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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Christianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%22">"Christianity in the Ottoman Empire"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Christianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Christianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Christianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Christianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Christianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2008</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lambert_de_Vos_-_Lithurgical_procession.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Lambert_de_Vos_-_Lithurgical_procession.jpg/300px-Lambert_de_Vos_-_Lithurgical_procession.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Lambert_de_Vos_-_Lithurgical_procession.jpg/450px-Lambert_de_Vos_-_Lithurgical_procession.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Lambert_de_Vos_-_Lithurgical_procession.jpg/600px-Lambert_de_Vos_-_Lithurgical_procession.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1707" data-file-height="1345" /></a><figcaption>Christian liturgical procession from the Ottoman Empire, depicted by <a href="/wiki/Lambert_de_Vos" title="Lambert de Vos">Lambert de Vos</a> in 1574</figcaption></figure> <p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Millet_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Millet system">millet system</a>, Christians and Jews were considered <i><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a></i> (meaning "protected") under <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman law">Ottoman law</a> in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> tax,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as they were exempt from military service. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy#Christianity" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodox Christians</a> were the largest non-Muslim group. With the rise of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Imperial Russia</a>, the Russians became a kind of protector of the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conversion to Islam in the Ottoman Empire involved a combination of individual, family, communal and institutional initiatives and motives. The process was also influenced by the balance of power between the Ottomans and the neighboring Christian states.<sup id="cite_ref-krstic_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krstic-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, most Ottoman subjects in Eastern Europe remained Orthodox Christian, such as <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbs" title="Serbs">Serbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanians" title="Romanians">Romanians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgarians" title="Bulgarians">Bulgarians</a>, while present-day <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a> had larger Muslim populations as a result of Ottoman influence. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg/220px-Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg/330px-Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg/440px-Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Ottoman official registering Christian boys for the <i>devşirme</i>. Ottoman miniature painting from the <i><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleymanname" title="Süleymanname">Süleymanname</a></i>, 1558</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_status">Civil status</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Civil status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanMillets.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/OttomanMillets.jpg/250px-OttomanMillets.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/OttomanMillets.jpg/375px-OttomanMillets.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/OttomanMillets.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>Map of prevailing religions in the territories of the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century.</figcaption></figure> <p>Under Ottoman rule, <a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmis</a> (non-Muslim subjects) were allowed to "practice their religion, subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" (see: <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">Millet</a>) and guaranteed their personal safety and security of property.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In exchange for the guarantee of said security, citizens who fell under the category dhimmis paid a <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a>, which was a tax exclusive to dhimmis.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, Dhimmis had certain rules to follow that other Muslim citizens did not. For example, Dhimmis were forbidden from even attempting to convert Muslim citizens to their religious practice,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and during some periods, the state decreed that people of different <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">millets</a> should wear specific colors of, for instance, turbans and shoes — a policy that was not, however, always followed by Ottoman citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ottoman Empire was therefore not a state with legal equality of religions, non-Muslims were inferior, legally, to Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While recognizing this inferior status of dhimmis under Ottoman rule, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a>, professor emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, states that, in most respects, their position was "very much easier than that of non-Christians or even of heretical Christians in medieval (Catholic) Europe."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, dhimmis rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and with certain exceptions, they were free in their choice of residence and profession.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_as_an_Ottoman_institution">Religion as an Ottoman institution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Religion as an Ottoman institution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg/220px-Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg/330px-Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg/440px-Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2376" data-file-height="2948" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed the Conqueror</a> receives <a href="/wiki/Gennadius_II_Scholarius" class="mw-redirect" title="Gennadius II Scholarius">Gennadius II Scholarius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople">Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople</a> from 1454 to 1464)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Ottoman Empire constantly formulated policies balancing its religious problems. The Ottomans recognized the concept of <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a> and its associated extension of religion as an institution. They brought established policies (regulations) over religious institutions through the idea of "legally valid" organizations. </p><p>The state's relationship with the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a> was mixed, since the Orthodox were not killed, they were, in the beginning, the vast majority and taxpayers, they were encouraged through bribes and exemptions to convert to Islam. In turn, they could not proselytize Muslims. The church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone (but under close control and scrutiny) until the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a> of 1821–1831 and, later in the 19th and early 20th centuries, during the rise of the Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>, which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents. Other churches, like the <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Patriarchate_of_Pe%C4%87" title="Serbian Patriarchate of Peć">Serbian Patriarchate of Peć</a> (1766) and <a href="/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Ohrid" title="Archbishopric of Ohrid">Archbishopric of Ohrid</a> (1767), were dissolved and their dioceses placed under the jurisdiction of the <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarchate_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople">Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople</a>. </p><p>Eventually, <a href="/wiki/Capitulations_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire">Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire</a> (contracts with European powers) were negotiated, <a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_missions" title="Protectorate of missions">protecting the religious rights of Christians</a> within the Empire. The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russians</a> became formal protectors of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> groups in 1774, the <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> of the Catholics, and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> of the Jews and other groups.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conversion">Conversion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion#Ottoman_Empire" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion § Ottoman Empire</a></div> <p>Historians <a href="/wiki/Apostolos_Vakalopoulos" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolos Vakalopoulos">Apostolos Vakalopoulos</a> and Dimitar Angelov give assessment on the first Ottoman invasions of Europe and their imposition of Islam to the Native Balkan Christians:<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is insufficient documentation of the process of conversion to Islam in Anatolia before the mid-15th century. By that time it was about 85% complete according to an Ottoman census, although it lagged in some regions such as <a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trabzon</a>. In the Balkans, the general trend of conversion started slowly in the 14th century, reached its peak in the 17th century, and gradually petered out by the end of the 18th century, with significant regional variations.<sup id="cite_ref-krstic_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krstic-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest converts to Islam came from the ranks of the Balkan nobility and military elites, who helped the Ottomans administer their native provinces. Although conversion was not required to obtain these posts, over time these local ruling elites tended to adopt Islam. Some scholars view proselyting Sufi mystics and the Ottoman state itself as important agents of conversion among broader populations. Other scholars argue that intermarriage and professional patronage networks were the most important factors of the religious transformation of the broader society.<sup id="cite_ref-krstic_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krstic-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Halil_%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k" title="Halil İnalcık">Halil İnalcık</a>, the wish to avoid paying the jizya was an important incentive for conversion to Islam in the Balkans, while Anton Minkov has argued that it was only one among several motivating factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Tramontana_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tramontana-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the late 14th to the mid-17th century, the Ottomans pursued a policy of imposing a levy of male children (<i><a href="/wiki/Dev%C5%9Firme" class="mw-redirect" title="Devşirme">devşirme</a></i>) on their Christian subjects in the Balkans with the goal of supplying the Ottoman state with capable soldiers and administrators. The compulsory conversion to Islam which these boys underwent as part of their education is the only documented form of systematic <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forced conversion</a> organized by the Ottoman state.<sup id="cite_ref-krstic_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krstic-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For strategic reasons, the Ottomans forcibly converted Christians living in the frontier regions of Macedonia and northern Bulgaria, particularly in the 16th and 17th centuries. Those who refused were either executed or burned alive.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Islamic law, the religion of the children was automatically changed after their parents converted. Many families collectively converted and their petitions as per Islamic customs for monetary help to the Ottoman Imperial Council are known. As marriages between non-Muslim men and Muslim women were forbidden under Sharia law, the refusal of husband to convert to Islam resulted in a divorce and the wife gaining custody of the children. Seventeenth-century sources indicate that non-Muslim women throughout the empire used this method to obtain a divorce.<sup id="cite_ref-krstic_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krstic-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ottomans tolerated <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> missionaries within their realm, so long as they limited their <a href="/wiki/Proselytizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Proselytizing">proselytizing</a> to the Orthodox Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the increasing influence of Western powers and Russia in the 18th century, the process of conversion slowed down, and the Ottomans were pressured to turn a blind eye to re-conversion of many of their subjects to Christianity, although apostasy was <i>de jure</i> prohibited under penalty of death.<sup id="cite_ref-krstic_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krstic-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_the_legal_system">Religion and the legal system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Religion and the legal system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main idea behind the Ottoman legal system was the "<a href="/wiki/Confessional_community" title="Confessional community">confessional community</a>". The Ottomans tried to leave the choice of religion to the individual rather than imposing forced classifications. However, there were grey areas. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer,_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg/260px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg/390px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg/520px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1187" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks" title="Ottoman Greeks">Ottoman Greeks</a> in Constantinople, painted by <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Mayer" title="Luigi Mayer">Luigi Mayer</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Ottoman practice assumed that law would be applied based on the religious beliefs of its citizens. However, the Ottoman Empire was organized around a system of local <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>. Legal administration fit into a larger schema balancing central and local authority.<sup id="cite_ref-Colonial1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colonial1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire aimed to facilitate the integration of culturally and religiously different groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Colonial1_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colonial1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were three court systems: one for Muslims, another for non-Muslims (<a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmis</a>), involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts following their own legal systems in cases that did not involve other religious groups, capital offences, or threats to public order. Christians were liable in a non-Christian court in specific, clearly defined instances, for example the assassination of a Muslim or to resolve a trade dispute. </p><p>The Ottoman judicial system institutionalized a number of biases against non-Muslims, such as barring non-Muslims from testifying as witnesses against Muslims. At the same time, non-Muslims "did relatively well in adjudicated interfaith disputes", because anticipation of judicial biases prompted them to settle most conflicts out of court.