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<span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon 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href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B5levkivi%C3%B5li" title="Põlevkiviõli – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Põlevkiviõli" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%87%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Σχιστολιθικό πετρέλαιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σχιστολιθικό πετρέλαιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B3leo_de_esquisto" title="Petróleo de esquisto – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Petróleo de esquisto" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eskisto-petrolio" title="Eskisto-petrolio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eskisto-petrolio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AA_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%84" title="نفت شیل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نفت شیل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huile_de_schiste" title="Huile de schiste – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Huile de schiste" data-language-autonym="Français" 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data-title="Тақтатас мұнайы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleum_schisti" title="Oleum schisti – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Oleum schisti" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaolaj" title="Palaolaj – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Palaolaj" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A3" title="ഷെയിൽ എണ്ണ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഷെയിൽ എണ്ണ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schalieolie" title="Schalieolie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Schalieolie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AA%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB" title="シェールオイル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="シェールオイル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B3leo_de_xisto" title="Petróleo de xisto – 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Oil produced from oil shale rock fragments</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about synthetic petroleum produced from oil shale. For crude oil occurring in shale reservoirs, see <a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">Tight oil</a>.</div> <p> <b>Shale oil</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconventional oil">unconventional oil</a> produced from <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">oil shale</a> rock fragments by <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenation" title="Hydrogenation">hydrogenation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Thermal_dissolution" title="Thermal dissolution">thermal dissolution</a>. These processes convert the organic matter within the rock (<a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">kerogen</a>) into <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fuel" title="Synthetic fuel">synthetic oil and gas</a>. The resulting oil can be used immediately as a fuel or <a href="/wiki/Upgrader" title="Upgrader">upgraded</a> to meet <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">refinery</a> <a href="/wiki/Feedstock" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedstock">feedstock</a> specifications by adding <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and removing <a href="/wiki/Impurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Impurity">impurities</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>. The refined products can be used for the same purposes as those derived from <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">crude oil</a>. </p><p>The term "shale oil" is also used for crude oil produced from shales of other unconventional, very low permeability formations. However, to reduce the risk of confusion of shale oil produced from oil shale with crude oil in oil-bearing shales, the term "<a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a>" is preferred for the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-reinsalu_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reinsalu-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> recommends to use the term "<a href="/wiki/Light_tight_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Light tight oil">light tight oil</a>" and World Energy Resources 2013 report by the <a href="/wiki/World_Energy_Council" title="World Energy Council">World Energy Council</a> uses the term "<a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a>" for crude oil in oil-bearing shales.<sup id="cite_ref-WEO2013_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WEO2013-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WER2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WER2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="History of the oil shale industry">History of the oil shale industry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:West_Lothian_shale_bing,_Scotland.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/West_Lothian_shale_bing%2C_Scotland.JPG/220px-West_Lothian_shale_bing%2C_Scotland.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/West_Lothian_shale_bing%2C_Scotland.JPG/330px-West_Lothian_shale_bing%2C_Scotland.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/West_Lothian_shale_bing%2C_Scotland.JPG/440px-West_Lothian_shale_bing%2C_Scotland.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Three West Lothian shale mounds, evidence of the early paraffin oil industry in the 19th century Scotland</figcaption></figure> <p>Oil shale was one of the first sources of <a href="/wiki/Mineral_oil" title="Mineral oil">mineral oil</a> used by humans.<sup id="cite_ref-igor_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-igor-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 10th century, the Arabic physician <a href="/wiki/Masawaih_al-Mardini" title="Masawaih al-Mardini">Masawaih al-Mardini</a> (Mesue the Younger) first described a method of extracting oil from "some kind of bituminous shale".<sup id="cite_ref-art_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-art-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also reported to have been used in <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> in the early 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-colorado_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colorado-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1596, the personal physician of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_I,_Duke_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg">Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg</a> wrote of its healing properties.<sup id="cite_ref-moody_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moody-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shale oil was used to light the streets of <a href="/wiki/Modena" title="Modena">Modena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> at the turn of the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-moody_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moody-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British Crown granted a patent in 1694 to three persons who had "found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tarr and oyle out of a sort of stone."