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id="toc-Programming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Programming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Programming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Programming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_Hacking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_Hacking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Ethical Hacking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethical_Hacking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Home_computing_enthusiasts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Home_computing_enthusiasts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Home computing enthusiasts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Home_computing_enthusiasts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hacker_artists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hacker_artists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Hacker artists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hacker_artists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hacker_art_mentions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hacker_art_mentions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>Hacker art mentions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hacker_art_mentions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="হ্যাকার সংস্কৃতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হ্যাকার সংস্কৃতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerkultur" title="Hackerkultur – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hackerkultur" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_Kultura" title="Hacker Kultura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hacker Kultura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B1%D8%AE%D9%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1" title="فرهنگ رخنه‌گر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرهنگ رخنه‌گر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%BB%A4_%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94" title="해커 문화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해커 문화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya_peretas" title="Budaya peretas – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Budaya peretas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_hacker" title="Cultura hacker – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cultura hacker" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakeri%C5%B3_kult%C5%ABra" title="Hakerių kultūra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Hakerių kultūra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacking" title="Hacking – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Hacking" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%83%83%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="ハッカー文化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハッカー文化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xakerlar_madaniyati" title="Xakerlar madaniyati – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xakerlar madaniyati" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spo%C5%82eczno%C5%9B%C4%87_haker%C3%B3w" title="Społeczność hakerów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Społeczność hakerów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_hacker" title="Cultura hacker – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cultura hacker" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%DA%BE%D8%A7%DA%A9%DA%A9%DB%95%D8%B1" title="چاندی ھاککەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="چاندی ھاککەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Subculture of individuals</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Computer hacking</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_security_hacking_incidents" title="List of security hacking incidents">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phreaking" title="Phreaking">Phreaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptovirology" title="Cryptovirology">Cryptovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacking_of_consumer_electronics" title="Hacking of consumer electronics">Hacking of consumer electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hackers" title="List of hackers">List of hackers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hacker culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hacker_ethic" title="Hacker ethic">ethic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hackathon" title="Hackathon">Hackathon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hacker_Manifesto" title="Hacker Manifesto">Hacker Manifesto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hackerspace" title="Hackerspace">Hackerspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">Hacktivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maker_culture" title="Maker culture">Maker culture</a></li> <li>Types of <a href="/wiki/Hacker" title="Hacker">hackers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_hat_(computer_security)" title="Black hat (computer security)">Black hat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_hat" title="Grey hat">Grey hat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hat_(computer_security)" title="White hat (computer security)">White hat</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Computer_security_conference" title="Computer security conference">Conferences</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hat_Briefings" title="Black Hat Briefings">Black Hat Briefings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_Communication_Congress" title="Chaos Communication Congress">Chaos Communication Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DEF_CON" title="DEF CON">DEF CON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hackers_on_Planet_Earth" title="Hackers on Planet Earth">Hackers on Planet Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_BSides" title="Security BSides">Security BSides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ShmooCon" title="ShmooCon">ShmooCon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summercon" title="Summercon">Summercon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Computer_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer crime">Computer crime</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimeware" title="Crimeware">Crimeware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_criminals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of computer criminals">List of computer criminals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Script_kiddie" title="Script kiddie">Script kiddie</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hacking_tool" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacking tool">Hacking tools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">Exploit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_digital_forensics_tools#Forensics-focused_operating_systems" title="List of digital forensics tools">forensics-focused operating systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payload_(computing)" title="Payload (computing)">Payload</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">Social engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">Vulnerability</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Practice sites</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HackThisSite" title="HackThisSite">HackThisSite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone-H" title="Zone-H">Zone-H</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Malware" title="Malware">Malware</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rootkit" title="Rootkit">Rootkit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backdoor_(computing)" title="Backdoor (computing)">Backdoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">Virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">Worm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spyware" title="Spyware">Spyware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_bomb" title="Logic bomb">Logic bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botnet" title="Botnet">Botnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystroke_logging" title="Keystroke logging">Keystroke logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host-based_intrusion_detection_system" title="Host-based intrusion detection system">HIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_shell" title="Web shell">Web shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_code_execution" title="Arbitrary code execution">RCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infostealer" title="Infostealer">Infostealer</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing_security" title="Cloud computing security">Cloud computing security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hacker_group" title="Hacker group">Groups</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anonymous_(group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anonymous (group)">Anonymous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_Computer_Club" title="Chaos Computer Club">Chaos Computer Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homebrew_Computer_Club" title="Homebrew Computer Club">Homebrew Computer Club</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Doom_(hacking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legion of Doom (hacking)">Legion of Doom</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LulzSec" title="LulzSec">LulzSec</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masters_of_Deception" title="Masters of Deception">Masters of Deception</a> (defunct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_team" title="Red team">Red team</a> / <a href="/wiki/Blue_team_(computer_security)" title="Blue team (computer security)">Blue team</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Publications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/2600:_The_Hacker_Quarterly" title="2600: The Hacker Quarterly">2600: The Hacker Quarterly</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacker_News" title="Hacker News">Hacker News</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nuts_and_Volts" title="Nuts and Volts">Nuts and Volts</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phrack" title="Phrack">Phrack</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Computer_hacking" title="Template:Computer hacking"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_hacking" title="Template talk:Computer hacking"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_hacking" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Computer hacking"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the book, see <a href="/wiki/Hacker_Culture" title="Hacker Culture">Hacker Culture</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a>.</div> <p> The <b>hacker culture</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">subculture</a> of individuals who enjoy—often in collective effort—the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming the limitations of <a href="/wiki/Software_system" title="Software system">software systems</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electronic_hardware" title="Electronic hardware">electronic hardware</a> (mostly <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">digital electronics</a>), to achieve novel and clever outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Gehring_2004_43_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gehring_2004_43-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The act of engaging in activities (such as programming or other media<sup id="cite_ref-rms_hack_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rms_hack-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) in a spirit of playfulness and exploration is termed <i>hacking</i>. However, the defining characteristic of a <a href="/wiki/Hacker" title="Hacker">hacker</a> is not the activities performed themselves (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programming</a>), but how it is done<sup id="cite_ref-on_hacking_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-on_hacking-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and whether it is exciting and meaningful.