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Ottoman Empire of the 18th and 19th centuries, dhimmis frequently used the Muslim courts not only when their attendance was compulsory (for example in cases brought against them by Muslims), but also in order to record property and business transactions within their own communities. Cases were brought against Muslims, against other dhimmis and even against members of the dhimmi's own family. Dhimmis often took cases relating to marriage, divorce and inheritance to Muslim courts so that they would be decided under shari'a law. Oaths sworn by dhimmis in the Muslim courts were sometimes the same as the oaths taken by Muslims, sometimes tailored to the dhimmis’ beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Christian sources points that although Christians were not Muslims, there were instances which they were subjected to shari'a law.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to some western sources, "the testimony of a Christian was not considered as valid in the Muslim court as much as the testimony of a Muslim". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Persecution">Persecution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Persecution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians#Ottoman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution of Christians § Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1895erzurum-victims.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/1895erzurum-victims.jpg/220px-1895erzurum-victims.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/1895erzurum-victims.jpg/330px-1895erzurum-victims.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/1895erzurum-victims.jpg/440px-1895erzurum-victims.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5046" data-file-height="4683" /></a><figcaption>A photograph taken of the Hamidian massacres, 1895. It is estimated that between 200,000 and 300,000 Christians lost their lives.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Ottoman Empire's treatment of its Christian subjects varied during its history. During the golden age of the empire, the millet system promised its Christian subjects better treatment than non-Christian populations experienced in Christian Europe, while during the decline and fall of the empire, the Christian minorities suffered a number of atrocities.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable cases of persecution include the <a href="/wiki/Constantinople_massacre_of_1821" title="Constantinople massacre of 1821">Constantinople massacre of 1821</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chios_massacre" title="Chios massacre">Chios massacre</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Psara" title="Destruction of Psara">Destruction of Psara</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Batak_massacre" title="Batak massacre">Batak massacre</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Adana_massacre" title="Adana massacre">Adana massacre</a>, the ethnic cleansing of <a href="/wiki/Thracian_Bulgarians" title="Thracian Bulgarians">Thracian Bulgarians</a> in 1913, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Great Famine of Mount Lebanon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian genocide">Assyrian genocide</a>, all of which occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a> or during the last few decades of the empire under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Pan-Turkism#Criticism" title="Pan-Turkism">Pan-Turkism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The share of non-Muslims in areas within Turkey's current borders declined from 20 to 22% in 1914, or approximately 3.3.–3.6 million people, to around 3% in 1927.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Christians in the Empire also suffered the injustice of being forced in a status of <a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">concubinage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the time of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Austro-Turkish war (1683–1699)</a>, relations between Muslims and Christians who lived in the European provinces of the Ottoman Empire gradually deteriorated <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (January 2018)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> and this deterioration in interfaith relations occasionally resulted in calls for the expulsion or extermination of local Christian communities by some Muslim religious leaders. As a result of Ottoman discrimination, <a href="/wiki/Serbs" title="Serbs">Serbian</a> Christians and their church leaders, headed by Serbian Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Arsenije_III_%C4%8Carnojevi%C4%87" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsenije III Čarnojević">Arsenije III</a>, sided with the Austrians in 1689 and again in 1737 under Serbian Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Arsenije_IV_Jovanovi%C4%87_%C5%A0akabenta" title="Arsenije IV Jovanović Šakabenta">Arsenije IV</a>. In the following punitive campaigns, Ottoman forces conducted atrocities against the Christian population in the Serbian regions, resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migrations_of_the_Serbs" title="Great Migrations of the Serbs">Great Migrations of the Serbs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPavlowitch200219–20_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavlowitch200219–20-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Devşirme"><span id="Dev.C5.9Firme"></span><i>Devşirme</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Devşirme"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beginning with <a href="/wiki/Murad_I" title="Murad I">Murad I</a> in the 14th century and extending through the 17th century, the Ottoman Empire employed <i><a href="/wiki/Devshirmeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Devshirmeh">devşirme</a></i> (دوشيرم), a kind of tribute or conscription system where young Christian boys were taken from communities in the Balkans, enslaved and converted to Islam and later employed either in the <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissary</a> military corps or the Ottoman administrative system. The most promising students were enrolled in the <a href="/wiki/Enderun_School" title="Enderun School">Enderun School</a>, whose graduates would fill the higher positions. Most of the children collected were from the Empire's Balkan territories. When the children ended up becoming Muslim due to the milieu in which they were raised, any children that they had were considered to be free Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxation">Taxation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Taxation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Taxation in the Ottoman Empire">Taxation in the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <p>Taxation from the perspective of dhimmis was "a concrete continuation of the taxes paid to earlier regimes"<sup id="cite_ref-Cahen_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahen-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2017)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and from the point of view of the Muslim conqueror was a material proof of the dhimmis' subjection.