<sup id="cite_ref-moody_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moody-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-iom_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iom-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-yen_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yen-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later sold as Betton's British Oil, the distilled product was said to have been "tried by diverse persons in Aches and Pains with much benefit."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil_extraction" title="Shale oil extraction">shale oil extraction</a> industries were established in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> during the 1830s and in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> during the 1840s.<sup id="cite_ref-eu_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oil was used as fuel, as a lubricant and lamp oil; the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> had created additional demand for lighting. It served as a substitute for the increasingly scarce and expensive <a href="/wiki/Whale_oil" title="Whale oil">whale oil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-moody_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moody-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-encarta1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encarta1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the late 19th century, shale-oil extraction plants were built in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> produced shale oil in the early 20th century. The discovery of crude oil in the Middle East during mid-century brought most of these industries to a halt, although Estonia and <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast China</a> maintained their extraction industries into the early 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-eu_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wec_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wec-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dyni_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dyni-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to rising petroleum prices at the turn of the 21st century, extraction operations have commenced, been explored, or been renewed in the United States, China, Australia and <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dyni_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dyni-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extraction_process">Extraction process</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Extraction process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil_extraction" title="Shale oil extraction">Shale oil extraction</a></div> <p>Shale oil is extracted by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution of oil shale.<sup id="cite_ref-koel_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koel-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-luik_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-luik-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pyrolysis of the rock is performed in a <a href="/wiki/Retort" title="Retort">retort</a>, situated either above ground or within the rock formation itself. As of 2008, most <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_industry" title="Oil shale industry">oil shale industries</a> perform the shale oil extraction process after the rock is mined, crushed and transported to a retorting facility, although several experimental technologies perform the process in place (<i><a href="/wiki/In-situ" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ">in-situ</a></i>). The temperature at which the kerogen decomposes into usable hydrocarbons varies with the time-scale of the process; in the above-ground retorting process decomposition begins at 300 °C (570 °F), but proceeds more rapidly and completely at higher temperatures. Decomposition takes place most quickly at a temperature between 480 and 520 °C (900 and 970 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-koel_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koel-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hydrogenation and thermal dissolution (reactive fluid processes) extract the oil using <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_donor" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen donor">hydrogen donors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvents</a>, or a combination of these. Thermal dissolution involves the application of solvents at elevated temperatures and pressures, increasing oil output by <a href="/wiki/Cracking_(chemistry)" title="Cracking (chemistry)">cracking</a> the dissolved organic matter. Different methods produce shale oil with different properties.<sup id="cite_ref-luik_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-luik-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gorlov_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gorlov-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-koel2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koel2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-baldwin_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baldwin-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A critical measure of the viability of extraction of shale oil lies in the ratio of the energy produced by the oil shale to the energy used in its mining and processing, a ratio known as "Energy Returned on Energy Invested" (<a href="/wiki/EROEI" class="mw-redirect" title="EROEI">EROEI</a>). An EROEI of 2 (or 2:1 ratio) would mean that to produce 2 barrels of actual oil the equivalent in energy of 1 barrel of oil has to be burnt/consumed. A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil-shale deposits as varying between 0.7 and 13.3.<sup id="cite_ref-science2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent studies estimates the EROEI of oil shales to be 1–2:1 or 2–16:1 – depending on whether self-energy is counted as a cost or internal energy is excluded and only purchased energy is counted as input.<sup id="cite_ref-brandt_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brandt-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Royal Dutch Shell</a> reported an EROEI of three to four in 2006 on its <i>in situ</i> development in the "<a href="/wiki/Mahogany_Research_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahogany Research Project">Mahogany Research Project</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-shell_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shell-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wired_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wired-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The amount of oil that can be recovered during retorting varies with the oil shale and the technology used.<sup id="cite_ref-dyni_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dyni-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About one sixth of the oil shales in the <a href="/wiki/Green_River_Formation" title="Green River Formation">Green River Formation</a> have a relatively high yield of 25 to 100 US gallons (95 to 379 L; 21 to 83 imp gal) of shale oil per ton of oil shale; about one third yield from 10 to 25 US gallons (38 to 95 L; 8.3 to 20.8 imp gal) per ton. (Ten US gal/ton is approximately 3.4 tons of oil per 100 tons of shale.) About half of the oil shales in the Green River Formation yield less than 10 US gal/ton.<sup id="cite_ref-doe_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doe-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major global shale oil producers have published their yields for their commercial operations. <a href="/wiki/Fushun_Mining_Group" title="Fushun Mining Group">Fushun Mining Group</a> reports producing 300,000 tons per year of shale oil from 6.6 million tons of shale, a yield of 4.5% by weight.