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id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concussion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concussion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Concussion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concussion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intracranial_bleeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intracranial_bleeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Intracranial bleeding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intracranial_bleeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intra-axial_bleeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intra-axial_bleeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Intra-axial bleeding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intra-axial_bleeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extra-axial_bleeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extra-axial_bleeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Extra-axial bleeding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extra-axial_bleeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cerebral_contusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cerebral_contusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Cerebral contusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cerebral_contusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diffuse_axonal_injury" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diffuse_axonal_injury"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.4</span> <span>Diffuse axonal injury</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diffuse_axonal_injury-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compound_head_injury" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compound_head_injury"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.5</span> <span>Compound head injury</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compound_head_injury-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs_and_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Signs and symptoms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Signs and symptoms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mild_brain_injuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mild_brain_injuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Mild brain injuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mild_brain_injuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moderate/severe_brain_injuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moderate/severe_brain_injuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Moderate/severe brain injuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moderate/severe_brain_injuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symptoms_in_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symptoms_in_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Symptoms in children</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symptoms_in_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Location_of_brain_damage_predicts_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location_of_brain_damage_predicts_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Location of brain damage predicts symptoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location_of_brain_damage_predicts_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prognosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prognosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Prognosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prognosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Epidemiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " 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Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A3%D8%B3" title="إصابة الرأس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إصابة الرأس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poran%C4%9Bn%C3%AD_hlavy" title="Poranění hlavy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Poranění hlavy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaf_i%27r_pen" title="Anaf i'r pen – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Anaf i'r pen" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hovedskade" title="Hovedskade – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hovedskade" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%B1" title="ترومای سر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ترومای سر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%91%90%EB%B6%80%EC%99%B8%EC%83%81" title="두부외상 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="두부외상" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AC%D5%AD%D5%AB_%D5%BE%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AE%D6%84" title="Գլխի վնասվածք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գլխի վնասվածք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedera_kepala" title="Cedera kepala – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Cedera kepala" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9" title="פגיעת ראש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פגיעת ראש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoofdletsel" title="Hoofdletsel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hoofdletsel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A0%AD%E9%83%A8%E5%A4%96%E5%82%B7" title="頭部外傷 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="頭部外傷" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodeskade" title="Hodeskade – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hodeskade" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traumatismo_craniano" title="Traumatismo craniano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Traumatismo craniano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traumatisme_craniene" title="Traumatisme craniene – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Traumatisme craniene" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poranenie_hlavy" title="Poranenie hlavy – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Poranenie hlavy" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafa_travmas%C4%B1" title="Kafa travması – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kafa travması" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BA%A5n_th%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_%C4%91%E1%BA%A7u" title="Chấn thương đầu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chấn thương đầu" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A0%AD%E9%83%A8%E6%90%8D%E5%82%B7" title="頭部損傷 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="頭部損傷" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Serious trauma to the cranium</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">Traumatic brain injury</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Head trauma" redirects here; not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">Psychological trauma</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Head_injury" title="Special:EditPage/Head injury">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Head+injury%22">"Head injury"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Head+injury%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Head+injury%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Head+injury%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Head+injury%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Head+injury%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 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div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Head injury</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Head trauma</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_wound_received_at_Antietam_1862.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Head_wound_received_at_Antietam_1862.jpg/220px-Head_wound_received_at_Antietam_1862.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Head_wound_received_at_Antietam_1862.jpg/330px-Head_wound_received_at_Antietam_1862.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Head_wound_received_at_Antietam_1862.jpg/440px-Head_wound_received_at_Antietam_1862.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="409" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Soldier wounded at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Battle of Antietam</a> on September 17, 1862.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Injury to the brain or skull</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalus" title="Hydrocephalus">Hydrocephalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_edema" title="Cerebral edema">cerebral edema</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral hemorrhage">cerebral hemorrhage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a>, nervous system damage, <a href="/wiki/Paralysis" title="Paralysis">paralysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Types</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Concussion" title="Concussion">Concussion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_contusion" title="Cerebral contusion">cerebral contusion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penetrating_head_injury" title="Penetrating head injury">penetrating head injury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basilar_skull_fracture" title="Basilar skull fracture">basilar skull fracture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">traumatic brain injury</a></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p>A <b>head injury</b> is any injury that results in trauma to the <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a> or <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. The terms <i>traumatic brain injury</i> and <i>head injury</i> are often used interchangeably in the medical literature.