<sup id="cite_ref-rms_hack_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rms_hack-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Activities of playful cleverness can be said to have "hack value" and therefore the term "hacks" came about,<sup id="cite_ref-on_hacking_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-on_hacking-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with early examples including <a href="/wiki/Hacks_at_the_Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology">pranks at MIT</a> done by students to demonstrate their technical aptitude and cleverness. The hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT)'s <a href="/wiki/Tech_Model_Railroad_Club" title="Tech Model Railroad Club">Tech Model Railroad Club</a> (TMRC)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/MIT_Artificial_Intelligence_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory">MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hacking originally involved entering restricted areas in a clever way without causing any major damage. Some famous <a href="/wiki/Hacks_at_the_Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology">hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> were placing of a campus police cruiser on the roof of the Great Dome and converting the Great Dome into <a href="/wiki/R2-D2" title="R2-D2">R2-D2</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a> explains about hackers who program: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What they had in common was mainly love of excellence and programming. They wanted to make their programs that they used be as good as they could. They also wanted to make them do neat things. They wanted to be able to do something in a more exciting way than anyone believed possible and show "Look how wonderful this is. I bet you didn't believe this could be done."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Hackers from this subculture tend to emphatically differentiate themselves from whom they pejoratively call "<a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">crackers</a>"; those who are generally referred to by media and members of the general public using the term "hacker", and whose primary focus‍—‌be it to malign or for malevolent purposes‍—‌lies in <a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">exploiting</a> weaknesses in computer security.<sup id="cite_ref-ESR_howto_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESR_howto-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Jargon_File" title="Jargon File">Jargon File</a>, an influential but not universally accepted compendium of hacker slang, defines hacker as "A person who enjoys exploring the details of programmable systems and stretching their capabilities, as opposed to most users, who prefer to learn only the minimum necessary."<sup id="cite_ref-J_F_hacker_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J_F_hacker-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">Request for Comments</a> (RFC) 1392, the Internet Users' Glossary, amplifies this meaning as "A person who delights in having an intimate understanding of the internal workings of a system, computers and computer networks in particular."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general public's usage of the word <i><a href="/wiki/Hacker_(term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (term)">hacker</a></i> to refer to <a href="/wiki/Hacker_(computer_security)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (computer security)">security breakers</a>, calling them "crackers" instead. This includes both "good" crackers ("<a href="/wiki/White_hat_hacker" class="mw-redirect" title="White hat hacker">white hat hackers</a>"),<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who use their computer security-related skills and knowledge to learn more about how systems and networks work and to help to discover and fix security holes, as well as those more "evil" crackers ("<a href="/wiki/Black_hat_hacker" class="mw-redirect" title="Black hat hacker">black hat hackers</a>"), who use the same skills to author harmful software (such as viruses or trojans) and illegally infiltrate secure systems with the intention of doing harm to the system.<sup id="cite_ref-jargoncracker_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jargoncracker-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The programmer subculture of hackers, in contrast to the cracker community, generally sees computer security-related activities as contrary to the ideals of the original and true meaning of the hacker term, that instead related to playful cleverness.<sup id="cite_ref-jargoncracker_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jargoncracker-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <p>The word "hacker" derives from the Late Middle English words hackere, hakker, or hakkere - one who cuts wood, woodchopper, or woodcutter.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Although the idea of "hacking", in the modern sense, existed long before the modern term "hacker"‍—‌with the most notable example of <a href="/wiki/George_Ellsworth" title="George Ellsworth">Lightning Ellsworth</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, it was not a word that the first programmers used to describe themselves. In fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1023981488">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .rquote{width:auto!important;float:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote rquote" style="float: right; width: 33%;"><p>"But from about 1945 onward (and especially during the creation of the first ENIAC computer) some programmers realized that their expertise in computer software and technology had evolved not just into a profession, but into a passion" (46).<sup id="cite_ref-Gehring_2004_43_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gehring_2004_43-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>There was a growing awareness of a style of programming different from the cut and dried methods employed at first,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it was not until the 1960s that the term "hackers" began to be used to describe proficient computer programmers. Therefore, the fundamental characteristic that links all who identify themselves as hackers is that each is someone who enjoys "…the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming and circumventing limitations of programming systems and who tries to extend their capabilities" (47).<sup id="cite_ref-Gehring_2004_43_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gehring_2004_43-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word "hacker" and the subculture of "hackers" came from. </p><p>Some common nicknames among this culture include "crackers", who are considered to be unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck, and "phreaks", which refers to skilled <a href="/wiki/Hacker_(computer_security)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (computer security)">crackers</a> and "warez d00dz" (crackers who acquire reproductions of copyrighted software). Hackers who are hired to test security are called "pentesters" or "tiger teams". </p><p>Before communications between computers and computer users were as <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">networked</a> as they are now, there were multiple independent and parallel hacker subcultures, often unaware or only partially aware of each other's existence. All of these had certain important traits in common: </p> <ul><li>Creating software and sharing it with each other</li> <li>Placing a high value on freedom of inquiry</li> <li>Hostility to secrecy</li> <li>Information-sharing as both an ideal and a practical strategy</li> <li>Upholding the right to <a href="/wiki/Fork_(software_development)" title="Fork (software development)">fork</a></li> <li>Emphasis on rationality</li> <li>Distaste for authority</li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Hacker_humor"></span>Playful cleverness, taking the serious humorously and humor seriously</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glider.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Glider.svg/220px-Glider.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Glider.svg/330px-Glider.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Glider.svg/440px-Glider.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="140" data-file-height="140" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Glider_(Conway%27s_Life)" class="mw-redirect" title="Glider (Conway's Life)">Glider</a>, proposed as an <a href="/wiki/Hacker_Emblem" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker Emblem">emblem of the "hacker community"</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Eric S. Raymond</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>These sorts of subcultures were commonly found at <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academic</a> settings such as <a href="/wiki/College" title="College">college</a> <a href="/wiki/Campus" title="Campus">campuses</a>. The <a href="/wiki/MIT_Artificial_Intelligence_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory">MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Mellon_University" title="Carnegie Mellon University">Carnegie Mellon University</a> were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. They evolved in parallel, and largely unconsciously, until the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, where a legendary <a href="/wiki/PDP-10" title="PDP-10">PDP-10</a> machine at MIT, called AI, that was running <a href="/wiki/Incompatible_Timesharing_System" title="Incompatible Timesharing System">ITS</a>, provided an early meeting point of the hacker community. This and other developments such as the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">free software movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_software_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Free software community">community</a> drew together a critically large population and encouraged the spread of a conscious, common, and systematic ethos. Symptomatic of this evolution were an increasing adoption of <a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_term_etymologies" title="List of computer term etymologies">common slang</a> and a shared view of history, similar to the way in which other occupational groups have professionalized themselves, but without the formal credentialing process characteristic of most professional groups.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Over time, the academic hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive, and better organized. The most important consciousness-raising moments have included the composition of the first <a href="/wiki/Jargon_File" title="Jargon File">Jargon File</a> in 1973, the promulgation of the <a href="/wiki/GNU_Manifesto" title="GNU Manifesto">GNU Manifesto</a> in 1985, and the publication of <a href="/wiki/Eric_Raymond" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric Raymond">Eric Raymond</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cathedral_and_the_Bazaar" title="The Cathedral and the Bazaar">The Cathedral and the Bazaar</a></i> in 1997. Correlated with this has been the gradual recognition of a set of shared culture heroes, including: <a href="/wiki/Bill_Joy" title="Bill Joy">Bill Joy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald Knuth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Ritchie" title="Dennis Ritchie">Dennis Ritchie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Kay" title="Alan Kay">Alan Kay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ken_Thompson_(computer_programmer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ken Thompson (computer programmer)">Ken Thompson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard M. Stallman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Wall" title="Larry Wall">Larry Wall</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guido_van_Rossum" title="Guido van Rossum">Guido van Rossum</a>. </p><p>The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly been driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology, and has, in turn, accelerated that process. In 1975, hackerdom was scattered across several different families of <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a> and disparate networks; today it is largely a <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> and <a href="/wiki/TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a> phenomenon, and is concentrated around various <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software">free software</a> and <a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">open-source software</a> development. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethics_and_principles">Ethics and principles</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hacker_ethic" title="Hacker ethic">Hacker ethic</a></div> <p>Many of the values and tenets of the <a href="/wiki/Free_and_open_source_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Free and open source software">free and open source software</a> movement stem from the <a href="/wiki/Hacker_ethic" title="Hacker ethic">hacker ethics</a> that originated at <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at the <a href="/wiki/Homebrew_Computer_Club" title="Homebrew Computer Club">Homebrew Computer Club</a>. The hacker ethics were chronicled by Steven Levy in <i><a href="/wiki/Hackers:_Heroes_of_the_Computer_Revolution" title="Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution">Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Levy_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in other texts in which Levy formulates and summarizes general hacker attitudes: </p> <ul><li>Access to computers-and anything that might teach you something about the way the world works-should be unlimited and total.</li> <li>All <a href="/wiki/Information_should_be_free" class="mw-redirect" title="Information should be free">information should be free</a>.</li> <li>Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race, or position.</li> <li>You can create <a href="/wiki/Computer_art" title="Computer art">art</a> and beauty on a computer.</li> <li>Computers can change your life for the better.</li></ul> <p>Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in the hands-on imperative.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a>, one of the leaders of the open source movement (known primarily for developing the <a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel" title="Linux kernel">Linux kernel</a>), has noted in the book <i>The Hacker Ethic</i><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that these principles have evolved from the known Protestant ethics and incorporates the spirits of capitalism, as introduced in the early 20th century by <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>. </p><p>Hack value is the notion used by hackers to express that something is worth doing or is interesting.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is something that hackers often feel intuitively about a problem or solution. </p><p>An aspect of hack value is performing feats for the sake of showing that they can be done, even if others think it is difficult. Using things in a unique way outside their intended purpose is often perceived as having hack value. Examples are using a <a href="/wiki/Dot_matrix_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Dot matrix printer">dot matrix impact printer</a> to produce musical notes, using a <a href="/wiki/Scanography" title="Scanography">flatbed scanner to take ultra-high-resolution photographs</a> or using an <a href="/wiki/Optical_mouse" title="Optical mouse">optical mouse</a> as <a href="/wiki/Barcode_reader" title="Barcode reader">barcode reader</a>. </p><p>A solution or feat has "hack value" if it is done in a way that has finesse, cleverness or brilliance, which makes <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a> an essential part of the meaning. For example, <a href="/wiki/Lock_picking" title="Lock picking">picking a difficult lock</a> has hack value; smashing it does not. As another example, proving <a href="/wiki/Fermat%27s_Last_Theorem" title="Fermat's Last Theorem">Fermat's Last Theorem</a> by linking together most of modern mathematics has hack value; solving a combinatorial problem by <a href="/wiki/Brute_force_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Brute force method">exhaustively trying all possibilities</a> does not. Hacking is not using process of elimination to find a solution; it's the process of finding a clever solution to a problem. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2></div> <p>While using <i>hacker</i> to refer to someone who enjoys playful cleverness is most often applied to computer programmers, it is sometimes used for people who apply the same attitude to other fields.<sup id="cite_ref-ESR_howto_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESR_howto-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a> describes the silent composition <i><a href="/wiki/4%E2%80%B233%E2%80%B3" title="4′33″">4′33″</a></i> by John Cage and the 14th-century <a href="/wiki/Palindrome#Music" title="Palindrome">palindromic</a> three-part piece "Ma Fin Est Mon Commencement" by <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_de_Machaut" title="Guillaume de Machaut">Guillaume de Machaut</a> as hacks.<sup id="cite_ref-on_hacking_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-on_hacking-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Jargon File,<sup id="cite_ref-J_F_hacker_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J_F_hacker-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the word <i>hacker</i> was used in a similar sense among radio amateurs in the 1950s, predating the software hacking community. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Programming">Programming</h3></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/The_Boston_Globe" title="The Boston Globe">The Boston Globe</a></i> in 1984 defined "hackers" as "computer nuts".<sup id="cite_ref-dyer19840506_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dyer19840506-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their programmer subculture, a hacker is a person who follows a spirit of playful cleverness and loves programming. It is found in an originally academic movement unrelated to computer security and most visibly associated with <a href="/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software">free software</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open-source_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source model">open source</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demoscene" title="Demoscene">demoscene</a>. It also has a <a href="/wiki/Hacker_ethic" title="Hacker ethic">hacker ethic</a>, based on the idea that writing software and sharing the result on a voluntary basis is a good idea, and that information should be free, but that it's not up to the hacker to make it free by breaking into private computer systems. This hacker ethic was publicized and perhaps originated in <a href="/wiki/Steven_Levy" title="Steven Levy">Steven Levy</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Hackers:_Heroes_of_the_Computer_Revolution" title="Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution">Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution</a></i> (1984). It contains a codification of its principles. </p><p>The programmer subculture of hackers disassociates from the mass media's pejorative use of the word 'hacker' referring to computer security, and usually prefer the term 'cracker' for that meaning. Complaints about supposed mainstream misuse started as early as 1983, when media used "hacker" to refer to the computer criminals involved in <a href="/wiki/The_414s" title="The 414s">The 414s</a> case.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the programmer subculture of hackers, a computer hacker is a person who enjoys designing software and building programs with a sense for aesthetics and playful cleverness. The term hack in this sense can be traced back to "describe the elaborate college pranks that...students would regularly devise" (Levy, 1984 p. 10). To be considered a 'hack' was an honor among like-minded peers as "to qualify as a hack, the feat must be imbued with innovation, style and technical virtuosity" (Levy, 1984 p. 10) The <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> <a href="/wiki/Tech_Model_Railroad_Club" title="Tech Model Railroad Club">Tech Model Railroad Club</a> Dictionary defined hack in 1959 (not yet in a computer context) as "1) an article or project without constructive end; 2) a project undertaken on bad self-advice; 3) an entropy booster; 4) to produce, or attempt to produce, a hack(3)", and "hacker" was defined as "one who hacks, or makes them". Much of TMRC's jargon was later imported into early computing culture, because the club started using a <a href="/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">DEC</a> <a href="/wiki/PDP-1" title="PDP-1">PDP-1</a> and applied its local model railroad slang in this computing context. Initially incomprehensible to outsiders, the slang also became popular in MIT's computing environments beyond the club. Other examples of jargon imported from the club are 'losing' ("when a piece of equipment is not working")<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 'munged' ("when a piece of equipment is ruined").<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Others did not always view hackers with approval. <a href="/wiki/List_of_MIT_fraternities,_sororities,_and_ILGs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of MIT fraternities, sororities, and ILGs">MIT living groups</a> in 1989 avoided advertising their sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Project_Athena" title="Project Athena">Project Athena</a> workstations to prospective members because they wanted residents who were interested in people, not computers, with one fraternity member stating that "We were worried about the hacker subculture".