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/VKG_Oil" class="mw-redirect" title="VKG Oil">VKG Oil</a> claims to produce 250,000 tons of oil per year from 2 million tons of shale, a yield of 13%.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Petrobras" title="Petrobras">Petrobras</a> produces in their <a href="/wiki/Petrosix" title="Petrosix">Petrosix</a> plant 550 tons of oil per day from 6,200 tons of shale, a yield of 9%.<sup id="cite_ref-qian_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-qian-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The properties of raw shale oil vary depending on the composition of the parent oil shale and the <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil_extraction" title="Shale oil extraction">extraction technology</a> used.<sup id="cite_ref-mcketta_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcketta-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like conventional oil, shale oil is a complex <a href="/wiki/Mixture_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixture (chemistry)">mixture</a> of hydrocarbons, and is characterized according to the bulk properties of the oil. It usually contains large quantities of <a href="/wiki/Olefin" class="mw-redirect" title="Olefin">olefinic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic">aromatic</a> hydrocarbons. It can also contain significant quantities of <a href="/wiki/Heteroatom" title="Heteroatom">heteroatoms</a>. A typical shale oil composition includes 0.5–1% of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, 1.5–2% of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and 0.15–1% of <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>; some deposits contain more heteroatoms than others. Mineral particles and metals are often present as well.<sup id="cite_ref-slee_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-slee-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-spe_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spe-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, the oil is less fluid than crude oil, becoming <a href="/wiki/Pour_point" title="Pour point">pourable</a> at temperatures between 24 and 27 °C (75 and 81 °F), while conventional crude oil is pourable at temperatures between −60 and 30 °C (−76 and 86 °F); this property affects shale oil's ability to be transported in existing <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport#Oil_and_natural_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">oil pipelines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-slee_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-slee-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shale oil contains <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a>, which are <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcinogenic">carcinogenic</a>. The US <a href="/wiki/EPA" class="mw-redirect" title="EPA">EPA</a> has concluded that raw shale oil has a mild carcinogenic potential, comparable to some intermediate petroleum refinery products, while upgraded shale oil has lower carcinogenic potential, as most of the polycyclic aromatics are believed to have been broken down by <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenation" title="Hydrogenation">hydrogenation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> classifies shale oil as a <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen#Classification" title="Carcinogen">Group 1 carcinogen</a> to humans.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Upgrading">Upgrading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Upgrading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although raw shale oil can be immediately burnt as a fuel oil, many of its applications require that it be upgraded. The differing properties of the raw oils call for correspondingly various pre-treatments before it can be sent to a conventional <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refinery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-purga_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-purga-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Particulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate">Particulates</a> in the raw oil clog downstream processes; <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> create <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>. Sulfur and nitrogen, along with the <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> that may be present, also destroy the <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalysts</a> used in refining.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Olefin" class="mw-redirect" title="Olefin">Olefins</a> form insoluble sediments and cause instability. The <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> within the oil, present at higher levels than in <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">crude oil</a>, lends itself to the formation of destructive <a href="/wiki/Free_radical" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radical">free radicals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-spe_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spe-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization" title="Hydrodesulfurization">Hydrodesulfurization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization#Hydrodenitrogenation" title="Hydrodesulfurization">hydrodenitrogenation</a> can address these problems and result in a product comparable to <a href="/wiki/Benchmark_(crude_oil)" title="Benchmark (crude oil)">benchmark crude oil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-slee_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-slee-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-spe_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spe-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oja_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oja-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oilshale2_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oilshale2-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Phenols" title="Phenols">Phenols</a> can be first removed by water extraction.<sup id="cite_ref-oilshale2_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oilshale2-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upgrading shale oil into transport fuels requires adjusting hydrogen–carbon ratios by adding hydrogen (<a href="/wiki/Hydrocracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocracking">hydrocracking</a>) or removing carbon (<a href="/wiki/Coking" title="Coking">coking</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-oja_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oja-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oilshale2_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oilshale2-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shale oil produced by some technologies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kiviter_process" title="Kiviter process">Kiviter process</a>, can be used without further upgrading as an oil constituent and as a source of <a href="/wiki/Phenolic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenolic compound">phenolic compounds</a>. Distillate oils from the Kiviter process can also be used as <a href="/wiki/Diluent" title="Diluent">diluents</a> for petroleum-originated heavy oils and as an adhesive-enhancing additive in <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bituminous materials</a> such as asphalt.