<sup id="cite_ref-bmj.com_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bmj.com-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because head injuries cover such a broad scope of injuries, there are many causes—including accidents, falls, physical assault, or traffic accidents—that can cause head injuries. </p><p>The number of new cases is 1.7 million in the United States each year, with about 3% of these incidents leading to death. Adults have head injuries more frequently than any age group resulting from falls, motor vehicle crashes, colliding or being struck by an object, or assaults. Children, however, may experience head injuries from accidental falls or intentional causes (such as being struck or shaken) leading to hospitalization.<sup id="cite_ref-bmj.com_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bmj.com-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Acquired_brain_injury" title="Acquired brain injury">Acquired brain injury</a> (ABI) is a term used to differentiate brain injuries occurring after birth from injury, from a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic disorder</a>, or from a <a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital disorder">congenital disorder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike a broken bone where trauma to the body is obvious, head trauma can sometimes be conspicuous or inconspicuous. In the case of an open head injury, the skull is cracked and broken by an object that makes contact with the brain. This leads to bleeding. Other obvious symptoms can be neurological in nature. The person may become sleepy, behave abnormally, lose consciousness, vomit, develop a severe headache, have mismatched pupil sizes, and/or be unable to move certain parts of the body. While these symptoms happen immediately after a head injury occurs, many problems can develop later in life. <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, for example, is much more likely to develop in a person who has experienced a head injury.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Brain damage, which is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells, is a common occurrence in those who experience a head injury. <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">Neurotoxicity</a> is another cause of brain damage that typically refers to selective, chemically induced <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a>/brain damage.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style></p><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Head injuries include both injuries to the brain and those to other parts of the head, such as the <a href="/wiki/Scalp" title="Scalp">scalp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">skull</a>. Head injuries can be closed or open. A closed (non-missile) head injury is where the <a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura mater</a> remains intact. The skull can be fractured, but not necessarily. A <a href="/wiki/Penetrating_head_injury" title="Penetrating head injury">penetrating head injury</a> occurs when an object pierces the skull and breaches the dura mater. Brain injuries may be <a href="/wiki/Focal_and_diffuse_brain_injury" title="Focal and diffuse brain injury">diffuse</a>, occurring over a wide area, or focal, located in a small, specific area. A head injury may cause <a href="/wiki/Skull_fracture" title="Skull fracture">skull fracture</a>, which may or may not be associated with injury to the brain. Some patients may have linear or depressed skull fractures. If <a href="/wiki/Intracranial_hemorrhage" title="Intracranial hemorrhage">intracranial hemorrhage</a> occurs, a <a href="/wiki/Hematoma" title="Hematoma">hematoma</a> within the skull can put pressure on the brain. Types of intracranial hemorrhage include <a href="/wiki/Subdural_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Subdural hemorrhage">subdural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subarachnoid_hemorrhage" title="Subarachnoid hemorrhage">subarachnoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extradural_hematoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Extradural hematoma">extradural</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intraparenchymal_hematoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Intraparenchymal hematoma">intraparenchymal hematoma</a>. <a href="/wiki/Craniotomy" title="Craniotomy">Craniotomy</a> surgeries are used in these cases to lessen the pressure by draining off the blood. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Brain_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">Brain injury</a> can occur at the site of impact, but can also be at the opposite side of the skull due to a <i><a href="/wiki/Coup_contrecoup_injury" title="Coup contrecoup injury">contrecoup</a></i> effect (the impact to the head can cause the brain to move within the skull, causing the brain to impact the interior of the skull opposite the head-impact). While impact on the brain at the same site of injury to the skull is the coup effect. If the impact causes the head to move, the injury may be worsened, because the brain may ricochet inside the skull causing additional impacts, or the brain may stay relatively still (due to inertia) but be hit by the moving skull (both are contrecoup injuries). </p><p>Specific problems after head injury can include<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>Skull fracture</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laceration" class="mw-redirect" title="Laceration">Lacerations</a> to the scalp and resulting <a href="/wiki/Hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhage">hemorrhage</a> of the skin</li> <li>Traumatic <a href="/wiki/Subdural_hematoma" title="Subdural hematoma">subdural hematoma</a>, a bleeding below the <a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura mater</a> which may develop slowly</li> <li>Traumatic extradural, or <a href="/wiki/Epidural_hematoma" title="Epidural hematoma">epidural hematoma</a>, bleeding between the dura mater and the skull</li> <li>Traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_contusion" title="Cerebral contusion">Cerebral contusion</a>, a bruise of the brain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concussion" title="Concussion">Concussion</a>, a loss of function due to trauma</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dementia_pugilistica" class="mw-redirect" title="Dementia pugilistica">Dementia pugilistica</a>, or "punch-drunk syndrome", caused by repetitive head injuries, for example in boxing or other contact sports</li> <li>A severe injury may lead to a <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a> or <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaken_baby_syndrome" title="Shaken baby syndrome">Shaken baby syndrome</a> – a form of child abuse</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concussion">Concussion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Concussion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Concussion" title="Concussion">Concussion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pediatric_concussion" title="Pediatric concussion">Pediatric concussion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coup_injury.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Coup_injury.jpg/220px-Coup_injury.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Coup_injury.jpg/330px-Coup_injury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Coup_injury.jpg/440px-Coup_injury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coup_injury" class="mw-redirect" title="Coup injury">Coup injury</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A concussion is a form of a mild traumatic brain injury (TBI). This injury is a result due to a blow to the head that could make the person's physical, cognitive, and emotional behaviors irregular. Symptoms may include clumsiness, <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">fatigue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confusion" title="Confusion">confusion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blurred_vision" title="Blurred vision">blurry vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headaches</a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mild concussions are associated with <a href="/wiki/Sequela" title="Sequela">sequelae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Severity is measured using various <a href="/wiki/Concussion_grading_systems" title="Concussion grading systems">concussion grading systems</a>. </p><p>A slightly greater injury is associated with both anterograde and retrograde <a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">amnesia</a> (inability to remember events before or after the injury). The amount of time that the amnesia is present correlates with the severity of the injury. In all cases, the patients develop <a href="/wiki/Post_concussion_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Post concussion syndrome">post concussion syndrome</a>, which includes memory problems, dizziness, tiredness, sickness and <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a>. Cerebral <a href="/wiki/Concussion" title="Concussion">concussion</a> is the most common head injury seen in children.