,800 lb), <a href="/wiki/Walrus" title="Walrus">walrus</a> at 2,000 kg (4,400 lb), and <a href="/wiki/Steller_sea_lion" title="Steller sea lion">Steller sea lion</a> at 1,135 kg (2,502 lb).<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sirenia" title="Sirenia">sirenians</a> are another group of marine mammals which adapted to fully aquatic life around the same time as the cetaceans did. Sirenians are closely related to elephants. The largest sirenian was the <a href="/wiki/Steller%27s_sea_cow" title="Steller's sea cow">Steller's sea cow</a>, which reached up to 10 m (33 ft) in length and weighed 8,000 to 10,000 kg (18,000 to 22,000 lb), and was hunted to extinction in the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_flightless_birds">In flightless birds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In flightless birds">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dinornithidae_SIZE_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Dinornithidae_SIZE_01.png/220px-Dinornithidae_SIZE_01.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Dinornithidae_SIZE_01.png/330px-Dinornithidae_SIZE_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Dinornithidae_SIZE_01.png/440px-Dinornithidae_SIZE_01.png 2x" data-file-width="2285" data-file-height="1588" /></a><figcaption>A size comparison between a human and 4 <a href="/wiki/Moa" title="Moa">moa</a> species: <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> 1. <a href="/wiki/Dinornis_novaezealandiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinornis novaezealandiae">Dinornis novaezealandiae</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> 2. <a href="/wiki/Emeus_crassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeus crassus">Emeus crassus</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> 3. <a href="/wiki/Anomalopteryx_didiformis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anomalopteryx didiformis">Anomalopteryx didiformis</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> 4. <a href="/wiki/Dinornis_robustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinornis robustus">Dinornis robustus</a></figcaption></figure> Because of the small initial size of all mammals following the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, nonmammalian vertebrates had a roughly ten-million-year-long window of opportunity (during the Paleocene) for evolution of gigantism without much competition.<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell2014-21">[21]</a> During this interval, <a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">apex predator</a> niches were often occupied by reptiles, such as terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Crocodilian" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodilian">crocodilians</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Pristichampsus" title="Pristichampsus">Pristichampsus</a>), large snakes (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Titanoboa" title="Titanoboa">Titanoboa</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Varanid_lizard" class="mw-redirect" title="Varanid lizard">varanid lizards</a>, or by flightless birds<a href="#cite_note-F.A.Smith-8">[8]</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Paleopsilopterus" title="Paleopsilopterus">Paleopsilopterus</a> in South America). This is also the period when megafaunal flightless herbivorous <a href="/wiki/Gastornithid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastornithid">gastornithid</a> birds evolved in the Northern Hemisphere, while flightless <a href="/wiki/Paleognath" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleognath">paleognaths</a> evolved to large size on <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwanan</a> land masses and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. Gastornithids and at least one lineage of flightless paleognath birds originated in Europe, both lineages dominating niches for large herbivores while mammals remained below 45 kilograms (99 lb) (in contrast with other landmasses like <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, which saw the earlier evolution of larger mammals) and were the largest European tetrapods in the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Buffetaut2014-22">[22]</a> Flightless paleognaths, termed <a href="/wiki/Ratite" title="Ratite">ratites</a>, have traditionally been viewed as representing a lineage separate from that of their small flighted relatives, the <a href="/wiki/Neotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neotropic">Neotropic</a> <a href="/wiki/Tinamou" title="Tinamou">tinamous</a>. However, recent genetic studies have found that tinamous nest well within the ratite tree, and are the <a href="/wiki/Sister_group" title="Sister group">sister group</a> of the extinct <a href="/wiki/Moa" title="Moa">moa</a> of New Zealand.<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell2014-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Phillips2010-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Baker2014-24">[24]</a> Similarly, the small <a href="/wiki/Kiwi_(bird)" title="Kiwi (bird)">kiwi</a> of New Zealand have been found to be the sister group of the extinct <a href="/wiki/Elephant_bird" title="Elephant bird">elephant birds</a> of Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell2014-21">[21]</a> These findings indicate that <a href="/wiki/Flightless_bird" title="Flightless bird">flightlessness</a> and gigantism arose independently multiple times among ratites via <a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">parallel evolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Murray_2004-25">[25]</a> Predatory megafaunal flightless birds were often able to compete with mammals in the early <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>. Later in the Cenozoic, however, they were displaced by advanced carnivorans and died out. In North America, the <a href="/wiki/Bathornithids" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathornithids">bathornithids</a> <a href="/wiki/Paracrax" title="Paracrax">Paracrax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bathornis" title="Bathornis">Bathornis</a> were apex predators but became extinct by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Miocene" title="Early Miocene">Early Miocene</a>. In South America, the related <a href="/wiki/Phorusrhacid" class="mw-redirect" title="Phorusrhacid">phorusrhacids</a> shared the dominant predatory niches with metatherian <a href="/wiki/Sparassodonta" title="Sparassodonta">sparassodonts</a> during most of the Cenozoic but declined and ultimately went extinct after eutherian predators arrived from North America (as part of the <a href="/wiki/Great_American_Interchange" title="Great American Interchange">Great American Interchange</a>) during the <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a>. In contrast, large herbivorous flightless ratites have survived to the present.<a href="#cite_note-Murray_2004-25">[25]</a> However, none of the flightless birds of the Cenozoic, including the predatory <a href="/wiki/Brontornis" title="Brontornis">Brontornis</a>, possibly omnivorous <a href="/wiki/Dromornis_stirtoni" class="mw-redirect" title="Dromornis stirtoni">Dromornis stirtoni</a><a href="#cite_note-Murray_2004-25">[25]</a> or herbivorous <a href="/wiki/Aepyornis" title="Aepyornis">Aepyornis</a>, ever grew to masses much above 500 kilograms (1,100 lb), and thus never attained the size of the largest mammalian carnivores, let alone that of the largest mammalian herbivores. It has been suggested that the increasing thickness of avian eggshells in proportion to egg mass with increasing egg size places an upper limit on the size of birds.<a href="#cite_note-Murray_2004b-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[note 1]</a> The largest species of Dromornis, D. stirtoni, may have gone extinct after it attained the maximum avian body mass and was then outcompeted by marsupial <a href="/wiki/Diprotodon" title="Diprotodon">diprotodonts</a> that evolved to sizes several times larger.<a href="#cite_note-Murray_2004c-30">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_giant_turtles">In giant turtles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In giant turtles">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Giant_tortoise" title="Giant tortoise">Giant tortoises</a> were important components of late <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> megafaunas, being present in every nonpolar continent until the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Hominina" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominina">homininans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cione-32">[31]</a> The largest known terrestrial tortoise was <a href="/wiki/Megalochelys_atlas" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalochelys atlas">Megalochelys atlas</a>, an animal that probably weighed about 1,000 kg (2,200 lb).<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> Some earlier aquatic Testudines, e.g. the marine <a href="/wiki/Archelon" title="Archelon">Archelon</a> of the Cretaceous<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> and freshwater <a href="/wiki/Stupendemys" title="Stupendemys">Stupendemys</a> of the Miocene, were considerably larger, weighing more than 2,000 kg (4,400 lb).