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searchaux" style="display:none">Management strategy for global warming</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg/220px-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg/330px-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg/440px-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="828" /></a><figcaption>PDRC can lower temperatures with zero energy consumption or pollution by radiating heat into outer space. Widespread application has been proposed as a solution to global warming.<a href="#cite_note-:5-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure>Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) (also passive radiative cooling, daytime passive radiative cooling, radiative sky cooling, photonic radiative cooling, and terrestrial radiative cooling<a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zeven_2018-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heo-2022b-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a>) is the use of unpowered, reflective/<a href="/wiki/Emissivity" title="Emissivity">thermally-emissive</a> surfaces to lower the temperature of a building or other object.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a> It has been proposed as a method of reducing temperature increases caused by <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a> by reducing the energy needed for <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a>, <a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-8">[8]</a> lowering the <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">urban heat island effect</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-10">[10]</a> and lowering human <a href="/wiki/Body_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Body temperature">body temperatures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:33-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:023-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-:18-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> PDRCs can aid systems that are more efficient at lower temperatures, such as <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">photovoltaic systems</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Heo-2022b-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:34-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dew_collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Dew collection">dew collection</a> devices, and <a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_generator" title="Thermoelectric generator">thermoelectric generators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-:34-14">[14]</a> Some estimates propose that dedicating 1–2% of the Earth's surface area to PDRC would stabilize surface temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-:032-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zeven_2018-3">[3]</a> Regional variations provide different cooling potentials with <a href="/wiki/Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">desert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">temperate climates</a> benefiting more than <a href="/wiki/Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">tropical climates</a>, attributed to the effects of <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cloud_cover" title="Cloud cover">cloud cover</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-19">[19]</a> PDRCs can be included in adaptive systems, switching from cooling to heating to mitigate any potential "overcooling" effects.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-21">[21]</a> PDRC applications for indoor space cooling is growing with an estimated "market size of ~$27 billion in 2025."<a href="#cite_note-Yang-2020-22">[22]</a> PDRC surfaces are designed to be high in <a href="/wiki/Solar_reflectance" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar reflectance">solar reflectance</a> to minimize heat gain and strong in <a href="/wiki/Long-wave_infrared" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-wave infrared">longwave infrared</a> (LWIR) <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a> <a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">heat transfer</a> matching the atmosphere's <a href="/wiki/Infrared_window" title="Infrared window">infrared window</a> (8–13 μm).<a href="#cite_note-:41-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zeven_2018-3">[3]</a> This allows the heat to pass through the atmosphere into <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">space</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1222-24">[24]</a> PDRCs leverage the natural process of radiative cooling, in which the Earth cools by <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">releasing heat to space</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> PDRC operates during daytime.<a href="#cite_note-:212-27">[27]</a> On a clear day, <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">solar irradiance</a> can reach 1000 W/m2 with a diffuse component between 50-100 W/m2. The average PDRC has an estimated cooling power of ~100-150 W/m2, proportional to the exposed <a href="/wiki/Surface_area" title="Surface area">surface area</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:35432-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-:542-29">[29]</a> PDRC applications are deployed as sky-facing surfaces.<a href="#cite_note-:34-14">[14]</a> Low-cost scalable PDRC materials with potential for mass production include <a href="/wiki/Coating" title="Coating">coatings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thin_film" title="Thin film">thin films</a>, metafabrics, <a href="/wiki/Aerogel" title="Aerogel">aerogels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biodegradation" title="Biodegradation">biodegradable</a> surfaces. While typically white, other colors can also work, although generally offering less cooling potential.<a href="#cite_note-:16-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-:38-31">[31]</a> Research, development, and interest in PDRCs has grown rapidly since the 2010s, attributable to a breakthrough in the use of <a href="/wiki/Photonic_metamaterial" title="Photonic metamaterial">photonic metamaterials</a> to increase daytime cooling in 2014,<a href="#cite_note-Heo-2022b-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Raman-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Banik-33">[33]</a> along with growing concerns over energy use and global warming.<a href="#cite_note-:32-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> PDRC can be contrasted with traditional compression-based cooling systems (e.g., air conditioners) that consume substantial amounts of energy, have a net heating effect (heating the outdoors more than cooling the indoors), require ready access to electric power and often employ coolants that deplete the ozone or have a strong <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Chen109829-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-:26-37">[37]</a> Unlike <a href="/wiki/Solar_geoengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar geoengineering">solar radiation management</a>, PDRC increases heat emission beyond simple reflection.<a href="#cite_note-Munday-38">[38]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementation">Implementation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Implementation">edit</a>]</div> A 2019 study reported that "widescale adoption of radiative cooling could reduce air temperature near the surface, if not the whole atmosphere."<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> To address global warming, PDRCs must be designed "to ensure that the emission is through the atmospheric transparency window and out to space, rather than just to the atmosphere, which would allow for local but not global cooling."<a href="#cite_note-Munday-38">[38]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Currently the Earth is absorbing ~1 W m2 more than it is emitting, which leads to an overall warming of the climate. By covering a small fraction of the Earth with thermally emitting materials, the heat flow away from the Earth can be increased, and the net radiative flux can be reduced to zero (or even made negative), thus stabilizing (or cooling) the Earth (...) If only 1%–2% of the Earth’s surface were instead made to radiate at this rate rather than its current average value, the total heat fluxes into and away from the entire Earth would be balanced and warming would cease.<a href="#cite_note-:023-12">[12]</a> The estimated total surface area coverage is 5×1012 m2 or about half the size of the <a href="/wiki/Sahara_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara Desert">Sahara Desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Munday-38">[38]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Jeremy Munday</cite></div></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">Desert climates</a> have the highest radiative cooling potential due to low year-round humidity and cloud cover, while <a href="/wiki/Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">tropical climates</a> have less potential due to higher humidity and cloud cover.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:17-39">[39]</a> Costs for global implementation have been estimated at $1.25 to $2.5 trillion or about 3% of global GDP, with expected <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Munday-38">[38]</a> Low-cost scalable materials have been developed for widescale implementation, although some challenges toward <a href="/wiki/Commercialization" title="Commercialization">commercialization</a> remain.<a href="#cite_note-:12-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-41">[41]</a> Some studies recommended efforts to maximize solar reflectance or <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> of surfaces, with a goal of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_emittance" title="Thermal emittance">thermal emittance</a> of 90%. For example, increasing reflectivity from 0.2 (typical rooftop) to 0.9 is far more impactful than improving an already reflective surface, such as from 0.9 to 0.97.<a href="#cite_note-:22-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Benefits">Benefits</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Benefits">edit</a>]</div> Studies have reported many PDRC benefits: <ul><li>Advancing toward a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon neutrality">carbon neutral</a> future and achieving net-zero emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:33-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Banik-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></li> <li>Alleviating <a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">electrical grids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> sources from devoting electric energy to cooling.<a href="#cite_note-:33-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a></li> <li>Balancing the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a></li> <li>Cooling human <a href="/wiki/Body_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Body temperature">body temperatures</a> during extreme heat.<a href="#cite_note-:33-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Banik-33">[33]</a></li> <li>Improving <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_water_generator" title="Atmospheric water generator">atmospheric water collection</a> systems and <a href="/wiki/Dew_harvesting" class="mw-redirect" title="Dew harvesting">dew harvesting</a> techniques.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-:33-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Banik-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chen109829-36">[36]</a></li> <li>Improving performance of <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a> systems.<a href="#cite_note-:34-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-:33-11">[11]</a></li> <li>Mitigating <a href="/wiki/Energy_crises" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy crises">energy crises</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Munday-38">[38]</a></li> <li>Mitigating urban heat island effect.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-:45-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-:03-44">[44]</a></li> <li>Reducing <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> by replacing <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> energy use devoted to cooling.<a href="#cite_note-:33-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a></li> <li>Reducing local and global temperature increases associated with global warming.<a href="#cite_note-:5-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Munday-38">[38]</a></li> <li>Reducing <a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">thermal pollution</a> of water resources.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a></li> <li>Reducing water consumption for <a href="/wiki/Water_cooling" title="Water cooling">wet cooling</a> processing.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_geoengineering_approaches">Other geoengineering approaches</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Other geoengineering approaches">edit</a>]</div> PDRC has been claimed to be more stable, adaptable, and reversible than <a href="/wiki/Stratospheric_aerosol_injection" title="Stratospheric aerosol injection">stratospheric aerosol injection</a> (SAI).<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Wang et al. claimed that SAI "might cause potentially dangerous threats to the Earth’s basic climate operations" that may not be reversible, and thus preferred PDRC.<a href="#cite_note-:122-46">[46]</a> Munday noted that although "unexpected effects will likely occur" with the global implementation of PDRC, that "these structures can be removed immediately if needed, unlike methods that involve dispersing particulate matter into the atmosphere, which can last for decades."<a href="#cite_note-Munday-38">[38]</a> When compared to the <a href="/wiki/Reflective_surfaces_(climate_engineering)" title="Reflective surfaces (climate engineering)">reflective surfaces</a> approach of increasing surface albedo, such as through painting roofs white, or the <a href="/wiki/Space_mirror_(climate_engineering)" title="Space mirror (climate engineering)">space mirror</a> proposals of "deploying giant reflective surfaces in space", Munday claimed that "the increased reflectivity likely falls short of what is needed and comes at a high financial cost."<a href="#cite_note-Munday-38">[38]</a> PDRC differs from the reflective surfaces approach by "increasing the radiative heat emission from the Earth rather than merely decreasing its solar absorption".