<sup id="cite_ref-oilshale2_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oilshale2-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, most shale oil was upgraded for use as transport fuels. Afterwards, it was used as a raw material for chemical intermediates, pure chemicals and industrial resins, and as a railroad wood <a href="/wiki/Preservative" title="Preservative">preservative</a>. As of 2008, it is primarily used as a heating oil and marine fuel, and to a lesser extent in the production of various chemicals.<sup id="cite_ref-purga_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-purga-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shale oil's concentration of high-boiling point compounds is suited for the production of <a href="/wiki/Middle_distillate#Major_products_of_oil_refineries" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle distillate">middle distillates</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel fuel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-spe_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spe-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-andrews_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-andrews-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-andrews2_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-andrews2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional <a href="/wiki/Fluid_catalytic_cracking" title="Fluid catalytic cracking">cracking</a> can create the lighter hydrocarbons used in gasoline.<sup id="cite_ref-spe_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spe-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Pale sulfonated shale oil" (PSSO), a sulfonated and ammonia-neutralized variant named "Ichthammol" (chemical name: <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_bituminosulfonate" title="Ammonium bituminosulfonate">Ammonium bituminosulfonate</a>) is still in application today.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reserves_and_production">Reserves and production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reserves and production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_reserves" title="Oil shale reserves">Oil shale reserves</a></div> <p>Global technically recoverable oil shale reserves have recently been estimated at 2.8 to 3.3 trillion barrels (450<span style="margin-left:0.2em">×<span style="margin-left:0.1em">10</span></span><s style="display:none">^</s><sup>9</sup> to 520<span style="margin-left:0.2em">×<span style="margin-left:0.1em">10</span></span><s style="display:none">^</s><sup>9</sup> m<sup>3</sup>) of shale oil, with the largest reserves in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, which is thought to have 1.5–2.6 trillion barrels (240<span style="margin-left:0.2em">×<span style="margin-left:0.1em">10</span></span><s style="display:none">^</s><sup>9</sup>–410<span style="margin-left:0.2em">×<span style="margin-left:0.1em">10</span></span><s style="display:none">^</s><sup>9</sup> m<sup>3</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-wec_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wec-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-andrews_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-andrews-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-aeo2006_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aeo2006-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-unconventional_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unconventional-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Worldwide production of shale oil was estimated at 17,700 barrels per day (2,810 m<sup>3</sup>/d) in 2008. The leading producers were China (7,600 barrels per day (1,210 m<sup>3</sup>/d)), Estonia (6,300 barrels per day (1,000 m<sup>3</sup>/d)), and Brazil (3,800 barrels per day (600 m<sup>3</sup>/d)).<sup id="cite_ref-wec_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wec-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The production of shale oil has been hindered because of technical difficulties and costs.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 2011, the United States <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Land_Management" title="Bureau of Land Management">Bureau of Land Management</a> called into question proposals for commercial operations in Colorado, Utah and Wyoming, stating that "(t)here are no economically viable ways yet known to extract and process oil shale for commercial purposes".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US Energy Information Administration sometimes uses the phrase "shale (tight) oil" to refer to tight oil, "crude oil ... produced directly from tight oil resources". In 2021, the US produced 7.23 million barrels of such <a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a> each day, equal to about 64% of total U.S. crude oil production.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IEA also occasionally calls tight oil "shale oil",<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but classifies any products from oil shale with <a href="/wiki/Solid_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid fuels">solid fuels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/shale_oil" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/shale oil">shale oil</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_(oil_%26_gas)_reservoir" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir">Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_economics" title="Oil shale economics">Oil shale economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_gas" title="Oil shale gas">Oil shale gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_coal_gasification" title="Underground coal gasification">Underground coal gasification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_shale" title="Spent shale">Spent shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaca_Muerta" title="Vaca Muerta">Vaca Muerta</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-reinsalu-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reinsalu_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFReinsaluAarna2015" class="citation journal cs1">Reinsalu, Enno; Aarna, Indrek (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kirj.ee/public/oilshale_pdf/2015/issue_4/Oil_Shale-2015-4-291-292.pdf">"About technical terms of oil shale and shale oil"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 291–292. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3176%2Foil.2015.4.01">10.3176/oil.2015.4.01</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0208-189X">0208-189X</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oil+Shale.+A+Scientific-Technical+Journal&rft.atitle=About+technical+terms+of+oil+shale+and+shale+oil&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=291-292&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3176%2Foil.2015.4.01&rft.issn=0208-189X&rft.aulast=Reinsalu&rft.aufirst=Enno&rft.au=Aarna%2C+Indrek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kirj.ee%2Fpublic%2Foilshale_pdf%2F2015%2Fissue_4%2FOil_Shale-2015-4-291-292.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShale+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WEO2013-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WEO2013_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>World Energy Outlook 2013</i>. <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a>. 2013. p. 424. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-64-20130-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-64-20130-9"><bdi>978-92-64-20130-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Energy+Outlook+2013&rft.pages=424&rft.pub=OECD&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-92-64-20130-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShale+oil" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WER2013-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WER2013_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldenergy.org/assets/images/imported/2013/09/Complete_WER_2013_Survey.pdf"><i>World Energy Resources 2013 Survey</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 2013. p. 2.46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780946121298" title="Special:BookSources/9780946121298"><bdi>9780946121298</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140221160815/http://www.worldenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Complete_WER_2013_Survey.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 21 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Energy+Resources+2013+Survey&rft.pages=2.46&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780946121298&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldenergy.org%2Fassets%2Fimages%2Fimported%2F2013%2F09%2FComplete_WER_2013_Survey.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShale+oil" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-igor-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-igor_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDostrovsky1988" class="citation book cs1">Dostrovsky, I. (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/energymissingres0000dost"><i>Energy and the Missing Resource: A View from the Laboratory</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/energymissingres0000dost/page/18">18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31965-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31965-2"><bdi>978-0-521-31965-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1970). <i>A Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. 41–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-00617-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-00617-1"><bdi>978-90-04-00617-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Art+of+Distillation+from+the+Beginnings+Up+to+the+Death+of+Cellier+Blumenthal&rft.pages=41-42&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-90-04-00617-1&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=R.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShale+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-colorado-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-colorado_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://emfi.mines.edu/OilShale2008.pdf">"Oil Shale"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Colorado_School_of_Mines" title="Colorado School of Mines">Colorado School of Mines</a>. 2008: 2<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1985). Seaton, A. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726125905/http://www.iom-world.org/pubs/IOM_TM8502.pdf">"Studies of the Scottish oil shale industry. Vol.1 History of the industry, working conditions and mineralogy of Scottish and Green River formation shales. Final report on US Department of Energy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Occupational_Medicine" title="Institute of Occupational Medicine">Institute of Occupational Medicine</a>: 35. DE-ACO2 – 82ER60036. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iom-world.org/pubs/IOM_TM8502.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 June</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Studies+of+the+Scottish+oil+shale+industry.+Vol.1+History+of+the+industry%2C+working+conditions+and+mineralogy+of+Scottish+and+Green+River+formation+shales.+Final+report+on+US+Department+of+Energy&rft.pages=35&rft.date=1985&rft.au=Louw%2C+S.J.&rft.au=Addison%2C+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iom-world.org%2Fpubs%2FIOM_TM8502.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShale+oil" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yen-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-yen_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCane1976" class="citation book cs1">Cane, R.F. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oil+Shale.+A+Scientific-Technical+Journal&rft.atitle=Estonian+Oil+Shale+Retorting+Industry+at+a+Crossroads&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=97-98&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252707682%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0208-189X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3176%2Foil.2004.2.01&rft.aulast=M%C3%B6lder&rft.aufirst=Leevi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kirj.ee%2Fpublic%2Foilshale%2F1_ed_page_2004_2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShale+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-andrews-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-andrews_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-andrews_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews2006" class="citation journal cs1">Andrews, Anthony (13 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33359.pdf">"Oil Shale: History, Incentives and Policy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Oil+Shale%3A+History%2C+Incentives+and+Policy&rft.date=2006-04-13&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fsgp%2Fcrs%2Fmisc%2FRL33359.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShale+oil" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-andrews2-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-andrews2_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews2008" class="citation journal cs1">Andrews, Anthony (17 November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/113204.pdf">"Developments in Oil Shale"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Congressional Research Service. RL34748<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Developments+in+Oil+Shale&rft.date=2008-11-17&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffpc.state.gov%2Fdocuments%2Forganization%2F113204.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShale+oil" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Girard2004" class="citation book cs1">James Girard (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7vsB6dsfLkkC&q=oil+shale+gasoline+octane&pg=PA297"><i>Principles of Environmental Chemistry</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Total+energy+supply+outlook+by+fuel+and+scenario%2C+2000-2040&rft.date=2022-10-26&rft.au=International+Energy+Agency+%28IEA%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iea.org%2Fdata-and-statistics%2Fcharts%2Ftotal-energy-supply-outlook-by-fuel-and-scenario-2000-2040-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShale+oil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil&oldid=1259411518">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil&oldid=1259411518</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oil_shale" title="Category:Oil shale">Oil shale</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Synthetic_fuels" title="Category:Synthetic fuels">Synthetic fuels</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_inventions" title="Category:Arab inventions">Arab inventions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Egyptian_inventions" title="Category:Egyptian inventions">Egyptian inventions</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_November_2019" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from November 2019">Articles with dead external links from November 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_December_2023" title="Category:Use dmy dates from December 2023">Use dmy dates from December 2023</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 25 November 2024, at 00:40<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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