<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Megafaunal_mass_extinctions">Megafaunal mass extinctions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Megafaunal mass extinctions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timing_and_possible_causes">Timing and possible causes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Timing and possible causes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Late_Pleistocene_extinctions" title="Late Pleistocene extinctions">Late Pleistocene extinctions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Large_Mammals_Africa_Australia_NAmerica_Madagascar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Large_Mammals_Africa_Australia_NAmerica_Madagascar.svg/280px-Large_Mammals_Africa_Australia_NAmerica_Madagascar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Large_Mammals_Africa_Australia_NAmerica_Madagascar.svg/420px-Large_Mammals_Africa_Australia_NAmerica_Madagascar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Large_Mammals_Africa_Australia_NAmerica_Madagascar.svg/560px-Large_Mammals_Africa_Australia_NAmerica_Madagascar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>Correlations between times of first appearance of humans and unique megafaunal extinction pulses on different land masses</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ice_Age_Temperature.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ice_Age_Temperature.png/280px-Ice_Age_Temperature.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ice_Age_Temperature.png/420px-Ice_Age_Temperature.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ice_Age_Temperature.png/560px-Ice_Age_Temperature.png 2x" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="377" /></a><figcaption>Cyclical pattern of global <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate change</a> over the last 450,000 years (based on Antarctic temperatures and global ice volume), showing that there were no unique climatic events that would account for any of the megafaunal extinction pulses</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Late_Pleistocene_extinctions" title="Late Pleistocene extinctions">Numerous extinctions</a> occurred during the latter half of the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period" title="Last Glacial Period">Last Glacial Period</a> when most large mammals went extinct in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia-New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Australia-New Guinea">Australia-New Guinea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>, including over 80% of all terrestrial animals with a body mass greater than 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). Small animals and other organisms like plants were generally unaffected by the extinctions, which is unprecented in previous extinctions during the last 30 million years.<a href="#cite_note-:2-36">[35]</a> Various theories have attributed the wave of extinctions to <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event#Hunting_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary extinction event">human hunting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event#Climate_change_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary extinction event">climate change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event#Hyperdisease_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary extinction event">disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas_impact_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Younger Dryas impact event">extraterrestrial impact</a>, <a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">competition from other animals</a> or other causes. However, this extinction near the end of the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> was just one of a series of megafaunal extinction pulses that have occurred during the last 50,000 years over much of the Earth's surface, with <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> (where the local megafauna had a chance to evolve alongside modern humans) being comparatively less affected. The latter areas did suffer gradual attrition of megafauna, particularly of the slower-moving species (a class of vulnerable megafauna epitomized by <a href="/wiki/Giant_tortoise" title="Giant tortoise">giant tortoises</a>), over the last several million years.<a href="#cite_note-corlett-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Edmeades-38">[37]</a> Outside the mainland of <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a>, these megafaunal extinctions followed a highly distinctive landmass-by-landmass pattern that closely parallels the spread of humans into previously uninhabited regions of the world, and which shows no overall correlation with climatic history (which can be visualized with plots over recent geological time periods of climate markers such as <a href="/wiki/File:Five_Myr_Climate_Change.png" title="File:Five Myr Climate Change.png">marine oxygen isotopes</a> or <a href="/wiki/File:Atmospheric_CO2_with_glaciers_cycles.gif" title="File:Atmospheric CO2 with glaciers cycles.gif">atmospheric carbon dioxide levels</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Martin-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Burney-40">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a><a href="#cite_note-New_Ages-41">[40]</a> and nearby islands (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Flores" title="Flores">Flores</a><a href="#cite_note-Callaway2016-42">[41]</a>) were struck first around 46,000 years ago, followed by <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a> about 41,000 years ago (after formation of a land bridge to Australia about 43,000 years ago).<a href="#cite_note-Diamond-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Turney-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lost_Giants-45">[44]</a> The role of humans in the extinction of Australia and New Guinea's megafauna has been disputed, with multiple studies showing a decline in the number of species prior to the arrival of humans on the continent and the absence of any evidence of human predation;<a href="#cite_note-:0-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> the impact of climate change has instead been cited for their decline.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-46">[45]</a> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> lost most of its megafauna apparently about 30,000 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Norton-51">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> 13,000 years ago<a href="#cite_note-53">[note 2]</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> about 500 years later,<a href="#cite_note-Haynes-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fiedel-55">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Cyprus" title="Prehistoric Cyprus">Cyprus</a> 10,000 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Simmons1-56">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Simmons2-57">[55]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Antilles" title="Antilles">Antilles</a> 6,000 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Steadman-58">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cooke2017-59">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia#Ecology" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-60">[58]</a> and nearby islands<a href="#cite_note-White-61">[59]</a> 3,000 years ago, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> 2,000 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Madagascar-62">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> 700 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Holdaway-63">[61]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Mascarene_Islands" title="Mascarene Islands">Mascarenes</a> 400 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Janoo-64">[62]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Commander_Islands" title="Commander Islands">Commander Islands</a> 250 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Hydrodamalis-65">[63]</a> Nearly all of the world's isolated islands could furnish similar examples of extinctions occurring shortly after the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>, though most of these islands, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" title="Hawaiian Islands">Hawaiian Islands</a>, never had terrestrial megafauna, so their <a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_animals_of_the_Hawaiian_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="List of extinct animals of the Hawaiian Islands">extinct fauna</a> were smaller, but still displayed <a href="/wiki/Island_gigantism" title="Island gigantism">island gigantism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Martin-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Burney-40">[39]</a> An analysis of the timing of <a href="/wiki/Holarctic" class="mw-redirect" title="Holarctic">Holarctic</a> megafaunal extinctions and extirpations over the last 56,000 years has revealed a tendency for such events to cluster within <a href="/wiki/Interstadial" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstadial">interstadials</a>, periods of abrupt warming, but only when humans were also present. Humans may have impeded processes of migration and recolonization that would otherwise have allowed the megafaunal species to adapt to the climate shift.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper2015-66">[64]</a> In at least some areas, interstadials were periods of expanding human populations.