<a href="#cite_note-Munday-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Function">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The-NASA-Earth%27s-Energy-Budget-Poster-Radiant-Energy-System-satellite-infrared-radiation-fluxes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The-NASA-Earth%27s-Energy-Budget-Poster-Radiant-Energy-System-satellite-infrared-radiation-fluxes.jpg/220px-The-NASA-Earth%27s-Energy-Budget-Poster-Radiant-Energy-System-satellite-infrared-radiation-fluxes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The-NASA-Earth%27s-Energy-Budget-Poster-Radiant-Energy-System-satellite-infrared-radiation-fluxes.jpg/330px-The-NASA-Earth%27s-Energy-Budget-Poster-Radiant-Energy-System-satellite-infrared-radiation-fluxes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The-NASA-Earth%27s-Energy-Budget-Poster-Radiant-Energy-System-satellite-infrared-radiation-fluxes.jpg/440px-The-NASA-Earth%27s-Energy-Budget-Poster-Radiant-Energy-System-satellite-infrared-radiation-fluxes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1980" data-file-height="1530" /></a><figcaption>PDRCs maximize <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">outgoing infrared radiation</a> (shown in orange) and minimize the absorption of <a href="/wiki/Solar_Radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Radiation">Solar Radiation</a> (shown in yellow). </figcaption></figure> The basic measure of PDRCs is their solar reflectivity (in 0.4–2.5 μm) and <a href="/wiki/Emissivity" title="Emissivity">heat emissivity</a> (in 8–13 μm),<a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a> to maximize "net emission of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">longwave thermal radiation</a>" and minimize "absorption of downward <a href="/wiki/Shortwave_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shortwave radiation">shortwave radiation</a>".<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> PDRCs use the infrared window (8–13 μm) for heat transfer with the coldness of outer space (~2.7 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>) to radiate heat and subsequently lower ambient temperatures with zero energy input.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> PDRCs mimic the natural process of <a href="/wiki/Radiative_cooling" title="Radiative cooling">radiative cooling</a>, in which the Earth cools itself by releasing heat to outer space (<a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a>), although during the daytime, lowering ambient temperatures under direct solar intensity.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> On a clear day, solar irradiance can reach 1000 W/m2 with a diffuse component between 50 and 100 W/m2. As of 2022 the average PDRC had a cooling power of ~100–150 W/m2.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> Cooling power is proportional to the installation's <a href="/wiki/Surface_area" title="Surface area">surface area</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measuring_effectiveness">Measuring effectiveness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Measuring effectiveness">edit</a>]</div> The most useful measurements come in a real-world setting. Standardized devices have been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-:46-47">[47]</a> Evaluating atmospheric downward longwave radiation based on "the use of ambient weather conditions such as the surface air temperature and humidity instead of the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_temperature" title="Atmospheric temperature">altitude-dependent atmospheric profiles</a>," may be problematic since "downward longwave radiation comes from various altitudes of the atmosphere with different temperatures, pressures, and water vapor contents" and "does not have uniform density, composition, and temperature across its thickness."<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Broadband_emitters_(BE)_vs._selective_emitters_(SE)">Broadband emitters (BE) vs. selective emitters (SE)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Broadband emitters (BE) vs. selective emitters (SE)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atmosfaerisk_spredning.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Atmosfaerisk_spredning.png/220px-Atmosfaerisk_spredning.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Atmosfaerisk_spredning.png/330px-Atmosfaerisk_spredning.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Atmosfaerisk_spredning.png/440px-Atmosfaerisk_spredning.png 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Broadband PDRC emitters emit in both the solar spectrum and the infrared window (8 and 14 μm), while selective PDRC emitters only emit in the infrared window.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a></figcaption></figure> Broadband emitters possess high emittance in both the <a href="/wiki/Solar_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar spectrum">solar spectrum</a> and atmospheric LWIR window (8 to 14 μm), whereas selective emitters only emit longwave infrared radiation.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> In theory, selective thermal emitters can achieve higher cooling power.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> However, selective emitters face challenges in real-world applications that can weaken their performance, such as from <a href="/wiki/Dropwise_condensation" title="Dropwise condensation">dropwise condensation</a> (common even in <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">semi-arid</a> climates) that can accumulate on even <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobe" title="Hydrophobe">hydrophobic</a> surfaces and reduce emission.<a href="#cite_note-:40-48">[48]</a> Broadband emitters outperform selective materials when "the material is warmer than the ambient air, or when its sub-ambient surface temperature is within the range of several degrees".<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a> Each type can be advantageous for certain applications. Broadband emitters may be better for horizontal applications, such as roofs, whereas selective emitters may be more useful on vertical surfaces such as building <a href="/wiki/Fa%C3%A7ade" title="Façade">facades</a>, where dropwise condensation is inconsequential and their stronger cooling power can be achieved.<a href="#cite_note-:40-48">[48]</a> Broadband emitters can be made angle-dependent to potentially enhance performance.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polydimethylsiloxane" title="Polydimethylsiloxane">Polydimethylsiloxane</a> (PDMS) is a common broadband emitter.<a href="#cite_note-:40-48">[48]</a> Most PDRC materials are broadband, primarily due to their lower cost and higher performance at above-ambient temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-:43-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hybrid_systems">Hybrid systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hybrid systems">edit</a>]</div> Combining PDRCs with other systems may increase their cooling power. When included in a combined <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">thermal insulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooler" title="Evaporative cooler">evaporative cooling</a>, and radiative cooling system consisting of "a solar reflector, a water-rich and IR-emitting evaporative layer, and a vapor-permeable, IR-transparent, and solar-reflecting insulation layer," 300% higher[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] ambient cooling power was demonstrated. This could extend the <a href="/wiki/Shelf_life" title="Shelf life">shelf life</a> of food by 40% in humid climates and 200% in dry climates without <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a>. The system however requires water "re-charges" to maintain cooling power.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> A dual-mode asymmetric photonic mirror (APM) consisting of silicon-based diffractive gratings could achieve all-season cooling, even under cloudy and humid conditions, as well as heating. The cooling power of APM could perform 80% more when compared to standalone radiative coolers. Under cloudy sky, it could achieve 8 °C more cooling and, for heating, 5.7 °C.<a href="#cite_note-:42-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climatic_variations">Climatic variations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Climatic variations">edit</a>]</div> The cooling potential of various areas varies primarily based on <a href="/wiki/Climate_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate zone">climate zones</a>, weather patterns, and events. Dry and hot regions generally have higher radiative cooling power (up to 120 W m2), while colder regions or those with high <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cloud_cover" title="Cloud cover">cloud cover</a> generally have less.<a href="#cite_note-:17-39">[39]</a> Cooling potential changes seasonally due to shifts in humidity and cloud cover.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> Studies mapping daytime radiative cooling potential have been done for China,<a href="#cite_note-:26-37">[37]</a> India,<a href="#cite_note-:47-52">[52]</a> the United States,<a href="#cite_note-:48-53">[53]</a> and across Europe.<a href="#cite_note-:49-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deserts">Deserts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Deserts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BW_climate.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/BW_climate.png/220px-BW_climate.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/BW_climate.png/330px-BW_climate.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/BW_climate.png/440px-BW_climate.png 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption>Desert climates have the highest radiative cooling potential due to low humidity and cloud cover.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a></figcaption></figure> Dry regions such as western Asia, north Africa, <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a> and the southwestern United States are ideal for PDRC due to the relative lack of humidity and cloud cover across the seasons. The cooling potential for desert regions has been estimated at "in the higher range of 80–110 W m2",<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> and 120 W m2.<a href="#cite_note-:17-39">[39]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sahara_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara Desert">Sahara Desert</a> and western Asia is the largest area on earth with such a high cooling potential.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> The cooling potential of desert regions is likely to remain relatively unfulfilled due to low population densities, reducing demand for local cooling, despite tremendous cooling potential.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_C_present.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Koppen-Geiger_Map_C_present.svg/220px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_C_present.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Koppen-Geiger_Map_C_present.svg/330px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_C_present.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Koppen-Geiger_Map_C_present.svg/440px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_C_present.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1401" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">Temperate climates</a> have a moderate to high radiative cooling potential.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperate_climates">Temperate climates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Temperate climates">edit</a>]</div> Temperate climates have a high radiative cooling potential and greater population density, which may increase interest in PDRCs. These zones tend to be "transitional" zones between dry and humid climates.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> High population areas in temperate zones may be susceptible to an "overcooling" effect from PDRCs due to temperature shifts from summer to winter, which can be overcome with the modification of PDRCs to adjust for temperature shifts.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tropics">Tropics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Tropics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Koppen_classification_worldmap_A.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Koppen_classification_worldmap_A.png/220px-Koppen_classification_worldmap_A.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Koppen_classification_worldmap_A.png/330px-Koppen_classification_worldmap_A.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Koppen_classification_worldmap_A.png/440px-Koppen_classification_worldmap_A.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">Tropical climates</a> have a lower radiative cooling potential due to high humidity and cloud cover.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a></figcaption></figure> While PDRCs have proven successful in temperate regions, reaching the same level of performance is more difficult in tropical climes. This has primarily been attributed to the higher <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">solar irradiance</a> and atmospheric radiation, particularly humidity and cloud cover.<a href="#cite_note-:4-17">[17]</a> The average cooling potential of tropical climates varies between 10 and 40 W m2, significantly lower than hot and dry climates.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> For example, the cooling potential of most of southeast Asia and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> is significantly diminished in the summer due to a dramatic increase in humidity, dropping as low as 10–30 W/m2. Other similar zones, such as <a href="/wiki/Tropical_savannah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical savannah">tropical savannah</a> areas in Africa, see a more modest decline during summer, dropping to 20–40 W/m2. However, tropical regions generally have a higher albedo or <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a> due to sustained <a href="/wiki/Cloud_cover" title="Cloud cover">cloud cover</a> and thus their land surface contributes less to planetary albedo.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> A 2022 study reported that a PDRC surface in tropical climates should have a <a href="/wiki/Solar_reflectance" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar reflectance">solar reflectance</a> of at least 97% and an infrared emittance of at least 80% to reduce temperatures. The study applied a <a href="/wiki/Barium_sulphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Barium sulphate"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000086-QINU`"'</style>BaSO4</a>-<a href="/wiki/Potassium_sulphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Potassium sulphate">K 2SO 4</a> coating with a "solar reflectance and infrared emittance (8–13 μm) of 98.4% and 95% respectively" in the tropical climate of Singapore and achieved a "sustained daytime sub-ambient temperature of 2°C" under direct solar intensity of 1000 W m2.