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intracranial_bleeding">Intracranial bleeding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Intracranial bleeding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intracranial_hemorrhage" title="Intracranial hemorrhage">Intracranial hemorrhage</a></div> <p>Types of intracranial hemorrhage are roughly grouped into intra-axial and extra-axial. The hemorrhage is considered a <a href="/wiki/Focal_and_diffuse_brain_injury" title="Focal and diffuse brain injury">focal brain injury</a>; that is, it occurs in a localized spot rather than causing diffuse damage over a wider area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intra-axial_bleeding">Intra-axial bleeding</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Intra-axial bleeding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral hemorrhage">cerebral hemorrhage</a></div> <p>Intra-axial hemorrhage is bleeding within the brain itself, or <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral hemorrhage">cerebral hemorrhage</a>. This category includes <a href="/wiki/Intraparenchymal_hemorrhage" title="Intraparenchymal hemorrhage">intraparenchymal hemorrhage</a>, or bleeding within the brain tissue, and <a href="/wiki/Intraventricular_hemorrhage" title="Intraventricular hemorrhage">intraventricular hemorrhage</a>, bleeding within the brain's <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricles</a> (particularly of <a href="/wiki/Premature_birth" class="mw-redirect" title="Premature birth">premature infants</a>). Intra-axial hemorrhages are more dangerous and harder to treat than extra-axial bleeds.<sup id="cite_ref-Brant07_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brant07-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Extra-axial_bleeding">Extra-axial bleeding</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Extra-axial bleeding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Comparison of epidural and subdural hematomas <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epidural_vs._subdural_hematoma" title="Template:Epidural vs. subdural hematoma"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epidural_vs._subdural_hematoma" title="Template talk:Epidural vs. subdural hematoma"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epidural_vs._subdural_hematoma" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epidural vs. subdural hematoma"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Compared quality</th> <th>Epidural</th> <th>Subdural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Location </th> <td>Between the <a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">skull</a> and the inner <a href="/wiki/Meningeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Meningeal">meningeal</a> layer of the <a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura mater</a> or between outer <a href="/wiki/Endosteal" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosteal">endosteal</a> and inner meningeal layer of dura mater</td> <td>Between the meningeal layers of <i>dura mater</i> and the <a href="/wiki/Arachnoid_mater" title="Arachnoid mater">Arachnoid mater</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Involved vessel </th> <td>Temperoparietal locus (most likely) – <a href="/wiki/Middle_meningeal_artery" title="Middle meningeal artery">Middle meningeal artery</a><br />Frontal locus – <a href="/wiki/Anterior_ethmoidal_artery" title="Anterior ethmoidal artery">anterior ethmoidal artery</a><br />Occipital locus – <a href="/wiki/Transverse_sinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse sinus">transverse</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sigmoid_sinus" title="Sigmoid sinus">sigmoid sinuses</a><br />Vertex locus – <a href="/wiki/Superior_sagittal_sinus" title="Superior sagittal sinus">superior sagittal sinus</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bridging_veins" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridging veins">Bridging veins</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Symptoms (depending on the severity)<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Lucid_interval" title="Lucid interval">Lucid interval</a> followed by <a href="/wiki/Unconsciousness" title="Unconsciousness">unconsciousness</a></td> <td>Gradually increasing <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confusion" title="Confusion">confusion</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a> appearance </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Biconvex_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Biconvex lens">Biconvex lens</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Crescent" title="Crescent">Crescent</a>-shaped </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>Extra-axial hemorrhage, bleeding that occurs within the skull but outside of the brain tissue, falls into three subtypes: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidural_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidural hemorrhage">Epidural hemorrhage</a> (extradural hemorrhage) which occur between the <a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura mater</a> (the outermost <a href="/wiki/Meninx" class="mw-redirect" title="Meninx">meninx</a>) and the skull, is caused by trauma. It may result from laceration of an artery, most commonly the <a href="/wiki/Middle_meningeal_artery" title="Middle meningeal artery">middle meningeal artery</a>. This is a very dangerous type of injury because the bleed is from a high-pressure system and deadly increases in <a href="/wiki/Intracranial_pressure" title="Intracranial pressure">intracranial pressure</a> can result rapidly. However, it is the least common type of meningeal bleeding and is seen in 1% to 3% cases of head injury. <ul><li>Patients have a loss of consciousness (LOC), then a <a href="/wiki/Lucid_interval" title="Lucid interval">lucid interval</a>, then sudden deterioration (vomiting, restlessness, LOC)</li> <li>Head CT shows lenticular (convex) deformity.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdural_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Subdural hemorrhage">Subdural hemorrhage</a> results from tearing of the bridging veins in the <a href="/wiki/Subdural_space" title="Subdural space">subdural space</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arachnoid_mater" title="Arachnoid mater">arachnoid mater</a>. <ul><li>Head CT shows crescent-shaped deformity</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subarachnoid_hemorrhage" title="Subarachnoid hemorrhage">Subarachnoid hemorrhage</a>, which occur between the arachnoid and <a href="/wiki/Pia_mater" title="Pia mater">pia</a> meningeal layers, like intraparenchymal hemorrhage, can result either from trauma or from ruptures of <a href="/wiki/Aneurysm" title="Aneurysm">aneurysms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arteriovenous_malformation" title="Arteriovenous malformation">arteriovenous malformations</a>. Blood is seen layering into the brain along <a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">sulci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fissure_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissure (anatomy)">fissures</a>, or filling <a href="/wiki/Cistern_(neuroanatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cistern (neuroanatomy)">cisterns</a> (most often the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Suprasellar_cistern&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suprasellar cistern (page does not exist)">suprasellar cistern</a> because of the presence of the <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">vessels</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_Willis" title="Circle of Willis">circle of Willis</a> and their branch points within that space). The classic presentation of subarachnoid hemorrhage is the sudden onset of a severe headache (a <a href="/wiki/Thunderclap_headache" title="Thunderclap headache">thunderclap headache</a>). This can be a very dangerous entity and requires emergent neurosurgical evaluation and sometimes urgent intervention.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cerebral_contusion">Cerebral contusion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cerebral contusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_contusion" title="Cerebral contusion">Cerebral contusion</a></div> <p>Cerebral contusion is bruising of the brain tissue. The piamater is not breached in contusion in contrary to lacerations. The majority of contusions occur in the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobes</a>. Complications may include cerebral <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a> and transtentorial herniation. The goal of treatment should be to treat the increased <a href="/wiki/Intracranial_pressure" title="Intracranial pressure">intracranial pressure</a>. The prognosis is guarded. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diffuse_axonal_injury">Diffuse axonal injury</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Diffuse axonal injury"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_axonal_injury" title="Diffuse axonal injury">Diffuse axonal injury</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Diffuse_axonal_injury" title="Diffuse axonal injury">Diffuse axonal injury</a>, or DAI, usually occurs as the result of an <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">acceleration</a> or deceleration motion, not necessarily an impact. <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">Axons</a> are stretched and damaged when parts of the brain of differing density slide over one another. Prognoses vary widely depending on the extent of the damage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Compound_head_injury">Compound head injury</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Compound head injury"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Overlying scalp laceration and soft tissue disruption in continuity with a skull fracture constitutes "compound head injury", and has higher rates of infection, unfavorable neurologic outcome, delayed seizures, mortality, and duration of hospital stay.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three categories used for classifying the severity of brain injuries are mild, moderate or severe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mild_brain_injuries">Mild brain injuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mild brain injuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Symptoms of a mild brain injury include headaches, confusion, ringing ears, fatigue, changes in sleep patterns, mood or behavior. Other symptoms include trouble with memory, concentration, attention or thinking. Mental fatigue is a common debilitating experience and may not be linked by the patient to the original (minor) incident. Narcolepsy and sleep disorders are common misdiagnoses.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moderate/severe_brain_injuries"><span id="Moderate.2Fsevere_brain_injuries"></span>Moderate/severe brain injuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Moderate/severe brain injuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cognitive symptoms include confusion, aggression, abnormal behavior, slurred speech, and coma or other disorders of consciousness. Physical symptoms include headaches that do not go away or worsen, vomiting or nausea, convulsions or seizures, abnormal dilation of the eyes, inability to awaken from sleep, weakness in the extremities, and a loss of coordination. In cases of severe brain injuries, the likelihood of areas with permanent <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disability</a> is great, including <a href="/wiki/Neurocognitive_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurocognitive deficit">neurocognitive deficits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delusion" title="Delusion">delusions</a> (often, to be specific, <a href="/wiki/Monothematic_delusion" title="Monothematic delusion">monothematic delusions</a>), speech or movement problems, and <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>. There may also be personality changes. The most severe cases result in <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Persistent_vegetative_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Persistent vegetative state">persistent vegetative state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symptoms_in_children">Symptoms in children</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Symptoms in children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Symptoms observed in children include changes in eating habits, persistent irritability or sadness, changes in attention, disrupted sleeping habits, or loss of interest in toys.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Presentation varies according to the injury. Some patients with head trauma stabilize and other patients deteriorate. A patient may present with or without <a href="/wiki/Functional_neurological_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Functional neurological deficit">neurological deficit</a>. Patients with concussion may have a history of seconds to minutes unconsciousness, then normal arousal. Disturbance of vision and equilibrium may also occur. Common symptoms of head injury include <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a>, confusion, drowsiness, personality change, <a href="/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">seizures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Lucid_interval" title="Lucid interval">lucid interval</a>, during which a patient appears conscious only to deteriorate later.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Symptoms of skull fracture can include: </p> <ul><li>leaking <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a> (a clear fluid drainage from <a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">nose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">mouth</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">ear</a>) is strongly indicative of <a href="/wiki/Basilar_skull_fracture" title="Basilar skull fracture">basilar skull fracture</a> and the tearing of sheaths surrounding the brain, which can lead to secondary brain <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a>.</li> <li>visible deformity or depression in the head or face; for example a sunken eye can indicate a <a href="/wiki/Maxilla" title="Maxilla">maxillar</a> fracture</li> <li>an eye that cannot move or is deviated to one side can indicate that a broken facial bone is pinching a <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerve</a> that innervates eye muscles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wounds</a> or bruises on the scalp or face.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilar_skull_fracture" title="Basilar skull fracture">Basilar skull fractures</a>, those that occur at the base of the <a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">skull</a>, are associated with <a href="/wiki/Battle%27s_sign" title="Battle's sign">Battle's sign</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">subcutaneous</a> bleed over the <a href="/wiki/Mastoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mastoid">mastoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemotympanum" title="Hemotympanum">hemotympanum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a> <a href="/wiki/Rhinorrhea" title="Rhinorrhea">rhinorrhea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otorrhea" class="mw-redirect" title="Otorrhea">otorrhea</a>.</li></ul> <p>Because brain injuries can be life-threatening, even people with apparently slight injuries, with no noticeable signs or complaints, require close observation; They have a chance for severe symptoms later on. The caretakers of those patients with mild trauma who are released from the hospital are frequently advised to rouse the patient several times during the next 12 to 24 hours to assess for worsening symptoms. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Coma_Scale" title="Glasgow Coma Scale">Glasgow Coma Scale</a> (GCS) is a tool for measuring the degree of unconsciousness and is thus a useful tool for determining the severity of the injury. The <a href="/wiki/Pediatric_Glasgow_Coma_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale">Pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale</a> is used in young children. The widely used PECARN Pediatric Head Injury/Trauma Algorithm helps physicians weigh risk-benefit of imaging in a clinical setting given multiple factors about the patient—including mechanism/location of the injury, age of the patient, and GCS score.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19758692_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19758692-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Location_of_brain_damage_predicts_symptoms">Location of brain damage predicts symptoms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Location of brain damage predicts symptoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Symptoms of brain injuries can also be influenced by the location of the injury and as a result, impairments are specific to the part of the brain affected. Lesion size is correlated with severity, recovery, and comprehension.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brain injuries often create impairment or <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disability</a> that can vary greatly in severity. </p><p>Studies show there is a correlation between brain lesion and language, speech, and category-specific disorders. Wernicke's aphasia is associated with <a href="/wiki/Anomic_aphasia" title="Anomic aphasia">anomia</a>, unknowingly making up words (<a href="/wiki/Neologisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Neologisms">neologisms</a>), and problems with comprehension. The symptoms of Wernicke's aphasia are caused by damage to the posterior section of the <a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_gyrus" title="Superior temporal gyrus">superior temporal gyrus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Damage to the <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a> typically produces symptoms like omitting functional words (<a href="/wiki/Agrammatism" title="Agrammatism">agrammatism</a>), sound production changes, <a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">dyslexia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dysgraphia" title="Dysgraphia">dysgraphia</a>, and problems with comprehension and production. Broca's aphasia is indicative of damage to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An impairment following damage to a region of the brain does not necessarily imply that the damaged area is wholly responsible for the cognitive process which is impaired, however. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Pure_alexia" title="Pure alexia">pure alexia</a>, the ability to read is destroyed by a lesion damaging both the left visual field and the connection between the right visual field and the language areas (Broca's area and Wernicke's area). However, this does not mean someone with pure alexia is incapable of comprehending speech—merely that there is no connection between their working visual cortex and language areas—as is demonstrated by the fact that pure alexics can still write, speak, and even transcribe letters without understanding their meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lesions to the <a href="/wiki/Fusiform_gyrus" title="Fusiform gyrus">fusiform gyrus</a> often result in <a href="/wiki/Prosopagnosia" title="Prosopagnosia">prosopagnosia</a>, the inability to distinguish faces and other complex objects from each other.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag needs references to reliable medical sources. (November 2017)">medical citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lesions in the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> would eliminate the enhanced activation seen in occipital and fusiform visual areas in response to fear with the area intact. Amygdala lesions change the functional pattern of activation to emotional stimuli in regions that are distant from the amygdala.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other lesions to the <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a> have different effects depending on the location of the damage. Lesions to <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">V1</a>, for example, can cause <a href="/wiki/Blindsight" title="Blindsight">blindsight</a> in different areas of the brain depending on the size of the lesion and location relative to the <a href="/wiki/Calcarine_fissure" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcarine fissure">calcarine fissure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lesions to <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">V4</a> can cause <a href="/wiki/Color-blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Color-blindness">color-blindness</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and bilateral lesions to <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">MT/V5</a> can cause the loss of the ability to perceive motion.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lesions to the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobes" class="mw-redirect" title="Parietal lobes">parietal lobes</a> may result in <a href="/wiki/Agnosia" title="Agnosia">agnosia</a>, an inability to recognize complex objects, smells, or shapes, or <a href="/wiki/Amorphosynthesis" title="Amorphosynthesis">amorphosynthesis</a>, a loss of perception on the opposite side of the body. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Head injuries can be caused by a large variety of reasons. All of these causes can be put into two categories used to classify head injuries; those that occur from impact (blows) and those that occur from shaking.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common causes of head injury due to impact are <a href="/wiki/Traffic_collisions" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic collisions">motor vehicle traffic collisions</a>, home and occupational accidents, falls, <a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">assault</a>, and sports related accidents. Head injuries from shaking are most common amongst infants and children.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the United States <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a>, 32% of <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Traumatic brain injuries">traumatic brain injuries</a> (another, more specific, term for head injuries) are caused by falls, 10% by assaults, 16.5% by being struck by or against something, 17% by motor vehicle accidents, and 21% by other/unknown ways. In addition, the highest rate of injury is among children ages 0–14 and adults age 65 and older.<sup id="cite_ref-alz.org_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alz.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brain injuries that include brain damage can also be brought on by exposure to toxic chemicals, lack of oxygen, tumors, infections, and stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Possible causes of widespread brain damage include birth hypoxia, prolonged <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">hypoxia</a> (shortage of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>), <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisoning</a> by <a href="/wiki/Teratogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratogen">teratogens</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>), <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neurological_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological illness">neurological illness</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brain_tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain tumors">Brain tumors</a> can increase intracranial pressure, causing brain damage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Diagnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Head_injury_criterion" title="Head injury criterion">Head injury criterion</a></div> <p>There are a few methods used to diagnose a head injury. A healthcare professional will ask the patient questions revolving around the injury as well as questions to help determine in what ways the injury is affecting function. In addition to this hearing, vision, balance, and reflexes may also be assessed as an indicator of the severity of the injury.<sup id="cite_ref-alz.org_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alz.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A non-contrast CT of the head should be performed immediately in all those who have sustained a moderate or severe head injury. A CT is an imaging technique that allows physicians to see inside the head without surgery in order to determine if there is internal bleeding or swelling in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computed tomography (CT) has become the diagnostic modality of choice for head trauma due to its accuracy, reliability, safety, and wide availability. The changes in microcirculation, impaired auto-regulation, cerebral edema, and axonal injury start as soon as a head injury occurs and manifest as clinical, biochemical, and radiological changes.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An MRI may also be conducted to determine if someone has abnormal growths or tumors in the brain or to determine if the patient has had a stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Coma_Scale" title="Glasgow Coma Scale">Glasgow Coma Scale</a> (GCS) is the most widely used scoring system used to assess the level of severity of a brain injury. This method is based on objective observations of specific traits to determine the severity of a brain injury. It is based on three traits: eye-opening, verbal response, and motor response, which are gauged as described below. </p><p>Based on the Glasgow Coma Scale severity is classified as follows: </p> <ul><li>severe brain injuries score 3–8,</li> <li>moderate brain injuries score 9-12, and</li> <li>mild brain injuries score 13–15.</li></ul> <p>There are several imaging techniques that can aid in diagnosing and assessing the extent of brain damage, including: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography">computed tomography</a> (CT) scan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_tensor_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion tensor imaging">diffusion tensor imaging</a> (DTI) and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic resonance spectroscopy">magnetic resonance spectroscopy</a> (MRS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">positron emission tomography</a> (PET)</li> <li>single-photon emission tomography (SPECT)</li></ul> <p>CT scans and MRI are the two techniques widely used and are the most effective. CT scans can show brain bleeds, fractures of the skull, fluid build up in the brain that will lead to increased cranial pressure. MRI is able to better detect smaller injuries, detect damage within the brain, diffuse axonal injury, injuries to the brainstem, posterior fossa, and subtemporal and sub frontal regions. However, patients with pacemakers, metallic implants, or other metal within their bodies are unable to have an MRI done. Typically the other imaging techniques are not used in a clinical setting because of the cost, lack of availability. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury#Treatment" title="Traumatic brain injury">Traumatic brain injury § Treatment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acquired_brain_injury#Treatment" title="Acquired brain injury">Acquired brain injury § Treatment</a></div> <p>Most head injuries are of a benign nature and require no treatment beyond <a href="/wiki/Analgesics" class="mw-redirect" title="Analgesics">analgesics</a> such as acetaminophen. Non-steroidal painkillers such as ibuprofen are avoided since they could make any potential bleeding worse. Due to the high risk of even minor brain injuries, close monitoring for potential complications such as <a href="/wiki/Intracranial_bleeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracranial bleeding">intracranial bleeding</a>. If the brain has been severely damaged by trauma, a neurosurgical evaluation may be useful. Treatments may involve controlling elevated intracranial pressure. This can include sedation, paralytics, cerebrospinal fluid diversion. Second-line alternatives include decompressive craniectomy (Jagannathan et al. found a net 65% favorable outcomes rate in pediatric patients), barbiturate coma, hypertonic saline, and hypothermia. Although all of these methods have potential benefits, there has been no randomized study that has shown unequivocal benefit. </p><p>Clinicians will often consult clinical decision support rules such as the Canadian CT Head Rule or the New Orleans/Charity Head injury/Trauma Rule to decide if the patient needs further imaging studies or observation only. Rules like these are usually studied in depth by multiple research groups with large patient cohorts to ensure accuracy given the risk of adverse events in this area.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is a subspecialty certification available for brain injury medicine that signifies expertise in the treatment of brain injury.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prognosis">Prognosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Prognosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prognosis, or the likely progress of a disorder, depends on the nature, location, and cause of the brain damage (see <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">Traumatic brain injury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Focal_and_diffuse_brain_injury" title="Focal and diffuse brain injury">Focal and diffuse brain injury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_brain_injury" title="Primary and secondary brain injury">Primary and secondary brain injury</a>). </p><p>In children with uncomplicated minor head injuries the risk of intracranial bleeding over the next year is rare at 2 cases per 1 million.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases transient neurological disturbances may occur, lasting minutes to hours. Malignant post traumatic cerebral swelling can develop unexpectedly in stable patients after an injury, as can post-traumatic <a href="/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">seizures</a>. Recovery in children with neurologic deficits will vary. Children with neurologic deficits who improve daily are more likely to recover, while those who are vegetative for months are less likely to improve. Most patients without deficits have full recovery. However, persons who sustain head trauma resulting in unconsciousness for an hour or more have twice the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease later in life.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Head injury may be associated with a neck injury. Bruises on the back or neck, neck pain, or pain radiating to the arms are signs of cervical spine injury and merit spinal immobilization via application of a <a href="/wiki/Cervical_collar" title="Cervical collar">cervical collar</a> and possibly a longboard. If the <a href="/wiki/Neurological_exam" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological exam">neurological exam</a> is normal this is reassuring. Reassessment is needed if there is a worsening <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">seizure</a>, one-sided weakness, or has persistent vomiting. </p><p>To combat overuse of head CT scans yielding negative intracranial hemorrhage results, which unnecessarily exposes patients to radiation and increase time in the hospital and cost of the visit, multiple clinical decision support rules have been developed to help clinicians weigh the option to scan a patient with a head injury. Among these are the Canadian Head CT rule, the PECARN Head Injury/Trauma Algorithm, and the New Orleans/Charity Head Injury/Trauma Rule all help clinicians make these decisions using easily obtained information and noninvasive practices. </p><p>Brain injuries are very hard to predict in the outcome. Many tests and specialists are needed to determine the likelihood of the prognosis. People with minor brain damage can have debilitating side effects; not just severe brain damage has debilitating effects. The side-effects of a brain injury depend on location and the body's response to injury. Even a mild <a href="/wiki/Concussion" title="Concussion">concussion</a> can have long term effects that may not resolve. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The foundation for understanding human behavior and brain injury can be attributed to the case of <a href="/wiki/Phineas_Gage" title="Phineas Gage">Phineas Gage</a> and the famous case studies by Paul Broca. The first case study on Phineas Gage's head injury is one of the most astonishing brain injuries in history. In 1848, Phineas Gage was paving way for a new railroad line when he encountered an accidental explosion of a tamping iron straight through his frontal lobe. Gage observed to be intellectually unaffected but exemplified post-injury behavioral deficits. These deficits include: becoming sporadic, disrespectful, extremely profane, and gave no regard for other workers. Gage started having seizures in February 1860, dying only four months later on May 21, 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ten years later, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a> examined two patients exhibiting impaired speech due to frontal lobe injuries. Broca's first patient lacked productive speech. He saw this as an opportunity to address language localization. It wasn't until Leborgne, formally known as "tan", died when Broca confirmed the frontal lobe lesion from an autopsy. The second patient had similar speech impairments, supporting his findings on language localization. The results of both cases became a vital verification of the relationship between speech and the left cerebral hemisphere. The affected areas are known today as <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a> and Broca's Aphasia.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few years later, a German neuroscientist, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wernicke" title="Carl Wernicke">Carl Wernicke</a>, consulted on a stroke patient. The patient experienced neither speech nor hearing impairments but had a few brain deficits. These deficits included: lacking the ability to comprehend what was spoken to him and the words written down. After his death, Wernicke examined his autopsy that found a lesion located in the left temporal region. This area became known as <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a>. Wernicke later hypothesized the relationship between Wernicke's area and Broca's area, which was proven fact.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Epidemiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Head injury is the leading cause of death in many countries.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_palsy" title="Cerebral palsy">Cerebral palsy</a> – Movement disorders that appear in early childhood</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encephalopathy" title="Encephalopathy">Encephalopathy</a> – Disorder or disease of the brain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">Epilepsy</a> – Group of neurological disorders causing seizures</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder" title="Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder">Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder</a> – Group of conditions resulting from maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe_injury" title="Frontal lobe injury">Frontal lobe injury</a> – Type of brain injury</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concussion" title="Concussion">Concussion</a> – type of traumatic brain injury<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinity_Walk" title="Infinity Walk">Infinity Walk</a> – Therapeutic method for progressively developing coordination</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobotomy" title="Lobotomy">Lobotomy</a> – Neurosurgical operation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myogenesis" title="Myogenesis">Myogenesis</a> – Formation of muscular tissue, particularly during embryonic development</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_injury" title="Nerve injury">Nerve injury</a> – Damage to nervous tissue</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocognition" title="Neurocognition">Neurocognition</a> – Cognitive functions related to a brain region</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a> – Medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_brain_injury" title="Primary and secondary brain injury">Primary and secondary brain injury</a> – Medical condition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(neuropsychology)" title="Rehabilitation (neuropsychology)">Rehabilitation (neuropsychology)</a> – Therapy to regain or improve neurocognitive function that has been lost or