<a href="#cite_note-Müller2011-67">[65]</a> An analysis of <a href="/wiki/Sporormiella" title="Sporormiella">Sporormiella</a> fungal spores (which derive mainly from the dung of megaherbivores) in swamp sediment cores spanning the last 130,000 years from <a href="/wiki/Lynch%27s_Crater" title="Lynch's Crater">Lynch's Crater</a> in <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a>, Australia, showed that the megafauna of that region virtually disappeared about 41,000 years ago, at a time when <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate changes</a> were minimal; the change was accompanied by an increase in charcoal, and was followed by a transition from rainforest to fire-tolerant <a href="/wiki/Sclerophyll" title="Sclerophyll">sclerophyll</a> vegetation. The high-resolution chronology of the changes supports the hypothesis that human hunting alone eliminated the megafauna, and that the subsequent change in flora was most likely a consequence of the elimination of browsers and an increase in fire.<a href="#cite_note-Biello-68">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-McGlone-69">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rule-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Johnson2016-71">[69]</a> The increase in fire lagged the disappearance of megafauna by about a century, and most likely resulted from accumulation of fuel once browsing stopped. Over the next several centuries grass increased; sclerophyll vegetation increased with a lag of another century, and a sclerophyll forest developed after about another thousand years.<a href="#cite_note-Rule-70">[68]</a> During two periods of climate change about 120,000 and 75,000 years ago, sclerophyll vegetation had also increased at the site in response to a shift to cooler, drier conditions; neither of these episodes had a significant impact on megafaunal abundance.<a href="#cite_note-Rule-70">[68]</a> Similar conclusions regarding the culpability of human hunters in the disappearance of Pleistocene megafauna were derived from high-resolution chronologies obtained via an analysis of a large collection of eggshell fragments of the flightless Australian bird <a href="/wiki/Genyornis_newtoni" class="mw-redirect" title="Genyornis newtoni">Genyornis newtoni</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Miller1999-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-MillerMagee2016-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Johnson2016-71">[69]</a> from analysis of Sporormiella fungal spores from a lake in eastern North America<a href="#cite_note-Johnson2009-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gill2009-75">[73]</a> and from study of deposits of <a href="/wiki/Shasta_ground_sloth" class="mw-redirect" title="Shasta ground sloth">Shasta ground sloth</a> dung left in over half a dozen caves in the American Southwest.<a href="#cite_note-Fiedal2009-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martin2005b-77">[75]</a> Continuing human hunting and environmental disturbance has led to additional <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction#Ongoing_Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">megafaunal extinctions in the recent past</a>, and has created a <a href="/wiki/IUCN_Red_List_critically_endangered_species" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN Red List critically endangered species">serious danger of further extinctions</a> in the near future (see examples below). Direct killing by humans, primarily for meat or other body parts, is the most significant factor in contemporary megafaunal decline.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> A number of other <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">mass extinctions</a> occurred earlier in Earth's geologic history, in which some or all of the megafauna of the time also died out. Famously, in the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>, the non-avian dinosaurs and most other giant reptiles were eliminated. However, the earlier mass extinctions were more global and not so selective for megafauna; i.e., many species of other types, including plants, marine invertebrates<a href="#cite_note-Alroy-80">[78]</a> and plankton, went extinct as well. Thus, the earlier events must have been caused by more generalized types of disturbances to the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequences_of_depletion_of_megafauna">Consequences of depletion of megafauna</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Consequences of depletion of megafauna">edit</a>]</div> Depletion of herbivorous megafauna results in increased growth of woody vegetation,<a href="#cite_note-:3-82">[80]</a> and a consequent increase in <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfire</a> frequency.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> Megafauna may help to suppress the growth of invasive plants.<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> Large herbivores and carnivores can suppress the abundance of smaller animals, resulting in their population increase when megafauna are removed.<a href="#cite_note-:3-82">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Effect_on_nutrient_transport">Effect on nutrient transport</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Effect on nutrient transport">edit</a>]</div> Megafauna play a significant role in the lateral transport of mineral nutrients in an ecosystem, tending to translocate them from areas of high to those of lower abundance. They do so by their movement between the time they consume the nutrient and the time they release it through elimination (or, to a much lesser extent, through decomposition after death).<a href="#cite_note-Wolf2013-85">[83]</a> In South America's <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon Basin</a>, it is estimated that such lateral diffusion was reduced over 98% following the megafaunal extinctions that occurred roughly 12,500 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall_2013-86">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-DoughtyWolf2013-87">[85]</a> Given that <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> availability is thought to limit productivity in much of the region, the decrease in its transport from the western part of the basin and from floodplains (both of which derive their supply from the uplift of the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>) to other areas is thought to have significantly impacted the region's ecology, and the effects may not yet have reached their limits.<a href="#cite_note-DoughtyWolf2013-87">[85]</a> In the sea, cetaceans and pinnipeds that feed at depth are thought to translocate nitrogen from deep to shallow water, enhancing <a href="/wiki/Primary_production#Oceanic_production" title="Primary production">ocean productivity</a>, and counteracting the activity of <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>, which tend to do the opposite.<a href="#cite_note-Roman2010-88">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Effect_on_methane_emissions">Effect on methane emissions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Effect on methane emissions">edit</a>]</div> Large populations of megaherbivores have the potential to contribute greatly to the atmospheric concentration of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, which is an important <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a>. Modern <a href="/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminant</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivores">herbivores</a> produce methane as a byproduct of <a href="/wiki/Foregut_fermentation" title="Foregut fermentation">foregut fermentation</a> in digestion and release it through belching or flatulence. Today, around 20% of annual <a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">methane emissions</a> come from livestock methane release. In the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>, it has been estimated that <a href="/wiki/Sauropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauropod">sauropods</a> could have emitted 520 million tons of methane to the atmosphere annually,<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-89">[87]</a> contributing to the warmer climate of the time (up to 10 °C (18 °F) warmer than at present).<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-89">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-sauropod_methane-90">[88]</a> This large emission follows from the enormous estimated biomass of sauropods, and because methane production of individual herbivores is believed to be almost proportional to their mass.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-89">[87]</a> Recent studies have indicated that the extinction of megafaunal herbivores may have caused a reduction in <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">atmospheric methane</a>. This hypothesis is relatively new.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-91">[89]</a> One study examined the methane emissions from the <a href="/wiki/American_bison" title="American bison">bison</a> that occupied the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> of North America before contact with European settlers. The study estimated that the removal of the bison caused a decrease of as much as 2.2 million tons per year.<a href="#cite_note-Kelliher-92">[90]</a> Another study examined the change in the methane concentration in the atmosphere at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene_epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleistocene epoch">Pleistocene epoch</a> after the extinction of megafauna in the Americas. After early humans migrated to the Americas about 13,000 <a href="/wiki/Before_Present" title="Before Present">BP</a>, their hunting and other associated ecological impacts led to the extinction of many megafaunal species there. Calculations suggest that this extinction decreased methane production by about 9.6 million tons per year. This suggests that the absence of megafaunal methane emissions may have contributed to the abrupt climatic cooling at the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-91">[89]</a> The decrease in atmospheric methane that occurred at that time, as recorded in <a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">ice cores</a>, was 2 to 4 times more rapid than any other decrease in the last half million years, suggesting that an unusual mechanism was at work.