<sup id="cite_ref-garfinkel19890203_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garfinkel19890203-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Eric S. Raymond</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Open Source and Free Software hacker subculture developed in the 1960s among 'academic hackers'<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> working on early <a href="/wiki/Minicomputer" title="Minicomputer">minicomputers</a> in <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> environments in the United States. </p><p>Hackers were influenced by and absorbed many ideas of key technological developments and the people associated with them. Most notable is the technical culture of the pioneers of the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>, starting in 1969. The <a href="/wiki/PDP-10" title="PDP-10">PDP-10</a> AI machine at MIT, running the <a href="/wiki/Incompatible_Timesharing_System" title="Incompatible Timesharing System">ITS</a> operating system and connected to the ARPANET, provided an early hacker meeting point. After 1980 the subculture coalesced with the culture of <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a>. Since the mid-1990s, it has been largely coincident with what is now called the <a href="/wiki/Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">free software</a> and <a href="/wiki/Open_source_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Open source movement">open source movement</a>. </p><p>Many programmers have been labeled "great hackers",<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the specifics of who that label applies to is a matter of opinion. Certainly major contributors to <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Edsger_Dijkstra" class="mw-redirect" title="Edsger Dijkstra">Edsger Dijkstra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald Knuth</a>, as well as the inventors of popular software such as <a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a> (<a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Ken_Thompson_(computer_programmer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ken Thompson (computer programmer)">Ken Thompson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Ritchie" title="Dennis Ritchie">Dennis Ritchie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> and <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C programming language</a>) are likely to be included in any such list; see also <a href="/wiki/List_of_programmers" title="List of programmers">List of programmers</a>. People primarily known for their contributions to the consciousness of the programmer subculture of hackers include <a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a>, the founder of the free software movement and the <a href="/wiki/GNU_project" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU project">GNU project</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a> and author of the famous <a href="/wiki/Emacs" title="Emacs">Emacs</a> text editor as well as the <a href="/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Eric S. Raymond</a>, one of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/Open_Source_Initiative" title="Open Source Initiative">Open Source Initiative</a> and writer of the famous text <a href="/wiki/The_Cathedral_and_the_Bazaar" title="The Cathedral and the Bazaar">The Cathedral and the Bazaar</a> and many other essays, maintainer of the <a href="/wiki/Jargon_File" title="Jargon File">Jargon File</a> (which was previously maintained by <a href="/wiki/Guy_L._Steele,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Guy L. Steele, Jr.">Guy L. Steele, Jr.</a>). </p><p>Within the computer programmer subculture of hackers, the term hacker is also used for a programmer who reaches a goal by employing a series of modifications to extend existing <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">code</a> or resources. In this sense, it can have a negative connotation of using inelegant <a href="/wiki/Kludge" title="Kludge">kludges</a> to accomplish programming tasks that are quick, but ugly, inelegant, difficult to extend, hard to maintain and inefficient. This derogatory form of the noun "<a href="/wiki/Hack_(technology_slang)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hack (technology slang)">hack</a>" derives from the everyday English sense "to cut or shape by or as if by crude or ruthless strokes" [Merriam-Webster] and is even used among users of the positive sense of "hacker" who produces "cool" or "neat" hacks. In other words, to "hack" at an original creation, as if with an axe, is to force-fit it into being usable for a task not intended by the original creator, and a "hacker" would be someone who does this habitually. (The original creator and the hacker may be the same person.) This usage is common in both programming, engineering and building. In programming, hacking in this sense appears to be tolerated and seen as a necessary compromise in many situations. Some argue that it should not be, due to this negative meaning; others argue that some kludges can, for all their ugliness and imperfection, still have "hack value". </p><p>In non-software engineering, the culture is less tolerant of unmaintainable solutions, even when intended to be temporary, and describing someone as a "hacker" might imply that they lack professionalism. In this sense, the term has no real positive connotations, except for the idea that the hacker is capable of doing modifications that allow a system to work in the short term, and so has some sort of marketable skills. However, there is always the understanding that a more skillful or technical logician could have produced successful modifications that would not be considered a "hack-job". The definition is similar to other, non-computer based uses of the term "hack-job". For instance, a professional modification of a production sports car into a racing machine would not be considered a hack-job, but a cobbled together backyard mechanic's result could be. Even though the outcome of a race of the two machines could not be assumed, a quick inspection would instantly reveal the difference in the level of professionalism of the designers. The adjective associated with hacker is "hackish" (see the <a href="/wiki/Jargon_file" class="mw-redirect" title="Jargon file">Jargon file</a>). </p><p>In a very universal sense, hacker also means someone who makes things work beyond perceived limits in a clever way in general, without necessarily referring to computers, especially at MIT.<sup id="cite_ref-what_is_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-what_is-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, people who apply the creative attitude of software hackers in fields other than computing. This includes even activities that predate computer hacking, for example <a href="/wiki/Reality_hacking" class="mw-redirect" title="Reality hacking">reality hackers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Urban_spelunker" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban spelunker">urban spelunkers</a> (exploring undocumented or unauthorized areas in buildings). One specific example is clever pranks<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> traditionally perpetrated by MIT students, with the perpetrator being called hacker. For example, when MIT students surreptitiously put a fake police car atop the dome on MIT's Building 10,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that was a hack in this sense, and the students involved were therefore hackers. Other types of hacking are <a href="/wiki/Reality_hacking" class="mw-redirect" title="Reality hacking">reality hackers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wetware_(brain)" title="Wetware (brain)">wetware</a> hackers ("hack your brain"), and <a href="/wiki/Media_hacker" class="mw-redirect" title="Media hacker">media hackers</a> ("hack your reputation"). In a similar vein, a "hack" may refer to a <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">math</a> hack, that is, a clever solution to a mathematical problem. All of these uses have spread beyond MIT. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethical_Hacking">Ethical Hacking</h3></div> <p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csoonline.com/article/563681/what-is-ethical-hacking-getting-paid-to-break-into-computers.html">CSO Online</a> defined ethical hacking as going into devices and computer systems belonging to an organization, with its explicit permissions, to assess and test the efficacy of the organization's cybersecurity defenses. Generally, organizations engage the services of ethical hackers either through third-party cybersecurity firms or under contract. Their main job is to identify and fix security gaps before threat-actors find them and exploit them. This proactive approach to cybersecurity testing leads to significant cost savings for organizations. </p><p>Ethical hacking is the process of software engines running real-world cyber threats to assess the survivability of a company's digital structure. Ethical hackers play the role of cyber attackers by executing assessments, penetration tests, and modeling tactics, techniques, and procedures used by threat-actors. This careful examination provides an organization with the identification of weaknesses in its security systems, enabling the organization to employ necessary measures towards fortifying its defense. </p><p>Cyber-attacks can have significant financial implications for a company. In such cases, the organizations could have been saved from these gigantic financial losses by identifying and fixing the vulnerabilities discovered by an ethical hacker. Moreover, for smaller organizations, the impact can be even more dramatic as it can potentially save the business's very existence. </p><p>Furthermore, the act of ethical hacking also molds the larger hacker culture. Hacking skills, traditionally associated with breaking the law, have changed dramatically with the emergence of ethical hacking. Ethical hacking helped legitimize hacking skills which can now be talked about publicly. This shift challenges the stereotypical perception of hackers as criminals, allowing for greater emphasis on their positive contributions to cybersecurity. Ethical hacking has drastically changed the public perception of hackers. Rather than viewing persons with hacker skills as perpetrators of cybercrime, they can be viewed as part of the solution in fighting against cybercrime. The ethical hacker with knowledge and expertise stands as guardian to the digital assets, working beforehand alongside organizations to build up a more secure online landscape. </p><p>Ethical hacking is not only a proactive defense for organizations but also brings about the desired cultural revolution within the realm of the hacking fraternity. Ethical hacking, on its part through focusing on the constructive application of hacking skills, has become an integral activity in the collective effort towards fortification of cybersecurity and redefining hackers' image in the public eye. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Home_computing_enthusiasts">Home computing enthusiasts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hacking_of_consumer_electronics" title="Hacking of consumer electronics">Hacking of consumer electronics</a></div> <p>In yet another context, a hacker is a computer hobbyist who pushes the limits of software or hardware. The home computer hacking subculture relates to the hobbyist home computing of the late 1970s, beginning with the availability of <a href="/wiki/MITS_Altair" class="mw-redirect" title="MITS Altair">MITS Altair</a>. An influential organization was the <a href="/wiki/Homebrew_Computer_Club" title="Homebrew Computer Club">Homebrew Computer Club</a>. However, its roots go back further to <a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">amateur radio</a> enthusiasts. The amateur radio slang referred to creatively tinkering to improve performance as "hacking" already in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A large overlaps between hobbyist hackers and the programmer subculture hackers existed during the Homebrew Club's days, but the interests and values of both communities somewhat diverged. Today, the hobbyists focus on commercial <a href="/wiki/ROM_hacking" title="ROM hacking">computer and video games</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_cracking" title="Software cracking">software cracking</a> and exceptional computer programming (<a href="/wiki/Demo_scene" class="mw-redirect" title="Demo scene">demo scene</a>). Also of interest to some members of this group is the modification of computer hardware and other electronic devices, see <a href="/wiki/Modding" title="Modding">modding</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bending.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bending.jpg/220px-Bending.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bending.jpg/330px-Bending.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bending.jpg/440px-Bending.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/DIY" class="mw-redirect" title="DIY">DIY</a> musician probes the circuit board of a synthesizer for <a href="/wiki/Circuit_bending" title="Circuit bending">"bends"</a> using a jeweler's screwdriver and alligator clips.