<sup id="cite_ref-Cahen_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahen-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (November 2017)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire#Dubious" title="Talk:Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">discuss</a></i>]</sup> <sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Aleppo in 1683, French Consul Chevalier <a href="/wiki/Laurent_d%27Arvieux" title="Laurent d'Arvieux">Laurent d'Arvieux</a> noted that ten-year-old Christian children were forced to pay the jizya.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a> collected from Christian and Jewish communities was among the main sources of tax income of the Ottoman treasury.<sup id="cite_ref-opp287_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-opp287-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_architecture">Religious architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Religious architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Ottoman Empire regulated how its cities would be built (quality assurances) and how the architecture (structural integrity, social needs, etc.) would be shaped. </p><p>Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> (a period of reformation beginning in 1839), special restrictions were imposed concerning the construction, renovation, size and the bells in Orthodox churches. For example, an Orthodox church's <a href="/wiki/Bell_tower" title="Bell tower">bell tower</a> had to be slightly shorter than the <a href="/wiki/Minaret" title="Minaret">minaret</a> of the largest <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosque</a> in the same city. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hagia_Photini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hagia Photini (page does not exist)">Hagia Photini</a> in <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmir" title="İzmir">İzmir</a> was a notable exception, as its bell tower was the tallest landmark of the city by far. They also needed not exceed mosques in grandeur or elegance. Only some churches were allowed to be built, but this was considered suspect, and some churches even fell into disrepair. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Turkey" title="Christianity in Turkey">Christianity in Turkey</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCaneConaghan2008" class="citation book cs1">Cane, Peter; <a href="/wiki/Joanne_Conaghan" title="Joanne Conaghan">Conaghan, Joanne</a> (2008). <i>Millet system - Oxford Reference</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199290543.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780199290543.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199290543" title="Special:BookSources/9780199290543"><bdi>9780199290543</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Millet+system+-+Oxford+Reference&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199290543.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780199290543&rft.aulast=Cane&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Conaghan%2C+Joanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKieser2006" class="citation book cs1">Kieser, Hans-Lukas (2006-10-27). <i>Turkey Beyond Nationalism: Towards Post-Nationalist Identities</i>. I.B.Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85771-757-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85771-757-3"><bdi>978-0-85771-757-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turkey+Beyond+Nationalism%3A+Towards+Post-Nationalist+Identities&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2006-10-27&rft.isbn=978-0-85771-757-3&rft.aulast=Kieser&rft.aufirst=Hans-Lukas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peace Treaties and International Law in European History: from the late Middle Ages to World War One, Randall. Lesaffer, 2004, p.357</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-krstic-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-krstic_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-krstic_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-krstic_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-krstic_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-krstic_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-krstic_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTijana_Krstić2009" class="citation book cs1">Tijana Krstić (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA145">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Conversion"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. In Ed. Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters (ed.). <i><span></span></i>Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire<i><span></span></i>. InfoBase Publishing. pp. 145–147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438110257" title="Special:BookSources/9781438110257"><bdi>9781438110257</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Conversion%22&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=145-147&rft.pub=InfoBase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781438110257&rft.au=Tijana+Krsti%C4%87&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjzYdCxumFcC%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis (1984) pp. 10, 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharkey2017" class="citation book cs1">Sharkey, Heather J (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/987671521"><i>A history of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Middle East</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 65–66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-02845-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-02845-5"><bdi>978-1-139-02845-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/987671521">987671521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Muslims%2C+Christians%2C+and+Jews+in+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=65-66&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F987671521&rft.isbn=978-1-139-02845-5&rft.aulast=Sharkey&rft.aufirst=Heather+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F987671521&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharkey2017" class="citation book cs1">Sharkey, Heather J (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/987671521"><i>A history of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Middle East</i></a>. Cambridge. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-02845-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-02845-5"><bdi>978-1-139-02845-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/987671521">987671521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Muslims%2C+Christians%2C+and+Jews+in+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=40&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F987671521&rft.isbn=978-1-139-02845-5&rft.aulast=Sharkey&rft.aufirst=Heather+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F987671521&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMansel1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Mansel" title="Philip Mansel">Mansel, Philip</a> (1997). <i><a href="/wiki/Constantinople:_City_of_the_World%27s_Desire,_1453%E2%80%931924" title="Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924">Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924</a></i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. pp. 20–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-026246-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-026246-9"><bdi>978-0-14-026246-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantinople%3A+City+of+the+World%27s+Desire%2C+1453%E2%80%931924&rft.place=London&rft.pages=20-21&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-14-026246-9&rft.aulast=Mansel&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Todorova Maria, "The Ottoman Legacy in the Balkans", in Carl L. Brown (ed.), <i>Imperial Legacy: The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East</i>, New York, 1996, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis (1984) p. 62, Cohen (1995) p. xvii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis (1999) p.131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraude2014" class="citation web cs1">Braude, Benjamin (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rienner.com/uploads/53e278dea4631.pdf">"Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Abridged Edition"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Lynne Rienner Publishers</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lynne+Rienner+Publishers&rft.atitle=Christians+and+Jews+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+The+Abridged+Edition&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Braude&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rienner.com%2Fuploads%2F53e278dea4631.