diminished</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synaptogenesis" title="Synaptogenesis">Synaptogenesis</a> – Formation of neuronal junctions in the nervous system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">Traumatic brain injury</a> – Injury of the brain from an external source</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_injury" title="Brain injury">Brain injury</a> – Destruction or degeneration of brain cells</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acquired_brain_injury" title="Acquired brain injury">Acquired brain injury</a> – Brain damage caused by events after birth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodegeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodegeneration">Neurodegeneration</a> – Central nervous system disease<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_traumatic_encephalopathy" title="Chronic traumatic encephalopathy">Chronic traumatic encephalopathy</a> – Neurodegenerative disease caused by head injury</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-bmj.com-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bmj.com_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bmj.com_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHardmanRominiyiKingSnelson2019" class="citation journal cs1">Hardman S, Rominiyi O, King D, Snelson E (May 2019). "Is cranial computed tomography unnecessary in children with a head injury and isolated vomiting?". <i>BMJ</i>. <b>365</b>: l1875. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.l1875">10.1136/bmj.l1875</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31123100">31123100</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163165272">163165272</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=Is+cranial+computed+tomography+unnecessary+in+children+with+a+head+injury+and+isolated+vomiting%3F&rft.volume=365&rft.pages=l1875&rft.date=2019-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163165272%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31123100&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.l1875&rft.aulast=Hardman&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Rominiyi%2C+O&rft.au=King%2C+D&rft.au=Snelson%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHead+injury" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFElbaum2007" class="citation book cs1">Elbaum J (2007-04-13). <i>Counseling Individuals Post Acquired Brain Injury; In: Acquired Brain Injury</i>. Springer New York. pp. <span class="nowrap">259–</span>274. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780387375748" title="Special:BookSources/9780387375748"><bdi>9780387375748</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Counseling+Individuals+Post+Acquired+Brain+Injury%3B+In%3A+Acquired+Brain+Injury&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E259-%3C%2Fspan%3E274&rft.pub=Springer+New+York&rft.date=2007-04-13&rft.isbn=9780387375748&rft.aulast=Elbaum&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHead+injury" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFProskuriakovaKasendeeva1975" class="citation journal cs1">Proskuriakova NA, Kasendeeva MK (September 1975). 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Oxford: OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191578717" title="Special:BookSources/9780191578717"><bdi>9780191578717</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Head+Injury&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780191578717&rft.aulast=Daisley&rft.aufirst=Audrey&rft.au=Kischka%2C+Udo&rft.au=Tams%2C+Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPnzkLAlQ0LgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHead+injury" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMacfarlaneHardy1997" class="citation book cs1">Macfarlane R, Hardy DG (1997). <i>Outcome after Head, Neck and Spinal Trauma: a medicolegal guide</i>. 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href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1737620">"Phineas Gage and the science of brain localisation"</a>. <i>Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry</i>. <b>71</b> (6): 761. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjnnp.71.6.761">10.1136/jnnp.71.6.761</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1737620">1737620</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11723197">11723197</a>.</cite><span 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href="https://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/123456789/35076/1/Guenther_0-351332.pdf">"The disappearing lesion: sigmund freud, sensory-motor physiology, and the beginnings of psychoanalysis*"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Modern Intellectual History</i>. <b>10</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">569–</span>601. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS147924431300022X">10.1017/S147924431300022X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16372696">16372696</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/123456789/35076/1/Guenther_0-351332.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span 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book cs1">Debas HT, Donkor P, Gawande A, et al. (2015). Debas HT, Donkor P, Gawande A, Jamison DT, Kruk ME, Mock CN (eds.). <i>Essential Surgery; In: Disease Control Priorities</i>. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: World Bank. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1596%2F978-1-4648-0346-8">10.1596/978-1-4648-0346-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10986%2F21568">10986/21568</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4648-0346-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4648-0346-8"><bdi>978-1-4648-0346-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26740991">26740991</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Surgery%3B+In%3A+Disease+Control+Priorities&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=World+Bank&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10986%2F21568&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26740991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1596%2F978-1-4648-0346-8&rft.isbn=978-1-4648-0346-8&rft.aulast=Debas&rft.aufirst=H.+T.&rft.au=Donkor%2C+P.&rft.au=Gawande%2C+A.&rft.au=Jamison%2C+D.+T.&rft.au=Kruk%2C+M.+E.&rft.au=Mock%2C+C.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHead+injury" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Head_injury&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_Injury_(journal)" title="Brain Injury (journal)"><i>Brain Injury</i> (journal)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.injuries.cochrane.org/">Cochrane Injuries Group: systematic reviews on the prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of traumatic injury</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.redcross.org.uk/What-we-do/First-aid/First-aid-tips-and-videos/Head-injuries">First aid advice for head injuries</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110519201017/http://www.redcross.org.uk/What-we-do/First-aid/First-aid-tips-and-videos/Head-injuries">Archived</a> 2011-05-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the British Red Cross</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox32" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2920572" class="extiw" title="d:Q2920572">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/S00.0">S00.0</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/S09">S09</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=800">800</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=879">879</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006259">D006259</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb5671.htm">5671</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/neuro/153-overview">neuro/153</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Patient_UK" title="Patient UK">Patient UK</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patient.info/doctor/head-injury">Head injury</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nonmusculoskeletal_injuries_of_head_(head_injury)_and_neck121" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nonmusculoskeletal_injuries_of_head_and_neck" title="Template:Nonmusculoskeletal injuries of head and neck"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nonmusculoskeletal_injuries_of_head_and_neck" title="Template talk:Nonmusculoskeletal injuries of head and neck"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nonmusculoskeletal_injuries_of_head_and_neck" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nonmusculoskeletal injuries of head and neck"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nonmusculoskeletal_injuries_of_head_(head_injury)_and_neck121" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Nonmusculoskeletal injuries of head (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">head injury</a>) and neck</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intracranial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>see <a href="/wiki/Template:Neurotrauma" title="Template:Neurotrauma">neurotrauma</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extracranial/<br /><a href="/wiki/Facial_trauma" title="Facial trauma">facial trauma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">eye</a>:</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_eye" title="Black eye">Black eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_injury" title="Eye