<a href="#cite_note-:4-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variables">Variables</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Variables">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Humidity_and_cloud_coverage">Humidity and cloud coverage</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Humidity and cloud coverage">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Globalcldfr_amo_200207-201504_lrg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Globalcldfr_amo_200207-201504_lrg.jpg/220px-Globalcldfr_amo_200207-201504_lrg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Globalcldfr_amo_200207-201504_lrg.jpg/330px-Globalcldfr_amo_200207-201504_lrg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Globalcldfr_amo_200207-201504_lrg.jpg/440px-Globalcldfr_amo_200207-201504_lrg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Global map of cloud cover. Data taken from 2002 to 2015. The darker the color, the clearer the sky.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a> and cloud coverage significantly weaken PDRC effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> A 2022 study noted that "vertical variations of both vapor concentration and temperature in the atmosphere" can have a considerable impact on radiative coolers. The authors reported that aerosol and cloud coverage can weaken the effectiveness of radiators and thus concluded that adaptable "design strategies of radiative coolers" are needed to maximize effectiveness under these climatic conditions.<a href="#cite_note-:6-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dropwise_condensation">Dropwise condensation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Dropwise condensation">edit</a>]</div> The formation of <a href="/wiki/Dropwise_condensation" title="Dropwise condensation">dropwise condensation</a> on PDRC surfaces can alter the infrared emittance of selective PDRC emitters, which can weaken their performance. Even in <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">semi-arid</a> environments, dew formation. Another 2022 study reported that the cooling power of selective emitters "may broaden the narrowband emittances of the selective emitter and reduce their sub-ambient cooling power and their supposed cooling benefits over broadband emitters"<a href="#cite_note-:40-48">[48]</a> and that:<blockquote>Our work shows that the assumed benefits of selective emitters are even smaller when it comes to the largest application of radiative cooling – cooling roofs of buildings. However, recently, it has been shown that for vertical building <a href="/wiki/Fa%C3%A7ade" title="Façade">facades</a> experiencing broadband summertime terrestrial heat gains and wintertime losses, selective emitters can achieve seasonal thermoregulation and energy savings. Since dew formation appears less likely on vertical surfaces even in exceptionally humid environments, the thermoregulatory benefits of selective emitters will likely persist in both humid and dry operating conditions.<a href="#cite_note-:40-48">[48]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rain">Rain</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Rain">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_precip_annual.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/World_precip_annual.png/220px-World_precip_annual.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/World_precip_annual.png/330px-World_precip_annual.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/World_precip_annual.png/440px-World_precip_annual.png 2x" data-file-width="8640" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption>Global map of average <a href="/wiki/Annual_precipitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Annual precipitation">annual precipitation</a>. The darker the color, the higher the precipitation.</figcaption></figure> Rain can generally help clean PDRC surfaces covered with dust, dirt, or other debris. However, in humid areas, consistent rain can result in water accumulation that can hinder performance. <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">Porous</a> PDRCs can mitigate these conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Weng_2021-55">[55]</a> Another response is to make <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobe" title="Hydrophobe">hydrophobic</a> self-cleaning PDRCs. Scalable and sustainable hydrophobic PDRCs that avoid <a href="/wiki/VOCs" class="mw-redirect" title="VOCs">VOCs</a> can repel rainwater and other liquids.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wind">Wind</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Wind">edit</a>]</div> Wind may alter the efficiency of passive radiative cooling surfaces and technologies. A 2020 study proposed using a "tilt strategy and wind cover strategy" to mitigate wind effects. The researchers reported regional differences in China, noting that "85% of China's areas can achieve radiative cooling performance with wind cover" whereas in northwestern China wind cover effects would be more substantial.<a href="#cite_note-:7-19">[19]</a> Bijarniya et al. similarly proposes the use of a wind shield in areas susceptible to high winds.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials_and_production">Materials and production</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Materials and production">edit</a>]</div> PDRC surfaces can be made of various materials. However, for widespread application, PDRC materials must be low cost, available for mass production, and applicable in many contexts. Most research has focused on coatings and thin films, which tend to be more available for mass production, lower cost, and more applicable in a wider range of contexts, although other materials may provide potential for specific applications.<a href="#cite_note-:12-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> PDRC research has identified more sustainable material alternatives, even if not fully <a href="/wiki/Biodegradable" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodegradable">biodegradable</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:32-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-:29-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:28-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-:30-62">[62]</a> A 2023 study reported that "most PDRC materials now are <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">non-renewable</a> polymers, artificial photonic or synthetic chemicals, which will cause excessive CO2 emissions by consuming <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> and go against the global carbon neutrality goal. Environmentally friendly bio-based renewable materials should be an ideal material to devise PDRC systems."<a href="#cite_note-:31-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multilayer_and_complex_structures">Multilayer and complex structures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Multilayer and complex structures">edit</a>]</div> Advanced photonic materials and structures, such as multilayer thin films, micro/nanoparticles, <a href="/wiki/Photonic_crystals" class="mw-redirect" title="Photonic crystals">photonic crystals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metamaterials" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamaterials">metamaterials</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_metasurface" title="Electromagnetic metasurface">metasurfaces</a>, have been reported as potential approaches.<a href="#cite_note-:11-64">[64]</a> However, while multilayer and complex nano-photonic structures have proven successful in experimental scenarios and simulations, a 2022 study reorted that widespread application "is severely restricted because of the complex and expensive processes of preparation".<a href="#cite_note-:10-41">[41]</a> Similarly, a 2020 study reported that "scalable production of artificial photonic radiators with complex structures, outstanding properties, high throughput, and low cost is still challenging".<a href="#cite_note-:2-65">[65]</a> This has advanced research of simpler structures for PDRC materials possibly better suited for mass production.<a href="#cite_note-:11-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coatings">Coatings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Coatings">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bismuth(III)_oxide_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bismuth%28III%29_oxide_2.jpg/220px-Bismuth%28III%29_oxide_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bismuth%28III%29_oxide_2.jpg/330px-Bismuth%28III%29_oxide_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bismuth%28III%29_oxide_2.jpg/440px-Bismuth%28III%29_oxide_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2202" data-file-height="1652" /></a><figcaption>A scalable colored PDRC coating using <a href="/wiki/Bismuth(III)_oxide" title="Bismuth(III) oxide">Bismuth oxide</a> (pictured) was developed by Zhai et al.<a href="#cite_note-:16-30">[30]</a></figcaption></figure> PDRC coatings such as paints may be advantageous given their direct application to surfaces, simplifying preparation and reducing costs,<a href="#cite_note-:10-41">[41]</a> although not all coatings are inexpensive.<a href="#cite_note-:23-66">[66]</a> A 2022 study stated that coatings generally offer "strong operability, convenient processing, and low cost, which have the prospect of large-scale utilization".<a href="#cite_note-:12-40">[40]</a> PDRC coatings have been developed in colors other than white while still demonstrating high solar reflectance and heat emissivity.<a href="#cite_note-:16-30">[30]</a> Coatings must be durable and resistant to soiling, which can be achieved with <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porous</a> PDRCs<a href="#cite_note-Weng_2021-55">[55]</a> or hydrophobic topcoats that can withstand cleaning, although hydrophobic coatings use <a href="/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylene" title="Polytetrafluoroethylene">polytetrafluoroethylene</a> or similar compounds to be water-resistant.<a href="#cite_note-:23-66">[66]</a> Negative environmental impacts can be mitigated by limiting use of other toxic solvents common in paints, such as <a href="/wiki/Acetone" title="Acetone">acetone</a>. Non-toxic or <a href="/wiki/Water-based_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-based paint">water-based paints</a> have been developed.<a href="#cite_note-:23-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-60">[60]</a> Porous Polymers Coating (PPC) exhibit excellent PDRC performance. These polymers have a high concentration of tiny pores, which scatter light effectively at the boundary between the polymer and the air. This scattering enhances both solar reflectance (more than 96%) and thermal emittance (97% of heat), lowering surface temperatures six degrees below the surroundings at noon in Phoenix. This process is solution-based, aiding scalability.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Dye of the desired color is coated on the polymer. Compared to traditional dye in porous polymer, in which the dye is mixed in the polymer, the new design can cool more effectively.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> A 2018 study reported significantly lowered coating costs, stating that "photonic media, when properly randomized to minimize the photon transport mean free path, can be used to coat a black substrate and reduce its temperature by radiative cooling." This coating could "outperform commercially available solar-reflective white paint for daytime cooling" without expensive manufacturing steps or materials.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Candidate coatings </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Coating</th> <th>Reflectance</th> <th>Emittance</th> <th>Temperature reduction</th> <th>Commercial coating</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_phosphate" title="Aluminium phosphate">Aluminum phosphate</a></td> <td>97%</td> <td>90%</td> <td>~4.2 °C</td> <td>~4.8 °C</td> <td>predicted estimated cost by Dong et al. at $1.2/m2,<a href="#cite_note-:12-40">[40]</a> tested in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (daytime humidity 41%), selective emitter (SE).<a href="#cite_note-:25-71">[71]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ultrawhite <a href="/wiki/Barium_sulfate" title="Barium sulfate"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">BaSO4</a></td> <td>98.1%</td> <td>95%</td> <td>~4.5 °C</td> <td></td> <td>paint with 60% volume concentration, "providing great reliability, convenient paint form, ease of use, and compatibility with the commercial paint fabrication process."<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Porous <a href="/wiki/Polydimethylsiloxane" title="Polydimethylsiloxane">Polydimethylsiloxane</a></td> <td>95%</td> <td>96.5%</td> <td>~8 °C</td> <td></td> <td>sponge emitter template method for coatings, avoids hazardous etching agents (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Hydrofluoric_acid" title="Hydrofluoric acid">hydrofluoric acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>) or <a href="/wiki/VOCs" class="mw-redirect" title="VOCs">VOCs</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Acetone" title="Acetone">acetone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dimethylformamide" title="Dimethylformamide">dimethylformamide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrofuran" title="Tetrahydrofuran">tetrahydrofuran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hexane" title="Hexane">hexane</a>), "compatibility with large-scale production," tested in <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a> (daytime humidity ~61%).<a href="#cite_note-Weng_2021-55">[55]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_resins" title="Waterborne resins">Waterborne</a> <a href="/wiki/Thermochromism" title="Thermochromism">thermochromic</a></td> <td>96%</td> <td>94%</td> <td>~7.1 °C</td> <td></td> <td>free of <a href="/wiki/Ecotoxicity" title="Ecotoxicity">ecotoxic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">titanium dioxide</a> "can be produced at a large scale and conveniently coated on various substrates through traditional drop casting, spraying, roller painting, or spin-coating methods" and "switchable [between] solar heating and radiative cooling," tested in Shanghai (daytime humidity ~28%).<a href="#cite_note-:9-60">[60]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Barium_sulphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Barium sulphate">Barium sulphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">Calcium carbonate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">Silicon dioxide</a> particle coating</td> <td>97.6%</td> <td>89%</td> <td>~8.3 °C</td> <td>~5.5 °C lower than white paints</td> <td>"for large-scale commercial production" with a predicted estimated cost of $0.5/m2, tested in <a href="/wiki/Weihai" title="Weihai">Weihai</a> (daytime humidity 40%).