</figcaption></figure> <p>Electronics hobbyists working on machines other than computers also fall into this category. This includes people who do simple modifications to <a href="/wiki/Graphing_calculator" title="Graphing calculator">graphing calculators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">video game consoles</a>, electronic <a href="/wiki/Musical_keyboard" title="Musical keyboard">musical keyboards</a> or other device (see <a href="/wiki/CueCat" title="CueCat">CueCat</a> for a notorious example) to expose or add functionality to a device that was unintended for use by end users by the company who created it. A number of <a href="/wiki/Techno" title="Techno">techno</a> musicians have modified 1980s-era <a href="/wiki/Casio_SK-1" title="Casio SK-1">Casio SK-1</a> sampling keyboards to create unusual sounds by doing <a href="/wiki/Circuit_bending" title="Circuit bending">circuit bending</a>: connecting wires to different leads of the integrated circuit chips. The results of these DIY experiments range from opening up previously inaccessible features that were part of the chip design to producing the strange, dis-harmonic digital tones that became part of the techno music style. Companies take different attitudes towards such practices, ranging from open acceptance (such as <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> for its graphing calculators and <a href="/wiki/Lego" title="Lego">Lego</a> for its <a href="/wiki/Lego_Mindstorms" title="Lego Mindstorms">Lego Mindstorms</a> robotics gear) to outright hostility (such as <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>'s attempts to lock out <a href="/wiki/Xbox_(console)" title="Xbox (console)">Xbox</a> hackers or the <a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">DRM</a> routines on <a href="/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Blu-ray Disc">Blu-ray Disc</a> players designed to sabotage compromised players.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>) </p><p>In this context, a "hack" refers to a <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a> that (sometimes illegally) modifies another program, often a video game, giving the user access to features otherwise inaccessible to them. As an example of this use, for <a href="/wiki/Palm_OS" title="Palm OS">Palm OS</a> users (until the 4th iteration of this <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>), a "hack" refers to an extension of the operating system which provides additional functionality. Term also refers to those people who cheat on video games using special software. This can also refer to the <a href="/wiki/IOS_jailbreaking" title="IOS jailbreaking">jailbreaking</a> of <a href="/wiki/IPhone" title="IPhone">iPhones</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hacker_artists">Hacker artists</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fractal_art" title="Fractal art">Fractal art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_art" title="Algorithmic art">algorithmic art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Interactive_art" title="Interactive art">interactive art</a></div> <p>Hacker artists create <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> by hacking on <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Media_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Media (arts)">artistic medium</a>. This has extended the definition of the term and what it means to be a hacker. Such <a href="/wiki/Artist" title="Artist">artists</a> may work with <a href="/wiki/Graphics" title="Graphics">graphics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">computer hardware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Sound" title="Sound">audio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animation" title="Animation">animation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video" title="Video">video</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">simulations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, reactive <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensory</a> systems, text, <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, or any combination thereof. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College" title="Dartmouth College">Dartmouth College</a> musician Larry Polansky states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Technology and art are inextricably related. Many musicians, video artists, graphic artists, and even poets who work with technology—whether designing it or using it—consider themselves to be part of the 'hacker community.' Computer artists, like non-art hackers, often find themselves on society's fringes, developing strange, innovative uses of existing technology. There is an empathetic relationship between those, for example, who design experimental music software and hackers who write communications <a href="/wiki/Freeware" title="Freeware">freeware</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Another description is offered by Jenny Marketou: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Hacker artists operate as <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> hackers who manipulate existing techno-<a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotic</a> structures towards a different end, to get inside cultural systems on the net and make them do things they were never intended to do.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A successful software and hardware hacker artist is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mark_Lottor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mark Lottor (page does not exist)">Mark Lottor</a> (mkl), who has created the 3-D light art projects entitled the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cubatron&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cubatron (page does not exist)">Cubatron</a>, and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Big_Round_Cubatron&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Big Round Cubatron (page does not exist)">Big Round Cubatron</a>. This art is made using custom computer technology, with specially designed <a href="/wiki/Circuit_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit board">circuit boards</a> and programming for <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a> chips to manipulate the <a href="/wiki/LED" class="mw-redirect" title="LED">LED</a> lights. </p> <p><a href="/wiki/Don_Hopkins" title="Don Hopkins">Don Hopkins</a> is a software hacker artist well known for his artistic cellular automata. This art, created by a <a href="/wiki/Cellular_automata" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular automata">cellular automata</a> computer program, generates objects which randomly bump into each other and in turn create more objects and designs, similar to a lava lamp, except that the parts change color and form through interaction. Hopkins Says: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Cellular automata are simple rules that are applied to a grid of cells, or the pixel values of an image. The same rule is applied to every cell, to determine its next state, based on the previous state of that cell and its neighboring cells. There are many interesting cellular automata rules, and they all look very different, with amazing animated dynamic effects. '<a href="/wiki/Conway%27s_Game_of_Life" title="Conway's Game of Life">Life</a>' is a widely known cellular automata rule, but many other lesser known rules are much more interesting.</p></blockquote> <p>Some hacker artists create art by writing computer code, and others, by developing hardware. Some create with existing software tools such as <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Photoshop" title="Adobe Photoshop">Adobe Photoshop</a> or <a href="/wiki/GNU_Image_Manipulation_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU Image Manipulation Program">GIMP</a>. </p><p>The creative process of hacker artists can be more abstract than artists using non-technological media. For example, <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematicians</a> have produced visually stunning graphic presentations of <a href="/wiki/Fractal" title="Fractal">fractals</a>, which hackers have further enhanced, often producing detailed and intricate graphics and animations from simple mathematical formulas. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bubbles2.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Bubbles was created using watercolors, then scanned into a computer. Colors were then manipulated using a software imaging tool."><img alt="Bubbles was created using watercolors, then scanned into a computer. Colors were then manipulated using a software imaging tool." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c8/Bubbles2.gif/120px-Bubbles2.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c8/Bubbles2.gif/180px-Bubbles2.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c8/Bubbles2.gif/240px-Bubbles2.gif 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="380" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Bubbles</i> was created using watercolors, then scanned into a computer. Colors were then manipulated using a software imaging tool.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunrise-lile.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Sunrise was created using pen and ink, then scanned into a computer and colored with a software imaging tool."><img alt="Sunrise was created using pen and ink, then scanned into a computer and colored with a software imaging tool." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Sunrise-lile.gif/120px-Sunrise-lile.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Sunrise-lile.gif/180px-Sunrise-lile.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Sunrise-lile.gif/240px-Sunrise-lile.gif 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="395" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Sunrise</i> was created using pen and ink, then scanned into a computer and colored with a software imaging tool.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hills7p.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Rolling Golden Hills of California was created using pencil, scanned, and then painted with a software imaging tool."><img alt="Rolling Golden Hills of California was created using pencil, scanned, and then painted with a software imaging tool." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Hills7p.gif/120px-Hills7p.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Hills7p.gif/180px-Hills7p.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Hills7p.gif/240px-Hills7p.gif 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="405" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Rolling Golden Hills of California</i> was created using pencil, scanned, and then painted with a software imaging tool.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bransleys_fern.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Barnsley's fern, a fractal fern computed using an iterated function system"><img alt="Barnsley's fern, a fractal fern computed using an iterated function system" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Bransleys_fern.png/72px-Bransleys_fern.png" decoding="async" width="72" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Bransleys_fern.png/108px-Bransleys_fern.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Bransleys_fern.png/144px-Bransleys_fern.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Barnsley%27s_fern" class="mw-redirect" title="Barnsley's fern">Barnsley's fern</a></i>, a fractal fern computed using an <a href="/wiki/Iterated_function_system" title="Iterated function system">iterated function system</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Animated_fractal_mountain.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="A fractal that models the surface of a mountain"><img alt="A fractal that models the surface of a mountain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Animated_fractal_mountain.gif/120px-Animated_fractal_mountain.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Animated_fractal_mountain.gif/180px-Animated_fractal_mountain.