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-91">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gallery">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pleistocene_extinct_megafauna">Pleistocene extinct megafauna</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Pleistocene extinct megafauna">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dinornis_novaezealandiae.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Moa (Dinornis pictured)"><img alt="Moa (Dinornis pictured)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Dinornis_novaezealandiae.png/55px-Dinornis_novaezealandiae.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Dinornis_novaezealandiae.png/83px-Dinornis_novaezealandiae.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Dinornis_novaezealandiae.png/110px-Dinornis_novaezealandiae.png 2x" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="3214" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Moa" title="Moa">Moa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dinornis" title="Dinornis">Dinornis</a> pictured)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Diprotodon_optatum_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diprotodon optatum"><img alt="Diprotodon optatum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Diprotodon_optatum_%282%29.jpg/120px-Diprotodon_optatum_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Diprotodon_optatum_%282%29.jpg/180px-Diprotodon_optatum_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Diprotodon_optatum_%282%29.jpg/240px-Diprotodon_optatum_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4710" data-file-height="2778" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Diprotodon_optatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Diprotodon optatum">Diprotodon optatum</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Megalania" (Varanus priscus),"><img alt=""Megalania" (Varanus priscus)," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg/120px-Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg/180px-Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg/240px-Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="463" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">"<a href="/wiki/Megalania" title="Megalania">Megalania</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Varanus_priscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Varanus priscus">Varanus priscus</a>),</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="American lions (Panthera atrox)"><img alt="American lions (Panthera atrox)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/120px-Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/180px-Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg/240px-Panthera_leo_atrox_Sergiodlarosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="546" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/American_lion" title="American lion">American lions</a> (Panthera atrox)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Woolly_mammoth_(Mammuthus_primigenius)_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Woolly mammoth"><img alt="Woolly mammoths vanished after humans invaded their habitat in Eurasia and N. America." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Woolly_mammoth_%28Mammuthus_primigenius%29_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg/120px-Woolly_mammoth_%28Mammuthus_primigenius%29_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Woolly_mammoth_%28Mammuthus_primigenius%29_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg/180px-Woolly_mammoth_%28Mammuthus_primigenius%29_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Woolly_mammoth_%28Mammuthus_primigenius%29_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg/240px-Woolly_mammoth_%28Mammuthus_primigenius%29_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="801" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Woolly_mammoth" title="Woolly mammoth">Woolly mammoth</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeoindris_fontoynonti.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The subfossil lemur Archaeoindris"><img alt="The subfossil lemur Archaeoindris" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Archaeoindris_fontoynonti.jpg/120px-Archaeoindris_fontoynonti.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Archaeoindris_fontoynonti.jpg/180px-Archaeoindris_fontoynonti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Archaeoindris_fontoynonti.jpg/240px-Archaeoindris_fontoynonti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2706" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Subfossil_lemur" title="Subfossil lemur">subfossil lemur</a> <a href="/wiki/Archaeoindris" title="Archaeoindris">Archaeoindris</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Giant_Haasts_eagle.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Haast's eagle"><img alt="Haast's eagle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Giant_Haasts_eagle.jpg/120px-Giant_Haasts_eagle.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Giant_Haasts_eagle.jpg/180px-Giant_Haasts_eagle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Giant_Haasts_eagle.jpg/240px-Giant_Haasts_eagle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="743" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Haast%27s_eagle" title="Haast's eagle">Haast's eagle</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Restoration of Macrauchenia, a camel-sized member of the extinct ungulate order Litopterna"><img alt="Restoration of Macrauchenia, a camel-sized member of the extinct ungulate order Litopterna" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png/120px-Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png/180px-Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png/240px-Macrauchenia_patachonica_Life_Reconstruction.png 2x" data-file-width="1222" data-file-height="910" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Restoration of <a href="/wiki/Macrauchenia" title="Macrauchenia">Macrauchenia</a>, a camel-sized member of the extinct ungulate order <a href="/wiki/Litopterna" title="Litopterna">Litopterna</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Doedicurus_and_Glyptodon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Life restoration of the glyptodonts Doedicurus (front) and Glyptodon"><img alt="Life restoration of the glyptodonts Doedicurus (front) and Glyptodon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Doedicurus_and_Glyptodon.jpg/120px-Doedicurus_and_Glyptodon.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Doedicurus_and_Glyptodon.jpg/180px-Doedicurus_and_Glyptodon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Doedicurus_and_Glyptodon.jpg/240px-Doedicurus_and_Glyptodon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2216" data-file-height="1618" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Life restoration of the <a href="/wiki/Glyptodont" title="Glyptodont">glyptodonts</a> <a href="/wiki/Doedicurus" title="Doedicurus">Doedicurus</a> (front) and <a href="/wiki/Glyptodon" title="Glyptodon">Glyptodon</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_extinct_Cenozoic_megafauna">Other extinct Cenozoic megafauna</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other extinct Cenozoic megafauna">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dromornis_stirtoni.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dromornis stirtoni"><img alt="Dromornis stirtoni" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Dromornis_stirtoni.jpg/120px-Dromornis_stirtoni.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Dromornis_stirtoni.jpg/180px-Dromornis_stirtoni.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Dromornis_stirtoni.jpg/240px-Dromornis_stirtoni.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="5366" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Dromornis_stirtoni" class="mw-redirect" title="Dromornis stirtoni">Dromornis stirtoni</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Indricotherium11.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Asian paraceratheriid rhino Paraceratherium was among the largest land mammals,[91]"><img alt="Asian indricothere rhino Paraceratherium was among the largest land mammals, about twice a bush elephant's mass." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Indricotherium11.jpg/120px-Indricotherium11.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Indricotherium11.jpg/180px-Indricotherium11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Indricotherium11.jpg/240px-Indricotherium11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3904" data-file-height="2516" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Asian <a href="/wiki/Paraceratheriidae" title="Paraceratheriidae">paraceratheriid</a> rhino <a href="/wiki/Paraceratherium" title="Paraceratherium">Paraceratherium</a> was among the largest land mammals,<a href="#cite_note-Tsubamoto2012-93">[91]</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Megalodon_jaws_on_display_at_the_National_Baltimore_Aquarium.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Reconstructed jaws of megalodon (Otodus megalodon)"><img alt="Reconstructed jaws of megalodon (Otodus megalodon)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Megalodon_jaws_on_display_at_the_National_Baltimore_Aquarium.jpg/120px-Megalodon_jaws_on_display_at_the_National_Baltimore_Aquarium.