<a href="#cite_note-:12-40">[40]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>α-<a href="/wiki/Bismuth(III)_oxide" title="Bismuth(III) oxide">Bismuth(III) oxide</a></td> <td>99%</td> <td>97%</td> <td>~2.31 °C</td> <td></td> <td>Average cooling power 68 W/m2 "low cost of raw oxide materials, and simple preparation process," tested in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> (daytime humidity 54%).<a href="#cite_note-:16-30">[30]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Films">Films</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Films">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neocerambyx_gigas_(Thomson,_1878)_(3247568711).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Neocerambyx_gigas_%28Thomson%2C_1878%29_%283247568711%29.jpg/220px-Neocerambyx_gigas_%28Thomson%2C_1878%29_%283247568711%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Neocerambyx_gigas_%28Thomson%2C_1878%29_%283247568711%29.jpg/330px-Neocerambyx_gigas_%28Thomson%2C_1878%29_%283247568711%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Neocerambyx_gigas_%28Thomson%2C_1878%29_%283247568711%29.jpg/440px-Neocerambyx_gigas_%28Thomson%2C_1878%29_%283247568711%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1855" data-file-height="881" /></a><figcaption>A photonic radiator film based on the <a href="/wiki/Longhorn_beetle" title="Longhorn beetle">longicorn beetle</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neocerambyx_gigas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neocerambyx gigas (page does not exist)">Neocerambyx gigas</a> exhibited 95% solar irradiance and 96% emissivity.<a href="#cite_note-:2-65">[65]</a></figcaption></figure>Many <a href="/wiki/Thin_film" title="Thin film">thin films</a> offer high solar reflectance and heat emittance. However, films with precise patterns or structures are not <a href="/wiki/Scalability" title="Scalability">scalable</a> "due to the cost and technical difficulties inherent in large-scale precise <a href="/wiki/Lithography" title="Lithography">lithography</a>" (2022),<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a> or "due to complex nanoscale lithography/synthesis and rigidity" (2021).<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Acrylate_polymer" title="Acrylate polymer">polyacrylate</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydrogel" title="Hydrogel">hydrogel</a> film<a href="#cite_note-:50-74">[74]</a> from the 2022 study has broader applications, including potential uses in building construction and large-scale thermal management systems. This research focused on a film developed for hybrid passive cooling. The film uses <a href="/wiki/Sodium_polyacrylate" title="Sodium polyacrylate">sodium polyacrylate</a>, a low-cost industrial material, to achieve high solar reflectance and high mid-infrared emittance. A significant feature of this material is its ability to absorb atmospheric moisture, aiding <a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaporative cooling">evaporative cooling</a>. This tripartite mechanism allows for efficient cooling under varying atmospheric conditions, including high humidity or given limited access to clear skies.<a href="#cite_note-:50-74">[74]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Candidates </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Coating</th> <th>Reflectance</th> <th>Emittance</th> <th>Temperature reduction</th> <th>Commercial coating</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Facile microstamping method film on low-cost polymer <a href="/wiki/PDMS_stamp" title="PDMS stamp">PDMS</a></td> <td>95%</td> <td>96%</td> <td>5.1 °C</td> <td></td> <td>"promising for scale-up production."<a href="#cite_note-:2-65">[65]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phase_inversion_(chemistry)" title="Phase inversion (chemistry)">phase inversion</a> process using <a href="/wiki/Cellulose_acetate" title="Cellulose acetate">cellulose acetate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium_silicate" title="Calcium silicate">calcium silicate</a></td> <td>97.3%</td> <td>97.2%</td> <td>7.3 °C</td> <td></td> <td>90.7 W m−2), "a low-cost, scalable composite film with novel dendritic cell like structures," tested in <a href="/wiki/Qingdao" title="Qingdao">Qingdao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Superhydrophobic porous (PDMS)</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>11.52 °C</td> <td></td> <td>"the film is promising to be widely used for long-term cooling for outdoor applications."<a href="#cite_note-:30-62">[62]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a>-free reagents and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">SiO2 particle composite film</td> <td>85%</td> <td>95%</td> <td>12.2 °C</td> <td></td> <td>manufactured with "a simple preparation process, which has characteristics of low-cost environmental friendliness and excellent machinal durability," tested in <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:29-59">[59]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hierarchical flexible fibrous <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> (wood pulp) film</td> <td>93.8%</td> <td>98.3%</td> <td>to 11.3 °C</td> <td></td> <td>"the first time to realize high <a href="/wiki/Crystallinity" title="Crystallinity">crystallinity</a> and hierarchical <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">microstructures</a> in regenerated cellulose materials by the self-assembly of cellulose <a href="/wiki/Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">macromolecules</a> at the molecular level," which "will provide new perspectives for the development of flexible cellulose materials."<a href="#cite_note-:31-63">[63]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Periodic pyramid-textured PDMS radiative film </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>2 °C. </td> <td> </td> <td>commercial silicon solar cells<a href="#cite_note-:39-76">[76]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nanoporous_materials" title="Nanoporous materials">Nanoporous</a> <a href="/wiki/Anodic_aluminium_oxide" title="Anodic aluminium oxide">anodic aluminum oxide</a> film </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>Improved flat solar cell efficiency by ~2.72%, concentrated solar cell by ~16.02%.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metafabrics">Metafabrics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Metafabrics">edit</a>]</div> PDRCs can be made of metafabrics, which can be used in clothing to shield/regulate body temperatures. Most metafabrics are made of petroleum-based fibers.<a href="#cite_note-:20-78">[78]</a> For instance, 2023 study reported that a that "new flexible cellulose fibrous films with wood-like hierarchical microstructures need to be developed for wearable PDRC applications."<a href="#cite_note-:31-63">[63]</a> A 2021 study chose a composite of <a href="/wiki/Titanium_oxide" title="Titanium oxide">titanium oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polylactic_acid" title="Polylactic acid">polylactic acid</a> (TiO2-PLA) with a <a href="/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylene" title="Polytetrafluoroethylene">polytetrafluoroethylene</a> (PTFE) lamination. The fabric underwent optical and thermal characterization, measuring like reflectivity and emissivity. Numerical simulations, including <a href="/wiki/Mie_scattering" title="Mie scattering">Lorenz-Mie theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method" title="Monte Carlo method">Monte Carlo simulations</a>, were crucial in predicting the fabric's performance and guiding optimization. Mechanical testing was conducted to assess the fabric's durability, strength, and practicality.<a href="#cite_note-:51-79">[79]</a> The study reported exceptional ability to facilitate radiative cooling. The fabric achieved 94.5% emissivity and 92.4% reflectivity. This combination of high emissivity and reflectivity is central to its cooling capabilities, significantly outperforming traditional fabrics. Additionally, the fabric's mechanical properties, including strength, durability, waterproofness, and breathability, confirmed its suitability for clothing.<a href="#cite_note-:51-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Candidates </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Coating</th> <th>Reflectance</th> <th>Emittance</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Eco-friendly bio-derived regenerable polymer <a href="/wiki/Alginate" class="mw-redirect" title="Alginate">alginate</a> to modify <a href="/wiki/Cotton_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotton fiber">cotton fiber</a> and then in-matrix generate <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">CaCO3</a> nano- or other micro-particles</td> <td>90%</td> <td>97%</td> <td>5.4ᵒC</td> <td>"fully compatible with industrial processing facilities" and with "effective <a href="/wiki/UV_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="UV protection">UV protection</a> properties with a UPF value of 15, is fast-dry, and is stable against washing."<a href="#cite_note-:20-78">[78]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Wearable hat constructed of a radiative cooling paper with <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">SiO2</a> fibers and <a href="/wiki/Fumed_silica" title="Fumed silica">fumed</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">SiO2</td> <td>97%</td> <td>91%</td> <td> </td> <td>reduced temperatures for the hair of the wearer by 12.9ᵒC when compared with a basic white cotton hat (and 19ᵒC when compared with no hat), <a href="/wiki/Waterproofing" title="Waterproofing">waterproof</a> and air permeable, "suitable for the manufacture of radiative cooling hat to achieve the thermal management of human head."<a href="#cite_note-:19-82">[82]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aerogels">Aerogels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Aerogels">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Aerogel" title="Aerogel">Aerogels</a> offer a potential low-cost material scalable for mass production. Some aerogels can be considered a more environmentally friendly alternative to other materials, with degradable potential and the absence of toxic chemicals.<a href="#cite_note-:27-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-:28-61">[61]</a> Aerogels can be useful as <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">thermal insulation</a> to reduce solar absorption and parasitic heat gain to improve the cooling performance of PDRCs.<a href="#cite_note-:04-84">[84]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Candidates </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Coating</th> <th>Reflectance</th> <th>Emittance</th> <th>Temperature reduction</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Superhydrophobic waste paper-based (cellulose) aerogel</td> <td>93%</td> <td>91%</td> <td>8.5 °C</td> <td>n a building energy simulation the aerogel "showed that 43.4% of cooling energy on average could be saved compared to the building baseline consumption" in China if widely implemented.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Degradable and superhydrophobic stereo-complex poly (<a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a>) aerogel with low <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a></td> <td>89%</td> <td>93%</td> <td>3.5ᵒC</td> <td>"opens an environmentally sustainable pathway to radiative cooling applications."<a href="#cite_note-:28-61">[61]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Low-cost <a href="/wiki/Silica-alumina" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica-alumina">silica-alumina</a> nanofibrous aerogels (SAFAs) synthesized by <a href="/wiki/Electrospinning" title="Electrospinning">electrospinning</a></td> <td>95%</td> <td>93%</td> <td>5ᵒC</td> <td>"the SAFAs exhibit high compression fatigue resistance, robust fire resistance and excellent thermal insulation" with "low cost and high performance," shows potential for further studies.<a href="#cite_note-:27-83">[83]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Clear <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">SiO2 aerogel </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>7.7 °C </td> <td>Used an <a href="/wiki/Optical_modulator" title="Optical modulator">optical modulator</a> (n-hexadecane) in <a href="/wiki/Microparticle" title="Microparticle">microparticles</a> within a silicone <a href="/wiki/Elastomer" title="Elastomer">elastomer</a> matrix. Commercial silicon solar cells.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nano_bubbles">Nano bubbles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Nano bubbles">edit</a>]</div> Pigments absorb light. Soap bubbles show a prism of different colors on their surfaces. These colors result from the way light interacts with differing thicknesses of the bubble's surface, termed <a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">structural color</a>. One study reported that cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), which are derived from the cellulose found in plants, could be made into iridescent, colorful films without added pigment. They made films with blue, green and red colors that, when placed under sunlight, were an average of nearly 7ᵒF cooler than the surrounding air. The film generated over 120 W m-2 of cooling power.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodegradable_surfaces">Biodegradable surfaces</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Biodegradable surfaces">edit</a>]</div> Many proposed radiative cooling materials are not <a href="/wiki/Biodegradable" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodegradable">biodegradable</a>. A 2022 study reported that "sustainable materials for radiative cooling have not been sufficiently investigated."<a href="#cite_note-:32-34">[34]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Candidates </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Coating</th> <th>Reflectance</th> <th>Emittance</th> <th>Temperature reduction</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Eco-friendly porous polymer structure via thermally induced <a href="/wiki/Phase_separation" title="Phase separation">phase separation</a></td> <td>91%</td> <td>92%</td> <td>9 °C</td> <td>sufficient durability for use on buildings and highest cooling effect reported "among all organic-based passive radiation cooling emitters."<a href="#cite_note-:32-34">[34]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Micro-grating">Micro-grating</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Micro-grating">edit</a>]</div> A silica micro-grating photonic device cooled commercial silicon cells by 3.6 °C under solar intensity of 830 W m−2 to 990 W m−2.