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Animated_fractal_mountain.gif/240px-Animated_fractal_mountain.gif 2x" data-file-width="542" data-file-height="295" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A fractal that models the surface of a mountain</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Art">Art</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 13em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burning_Man_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Burning Man Festival">Burning Man Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_art" title="Computer art">Computer art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_music" title="Computer music">Computer music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demoscene" title="Demoscene">Demoscene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_art" title="Electronic art">Electronic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_art_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic art music">Electronic art music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronica" title="Electronica">Electronica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiments_in_Art_and_Technology" title="Experiments in Art and Technology">Experiments in Art and Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_art" title="Generative art">Generative art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_art" title="Internet art">Internet art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maker_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Maker movement">Maker movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Media art">Media art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_art" title="Robotic art">Robotic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_art" title="Software art">Software art</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hacker_art_mentions">Hacker art mentions</h4></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061031100214/http://www.aec.at/en/archives/festival_archive/festival_catalogs/festival_artikel.asp?iProjectID=8537">"Vector in Open Space"</a> by Gerfried Stocker 1996.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120528092810/http://switch.sjsu.edu/nextswitch/switch_engine/front/front.php?artc=222">Switch|Journal</a> Jun 14 1998.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061025010850/http://www.eye.net/eye/issue/issue_07.16.98/news_views/eyenet16.html">Eye Weekly</a> "Tag – who's it?" by Ingrid Hein, July 16, 1998.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linuxtoday.com/news_story.php3?ltsn=1999-07-05-003-10-NW-LF">Linux Today</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110709085309/http://www.linuxtoday.com/news_story.php3?ltsn=1999-07-05-003-10-NW-LF">Archived</a> 2011-07-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "Playing the Open Source Game" by <a href="/wiki/Shawn_Hargreaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Shawn Hargreaves">Shawn Hargreaves</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawn_Hargreaves" class="extiw" title="pl:Shawn Hargreaves">pl</a>]</span>, Jul 5, 1999.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060202114820/http://library.cant.ac.uk/e-resources/rbs-art.htm">Canterbury Christ Church University Library</a> Resources by Subject – Art & Design, 2001.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.steim.org/steim/workshops.php?id=3&b=1&r=0">SuperCollider Workshop / Seminar</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928134337/http://www.steim.org/steim/workshops.php?id=3&b=1&r=0">Archived</a> 2007-09-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Joel Ryan describes collaboration with hacker artists of Silicon Valley. 21 March 2002</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150912172219/http://www.xminc.com/mt/archives/2003_09.html">Anthony Barker's Weblog on Linux, Technology and the Economy</a> "Why Geeks Love Linux", Sept 2003.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070122132507/http://art.ntu.ac.uk/performance_research/birringer/daplit3.htm">Live Art Research</a> Gesture and Response in Field-Based Performance by <a href="/wiki/Sha_Xin_Wei" title="Sha Xin Wei">Sha Xin Wei</a> & Satinder Gill, 2005.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180201075340/http://www.technonerdz.org/2014/10/hackers-everything-there-is-to-know-about/">Hackers, Who Are They</a> "The Hackers Identity", October 2014.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/28px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/42px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/56px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software" title="Portal:Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cowboy_coding" title="Cowboy coding">Cowboy coding</a>: software development without the use of strict <a href="/wiki/Software_development_methodologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Software development methodologies">software development methodologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demoscene" title="Demoscene">Demoscene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_free_software" class="mw-redirect" title="History of free software">History of free software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maker_culture" title="Maker culture">Maker culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unix_philosophy" title="Unix philosophy">Unix philosophy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <p><i>This article is based in part on the <a href="/wiki/Jargon_File" title="Jargon File">Jargon File</a>, which is in the public domain.</i> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gehring_2004_43-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gehring_2004_43_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gehring_2004_43_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gehring_2004_43_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGehring2004" class="citation book cs1">Gehring, Verna (2004). <i>The Internet in Public Life</i>. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 43–56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0742542335" title="Special:BookSources/0742542335"><bdi>0742542335</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Internet+in+Public+Life&rft.place=Maryland&rft.pages=43-56&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0742542335&rft.aulast=Gehring&rft.aufirst=Verna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rms_hack-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rms_hack_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rms_hack_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307234742/https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/rms-hack.html">"The Hacker Community and Ethics: An Interview with Richard M. Stallman, 2002"</a>. <i>gnu.org</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+Hacking&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Stallman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstallman.org%2Farticles%2Fon-hacking.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060503072049/http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html">"TMRC – Hackers"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html">the original</a> on 2006-05-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-12-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TMRC+%E2%80%93+Hackers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftmrc.mit.edu%2Fhackers-ref.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStallman" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Stallman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard M. Stallman">Stallman, Richard M.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.html#Hacker">"Words to Avoid (or Use with Care) Because They Are Loaded or Confusing"</a>. <i>GNU.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130603145757/https://gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.html#Hacker">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GNU.org&rft.atitle=Words+to+Avoid+%28or+Use+with+Care%29+Because+They+Are+Loaded+or+Confusing&rft.aulast=Stallman&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fphilosophy%2Fwords-to-avoid.html%23Hacker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_location/great_dome.html">"IHTFP Hack Gallery: Hacks on the Great Dome (Bldg. 10)"</a>. <i>hacks.mit.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190820221721/http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_location/great_dome.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-08-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Raymond">Raymond, Eric</a> (2008-01-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html">"How To Become A Hacker"</a>. Thyrsus Enterprises. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061219163441/http://catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2006-12-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+To+Become+A+Hacker&rft.pub=Thyrsus+Enterprises&rft.date=2008-01-08&rft.aulast=Raymond&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatb.org%2F~esr%2Ffaqs%2Fhacker-howto.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-J_F_hacker-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-J_F_hacker_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-J_F_hacker_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaymond2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Raymond, Eric</a>, ed. (2003-12-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/H/hacker.html">"hacker"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catb.org/jargon/"><i>Jargon File</i></a> (version 4.4.7 ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170528104537/http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/K/killer-app.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-05-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=hacker&rft.btitle=Jargon+File&rft.edition=version+4.4.7&rft.date=2003-12-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catb.org%2Fjargon%2Fhtml%2FH%2Fhacker.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1392"><i>Internet Users' Glossary</i></a>. January 1993. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1392">10.17487/RFC1392</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1392">1392</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internet+Users%27+Glossary&rft.date=1993-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC1392&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc1392&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkpaUgwuokeAjahEshioste2022" class="citation journal cs1">Okpa, John Thompson; Ugwuoke, Christopher Uchechukwu; Ajah, Benjamin Okorie; Eshioste, Emmanuel; Igbe, Joseph Egidi; Ajor, Ogar James; Okoi, Ofem, Nnana; Eteng, Mary Juachi; Nnamani, Rebecca Ginikanwa (2022-09-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F21582440221122739">"Cyberspace, Black-Hat Hacking and Economic Sustainability of Corporate Organizations in Cross-River State, Nigeria"</a>. <i>SAGE Open</i>. <b>12</b> (3): 215824402211227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F21582440221122739">10.1177/21582440221122739</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2158-2440">2158-2440</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252096635">252096635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SAGE+Open&rft.atitle=Cyberspace%2C+Black-Hat+Hacking+and+Economic+Sustainability+of+Corporate+Organizations+in+Cross-River+State%2C+Nigeria&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=215824402211227&rft.date=2022-09-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252096635%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2158-2440&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F21582440221122739&rft.aulast=Okpa&rft.aufirst=John+Thompson&rft.au=Ugwuoke%2C+Christopher+Uchechukwu&rft.au=Ajah%2C+Benjamin+Okorie&rft.au=Eshioste%2C+Emmanuel&rft.au=Igbe%2C+Joseph+Egidi&rft.au=Ajor%2C+Ogar+James&rft.au=Okoi%2C+Ofem%2C+Nnana&rft.au=Eteng%2C+Mary+Juachi&rft.au=Nnamani%2C+Rebecca+Ginikanwa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F21582440221122739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jargoncracker-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jargoncracker_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jargoncracker_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110805135921/http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/C/cracker.html">"Definition of "Cracker"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Jargon_File" title="Jargon File">Jargon File</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/C/cracker.html">the original</a> on 2011-08-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Definition+of+%22Cracker%22&rft.btitle=Jargon+File&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catb.org%2Fjargon%2Fhtml%2FC%2Fcracker.