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Megalodon_jaws_on_display_at_the_National_Baltimore_Aquarium.jpg/180px-Megalodon_jaws_on_display_at_the_National_Baltimore_Aquarium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Megalodon_jaws_on_display_at_the_National_Baltimore_Aquarium.jpg/240px-Megalodon_jaws_on_display_at_the_National_Baltimore_Aquarium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Reconstructed jaws of <a href="/wiki/Megalodon" title="Megalodon">megalodon</a> (Otodus megalodon)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Deinotherium12.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Deinotherium"><img alt="Deinotherium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deinotherium12.jpg/120px-Deinotherium12.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deinotherium12.jpg/180px-Deinotherium12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deinotherium12.jpg/240px-Deinotherium12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="3191" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Deinotherium" title="Deinotherium">Deinotherium</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelenken.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kelenken guillermoi"><img alt="Kelenken guillermoi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Kelenken.jpg/120px-Kelenken.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Kelenken.jpg/180px-Kelenken.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Kelenken.jpg/240px-Kelenken.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2420" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kelenken_guillermoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelenken guillermoi">Kelenken guillermoi</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gastornis.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Gastornis gigantea"><img alt="Gastornis gigantea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Gastornis.png/108px-Gastornis.png" decoding="async" width="108" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Gastornis.png/162px-Gastornis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Gastornis.png/216px-Gastornis.png 2x" data-file-width="1689" data-file-height="1880" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Gastornis" title="Gastornis">Gastornis gigantea</a> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extant">Extant</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Extant">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nandu_Rhea_americana_Tierpark_Hellabrunn-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The greater rhea"><img alt="The greater rhea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Nandu_Rhea_americana_Tierpark_Hellabrunn-1.jpg/120px-Nandu_Rhea_americana_Tierpark_Hellabrunn-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Nandu_Rhea_americana_Tierpark_Hellabrunn-1.jpg/180px-Nandu_Rhea_americana_Tierpark_Hellabrunn-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Nandu_Rhea_americana_Tierpark_Hellabrunn-1.jpg/240px-Nandu_Rhea_americana_Tierpark_Hellabrunn-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4225" data-file-height="3310" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Greater_rhea" title="Greater rhea">greater rhea</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kbnpsilverbackandchild_0.5.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The eastern gorilla"><img alt="The eastern gorilla" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Kbnpsilverbackandchild_0.5.jpg/120px-Kbnpsilverbackandchild_0.5.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Kbnpsilverbackandchild_0.5.jpg/180px-Kbnpsilverbackandchild_0.5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Kbnpsilverbackandchild_0.5.jpg/240px-Kbnpsilverbackandchild_0.5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_gorilla" title="Eastern gorilla">eastern gorilla</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hunting_Tiger_Ranthambore.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bengal tigers"><img alt="Bengal tigers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hunting_Tiger_Ranthambore.jpg/120px-Hunting_Tiger_Ranthambore.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hunting_Tiger_Ranthambore.jpg/180px-Hunting_Tiger_Ranthambore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hunting_Tiger_Ranthambore.jpg/240px-Hunting_Tiger_Ranthambore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3895" data-file-height="2588" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Bengal_tiger" title="Bengal tiger">Bengal tigers</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Polar_Bear_2004-11-15.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Polar bears"><img alt="Polar bears" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Polar_Bear_2004-11-15.jpg/120px-Polar_Bear_2004-11-15.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Polar_Bear_2004-11-15.jpg/180px-Polar_Bear_2004-11-15.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Polar_Bear_2004-11-15.jpg/240px-Polar_Bear_2004-11-15.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3131" data-file-height="2370" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Polar_bear" title="Polar bear">Polar bears</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ngorongoro_Spitzmaulnashorn_edit1crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The black rhinoceros"><img alt="The black rhinoceros" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Ngorongoro_Spitzmaulnashorn_edit1crop.jpg/120px-Ngorongoro_Spitzmaulnashorn_edit1crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Ngorongoro_Spitzmaulnashorn_edit1crop.jpg/180px-Ngorongoro_Spitzmaulnashorn_edit1crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Ngorongoro_Spitzmaulnashorn_edit1crop.jpg/240px-Ngorongoro_Spitzmaulnashorn_edit1crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2544" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Black_rhinoceros" title="Black rhinoceros">black rhinoceros</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ovibos_moschatus_qtl3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Unlike woolly rhinos and mammoths, muskoxen narrowly survived the Quaternary extinctions.[92]"><img alt="Unlike woolly rhinos and mammoths, muskoxen narrowly survived the Quaternary extinctions.[92]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ovibos_moschatus_qtl3.jpg/120px-Ovibos_moschatus_qtl3.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ovibos_moschatus_qtl3.jpg/180px-Ovibos_moschatus_qtl3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ovibos_moschatus_qtl3.jpg/240px-Ovibos_moschatus_qtl3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3718" data-file-height="2710" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Unlike woolly <a href="/wiki/Woolly_rhinoceros" title="Woolly rhinoceros">rhinos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Woolly_mammoth" title="Woolly mammoth">mammoths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muskox" title="Muskox">muskoxen</a> narrowly survived the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary extinction event">Quaternary extinctions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stuart-94">[92]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nijlpaard.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hippopotamuses"><img alt="Hippopotamuses" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Nijlpaard.jpg/120px-Nijlpaard.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Nijlpaard.jpg/180px-Nijlpaard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Nijlpaard.jpg/240px-Nijlpaard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="949" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus" title="Hippopotamus">Hippopotamuses</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mother_and_baby_sperm_whale.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The sperm whale"><img alt="The sperm whale" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Mother_and_baby_sperm_whale.jpg/120px-Mother_and_baby_sperm_whale.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Mother_and_baby_sperm_whale.jpg/180px-Mother_and_baby_sperm_whale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Mother_and_baby_sperm_whale.jpg/240px-Mother_and_baby_sperm_whale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5115" data-file-height="2877" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Sperm_whale" title="Sperm whale">sperm whale</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Killerwhales_jumping.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The orca"><img alt="The orca" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Killerwhales_jumping.jpg/120px-Killerwhales_jumping.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Killerwhales_jumping.jpg/180px-Killerwhales_jumping.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Killerwhales_jumping.jpg/240px-Killerwhales_jumping.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2186" data-file-height="1453" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Orca" title="Orca">orca</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Southern_Cassowary_7071.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The southern cassowary"><img alt="The southern cassowary" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Southern_Cassowary_7071.jpg/120px-Southern_Cassowary_7071.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Southern_Cassowary_7071.jpg/180px-Southern_Cassowary_7071.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Southern_Cassowary_7071.jpg/240px-Southern_Cassowary_7071.