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> Passive daytime radiative cooling has "the potential to simultaneously alleviate the two major problems of <a href="/wiki/Energy_crisis" title="Energy crisis">energy crisis</a> and global warming"<a href="#cite_note-:5-1">[1]</a> along with an "environmental protection refrigeration technology."<a href="#cite_note-:12-40">[40]</a> PDRCs have an array of potential applications, but are now most often applied to various aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Built_environment" title="Built environment">built environment</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Building_envelope" title="Building envelope">building envelopes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cool_pavement" title="Cool pavement">cool pavements</a>, and other surfaces to decrease energy demand, costs, and CO2 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:8-89">[89]</a> PDRC has been applied for <a href="/wiki/Indoors_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Indoors environment">indoor space</a> cooling, outdoor urban cooling, <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">solar cell efficiency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plant</a> condenser cooling, among other applications.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Banik-33">[33]</a> For outdoor applications, PDRC durability is an important requirement.<a href="#cite_note-:43-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indoor_space_cooling">Indoor space cooling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Indoor space cooling">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Typical_suburban_street_in_the_United_States.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Typical_suburban_street_in_the_United_States.tif/lossy-page1-228px-Typical_suburban_street_in_the_United_States.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="228" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Typical_suburban_street_in_the_United_States.tif/lossy-page1-342px-Typical_suburban_street_in_the_United_States.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Typical_suburban_street_in_the_United_States.tif/lossy-page1-456px-Typical_suburban_street_in_the_United_States.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="894" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Single-family_detached_home" title="Single-family detached home">Single-family detached homes</a> in the US <a href="/wiki/Suburb" title="Suburb">suburbs</a> are estimated to lower energy costs by 26% to 46% with PDRC implementation.<a href="#cite_note-:24-90">[90]</a></figcaption></figure> The most common application is on building envelopes, including <a href="/wiki/Cool_roofs" class="mw-redirect" title="Cool roofs">cool roofs</a>. A PDRC can double the energy savings of a white roof.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a> This makes PDRCs an alternative or supplement to <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a> that lowers <a href="/wiki/Energy_demand" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy demand">energy demand</a> and reduces air conditioning's release of <a href="/wiki/Hydrofluorocarbon" title="Hydrofluorocarbon">hydrofluorocarbons</a> (HFC) into the atmosphere. HFCs can be thousands of times more potent than CO2.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-8">[8]</a> Air conditioning accounts for 12%-15% of global energy usage,<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:20-78">[78]</a> while CO2 emissions from air conditioning account for "13.7% of energy-related CO2 emissions, approximately 52.3 <a href="/wiki/Exajoule" class="mw-redirect" title="Exajoule">EJ</a> yearly"<a href="#cite_note-:12-40">[40]</a> or 10% of total emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:20-78">[78]</a> Air conditioning applications are expected to rise.<a href="#cite_note-:16-30">[30]</a> However, this can be significantly reduced with the mass production of low-cost PDRCs for indoor space cooling.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> A multilayer PDRC surface covering 10% of a building's roof can replace 35% of air conditioning used during the hottest hours of daytime.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> In suburban <a href="/wiki/Single_family_residence" class="mw-redirect" title="Single family residence">single-family residential areas</a>, PDRCs can lower energy costs by 26% to 46% in the United States<a href="#cite_note-:24-90">[90]</a> and lower temperatures on average by 5.1ᵒC. With the addition of "cold storage to utilize the excess cooling energy of water generated during off-peak hours, the cooling effects for indoor air during the peak-cooling-load times can be significantly enhanced" and air temperatures may be reduced by 6.6–12.7 °C.<a href="#cite_note-:36-92">[92]</a> In cities, PDRCs can produce significant energy and cost savings. In a study on US cities, Zhou et al. found that "cities in hot and arid regions can achieve high annual electricity consumption savings of >2200 <a href="/wiki/KWh" class="mw-redirect" title="KWh">kWh</a>, while <400 kWh is attainable in colder and more humid cities," ranking from highest to lowest by electricity consumption savings as follows: Phoenix (~2500 kWh), Las Vegas (~2250 kWh), <a href="/wiki/Austin,_Texas" title="Austin, Texas">Austin</a> (~2100 kWh), <a href="/wiki/Honolulu" title="Honolulu">Honolulu</a> (~2050 kWh), <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a> (~1500 kWh), <a href="/wiki/Indianapolis" title="Indianapolis">Indianapolis</a> (~1200 kWh), Chicago (~1150 kWh), New York City (~900 kWh), <a href="/wiki/Minneapolis" title="Minneapolis">Minneapolis</a> (~850 kWh), <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> (~750 kWh), Seattle (~350 kWh).<a href="#cite_note-:36-92">[92]</a> In a study projecting energy savings for Indian cities in 2030, <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a> had a lower energy savings potential, <a href="/wiki/Jaisalmer" title="Jaisalmer">Jaisalmer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varanasi" title="Varanasi">Varansai</a>, and Delhi had a higher potential, although with significant variations from April to August dependent on humidity and wind cover.<a href="#cite_note-:47-52">[52]</a> The growing interest and rise in PDRC application to buildings has been attributed to cost savings related to "the sheer magnitude of the global building surface area, with a market size of ~$27 billion in 2025," as estimated in a 2020 study.<a href="#cite_note-:8-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outdoor_urban_space_cooling">Outdoor urban space cooling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Outdoor urban space cooling">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buildings_in_Kolkata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Buildings_in_Kolkata.jpg/228px-Buildings_in_Kolkata.jpg" decoding="async" width="228" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Buildings_in_Kolkata.jpg/342px-Buildings_in_Kolkata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Buildings_in_Kolkata.jpg/456px-Buildings_in_Kolkata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="3375" /></a><figcaption>A PDRC installed on a roof in <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a> exhibited a nearly 4.9 °C (8.8 °F) decrease in surface ground temperatures (with an average reduction of 2.2 °C or 4.0 °F).<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a></figcaption></figure> PDRC surfaces can mitigate extreme heat from the <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban heat island effect">urban heat island effect</a> that occurs in over 450 cities worldwide. It can be as much as 10–12 °C (18–22 °F) hotter in <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban areas</a> than nearby <a href="/wiki/Rural_area" title="Rural area">rural areas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-10">[10]</a> On an average hot summer day, the roofs of buildings can be 27–50 °C (49–90 °F) hotter than the surrounding air, warming air temperatures further through <a href="/wiki/Convection_(heat_transfer)" title="Convection (heat transfer)">convection</a>. Well-insulated dark rooftops are significantly hotter than all other urban surfaces, including asphalt pavements,<a href="#cite_note-:22-10">[10]</a> further expanding air conditioning demand (which further accelerates global warming and urban heat island through the release of <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> into the ambient air) and increasing risks of heat-related disease and fatal health effects.<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:45-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-:03-44">[44]</a> PDRCs can be applied to building roofs and urban shelters to significantly lower surface temperatures with zero energy consumption by reflecting heat out of the <a href="/wiki/Urban_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban environment">urban environment</a> and into outer space.<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-10">[10]</a> The primary obstacle to PDRC implementation is the glare that may be caused through the reflection of <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a> onto surrounding buildings. Colored PDRC surfaces may mitigate glare.<a href="#cite_note-:23-66">[66]</a> such as Zhai et al.<a href="#cite_note-:16-30">[30]</a> "Super-white paints with commercial high-index (n~1.9) <a href="/wiki/Retroreflector" title="Retroreflector">retroreflective spheres</a>",<a href="#cite_note-:23-66">[66]</a> or the use of retroreflective materials (RRM) may also mitigate glare.<a href="#cite_note-:22-10">[10]</a> Surrounding buildings without PDRC may weaken the cooling power of PDRCs.<a href="#cite_note-:24-90">[90]</a> Even when installed on roofs in highly dense urban areas, broadband radiative cooling panels lower surface temperatures at the <a href="/wiki/Sidewalk" title="Sidewalk">sidewalk</a> level.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> A 2022 study assessed the effects of PDRC surfaces in winter, including non-modulated and modulated PDRCs, in the <a href="/wiki/Kolkata_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolkata metropolitan area">Kolkata metropolitan area</a>. A non-modulated PDRC with a reflectance of 0.95 and emissivity of 0.93 decreased ground surface temperatures by nearly 4.9 °C (8.8 °F) and with an average daytime reduction of 2.2 °C (4.0 °F).<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a> While in summer the cooling effects of broadband non-modulated PDRCs may be desirable, they could present an uncomfortable "overcooling" effect for city populations in winter and thus increase energy use for heating. This can be mitigated by broadband modulated PDRCs, which they found could increase daily ambient urban temperatures by 0.4–1.4 °C (0.72–2.52 °F) in winter. While in Kolkata "overcooling" is unlikely, elsewhere it could have unwanted impacts. Therefore, modulated PDRCs may be preferred in cities with warm summers and cold winters for controlled cooling, while non-modulated PDRCs may be more beneficial for cities with hot summers and moderate winters.<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a> In a study on urban <a href="/wiki/Bus_shelters" class="mw-redirect" title="Bus shelters">bus shelters</a>, it was found that most shelters fail at providing thermal comfort for <a href="/wiki/Commuters" class="mw-redirect" title="Commuters">commuters</a>, while a tree could provide 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) more cooling.<a href="#cite_note-:24-90">[90]</a> Other methods to cool shelters often involve air conditioning or other energy intensive measures. Urban shelters with PDRC roofing can significantly reduce temperatures with zero energy input, while adding "a non-reciprocal mid-infrared cover" can increase benefits by reducing incoming atmospheric radiation as well as reflecting radiation from surrounding buildings.<a href="#cite_note-:24-90">[90]</a> For outdoor urban space cooling, a 2021 study recommended that PDRC in urban areas primarily focus on increasing albedo so long as emissivity can be maintained above 90%.<a href="#cite_note-:22-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_energy_efficiency">Solar energy efficiency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Solar energy efficiency">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silicon_heterojunction_solar_cell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Silicon_heterojunction_solar_cell.jpg/227px-Silicon_heterojunction_solar_cell.jpg" decoding="async" width="227" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Silicon_heterojunction_solar_cell.jpg/341px-Silicon_heterojunction_solar_cell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Silicon_heterojunction_solar_cell.jpg/454px-Silicon_heterojunction_solar_cell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2620" data-file-height="2008" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Solar cell efficiency</a> can be improved with PDRC application to reduce overheating and degradation of cells.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a></figcaption></figure> PDRC surfaces can be integrated with <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy plants</a>, referred to as solar energy–radiative cooling (SE–RC), to improve functionality and performance by preventing <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a> from 'overheating' and thus degrading. Since silicon solar cells have a maximum efficiency of 33.7% (with the average commercial panel reaching around 20%), the majority of absorbed power produces excess heat and increases the operating temperature.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-:39-76">[76]</a> Solar cell efficiency declines 0.4-0.5% for every 1 ᵒC increase in temperature.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a> PDRC can extend the life of solar cells by lowering the operating temperature of the system.<a href="#cite_note-:39-76">[76]</a> Integrating PDRCs into solar energy systems is also relatively simple, given that "most solar energy harvesting systems have a sky-facing flat plate structural design, which is similar to radiative cooling systems." Integration has been reported to increase energy gain per unit area while increasing the fraction of the day the cell operates.<a href="#cite_note-:34-14">[14]</a> Methods have been proposed to potentially enhance cooling performance. One 2022 study proposed using a "full-spectrum synergetic management (FSSM) strategy to cool solar cells, which combines radiative cooling and spectral splitting to enhance radiative heat dissipation and reduce the <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> generated by the absorption of sub-BG photons."<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_thermal_management">Personal thermal management</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Personal thermal management">edit</a>]</div> Personal thermal management (PTM) employs PDRC in fabrics to regulate body temperatures during extreme heat. While other fabrics are useful for heat accumulation, they "may lead to <a href="/wiki/Heat_stroke" title="Heat stroke">heat stroke</a> in hot weather."