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVakalopoulos1970" class="citation book cs1">Vakalopoulos, Apostolos Euangelou (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y_ceAAAAMAAJ"><i>Origins of the Greek Nation: The Byzantine Period, 1204-1461</i></a>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813506593" title="Special:BookSources/9780813506593"><bdi>9780813506593</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+the+Greek+Nation%3A+The+Byzantine+Period%2C+1204-1461&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780813506593&rft.aulast=Vakalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Apostolos+Euangelou&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy_ceAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tramontana-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tramontana_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTramontana2013" class="citation journal cs1">Tramontana, Felicita (2013). "The Poll Tax and the Decline of the Christian Presence in the Palestinian Countryside in the 17th Century". <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i>. <b>56</b> (4–5): 631–652. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15685209-12341337">10.1163/15685209-12341337</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=The+Poll+Tax+and+the+Decline+of+the+Christian+Presence+in+the+Palestinian+Countryside+in+the+17th+Century&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=631-652&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15685209-12341337&rft.aulast=Tramontana&rft.aufirst=Felicita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuĭchev1977" class="citation book cs1">Duĭchev, Ivan (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JFEeAAAAMAAJ"><i>Histoire de la Bulgarie: des origines à nos jours</i></a>. Horvath. p. 251,259. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782717100846" title="Special:BookSources/9782717100846"><bdi>9782717100846</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+Bulgarie%3A+des+origines+%C3%A0+nos+jours&rft.pages=251%2C259&rft.pub=Horvath&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9782717100846&rft.aulast=Du%C4%ADchev&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJFEeAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Crimean war: A holy war of an unusual kind: A war in which two Christian countries fighting a third claimed Islam as their ally, <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>, September 30, 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Colonial1-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Colonial1_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Colonial1_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lauren A. Benton “Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400-1900” pp.109-110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuran,_T.Lustig,_S.2012" class="citation journal cs1">Kuran, T.; Lustig, S. (2012). "Judicial biases in Ottoman Istanbul - Islamic justice and its compatibility with modern economic life". <i>Journal of Law and Economics</i>. <b>55</b> (2): 631–666. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F665537">10.1086/665537</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/665537">665537</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222321949">222321949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Law+and+Economics&rft.atitle=Judicial+biases+in+Ottoman+Istanbul+-+Islamic+justice+and+its+compatibility+with+modern+economic+life&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=631-666&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222321949%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F665537%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F665537&rft.au=Kuran%2C+T.&rft.au=Lustig%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Qattan" class="citation journal cs1">Al-Qattan, Najwa. "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Dhimmis in the Muslim Court: Legal Autonomy and Religious Discrimination'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>. <b>31</b> (3): 429–44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=%E2%80%98Dhimmis+in+the+Muslim+Court%3A+Legal+Autonomy+and+Religious+Discrimination%E2%80%99&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=429-44&rft.aulast=Al-Qattan&rft.aufirst=Najwa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Concise History of Bulgaria, Richard J. Crampton, 2005, p.31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_A._Bournoutian2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Bournoutian" title="George Bournoutian">George A. Bournoutian</a> (2006). <i>A Concise History of the Armenian People</i> (5th ed.). Mazda Publishers. p. 191. <q>At its best, during the Ottoman golden age, the millet system promised non-Muslims fairer treatment than conquered or non-Christian subjects enjoyed under the Europeans. At its worst, during the decline and fall of the empire, the Christian minorities were subjected to extortion and pogroms.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+the+Armenian+People&rft.pages=191&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Mazda+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.au=George+A.+Bournoutian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPamuk2018" class="citation book cs1">Pamuk, Şevket (2018). <i>Uneven Centuries: Economic Development of Turkey since 1820</i>. Princeton University Press. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691184982" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691184982"><bdi>978-0691184982</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uneven+Centuries%3A+Economic+Development+of+Turkey+since+1820&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0691184982&rft.aulast=Pamuk&rft.aufirst=%C5%9Eevket&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharkey2017" class="citation book cs1">Sharkey, Heather J (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/987671521"><i>A history of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Middle East</i></a>. Cambridge. pp. 67–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-02845-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-02845-5"><bdi>978-1-139-02845-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/987671521">987671521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Muslims%2C+Christians%2C+and+Jews+in+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=67-68&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F987671521&rft.isbn=978-1-139-02845-5&rft.aulast=Sharkey&rft.aufirst=Heather+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F987671521&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavlowitch200219–20-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPavlowitch200219–20_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPavlowitch2002">Pavlowitch 2002</a>, pp. 19–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kjeilen, Tore. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lexicorient.com/e.o/devsirme.htm">Devsirme</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126110604/http://lexicorient.com/e.o/devsirme.htm">Archived</a> 2021-01-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>," <i>Encyclopaedia of the Orient</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cahen-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cl. Cahen in <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Islam">Encyclopedia of Islam</a>, Jizya article</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharkey2017" class="citation book cs1">Sharkey, Heather J (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/987671521"><i>A history of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Middle East</i></a>. Cambridge. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-02845-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-02845-5"><bdi>978-1-139-02845-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/987671521">987671521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Muslims%2C+Christians%2C+and+Jews+in+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=67&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F987671521&rft.isbn=978-1-139-02845-5&rft.aulast=Sharkey&rft.aufirst=Heather+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F987671521&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qQpaC_ttluQC"><i>The Development of Spiritual Life in Bosnia under the Influence of Turkish Rule</i></a>. Duke University Press. 22 January 1991. pp. 26, 80n11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822382553" title="Special:BookSources/9780822382553"><bdi>9780822382553</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Spiritual+Life+in+Bosnia+under+the+Influence+of+Turkish+Rule&rft.pages=26%2C+80n11&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1991-01-22&rft.isbn=9780822382553&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqQpaC_ttluQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArvieux1735" class="citation book cs1">Arvieux, Laurent d' (1735). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RLt2zQEACAAJ"><i>Memoires du chevalier d'Arvieux, envoyé extraordinaire du Roy à la Porte, Consul d'Alep, d'Alger, de Tripoli, & autres Echelles du Levant. Contenant Ses Voyages à Constantinople, dans l'Asie, la Syrie, la Palestine, l'Egypte, & la Barbarie, la description de ces Païs, les Religions, les moeurs, les Coûtumes, le Négoce de ces Peuples, & leurs Gouvernemens, l'Histoire naturelle & les événemens les plus considerables, recüeillis de ses Memoires originaux, & mis en ordre avec des réfléxions. Par le R.P. Jean-Baptiste Labat, de l'Ordre des Freres Prêcheurs. Tome premier [-Tome sixième]</i></a>. p. 439.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoires+du+chevalier+d%27Arvieux%2C+envoy%C3%A9+extraordinaire+du+Roy+%C3%A0+la+Porte%2C+Consul+d%27Alep%2C+d%27Alger%2C+de+Tripoli%2C+%26+autres+Echelles+du+Levant.+Contenant+Ses+Voyages+%C3%A0+Constantinople%2C+dans+l%27Asie%2C+la+Syrie%2C+la+Palestine%2C+l%27Egypte%2C+%26+la+Barbarie%2C+la+description+de+ces+Pa%C3%AFs%2C+les+Religions%2C+les+moeurs%2C+les+Co%C3%BBtumes%2C+le+N%C3%A9goce+de+ces+Peuples%2C+%26+leurs+Gouvernemens%2C+l%27Histoire+naturelle+%26+les+%C3%A9v%C3%A9nemens+les+plus+considerables%2C+rec%C3%BCeillis+de+ses+Memoires+originaux%2C+%26+mis+en+ordre+avec+des+r%C3%A9fl%C3%A9xions.+Par+le+R.P.+Jean-Baptiste+Labat%2C+de+l%27Ordre+des+Freres+Pr%C3%AAcheurs.+Tome+premier+%5B-Tome+sixi%C3%A8me%5D&rft.pages=439&rft.date=1735&rft.aulast=Arvieux&rft.aufirst=Laurent+d%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRLt2zQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-opp287-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-opp287_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeri1990" class="citation book cs1">Peri, Oded (1990). "The Muslim waqf and the collection of jizya in late eighteenth-century Jerusalem". In Gilbar, Gad (ed.). <i>Ottoman Palestine, 1800–1914 : Studies in economic and social history</i>. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 287. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07785-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07785-0"><bdi>978-90-04-07785-0</bdi></a>. <q>the <i>jizya</i> was one of the main sources of revenue accruing to the Ottoman state treasury as a whole.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Muslim+waqf+and+the+collection+of+jizya+in+late+eighteenth-century+Jerusalem&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Palestine%2C+1800%E2%80%931914+%3A+Studies+in+economic+and+social+history&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07785-0&rft.aulast=Peri&rft.aufirst=Oded&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen,_Mark_R.1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_R._Cohen" title="Mark R. Cohen">Cohen, Mark R.</a> (1995). <i>Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01082-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01082-3"><bdi>978-0-691-01082-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Under+Crescent+and+Cross%3A+The+Jews+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01082-3&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Mark+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrazee2006" class="citation book cs1">Frazee, Charles A. (2006) [1983]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X6DM4szwUpEC"><i>Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453-1923</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521027007" title="Special:BookSources/9780521027007"><bdi>9780521027007</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catholics+and+Sultans%3A+The+Church+and+the+Ottoman+Empire+1453-1923&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780521027007&rft.aulast=Frazee&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX6DM4szwUpEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1984" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W0EbKFRxrT4C"><i>The Jews of Islam</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00807-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00807-3"><bdi>978-0-691-00807-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Islam&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00807-3&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW0EbKFRxrT4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1999" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (1999). <i>Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice</i>. W. W. Norton & Company press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31839-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31839-5"><bdi>978-0-393-31839-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semites+and+Anti-Semites%3A+An+Inquiry+Into+Conflict+and+Prejudice&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company+press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31839-5&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabsinhistory00bern"><i>The Arabs in History</i></a></span>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280310-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280310-8"><bdi>978-0-19-280310-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabs+in+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280310-8&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farabsinhistory00bern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPavlowitch2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stevan_K._Pavlowitch" title="Stevan K. Pavlowitch">Pavlowitch, Stevan K.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w-RuLDaNwbMC"><i>Serbia: The History behind the Name</i></a>. London: Hurst & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781850654773" title="Special:BookSources/9781850654773"><bdi>9781850654773</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Serbia%3A+The+History+behind+the+Name&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hurst+%26+Company&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781850654773&rft.aulast=Pavlowitch&rft.aufirst=Stevan+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw-RuLDaNwbMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190917135500/https://repository.kallipos.gr/bitstream/11419/2889/1/kef8_Gkara.pdf">"Κεφάλαιο 8. Τα χριστιανικά κράτη και οι υπήκοοί τους στον οθωμανικό χώρο"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Greek). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.kallipos.gr/bitstream/11419/2889/1/kef8_Gkara.