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2152" data-file-height="1614" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Southern_cassowary" title="Southern cassowary">southern cassowary</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ostrich_Struthio_camelus_Tanzania_3742_cropped_Nevit.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The common ostrich"><img alt="The common ostrich" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Ostrich_Struthio_camelus_Tanzania_3742_cropped_Nevit.jpg/90px-Ostrich_Struthio_camelus_Tanzania_3742_cropped_Nevit.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Ostrich_Struthio_camelus_Tanzania_3742_cropped_Nevit.jpg/135px-Ostrich_Struthio_camelus_Tanzania_3742_cropped_Nevit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Ostrich_Struthio_camelus_Tanzania_3742_cropped_Nevit.jpg/180px-Ostrich_Struthio_camelus_Tanzania_3742_cropped_Nevit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="1987" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Common_ostrich" title="Common ostrich">common ostrich</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:SaltwaterCrocodile(%27Maximo%27).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The saltwater crocodile"><img alt="The saltwater crocodile" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg/120px-SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg/180px-SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg/240px-SaltwaterCrocodile%28%27Maximo%27%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_crocodile" title="Saltwater crocodile">saltwater crocodile</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Komodo_dragon_Varanus_komodoensis_Ragunan_Zoo_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Komodo dragon"><img alt="The Komodo dragon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Komodo_dragon_Varanus_komodoensis_Ragunan_Zoo_2.JPG/120px-Komodo_dragon_Varanus_komodoensis_Ragunan_Zoo_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Komodo_dragon_Varanus_komodoensis_Ragunan_Zoo_2.JPG/180px-Komodo_dragon_Varanus_komodoensis_Ragunan_Zoo_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Komodo_dragon_Varanus_komodoensis_Ragunan_Zoo_2.JPG/240px-Komodo_dragon_Varanus_komodoensis_Ragunan_Zoo_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2136" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Komodo_dragon" title="Komodo dragon">Komodo dragon</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Anaconda_Loreto_Peru.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The green anaconda"><img alt="The green anaconda" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Anaconda_Loreto_Peru.jpg/120px-Anaconda_Loreto_Peru.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Anaconda_Loreto_Peru.jpg/180px-Anaconda_Loreto_Peru.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Anaconda_Loreto_Peru.jpg/240px-Anaconda_Loreto_Peru.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3229" data-file-height="2420" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Eunectes_murinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunectes murinus">green anaconda</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Velemlok_%C4%8D%C3%ADnsk%C3%BD_zoo_praha_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Chinese giant salamander"><img alt="The Chinese giant salamander" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Velemlok_%C4%8D%C3%ADnsk%C3%BD_zoo_praha_1.jpg/120px-Velemlok_%C4%8D%C3%ADnsk%C3%BD_zoo_praha_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Velemlok_%C4%8D%C3%ADnsk%C3%BD_zoo_praha_1.jpg/180px-Velemlok_%C4%8D%C3%ADnsk%C3%BD_zoo_praha_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Velemlok_%C4%8D%C3%ADnsk%C3%BD_zoo_praha_1.jpg/240px-Velemlok_%C4%8D%C3%ADnsk%C3%BD_zoo_praha_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5172" data-file-height="3452" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_giant_salamander" title="Chinese giant salamander">Chinese giant salamander</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mola_alexandrini_(Bump-head_Mola).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The giant sunfish"><img alt="The giant sunfish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Mola_alexandrini_%28Bump-head_Mola%29.jpg/120px-Mola_alexandrini_%28Bump-head_Mola%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Mola_alexandrini_%28Bump-head_Mola%29.jpg/180px-Mola_alexandrini_%28Bump-head_Mola%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Mola_alexandrini_%28Bump-head_Mola%29.jpg/240px-Mola_alexandrini_%28Bump-head_Mola%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="480" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Giant_sunfish" title="Giant sunfish">giant sunfish</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lates_niloticus_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Nile perch"><img alt="The Nile perch" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lates_niloticus_2.jpg/55px-Lates_niloticus_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="55" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lates_niloticus_2.jpg/83px-Lates_niloticus_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lates_niloticus_2.jpg/111px-Lates_niloticus_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="487" data-file-height="1054" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Nile_perch" title="Nile perch">Nile perch</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:White_shark.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The great white shark, the largest macropredatory fish and one of the largest carnivorous shark species, is found worldwide.[93]"><img alt="The great white, the largest macropredatory fish, is more endangered than the tiger." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/White_shark.jpg/120px-White_shark.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/White_shark.jpg/180px-White_shark.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/White_shark.jpg/240px-White_shark.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="835" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Great_white_shark" title="Great white shark">great white shark</a>, the largest macropredatory fish and one of the largest carnivorous shark species, is found worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Manta_alfredi_fushivaru_thila.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The manta"><img alt="The manta" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Manta_alfredi_fushivaru_thila.jpg/120px-Manta_alfredi_fushivaru_thila.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Manta_alfredi_fushivaru_thila.jpg/180px-Manta_alfredi_fushivaru_thila.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Manta_alfredi_fushivaru_thila.jpg/240px-Manta_alfredi_fushivaru_thila.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Manta_ray" title="Manta ray">manta</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Giant_squid_Ranheim2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Examination of a 9 m giant squid"><img alt="Examination of a 9 m giant squid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Giant_squid_Ranheim2.jpg/104px-Giant_squid_Ranheim2.jpg" decoding="async" width="104" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Giant_squid_Ranheim2.jpg/156px-Giant_squid_Ranheim2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Giant_squid_Ranheim2.jpg/208px-Giant_squid_Ranheim2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1160" data-file-height="1340" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Examination of a 9 m <a href="/wiki/Giant_squid" title="Giant squid">giant squid</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_megafauna" title="Australian megafauna">Australian megafauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergmann%27s_rule" title="Bergmann's rule">Bergmann's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_megafauna" title="Charismatic megafauna">Charismatic megafauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cope%27s_rule" title="Cope's rule">Cope's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_gigantism" title="Deep-sea gigantism">Deep-sea gigantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_gigantism" title="Island gigantism">Island gigantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Largest_organisms" title="Largest organisms">Largest organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Largest_prehistoric_animals" title="Largest prehistoric animals">Largest prehistoric animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heaviest_land_mammals" title="List of heaviest land mammals">List of heaviest land mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_mammals" title="List of largest mammals">List of largest mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_megafauna_discovered_in_modern_times" title="List of megafauna discovered in modern times">List of megafauna discovered in modern times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megafauna_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Megafauna (mythology)">Megafauna (mythology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megafaunal_wolf" class="mw-redirect" title="Megafaunal wolf">Megafaunal wolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megaflora" title="Megaflora">Megaflora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megaherb" title="Megaherb">Megaherb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Pleistocene_extinctions" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Pleistocene extinctions">New World Pleistocene extinctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene_megafauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleistocene megafauna">Pleistocene megafauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary extinction event">Quaternary extinction event</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Nonavian dinosaur size was not similarly constrained because they had a different relationship between body mass and egg size than birds. The 400 kilograms (880 lb) <a href="/wiki/Aepyornis" title="Aepyornis">Aepyornis</a> had larger eggs than nearly all dinosaurs.