<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> A 2021 study claimed that "incorporating passive radiative cooling structures into personal thermal management technologies could effectively defend humans against intensifying global climate change."<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Wearable PDRCs can come in different forms and target outdoor workers. Products are at the <a href="/wiki/Prototype" title="Prototype">prototype</a> stage.<a href="#cite_note-:19-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Although most textiles are white, colored wearable materials in select colors may be appropriate in some contexts.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_plant_condenser_cooling">Power plant condenser cooling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Power plant condenser cooling">edit</a>]</div> Power plant condensers used in <a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_generator" title="Thermoelectric generator">thermoelectric power plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar plant">concentrated solar plants</a> (CSP) can cool water for effective use within the <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">heat exchanger</a>. A study of a pond covered with a radiative cooler reported that 150 W m2 flux could be achieved without loss of water.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> PDRC can reduce water use and thermal pollution caused by <a href="/wiki/Water_cooling" title="Water cooling">water cooling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:21-5">[5]</a> A review reported that supplementing the air-cooled condenser for radiative cooling panels in a thermoelectric power plant condenser achieved a 4096 kWhth/day cooling effect with a pump energy consumption of 11 kWh/day.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> A concentrated solar plant (CSP) on the CO2 supercritical cycle at 550ᵒC was reported to produce 5% net output gain over an air-cooled system by integration with 14 m2 /kWe capacity radiative cooler."<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_regulation_of_buildings">Thermal regulation of buildings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Thermal regulation of buildings">edit</a>]</div> In addition to cooling, PDRC surfaces can be modified for bi-directional thermal regulation (cooling and heating).<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a> This can be achieved through switching thermal emittance between high and low values.<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermoelectric_generation">Thermoelectric generation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Thermoelectric generation">edit</a>]</div> When combined with a thermoelectric generator, a PDRC surface can generate small amounts of electricity.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automobile_and_greenhouse_cooling">Automobile and greenhouse cooling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Automobile and greenhouse cooling">edit</a>]</div> Thermally enclosed spaces, including automobiles and <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouses</a>, are particularly susceptible to harmful temperature increases. This is because of the heavy presence of windows, which are <a href="/wiki/Attenuation_coefficient#Absorption_and_scattering_coefficients" title="Attenuation coefficient">transparent</a> to incoming solar radiation yet <a href="/wiki/Attenuation_coefficient" title="Attenuation coefficient">opaque</a> to outgoing long-wave thermal radiation, which causes them to heat rapidly in the sun. Automobile temperatures in direct sunlight can rise to 60–82 ᵒC when ambient temperatures is only 21 ᵒC.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_harvesting">Water harvesting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Water harvesting">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Dew_harvesting" class="mw-redirect" title="Dew harvesting">Dew harvesting</a> yields may be improved via with PDRC. Selective PDRC emitters that have a high emissivity and broadband emitters may produce varying results. In one study using a broadband PDRC, the device condensed ~8.5 mL day of water for 800 W m2 of peak solar intensity."<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a> Whereas selective emitters may be less advantageous in other contexts, they may be superior for dew harvesting applications.<a href="#cite_note-:40-48">[48]</a> PDRCs could improve atmospheric water harvesting by being combined with <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_water_generator" title="Atmospheric water generator">solar vapor generation systems</a> to improve water collection rates.<a href="#cite_note-:43-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_and_ice_cooling">Water and ice cooling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Water and ice cooling">edit</a>]</div> PDRC surfaces can be installed over the surface of a <a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">body of water</a> for cooling. In a controlled study, a body of water was cooled 10.6 ᵒC below the ambient temperature with the usage of a photonic radiator.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] PDRC surfaces have been developed to cool ice and prevent ice from melting under sunlight. It has been proposed as a sustainable method for ice protection. This can also be applied to protect refrigerated food from spoiling.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Side_effects">Side effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Side effects">edit</a>]</div> Jeremy Munday writes that although "unexpected effects will likely occur", PDRC structures "can be removed immediately if needed, unlike methods that involve dispersing particulate matter into the atmosphere, which can last for decades."<a href="#cite_note-:0322-99">[99]</a> Stratospheric aerosol injection "might cause potentially dangerous threats to the Earth’s basic climate operations" that may not be reversible, preferring PDRC.<a href="#cite_note-:1222-24">[24]</a> Zevenhoven et al. state that "instead of stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI), cloud brightening or a large number of mirrors in the sky (“sunshade geoengineering”) to block out or reflect incoming (short-wave, SW) <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar irradiation">solar irradiation</a>, long-wavelength (LW) thermal radiation can be selectively emitted and transferred through the atmosphere into space".<a href="#cite_note-Zeven_2018-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Overcooling"_and_PDRC_modulation">"Overcooling" and PDRC modulation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: "Overcooling" and PDRC modulation">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VO2_crystal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/VO2_crystal.jpg/249px-VO2_crystal.jpg" decoding="async" width="249" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/VO2_crystal.jpg/374px-VO2_crystal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/VO2_crystal.jpg/498px-VO2_crystal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1256" /></a><figcaption>Modifying PDRCs with <a href="/wiki/Vanadium_dioxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanadium dioxide">vanadium dioxide</a> (pictured) can achieve temperature-based 'switching' from cooling to heating to mitigate the "overcooling" effect.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a></figcaption></figure> "Overcooling" is cited as a side effect of PDRCs that may be problematic, especially when PDRCs are applied in high-population areas with hot summers and cool winters, characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Temperate_zones" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate zones">temperate zones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> While PDRC application in these areas can be useful in summer, in winter it can result in an increase in energy consumption for heating and thus may reduce the benefits of PDRCs on <a href="/wiki/Energy_savings" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy savings">energy savings</a> and emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-21">[21]</a> As per Chen et al., "to overcome this issue, dynamically switchable coatings have been developed to prevent overcooling in winter or cold environments."<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> The detriments of overcooling can be reduced by modulation of PDRCs, harnessing their passive cooling abilities during summer, while modifying them to passively heat during winter. Modulation can involve "switching the emissivity or reflectance to low values during the winter and high values during the warm period."<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a> In 2022, Khan et al. concluded that "low-cost optically modulated" PDRCs are "under development" and "are expected to be commercially available on the market soon with high future potential to reduce urban heat in cities without leading to an overcooling penalty during cold periods."<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a> There are various methods of making PDRCs 'switchable' to mitigate overcooling.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> Most research has used <a href="/wiki/Vanadium_dioxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanadium dioxide">vanadium dioxide</a> (VO2), an <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_compound" title="Inorganic compound">inorganic compound</a>, to achieve temperature-based 'switchable' cooling and heating effects.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-21">[21]</a> While, as per Khan et al., developing VO2 is difficult, their review found that "recent research has focused on simplifying and improving the expansion of techniques for different types of applications."<a href="#cite_note-:13-9">[9]</a> Chen et al. found that "much effort has been devoted to VO2 coatings in the switching of the <a href="/wiki/Infrared_window" title="Infrared window">mid-infrared spectrum</a>, and only a few studies have reported the switchable ability of temperature-dependent coatings in the solar spectrum."<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> Temperature-dependent switching requires no extra energy input to achieve both cooling and heating.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> Other methods of PDRC 'switching' require extra energy input to achieve desired effects. One such method involves changing the <a href="/wiki/Dielectric_strength" title="Dielectric strength">dielectric environment</a>. This can be done through "reversible wetting" and drying of the PDRC surface with common liquids such as water and <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohol</a>. However, for this to be implemented on a mass scale, "the recycling, and utilization of working liquids and the tightness of the circulation loop should be considered in realistic applications."<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> Another method involves 'switching' through mechanical force, which may be useful and has been "widely investigated in [PDRC] polymer coatings owing to their stretchability." For this method, "to achieve a switchable coating in <a href="/wiki/Long-wave_infrared" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-wave infrared">εLWIR</a>, mechanical stress/strain can be applied in a thin PDMS film, consisting of a PDMS grating and embedded <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a>." One study estimated, with the use of this method, that "19.2% of the energy used for heating and cooling can be saved in the US, which is 1.7 times higher than the only cooling mode and 2.2 times higher than the only heating mode," which may inspire additional research and development.<a href="#cite_note-:54-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glare_and_visual_appearance">Glare and visual appearance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Glare and visual appearance">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Glare_(vision)" title="Glare (vision)">Glare</a> caused from surfaces with high solar reflectance may present visibility concerns that can limit PDRC application, particularly within urban environments at the ground level.<a href="#cite_note-:16-30">[30]</a> PDRCs that use a "scattering system" to generate reflection in a more diffused manner have been developed and are "more favorable in real applications," as per Lin et al.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Low-cost PDRC colored paint coatings, which reduce glare and increase the color diversity of PDRC surfaces, have also been developed. While some of the surface's solar reflectance is lost in the visible light spectrum, colored PDRCs can still exhibit significant cooling power, such as a coating by Zhai et al., which used a α-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Bi2O3 coating (resembling the color of the compound) to develop a non-toxic paint that demonstrated a solar reflectance of 99% and heat emissivity of 97%.<a href="#cite_note-:16-30">[30]</a> Generally it is noted that there is a tradeoff between cooling potential and darker colored surfaces. Less reflective colored PDRCs can also be applied to walls while more reflective white PDRCs can be applied to roofs to increase visual diversity of vertical surfaces, yet still contribute to cooling.<a href="#cite_note-:38-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erg_Chebbi_Silver_Ant_Nest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Erg_Chebbi_Silver_Ant_Nest.jpg/220px-Erg_Chebbi_Silver_Ant_Nest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Erg_Chebbi_Silver_Ant_Nest.jpg/330px-Erg_Chebbi_Silver_Ant_Nest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Erg_Chebbi_Silver_Ant_Nest.jpg/440px-Erg_Chebbi_Silver_Ant_Nest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3363" data-file-height="2038" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Saharan_silver_ant" title="Saharan silver ant">Saharan silver ant</a>'s ability to cool its body temperature in extreme heat inspired early PDRC research.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></figcaption></figure> Nocturnal passive radiative cooling has been recognized for thousands of years, with records showing awareness by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Iranians">ancient Iranians</a>, demonstrated through the construction of <a href="/wiki/Yakhch%C4%81l" title="Yakhchāl">Yakhchāls</a>, since 400 B.C.E.