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-09-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%CE%9A%CE%B5%CF%86%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF+8.+%CE%A4%CE%B1+%CF%87%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC+%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%B7+%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9+%CE%BF%CE%B9+%CF%85%CF%80%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BF%CE%AF+%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%82+%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD+%CE%BF%CE%B8%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C+%CF%87%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%BF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.kallipos.gr%2Fbitstream%2F11419%2F2889%2F1%2Fkef8_Gkara.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> ("Chapter 8. Christian States and their Nationals in the Ottoman Territory")</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ottoman_Empire_topics" title="Template:Ottoman Empire topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ottoman_Empire_topics" title="Template talk:Ottoman Empire topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ottoman_Empire_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ottoman Empire topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ottoman_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Ottoman Empire">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osman%27s_Dream" title="Osman's Dream">Osman's Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Interregnum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Constantinople</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Women" title="Sultanate of Women">Sultanate of Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_era" title="Köprülü era">Köprülü</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Old_Regime" title="Ottoman Old Regime">Stagnation and reform</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulip period">Tulip</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Decline and modernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era" title="First Constitutional Era">1st Constitutional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">Dissolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era" title="Second Constitutional Era">2nd Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Partition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Ottoman_sultanate" title="Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate">Abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Ottoman Muslims</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ottoman Empire)">Foreign Affairs Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_relations" title="Ottoman–Safavid relations">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Ottoman Empire–United States relations">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of treaties of the Ottoman Empire">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire">Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_constitution_of_1876" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman constitution of 1876">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_National_Constitution" title="Armenian National Constitution">Armenian Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_electoral_law" title="Ottoman electoral law">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_family_law" title="Ottoman family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCstur" title="Düstur">Düstur</a></li></ul></li> <li>Civil codes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecelle" title="Mecelle">Mecelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_Office_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Translation Office (Ottoman Empire)">Translation Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/State_organisation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State organisation of the Ottoman Empire">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">House of Osman</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">List of Ottoman sultans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Roman succession claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_the_Two_Holy_Mosques" title="Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques">Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Imperial Harem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan">Valide sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haseki_sultan" title="Haseki sultan">Haseki sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kad%C4%B1n_(title)" title="Kadın (title)">Kadınefendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikbal_(title)" title="Ikbal (title)">Hanımefendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mothers_of_the_Ottoman_sultans" title="List of mothers of the Ottoman sultans">List of Ottoman sultans' mothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_consorts_of_the_Ottoman_sultans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of consorts of the Ottoman sultans">List of Ottoman sultans' consorts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kizlar_Agha" class="mw-redirect" title="Kizlar Agha">Kizlar Agha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ender%C3%BBn" title="Enderûn">Inner Palace Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapi_Agha" title="Kapi Agha">Kapi Agha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_School" title="Palace School">Palace Schools</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central (<a href="/wiki/Sublime_Porte" title="Sublime Porte">Porte</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Council_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Imperial Council (Ottoman Empire)">Imperial Council</a> <br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(classic period)</i></span> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Grand_Viziers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ottoman Grand Viziers">Grand Vizier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">Viziers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazasker" title="Kazasker">Kazaskers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Ministers_of_Finance" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ottoman Ministers of Finance">Defterdars/Ministers of Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%9Fanc%C4%B1" title="Nişancı">Nişancı</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reis_%C3%BCl-K%C3%BCttab" title="Reis ül-Küttab">Reis ül-Küttab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragoman_of_the_Porte" title="Dragoman of the Porte">Dragoman of the Porte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bir%C3%BBn" title="Birûn">Outer Palace Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Government_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Government (Ottoman Empire)">Imperial Government</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(reform and constitutional period)</i></span> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire">Assembly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Senate of the Ottoman Empire">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)">Chamber of Deputies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">Millets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Islam in the Ottoman Empire">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaykh_al-Isl%C4%81m" title="Shaykh al-Islām">Shaykh al-Islām</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rum_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Rum Millet">Rūm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ullah_millet" title="Ullah millet">Ullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Millet" title="Bulgarian Millet">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_millet" title="Armenian millet">Armenian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hakham_Bashi" title="Hakham Bashi">Hakham