<a href="#cite_note-Carpenter1999-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-JacksonVarricchio2008-28">[28]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Analysis indicates that 35 genera of North American mammals went extinct more or less simultaneously in this event.<a href="#cite_note-Faith2009-52">[51]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMoleónSánchez-ZapataDonázarRevilla2020" class="citation journal cs1">Moleón M, Sánchez-Zapata JA, Donázar JA, Revilla E, Martín-López B, Gutiérrez-Cánovas C, Getz WM, Morales-Reyes Z, Campos-Arceiz A, Crowder LB, Galetti M, González-Suárez M, He F, Jordano P, Lewison R (2020-03-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.2643">"Rethinking megafauna"</a>. 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Retrieved 2019-09-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ancient+DNA+reveals+elephant+birds+and+kiwi+are+sister+taxa+and+clarifies+ratite+bird+evolution&rft.volume=344&rft.issue=6186&rft.pages=898-900&rft.date=2014-05-23&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2328%2F35953&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206555952%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014Sci...344..898M&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24855267&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1251981&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=K.+J.&rft.au=Llamas%2C+B.&rft.au=Soubrier%2C+J.&rft.au=Rawlence%2C+N.+J.&rft.au=Worthy%2C+T.+H.&rft.au=Wood%2C+J.&rft.au=Lee%2C+M.+S.+Y.&rft.au=Cooper%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdspace.flinders.edu.au%2Fxmlui%2Fbitstream%2F2328%2F35953%2F1%2FMitchell_AncientDNA_AM2014.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buffetaut2014-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Buffetaut2014_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuffetautAngst2014" class="citation journal cs1">Buffetaut E, Angst D (November 2014). 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Systematic Biology. 59 (1): 90–107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fsysbio%2Fsyp079">10.1093/sysbio/syp079</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20525622">20525622</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Systematic+Biology&rft.atitle=Tinamous+and+moa+flock+together%3A+mitochondrial+genome+sequence+analysis+reveals+independent+losses+of+flight+among+ratites&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=90-107&rft.date=2010-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fsysbio%2Fsyp079&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20525622&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.au=Gibb%2C+GC&rft.au=Crimp%2C+EA&rft.au=Penny%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fsysbio%252Fsyp079&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baker2014-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Baker2014_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakerHaddrathMcPhersonCloutier2014" class="citation journal cs1">Baker AJ, Haddrath O, McPherson JD, Cloutier A (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsu153">"Genomic Support for a Moa-Tinamou Clade and Adaptive Morphological Convergence in Flightless Ratites"</a>. Molecular Biology and Evolution. 31 (7): 1686–1696. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsu153">10.1093/molbev/msu153</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24825849">24825849</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Genomic+Support+for+a+Moa-Tinamou+Clade+and+Adaptive+Morphological+Convergence+in+Flightless+Ratites&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1686-1696&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsu153&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24825849&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rft.au=Haddrath%2C+O.&rft.au=McPherson%2C+J.+D.&rft.au=Cloutier%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmolbev%252Fmsu153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murray_2004-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Murray_2004_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray_2004_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray_2004_25-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurrayVickers-Rich2004" class="citation book cs1">Murray PF, Vickers-Rich P (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-t6cQHdVEggC&pg=PA51">Magnificent Mihirungs: The Colossal Flightless Birds of the Australian Dreamtime</a>. Indiana University Press. pp. 51, 314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34282-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34282-9"><bdi>978-0-253-34282-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Magnificent+Mihirungs%3A+The+Colossal+Flightless+Birds+of+the+Australian+Dreamtime&rft.pages=51%2C+314&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-253-34282-9&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Peter+F.&rft.au=Vickers-Rich%2C+Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-t6cQHdVEggC%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murray_2004b-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Murray_2004b_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbid2004" class="citation book cs1">Ibid (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-t6cQHdVEggC&pg=PA212">p. 212</a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34282-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34282-9"><bdi>978-0-253-34282-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=p.+212&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-253-34282-9&rft.au=Ibid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-t6cQHdVEggC%26pg%3DPA212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carpenter1999-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Carpenter1999_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_Carpenter1999" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth Carpenter (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780253334978">Eggs, Nests, and Baby Dinosaurs: A Look at Dinosaur Reproduction</a>. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780253334978/page/100">100</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33497-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33497-8"><bdi>978-0-253-33497-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42009424">42009424</a>. Retrieved 6 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eggs%2C+Nests%2C+and+Baby+Dinosaurs%3A+A+Look+at+Dinosaur+Reproduction&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42009424&rft.isbn=978-0-253-33497-8&rft.au=Kenneth+Carpenter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780253334978&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JacksonVarricchio2008-28"><a href="#cite_ref-JacksonVarricchio2008_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacksonVarricchioJacksonVila2008" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson FD, Varricchio DJ, Jackson RA, Vila B, Chiappe LM (2008). "Comparison of water vapor conductance in a titanosaur egg from the Upper Cretaceous of Argentina and a Megaloolithus siruguei egg from Spain". Paleobiology. 34 (2): 229–246. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1666%2F0094-8373%282008%29034%5B0229%3ACOWVCI%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1666/0094-8373(2008)034[0229:COWVCI]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0094-8373">0094-8373</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85880201">85880201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paleobiology&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+water+vapor+conductance+in+a+titanosaur+egg+from+the+Upper+Cretaceous+of+Argentina+and+a+Megaloolithus+siruguei+egg+from+Spain&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=229-246&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85880201%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0094-8373&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1666%2F0094-8373%282008%29034%5B0229%3ACOWVCI%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=F.+D.&rft.au=Varricchio%2C+D.+J.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+R.+A.&rft.au=Vila%2C+B.&rft.au=Chiappe%2C+L.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murray_2004c-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Murray_2004c_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbid2004" class="citation book cs1">Ibid (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-t6cQHdVEggC&pg=PA277">p. 277</a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34282-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34282-9"><bdi>978-0-253-34282-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=p.+277&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-253-34282-9&rft.au=Ibid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-t6cQHdVEggC%26pg%3DPA277&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hansen-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Hansen_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansenDonlan,_C._J.Griffiths,_C._J.Campbell,_K._J.2010" class="citation journal cs1">Hansen DM, Donlan, C. J., Griffiths, C. J., Campbell, K. J. (April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110724224354/http://www.advancedconservation.org/library/hansen_etal_2010.pdf">"Ecological history and latent conservation potential: large and giant tortoises as a model for taxon substitutions"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Ecography_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecography (journal)">Ecography</a>. 