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> PDRCwas hypothesized by <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Trombe" title="Félix Trombe">Félix Trombe</a> in 1967. The first experimental setup was created in 1975, but was only successful for nighttime cooling. Further developments to achieve daytime cooling using different material compositions were not successful.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> In the 1980s, Lushiku and Granqvist identified the infrared window as a potential way to access the ultracold outer space as a way to achieve passive daytime cooling.<a href="#cite_note-Zeven_2018-3">[3]</a> Early attempts at developing passive radiative daytime cooling materials took inspiration from nature, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Saharan_silver_ant" title="Saharan silver ant">Saharan silver ant</a> and white beetles, noting how they cooled themselves in extreme heat.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Banik-33">[33]</a> Research and development in PDRCevolved rapidly in the 2010s with the discovery of the ability to suppress <a href="/wiki/Solar_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar heating">solar heating</a> using photonic metamaterials, which widely expanded research and development in the field.<a href="#cite_note-Heo_2022_Ju_lee-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Banik-33">[33]</a> In 2024, Nissan introduced a paint that lowers car interior temperatures by up to 21 °F in direct sunlight. It involves two types of particles, each operating at a different frequency. One reflects near-infrared light. The second converts other frequencies to match the infrared window, radiating the energy into space.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissivity" title="Emissivity">Emissivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-energy_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-energy building">Low-energy building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_cooling" title="Passive cooling">Passive cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_house" title="Passive house">Passive house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_solar_building_design" title="Passive solar building design">Passive solar building design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_cooling" title="Radiative cooling">Radiative cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_city" title="Sustainable city">Sustainable city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-energy_building" title="Zero-energy building">Zero-energy building</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:5-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_1-4">e</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChenPangChenYan2022" class="citation journal cs1">Chen, Meijie; Pang, Dan; Chen, Xingyu; Yan, Hongjie; Yang, Yuan (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Feom2.12153">"Passive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, material designs, and applications"</a>. EcoMat. 4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Feom2.12153">10.1002/eom2.12153</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240331557">240331557</a>. <q>Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) dissipates terrestrial heat to the extremely cold outer space without using any energy input or producing pollution. It has the potential to simultaneously alleviate the two major problems of energy crisis and global warming.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EcoMat&rft.atitle=Passive+daytime+radiative+cooling%3A+Fundamentals%2C+material+designs%2C+and+applications&rft.volume=4&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Feom2.12153&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240331557%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Meijie&rft.au=Pang%2C+Dan&rft.au=Chen%2C+Xingyu&rft.au=Yan%2C+Hongjie&rft.au=Yang%2C+Yuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Feom2.12153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APassive+daytime+radiative+cooling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangWuShiHu2021" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, Tong; Wu, Yi; Shi, Lan; Hu, Xinhua; Chen, Min; Wu, Limin (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060">"A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling"</a>. Nature Communications. 12 (365): 365. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7">10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060">7809060</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33446648">33446648</a>. <q>Accordingly, designing and fabricating efficient PDRC with sufficiently high solar reflectance (𝜌¯solar) (λ ~ 0.3–2.5 μm) to minimize solar heat gain and simultaneously strong LWIR thermal emittance (ε¯LWIR) to maximize radiative heat loss is highly desirable. When the incoming radiative heat from the Sun is balanced by the outgoing radiative heat emission, the temperature of the Earth can reach its steady state.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=A+structural+polymer+for+highly+efficient+all-day+passive+radiative+cooling&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=365&rft.pages=365&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7809060%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33446648&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Tong&rft.au=Wu%2C+Yi&rft.au=Shi%2C+Lan&rft.au=Hu%2C+Xinhua&rft.au=Chen%2C+Min&rft.au=Wu%2C+Limin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7809060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APassive+daytime+radiative+cooling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zeven_2018-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zeven_2018_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zeven_2018_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zeven_2018_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zeven_2018_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zeven_2018_3-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZevenhovenaFält2018" class="citation journal cs1">Zevenhovena, Ron; Fält, Martin (June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360544218304936">"Radiative cooling through the atmospheric window: A third, less intrusive geoengineering approach"</a>. Energy. 152: 27. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Ene...152...27Z">2018Ene...152...27Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.energy.2018.03.084">10.1016/j.energy.2018.03.084</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:116318678">116318678</a> – via Elsevier Science Direct. <q>An alternative, third geoengineering approach would be enhanced cooling by thermal radiation from the Earth's surface into space." [...] "With 100 W m2 as a demonstrated passive cooling effect, a surface coverage of 0.3% would then be needed, or 1% of Earth's land mass surface. 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Retrieved 27 September 2022. <q>Passive Radiative Cooling is a natural phenomenon that only occurs at night in nature because all nature materials absorb more solar energy during the day than they are able to radiate to the sky.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=3M&rft.atitle=What+is+3M+Passive+Radiative+Cooling%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.3m.com%2F3M%2Fen_US%2Fenergy-conservation-us%2Fapplications%2Fpassive-radiative-cooling%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APassive+daytime+radiative+cooling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1222-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1222_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1222_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangWuShiHu2021" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, Tong; Wu, Yi; Shi, Lan; Hu, Xinhua; Chen, Min; Wu, Limin (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060">"A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling"</a>. 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ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:HVAC" title="Template:HVAC"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:HVAC" title="Template talk:HVAC"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:HVAC" title="Special:EditPage/Template:HVAC"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning" title="Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning">Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fundamental concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_changes_per_hour" title="Air changes per hour">Air changes per hour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bake-out" title="Bake-out">Bake-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_envelope" title="Building envelope">Building envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">Convection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilution_(equation)" title="Dilution (equation)">Dilution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_energy_consumption" title="Domestic energy consumption">Domestic energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">Gas compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pump_and_refrigeration_cycle" title="Heat pump and refrigeration cycle">Heat pump and refrigeration cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Heat transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(HVAC)" title="Infiltration (HVAC)">Infiltration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">Outgassing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychrometrics" title="Psychrometrics">Psychrometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensible_heat" title="Sensible heat">Sensible heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_effect" title="Stack effect">Stack effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_comfort" title="Thermal comfort">Thermal comfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_destratification" title="Thermal destratification">Thermal destratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_mass" title="Thermal mass">Thermal mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapour_pressure_of_water" title="Vapour pressure of water">Vapour pressure of water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absorption-compression_heat_pump" title="Absorption-compression heat pump">Absorption-compression heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator" title="Absorption refrigerator">Absorption refrigerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_barrier" title="Air barrier">Air barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">Air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifreeze" title="Antifreeze">Antifreeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automobile_air_conditioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile air conditioning">Automobile air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_building" title="Autonomous building">Autonomous building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_insulation_material" title="Building insulation material">Building insulation materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_heating" title="Central heating">Central heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_solar_heating" title="Central solar heating">Central solar heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilled_beam" title="Chilled beam">Chilled beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilled_water" title="Chilled water">Chilled water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_air_volume" title="Constant air volume">Constant air volume</a> (CAV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">Coolant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_ventilation" title="Cross ventilation">Cross ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedicated_outdoor_air_system" title="Dedicated outdoor air system">Dedicated outdoor air system</a> (DOAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_water_source_cooling" title="Deep water source cooling">Deep water source cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_controlled_ventilation" title="Demand controlled ventilation">Demand controlled ventilation</a> (DCV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_ventilation" title="Displacement ventilation">Displacement ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_cooling" title="District cooling">District cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">District heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_heating" title="Electric heating">Electric heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery_ventilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy recovery ventilation">Energy recovery ventilation</a> (ERV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firestop" title="Firestop">Firestop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced-air" title="Forced-air">Forced-air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced-air_gas" title="Forced-air gas">Forced-air gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_cooling" title="Free cooling">Free cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_recovery_ventilation" title="Heat recovery ventilation">Heat recovery ventilation</a> (HRV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_heat" title="Hybrid heat">Hybrid heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronics" title="Hydronics">Hydronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storage_air_conditioning" title="Ice storage air conditioning">Ice storage air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_ventilation" title="Kitchen ventilation">Kitchen ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-mode_ventilation" title="Mixed-mode ventilation">Mixed-mode ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_cooling" title="Passive cooling">Passive cooling</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Passive daytime radiative cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_house" title="Passive house">Passive house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_ventilation" title="Passive ventilation">Passive ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_heating_and_cooling" title="Radiant heating and cooling">Radiant heating and cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiant cooling">Radiant cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiant heating">Radiant heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radon_mitigation" title="Radon mitigation">Radon mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">Refrigeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_heat" title="Renewable heat">Renewable heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room_air_distribution" title="Room air distribution">Room air distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_air_heat" title="Solar air heat">Solar air heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_combisystem" title="Solar combisystem">Solar combisystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cooling">Solar cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar heating">Solar heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">Thermal insulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosiphon" title="Thermosiphon">Thermosiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underfloor_air_distribution" title="Underfloor air distribution">Underfloor air distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underfloor_heating" title="Underfloor heating">Underfloor heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_barrier" title="Vapor barrier">Vapor barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor-compression_refrigeration" title="Vapor-compression refrigeration">Vapor-compression refrigeration</a> (VCRS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_air_volume" title="Variable air volume">Variable air volume</a> (VAV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_refrigerant_flow" title="Variable refrigerant flow">Variable refrigerant flow</a> (VRF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_(architecture)" title="Ventilation (architecture)">Ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_heat_recycling" title="Water heat recycling">Water heat recycling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioner_inverter" class="mw-redirect" title="Air conditioner inverter">Air conditioner inverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_door" title="Air door">Air door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_filter" title="Air filter">Air filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_handler" title="Air handler">Air handler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_ioniser" title="Air ioniser">Air ionizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air-mixing_plenum" title="Air-mixing plenum">Air-mixing plenum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_purifier" title="Air purifier">Air purifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_source_heat_pump" title="Air source heat pump">Air source heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_fan" title="Attic fan">Attic fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_balancing_valve" title="Automatic balancing valve">Automatic balancing valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_boiler" title="Back boiler">Back boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_pipe" title="Barrier pipe">Barrier pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_damper" title="Blast damper">Blast damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">Boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_fan" title="Centrifugal fan">Centrifugal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_heater" title="Ceramic heater">Ceramic heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiller" title="Chiller">Chiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensate_pump" title="Condensate pump">Condensate pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)" title="Condenser (heat transfer)">Condenser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensing_boiler" title="Condensing boiler">Condensing boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection_heater" title="Convection heater">Convection heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressor" title="Compressor">Compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damper_(flow)" title="Damper (flow)">Damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumidifier" title="Dehumidifier">Dehumidifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_(flow)" title="Duct (flow)">Duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economizer" title="Economizer">Economizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_precipitator" title="Electrostatic precipitator">Electrostatic precipitator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooler" title="Evaporative cooler">Evaporative cooler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporator" title="Evaporator">Evaporator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_hood" class="mw-redirect" title="Exhaust hood">Exhaust hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_tank" title="Expansion tank">Expansion tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_(machine)" title="Fan (machine)">Fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_coil_unit" title="Fan coil unit">Fan coil unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_filter_unit" title="Fan filter unit">Fan filter unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_heater" title="Fan heater">Fan heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_damper" title="Fire damper">Fire damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireplace" title="Fireplace">Fireplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireplace_insert" title="Fireplace insert">Fireplace insert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeze_stat" title="Freeze stat">Freeze stat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flue" title="Flue">Flue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">Freon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fume_hood" title="Fume hood">Fume hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furnace_(house_heating)" class="mw-redirect" title="Furnace (house heating)">Furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">Gas compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_heater" title="Gas heater">Gas heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline_heater" title="Gasoline heater">Gasoline heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grease_duct" title="Grease duct">Grease duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grille_(architecture)" title="Grille (architecture)">Grille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground-coupled_heat_exchanger" title="Ground-coupled heat exchanger">Ground-coupled heat exchanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_source_heat_pump" title="Ground source heat pump">Ground source heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">Heat exchanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pipe" title="Heat pipe">Heat pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">Heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heating_film" title="Heating film">Heating film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heating_system" title="Heating system">Heating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HEPA" title="HEPA">HEPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_efficiency_glandless_circulating_pump" title="High efficiency glandless circulating pump">High efficiency glandless circulating pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-pressure_cut-off_switch" class="mw-redirect" title="High-pressure cut-off switch">High-pressure cut-off switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidifier" title="Humidifier">Humidifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_heater" title="Infrared heater">Infrared heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverter_compressor" title="Inverter compressor">Inverter compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerosene_heater" title="Kerosene heater">Kerosene heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louver" title="Louver">Louver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_room" title="Mechanical room">Mechanical room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_heater" title="Oil heater">Oil heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaged_terminal_air_conditioner" title="Packaged terminal air conditioner">Packaged terminal air conditioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenum_space" title="Plenum space">Plenum space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurisation_ductwork" title="Pressurisation ductwork">Pressurisation ductwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_duct_work" title="Process duct work">Process duct work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiator_(heating)" title="Radiator (heating)">Radiator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiator_reflector" title="Radiator reflector">Radiator reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recuperator" title="Recuperator">Recuperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerant" title="Refrigerant">Refrigerant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_(air_and_heating)" title="Register (air and heating)">Register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversing_valve" title="Reversing valve">Reversing valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run-around_coil" title="Run-around coil">Run-around coil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail_switch" title="Sail switch">Sail switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll_compressor" title="Scroll compressor">Scroll compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_chimney" title="Solar chimney">Solar chimney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-assisted_heat_pump" title="Solar-assisted heat pump">Solar-assisted heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_heater" title="Space heater">Space heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_canopy" title="Smoke canopy">Smoke canopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_damper" title="Smoke damper">Smoke damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_exhaust_ductwork" title="Smoke exhaust ductwork">Smoke exhaust ductwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion_valve" title="Thermal expansion valve">Thermal expansion valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_wheel" title="Thermal wheel">Thermal wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostatic_radiator_valve" title="Thermostatic radiator valve">Thermostatic radiator valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trickle_vent" title="Trickle vent">Trickle vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trombe_wall" title="Trombe wall">Trombe wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TurboSwing" title="TurboSwing">TurboSwing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_vanes_(HVAC)" title="Turning vanes (HVAC)">Turning vanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-low_particulate_air" title="Ultra-low particulate air">Ultra-low particulate air</a> (ULPA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-house_fan" title="Whole-house fan">Whole-house fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windcatcher" title="Windcatcher">Windcatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood-burning_stove" title="Wood-burning stove">Wood-burning stove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_valve" title="Zone valve">Zone valve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measurement and control</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_flow_meter" title="Air flow meter">Air flow meter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquastat" title="Aquastat">Aquastat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BACnet" title="BACnet">BACnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blower_door" title="Blower door">Blower door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_automation" title="Building automation">Building automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_sensor" title="Carbon dioxide sensor">Carbon dioxide sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clean_air_delivery_rate" title="Clean air delivery rate">Clean air delivery rate</a> (CADR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_valve" title="Control valve">Control valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_detector" title="Gas detector">Gas detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_energy_monitor" title="Home energy monitor">Home energy monitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidistat" title="Humidistat">Humidistat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HVAC_control_system" title="HVAC control system">HVAC control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_thermometer" title="Infrared thermometer">Infrared thermometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_buildings" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent buildings">Intelligent buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LonWorks" title="LonWorks">LonWorks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_efficiency_reporting_value" title="Minimum efficiency reporting value">Minimum efficiency reporting value</a> (MERV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_temperature_and_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Normal temperature and pressure">Normal temperature and pressure</a> (NTP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenTherm" title="OpenTherm">OpenTherm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_communicating_thermostat" title="Programmable communicating thermostat">Programmable communicating thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_thermostat" title="Programmable thermostat">Programmable thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychrometrics" title="Psychrometrics">Psychrometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room_temperature" title="Room temperature">Room temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_thermostat" title="Smart thermostat">Smart thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">Standard temperature and pressure</a> (STP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermographic_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermographic camera">Thermographic camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">Thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostatic_radiator_valve" title="Thermostatic radiator valve">Thermostatic radiator valve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions, trades, and services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_acoustics" title="Architectural acoustics">Architectural acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_technologist" title="Architectural technologist">Architectural technologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_information_modeling" title="Building information modeling">Building information modeling</a> (BIM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_energy_retrofit" title="Deep energy retrofit">Deep energy retrofit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_cleaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Duct cleaning">Duct cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_leakage_testing" title="Duct leakage testing">Duct leakage testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronic_balancing" title="Hydronic balancing">Hydronic balancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_exhaust_cleaning" title="Kitchen 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