Bashi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Provincial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eyalet" title="Eyalet">Eyalets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beylerbey" title="Beylerbey">Beylerbeys</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilayet" title="Vilayet">Vilayets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak" title="Sanjak">Sanjaks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanjakbey" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanjakbey">Sanjakbeys</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutasarr%C4%B1f" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutasarrıf">Mutasarrifates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaza" title="Kaza">Kazas</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kadiluk" title="Kadiluk">Kadiluks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire">Vassal and tributary states</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Military of the Ottoman Empire">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Army</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_army_in_the_15th%E2%80%9319th_centuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman army in the 15th–19th centuries">Classic period army</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">Janissaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agha_of_the_Janissaries" title="Agha of the Janissaries">Agha of the Janissaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Divisions_of_Cavalry" title="Six Divisions of Cavalry">Six Divisions of Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timariots" title="Timariots">Timariots</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_military_reforms" title="Ottoman military reforms">Reform period</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Nizam-i_Djedid_Army" title="Nizam-i Djedid Army">Nizam-i Djedid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekban-i_Djedid_Army" title="Sekban-i Djedid Army">Sekban-i Djedid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asakir-i_Mansure-i_Muhammediye" title="Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye">Mansure Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamidieh" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamidieh">Hamidieh</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Army_(1861%E2%80%931922)" title="Ottoman Army (1861–1922)">Modernized army</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapudan_Pasha" title="Kapudan Pasha">Kapudan Pasha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kapudan_Pashas" title="List of Kapudan Pashas">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragoman_of_the_Fleet" title="Dragoman of the Fleet">Dragoman of the Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Arsenal" title="Imperial Arsenal">Imperial Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ottoman_Empire_admirals" title="Category:Ottoman Empire admirals">Admirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_battles_involving_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Naval battles involving the Ottoman Empire">Naval battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_ships_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Naval ships of the Ottoman Empire">Ships</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Aviation_Squadrons" title="Ottoman Aviation Squadrons">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Conscription in the Ottoman Empire">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_weapons" title="Ottoman weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Economic history of the Ottoman Empire">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By era <ul><li>Enlargement</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomics_of_the_Ottoman_reformation_era&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Socioeconomics of the Ottoman reformation era (page does not exist)">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_agriculture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ottoman agriculture (page does not exist)">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Bank" title="Ottoman Bank">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_currency&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ottoman currency (page does not exist)">Currency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ak%C3%A7e" title="Akçe">Akçe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Para_(currency)" title="Para (currency)">Para</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultani" title="Sultani">Sultani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuru%C5%9F" title="Kuruş">Kuruş</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_lira" title="Ottoman lira">Lira</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Taxation in the Ottoman Empire">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the Ottoman Empire">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Society of the Ottoman Empire">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Social structure of the Ottoman Empire">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottomanism" title="Ottomanism">Ottomanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_court" title="Ottoman court">Ottoman court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Languages of the Ottoman Empire">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Ottoman Turkish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Culture of the Ottoman Empire">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosques_commissioned_by_the_Ottoman_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosques commissioned by the Ottoman dynasty">Mosques</a></li></ul></li> <li>Art <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_illumination" title="Ottoman illumination">Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_music" title="Ottoman music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat" title="Karagöz and Hacivat">Shadow play</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_clothing" title="Ottoman clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_cuisine" title="Ottoman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prose_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Prose of the Ottoman Empire">Prose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_poetry" title="Ottoman poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Education in the Ottoman Empire">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of schools in the Ottoman Empire">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_education_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenian education in the Ottoman Empire">of Armenians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Media of the Ottoman Empire">Media</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Demographics of the Ottoman Empire">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenians in the Ottoman Empire">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks" title="Ottoman Greeks">Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Women in the Ottoman Empire">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#Religion" title="Ottoman Empire">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Islam in the Ottoman Empire">Islam</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism in the Ottoman Empire">Judaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_anthems_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Flags of the Ottoman Empire">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tughra" title="Tughra">Tughra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_and_crescent" title="Star and crescent">Star and crescent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Outline of the Ottoman Empire">Outline</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire">Bibliography</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Ottoman 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