33 (2): 272–284. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Ecogr..33..272H">2010Ecogr..33..272H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0587.2010.06305.x">10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06305.x</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.advancedconservation.org/library/hansen_etal_2010.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on July 24, 2011. Retrieved 2011-02-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecography&rft.atitle=Ecological+history+and+latent+conservation+potential%3A+large+and+giant+tortoises+as+a+model+for+taxon+substitutions&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=272-284&rft.date=2010-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1600-0587.2010.06305.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Ecogr..33..272H&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=D.+M.&rft.au=Donlan%2C+C.+J.&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+C.+J.&rft.au=Campbell%2C+K.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.advancedconservation.org%2Flibrary%2Fhansen_etal_2010.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cione-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Cione_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCioneTonni,_E._P.Soibelzon,_L.2003" class="citation journal cs1">Cione AL, Tonni, E. P., Soibelzon, L. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22179%2FREVMACN.5.26">"The Broken Zig-Zag: Late Cenozoic large mammal and tortoise extinction in South America"</a>. Rev. Mus. Argentino Cienc. Nat. Nueva Serie. 5 (1): 1–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22179%2FREVMACN.5.26">10.22179/REVMACN.5.26</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1514-5158">1514-5158</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rev.+Mus.+Argentino+Cienc.+Nat.&rft.atitle=The+Broken+Zig-Zag%3A+Late+Cenozoic+large+mammal+and+tortoise+extinction+in+South+America&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-19&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22179%2FREVMACN.5.26&rft.issn=1514-5158&rft.aulast=Cione&rft.aufirst=A.+L.&rft.au=Tonni%2C+E.+P.&rft.au=Soibelzon%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.22179%252FREVMACN.5.26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordonPrinsMallonPuk2019" class="citation cs2">Gordon IJ, Prins HH, Mallon J, Puk LD, Miranda EB, Starling-Manne C, van der Wal R, Moore B, Foley W (2019), Gordon IJ, Prins HH (eds.), "The Ecology of Browsing and Grazing in Other Vertebrate Taxa", The Ecology of Browsing and Grazing II, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 339–404, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-25865-8_15">10.1007/978-3-030-25865-8_15</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-25865-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-25865-8"><bdi>978-3-030-25865-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Ecology+of+Browsing+and+Grazing+II&rft.atitle=The+Ecology+of+Browsing+and+Grazing+in+Other+Vertebrate+Taxa&rft.pages=339-404&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-25865-8_15&rft.isbn=978-3-030-25865-8&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Iain+J.&rft.au=Prins%2C+Herbert+H.+T.&rft.au=Mallon%2C+Jordan&rft.au=Puk%2C+Laura+D.&rft.au=Miranda%2C+Everton+B.+P.&rft.au=Starling-Manne%2C+Carolina&rft.au=van+der+Wal%2C+Ren%C3%A9&rft.au=Moore%2C+Ben&rft.au=Foley%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaffeSlaterAlfaro2011" class="citation journal cs1">Jaffe AL, Slater GJ, Alfaro ME (2011-08-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3130210">"The evolution of island gigantism and body size variation in tortoises and turtles"</a>. Biology Letters. 7 (4): 558–561. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2010.1084">10.1098/rsbl.2010.1084</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1744-9561">1744-9561</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3130210">3130210</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21270022">21270022</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+Letters&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+island+gigantism+and+body+size+variation+in+tortoises+and+turtles&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=558-561&rft.date=2011-08-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3130210%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1744-9561&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21270022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbl.2010.1084&rft.aulast=Jaffe&rft.aufirst=Alexander+L.&rft.au=Slater%2C+Graham+J.&rft.au=Alfaro%2C+Michael+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3130210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCadenaLinkCookeStroik2021" class="citation journal cs1">Cadena EA, Link A, Cooke SB, Stroik LK, Vanegas AF, Tallman M (December 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8717240">"New insights on the anatomy and ontogeny of the largest extinct freshwater turtles"</a>. Heliyon. 7 (12): e08591. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Heliy...708591C">2021Heliy...708591C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.heliyon.2021.e08591">10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08591</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2405-8440">2405-8440</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8717240">8717240</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35005268">35005268</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heliyon&rft.atitle=New+insights+on+the+anatomy+and+ontogeny+of+the+largest+extinct+freshwater+turtles&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=e08591&rft.date=2021-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8717240%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Heliy...708591C&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35005268&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.heliyon.2021.e08591&rft.issn=2405-8440&rft.aulast=Cadena&rft.aufirst=Edwin-Alberto&rft.au=Link%2C+Andr%C3%A9s&rft.au=Cooke%2C+Siobh%C3%A1n+B.&rft.au=Stroik%2C+Laura+K.&rft.au=Vanegas%2C+Andr%C3%A9s+F.&rft.au=Tallman%2C+Melissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8717240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-36"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSvenningLemoineBergmanBuitenwerf2024" class="citation journal cs1">Svenning JC, Lemoine RT, Bergman J, Buitenwerf R, Le Roux E, Lundgren E, Mungi N, Pedersen RØ (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fext.2024.4">"The late-Quaternary megafauna extinctions: Patterns, causes, ecological consequences and implications for ecosystem management in the Anthropocene"</a>. Cambridge Prisms: Extinction. 2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fext.2024.4">10.1017/ext.2024.4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2755-0958">2755-0958</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Prisms%3A+Extinction&rft.atitle=The+late-Quaternary+megafauna+extinctions%3A+Patterns%2C+causes%2C+ecological+consequences+and+implications+for+ecosystem+management+in+the+Anthropocene&rft.volume=2&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fext.2024.4&rft.issn=2755-0958&rft.aulast=Svenning&rft.aufirst=Jens-Christian&rft.au=Lemoine%2C+Rhys+T.&rft.au=Bergman%2C+Juraj&rft.au=Buitenwerf%2C+Robert&rft.au=Le+Roux%2C+Elizabeth&rft.au=Lundgren%2C+Erick&rft.au=Mungi%2C+Ninad&rft.au=Pedersen%2C+Rasmus+%C3%98.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fext.2024.4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-corlett-37"><a href="#cite_ref-corlett_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorlett2006" class="citation journal cs1">Corlett RT (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tropicalbio.org/pastissues/tn_v17_n3_Sept_2006.pdf">"Megafaunal extinctions in tropical Asia"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 14 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Great+white+shark+is+more+endangered+than+tiger%2C+claims+scientist&rft.date=2010-02-19&rft.au=Sample%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2010%2Ffeb%2F19%2Fgreat-white-shark-endangered-tiger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegafauna" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141225044106/http://megafauna.com/table-of-contents/">Megafauna – "First Victims of the Human-Caused Extinction"</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&oldid=1258697698">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Megafauna&oldid=1258697698</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Megafauna" title="Category:Megafauna">Megafauna</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Extinction" title="Category:Extinction">Extinction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Zoology" title="Category:Zoology">Zoology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_size" title="Category:Animal size">Animal size</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_September_2023" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from September 2023">Articles with dead external links from September 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 November 2024, at 02:53 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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