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hacker#Etymology_1">"Hacker Etymology"</a>. 16 November 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231120233512/https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hacker#Etymology_1">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hacker+Etymology&rft.date=2023-11-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fhacker%23Etymology_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntony_J._T._Davie1992" class="citation book cs1">Antony J. T. Davie (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OPFoJZeI8MEC&pg=PA1"><i>Introduction to Functional Programming Systems Using Haskell</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27724-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27724-2"><bdi>978-0-521-27724-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019091206/https://books.google.com/books?id=OPFoJZeI8MEC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-10-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-12-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Functional+Programming+Systems+Using+Haskell&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27724-2&rft.au=Antony+J.+T.+Davie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOPFoJZeI8MEC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/historyofmoderncomputing.htm">"A History of Modern Computing"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170527130836/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/historyofmoderncomputing.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-05-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-08-29</span></span>. <q>During the time one of these machines read a card, it could execute a sequence of up to forty-eight steps. More complex sequences-within-sequences were also possible. One computer scientist later noted that this method of programming demanded <em> the kind of detailed design of parallel subsequencing that one sees nowadays at the microprogramming level of some computers.</em></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Modern+Computing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-srv%2Fstyle%2Flongterm%2Fbooks%2Fchap1%2Fhistoryofmoderncomputing.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catb.org/hacker-emblem/faqs.html">"Glider Emblem FAQ"</a>. 22 May 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160912030747/http://www.catb.org/hacker-emblem/faqs.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Glider+Emblem+FAQ&rft.date=2014-05-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catb.org%2Fhacker-emblem%2Ffaqs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://project.cyberpunk.ru/idb/hacker_ethics.html">"The Hacker's Ethics"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130730074644/http://project.cyberpunk.ru/idb/hacker_ethics.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Hacker%27s+Ethics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fproject.cyberpunk.ru%2Fidb%2Fhacker_ethics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levy-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Levy_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy1984" class="citation book cs1">Levy, Steven (1984). <i>Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution</i>. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-19195-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-19195-2"><bdi>0-385-19195-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hackers%3A+Heroes+of+the+Computer+Revolution&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+NY&rft.pub=Anchor+Press%2FDoubleday&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-385-19195-2&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHimanenTorvaldsCastells2001" class="citation book cs1">Himanen, Pekka; Torvalds, Linus; Castells, Manuel (2001). <i>The Hacker Ethic</i>. Secker & Warburg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-436-20550-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-436-20550-5"><bdi>0-436-20550-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hacker+Ethic&rft.pub=Secker+%26+Warburg&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-436-20550-5&rft.aulast=Himanen&rft.aufirst=Pekka&rft.au=Torvalds%2C+Linus&rft.au=Castells%2C+Manuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/H/hack-value.html">Definition of 'hack value'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110805013909/http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/H/hack-value.html">Archived</a> 2011-08-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Jargon_File" title="Jargon File">Jargon File</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dyer19840506-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dyer19840506_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyer1984" class="citation news cs1">Dyer, Richard (1984-05-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19970607204921/http://www.csd.uwo.ca/Infocom/Articles/globe84.html">"Masters of the Game"</a>. <i>The Boston Globe</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csd.uwo.ca/Infocom/Articles/globe84.html">the original</a> on 1997-06-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Boston+Globe&rft.atitle=Masters+of+the+Game&rft.date=1984-05-06&rft.aulast=Dyer&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csd.uwo.ca%2FInfocom%2FArticles%2Fglobe84.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoe_Wilson1983" class="citation newsgroup cs1">Joe Wilson (19 September 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://groups.google.com/group/net.misc/msg/5f706369944b69d6">"for hack ( er ) s who want to complain to CBS"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Usenet_newsgroup" title="Usenet newsgroup">Newsgroup</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:net.misc">net.misc</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130605161725/http://groups.google.com/group/net.misc/msg/5f706369944b69d6">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=for+hack+%28+er+%29+s+who+want+to+complain+to+CBS&rft.pub=net.misc&rft.date=1983-09-19&rft.au=Joe+Wilson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgroups.google.com%2Fgroup%2Fnet.misc%2Fmsg%2F5f706369944b69d6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-garfinkel19890203-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-garfinkel19890203_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarfinkel,_Simson_L.1989" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simson_Garfinkel" title="Simson Garfinkel">Garfinkel, Simson L.</a> (Feb–Mar 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://simson.net/clips/1989/1989.TechRev.Athena.pdf">"Students Log on to ATHENA"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Technology Review</i>. pp. 7–10. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160409003140/http://simson.net/clips/1989/1989.TechRev.Athena.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+Review&rft.atitle=Students+Log+on+to+ATHENA&rft.pages=7-10&rft.date=1989-02%2F1989-03&rft.au=Garfinkel%2C+Simson+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsimson.net%2Fclips%2F1989%2F1989.TechRev.Athena.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric S.Raymond: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/hacker-history/hacker-history.html">A Brief History of Hackerdom</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151220005644/http://catb.org/~esr/writings/hacker-history/hacker-history.html">Archived</a> 2015-12-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2000)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaymond2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Raymond, Eric Steven</a> (19 September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080718221051/http://www.faqs.org/docs/artu/ch20s06.html">"Reasons to Believe"</a>. <i>The Art of Unix Programming</i>. Addison-Wesley. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faqs.org/docs/artu/ch20s06.html">the original</a> on 18 July 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reasons+to+Believe&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Unix+Programming&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2003-09-19&rft.aulast=Raymond&rft.aufirst=Eric+Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faqs.org%2Fdocs%2Fartu%2Fch20s06.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham,_Paul2004" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Graham_(computer_programmer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Graham (computer programmer)">Graham, Paul</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paulgraham.com/gh.html">"Great Hackers"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150906064309/http://www.paulgraham.com/gh.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-09-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-09-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Great+Hackers&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Graham%2C+Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paulgraham.com%2Fgh.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-what_is-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-what_is_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEric_Steven_Raymond2001" class="citation web cs1">Eric Steven Raymond (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html#what_is">"What Is a Hacker?"</a>. <i>How To Become A Hacker</i>. Thyrsus Enterprises. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061219163441/http://catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html#what_is">Archived</a> from the original on 2006-12-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=How+To+Become+A+Hacker&rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Hacker%3F&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Eric+Steven+Raymond&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatb.org%2F~esr%2Ffaqs%2Fhacker-howto.html%23what_is&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hacks.mit.edu/">"MIT Gallery of Hacks"</a>. Hacks.mit.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081107072658/http://hacks.mit.edu/">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-11-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MIT+Gallery+of+Hacks&rft.pub=Hacks.mit.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhacks.mit.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_year/1994/cp_car/">"IHTFP Hack Gallery: CP Car on the Great Dome"</a>. Hacks.mit.edu. 1994-05-09. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131128141117/http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_year/1994/cp_car/">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-11-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IHTFP+Hack+Gallery%3A+CP+Car+on+the+Great+Dome&rft.pub=Hacks.mit.edu&rft.date=1994-05-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhacks.mit.edu%2FHacks%2Fby_year%2F1994%2Fcp_car%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hackswiki.com/"><i>hacker</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150806020812/http://hackswiki.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-08-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=hacker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhackswiki.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060721013203/http://www.the-open-space.org/osonline/polansky/singing.html">Singing Together, Hacking Together, Plundering Together: Sonic Intellectual Property in Cybertimes</a> by Larry Polansky</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thing.net/~jmarketo/interviews/cornelia.shtml">"Cornelia Sollfrank"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thing.net" class="mw-redirect" title="Thing.net">Thing.net</a>. 2000-07-25. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629002519/http://www.thing.net/~jmarketo/interviews/cornelia.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-06-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cornelia+Sollfrank&rft.pub=Thing.net&rft.date=2000-07-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thing.net%2F~jmarketo%2Finterviews%2Fcornelia.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Jargon_File" title="Jargon File">Jargon File</a> has had a role in acculturating hackers since its origins in 1975.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These academic and literary works helped shape the academic hacker subculture:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbelsonSussman1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hal_Abelson" title="Hal Abelson">Abelson, Hal</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Jay_Sussman" title="Gerald Jay Sussman">Sussman, Gerald Jay</a> (1984). <a href="/wiki/Structure_and_Interpretation_of_Computer_Programs" title="Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs"><i>Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780070004849" title="Special:BookSources/9780070004849"><bdi>9780070004849</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Structure+and+Interpretation+of+Computer+Programs&rft.place=London&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9780070004849&rft.aulast=Abelson&rft.aufirst=Hal&rft.au=Sussman%2C+Gerald+Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhoSethiUllman1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_V._Aho" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred V. Aho">Aho</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ravi_Sethi" title="Ravi Sethi">Sethi</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_D._Ullman" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeffrey D. Ullman">Ullman</a> (1986). <a href="/wiki/Compilers:_Principles,_Techniques,_and_Tools" title="Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools"><i>Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools</i></a>. Reading, MA: <a href="/wiki/Addison-Wesley" title="Addison-Wesley">Addison-Wesley</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780201100884" title="Special:BookSources/9780201100884"><bdi>9780201100884</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compilers%3A+Principles%2C+Techniques%2C+and+Tools&rft.place=Reading%2C+MA&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780201100884&rft.au=Aho&rft.au=Sethi&rft.au=Ullman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourne1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_R._Bourne" title="Stephen R. Bourne">Bourne, Stephen R.</a> (1983). <a href="/wiki/The_Unix_System" title="The Unix System"><i>The Unix System</i></a>. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780201137910" title="Special:BookSources/9780201137910"><bdi>9780201137910</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unix+System&rft.place=Reading%2C+MA&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780201137910&rft.aulast=Bourne&rft.aufirst=Stephen+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooks1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Brooks" title="Fred Brooks">Brooks, Fred</a> (1975). <a href="/wiki/The_Mythical_Man-Month" title="The Mythical Man-Month"><i>The Mythical Man-Month</i></a>. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780201006506" title="Special:BookSources/9780201006506"><bdi>9780201006506</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mythical+Man-Month&rft.place=Reading%2C+MA&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=9780201006506&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Graham_(computer_programmer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Graham (computer programmer)">Graham, Paul</a> (2004-05-18). <a href="/wiki/Hackers_%26_Painters" title="Hackers & Painters"><i>Hackers & Painters</i></a>. Sebastopol, CA: <a href="/wiki/O%27Reilly_Media" title="O'Reilly Media">O'Reilly Media</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780596006624" title="Special:BookSources/9780596006624"><bdi>9780596006624</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hackers+%26+Painters&rft.place=Sebastopol%2C+CA&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&rft.date=2004-05-18&rft.isbn=9780596006624&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoftstadter1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Hofstadter" title="Douglas Hofstadter">Hoftstadter, Douglas</a> (1979). <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del,_Escher,_Bach" title="Gödel, Escher, Bach"><i>Gödel, Escher, Bach</i></a>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465026852" title="Special:BookSources/9780465026852"><bdi>9780465026852</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=G%C3%B6del%2C+Escher%2C+Bach&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780465026852&rft.aulast=Hoftstadter&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_James_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey James (writer)">James, Geoffrey</a> (1987). <a href="/wiki/The_Tao_of_Programming" title="The Tao of Programming"><i>The Tao of Programming</i></a>. Santa Monica, CA: InfoBooks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931137075" title="Special:BookSources/9780931137075"><bdi>9780931137075</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tao+of+Programming&rft.place=Santa+Monica%2C+CA&rft.pub=InfoBooks&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780931137075&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKernighanRitchie1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_W._Kernighan" class="mw-redirect" title="Brian W. Kernighan">Kernighan, Brian W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Ritchie" title="Dennis Ritchie">Ritchie, Dennis</a> (January 1988). <a href="/wiki/The_C_Programming_Language" title="The C Programming Language"><i>The C Programming Language</i></a>. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Prentice_Hall" title="Prentice Hall">Prentice Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780131103702" title="Special:BookSources/9780131103702"><bdi>9780131103702</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+C+Programming+Language&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1988-01&rft.isbn=9780131103702&rft.aulast=Kernighan&rft.aufirst=Brian+W.&rft.au=Ritchie%2C+Dennis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKidder1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tracy_Kidder" title="Tracy Kidder">Kidder, Tracy</a> (1981). <a href="/wiki/The_Soul_of_a_New_Machine" title="The Soul of a New Machine"><i>The Soul of a New Machine</i></a>. Boston, MA: <a href="/wiki/Little,_Brown_and_Company" title="Little, Brown and Company">Little, Brown and Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780316491709" title="Special:BookSources/9780316491709"><bdi>9780316491709</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soul+of+a+New+Machine&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Company&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780316491709&rft.aulast=Kidder&rft.aufirst=Tracy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Knuth, Donald</a> (1968). <a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_Computer_Programming" title="The Art of Computer Programming"><i>The Art of Computer Programming</i></a>. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780201038019" title="Special:BookSources/9780201038019"><bdi>9780201038019</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Computer+Programming&rft.place=Reading%2C+MA&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=9780201038019&rft.aulast=Knuth&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Levy" title="Steven Levy">Levy, Steven</a> (1984). <a href="/wiki/Hackers:_Heroes_of_the_Computer_Revolution" title="Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution"><i>Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution</i></a>. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press / <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780385191951" title="Special:BookSources/9780385191951"><bdi>9780385191951</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hackers%3A+Heroes+of+the+Computer+Revolution&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+NY&rft.pub=Anchor+Press+%2F+Doubleday&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9780385191951&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaymond1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Raymond, Eric S.</a> (1999). <a href="/wiki/The_Cathedral_and_the_Bazaar" title="The Cathedral and the Bazaar"><i>The Cathedral and the Bazaar</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: O'Reilly Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781565927247" title="Special:BookSources/9781565927247"><bdi>9781565927247</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cathedral+and+the+Bazaar&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781565927247&rft.aulast=Raymond&rft.aufirst=Eric+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoll1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cliff_Stoll" class="mw-redirect" title="Cliff Stoll">Stoll, Cliff</a> (September 1989). <a href="/wiki/The_Cuckoo%27s_Egg" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cuckoo's Egg"><i>The Cuckoo's Egg</i></a>. New York, NY: Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780385249461" title="Special:BookSources/9780385249461"><bdi>9780385249461</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cuckoo%27s+Egg&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1989-09&rft.isbn=9780385249461&rft.aulast=Stoll&rft.aufirst=Cliff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHacker+culture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Olson, Parmy. (05-14-2013). <i>We Are Anonymous: Inside the Hacker World of LulzSec, Anonymous, and the Global Cyber Insurgency.</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0316213527" title="Special:BookSources/0316213527">0316213527</a>.</li> <li>Coleman, Gabriella. (Nov 4, 2014). <i>Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous</i>. Verso Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1781685835" title="Special:BookSources/1781685835">1781685835</a>.</li> <li>Shantz, Jeff; Tomblin, Jordon (2014-11-28). <i>Cyber Disobedience: Re://Presenting Online Anarchy</i>. John Hunt Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781782795551" title="Special:BookSources/9781782795551">9781782795551</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hacker_culture" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Hacker culture">Hacker culture</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/hacker-history/">A Brief History of Hackerdom</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120501083055/http://static.fsf.org/nosvn/faif-2.0.pdf#page=225">Hack, Hackers, and Hacking</a> (see <i>Appendix A</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriella_Coleman" title="Gabriella Coleman">Gabriella Coleman</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2010/09/the-anthropology-of-hackers/63308/">The Anthropology of Hackers</a> The Atlantic, 2010.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriella_Coleman" title="Gabriella Coleman">Gabriella Coleman</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL25649514M/Hacker_Hoaxer_Whistleblower_Spy/">Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous</a> at <a href="/wiki/Open_Library" title="Open Library">Open Library</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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