injury">Eye injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_abrasion" title="Corneal abrasion">Corneal abrasion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">ear</a>:</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perforated_eardrum" title="Perforated eardrum">Perforated eardrum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Either/both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penetrating_head_injury" title="Penetrating head injury">Penetrating head injury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Trauma75" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Trauma" title="Template:Trauma"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Trauma" title="Template talk:Trauma"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Trauma" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Trauma"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Trauma75" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">Trauma</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polytrauma" title="Polytrauma">Polytrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_trauma" title="Major trauma">Major trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traumatology" title="Traumatology">Traumatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triage" title="Triage">Triage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resuscitation" title="Resuscitation">Resuscitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_triad_of_death" title="Trauma triad of death">Trauma triad of death</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Assessment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_prediction_rule" title="Clinical prediction rule">Clinical prediction rules</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbreviated_Injury_Scale" title="Abbreviated Injury Scale">Abbreviated Injury Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_Severity_Score" title="Injury Severity Score">Injury Severity Score</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NACA_score" title="NACA score">NACA score</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revised_Trauma_Score" title="Revised Trauma Score">Revised Trauma Score</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em">Investigations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_peritoneal_lavage" title="Diagnostic peritoneal lavage">Diagnostic peritoneal lavage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focused_assessment_with_sonography_for_trauma" title="Focused assessment with sonography for trauma">Focused assessment with sonography for trauma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_trauma_life_support" title="Advanced trauma life support">Advanced trauma life support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damage_control_surgery" title="Damage control surgery">Damage control surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_appropriate_care" title="Early appropriate care">Early appropriate care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_center" title="Trauma center">Trauma center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_team" title="Trauma team">Trauma team</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em">Procedures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resuscitative_thoracotomy" title="Resuscitative thoracotomy">Resuscitative thoracotomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pathophysiology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">Injury</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>MSK <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_fracture" title="Bone fracture">Bone fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degloving" title="Degloving">Degloving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_dislocation" title="Joint dislocation">Joint dislocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_tissue_injury" title="Soft tissue injury">Soft tissue injury</a></li></ul></li> <li>Respiratory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diaphragmatic_rupture" title="Diaphragmatic rupture">Diaphragmatic rupture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flail_chest" title="Flail chest">Flail chest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemothorax" title="Hemothorax">Hemothorax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumothorax" title="Pneumothorax">Pneumothorax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_contusion" title="Pulmonary contusion">Pulmonary contusion</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cardio <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_tamponade" title="Cardiac tamponade">Cardiac tamponade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_bleeding" title="Internal bleeding">Internal bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_aorta_injury" title="Thoracic aorta injury">Thoracic aorta injury</a></li></ul></li> <li>GI <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blunt_kidney_trauma" title="Blunt kidney trauma">Blunt kidney trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Splenic_injury" title="Splenic injury">Splenic injury</a></li></ul></li> <li>Neuro <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intracranial_hemorrhage" title="Intracranial hemorrhage">Intracranial hemorrhage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetrating_head_injury" title="Penetrating head injury">Penetrating head injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">Traumatic brain injury</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em">Mechanism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blast_injury" title="Blast injury">Blast injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blunt_trauma" title="Blunt trauma">Blunt trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crush_injury" title="Crush injury">Crush injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrocution" title="Electrocution">Electrocution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunshot_wound" title="Gunshot wound">Gunshot wound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetrating_trauma" title="Penetrating trauma">Penetrating trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stab_wound" title="Stab wound">Stab wound</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em">Region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_trauma" title="Abdominal trauma">Abdominal trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chest_injury" title="Chest injury">Chest injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_trauma" title="Facial trauma">Facial trauma</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Head injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord_injury" title="Spinal cord injury">Spinal cord injury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em">Demographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geriatric_trauma" title="Geriatric trauma">Geriatric trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_in_children" title="Trauma in children">Pediatric trauma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Complications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_respiratory_distress_syndrome" title="Acute respiratory distress syndrome">Acute respiratory distress syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_traumatic_encephalopathy" title="Chronic traumatic encephalopathy">Chronic traumatic encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compartment_syndrome" title="Compartment syndrome">Compartment syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contracture" title="Contracture">Contracture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volkmann%27s_contracture" title="Volkmann's contracture">Volkmann's contracture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crush_syndrome" title="Crush syndrome">Crush syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhabdomyolysis" title="Rhabdomyolysis">Rhabdomyolysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embolism" title="Embolism">Embolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_embolism" title="Air embolism">air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_embolism_syndrome" title="Fat embolism syndrome">fat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">Post-traumatic stress disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_emphysema" title="Subcutaneous emphysema">Subcutaneous emphysema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wound_healing" title="Wound healing">Wound healing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="General_wounds_and_injuries99" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:General_injuries" title="Template:General injuries"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:General_injuries" title="Template talk:General injuries"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:General_injuries" title="Special:EditPage/Template:General injuries"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="General_wounds_and_injuries99" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">General <a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wounds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">injuries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Abrasions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasion_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrasion (medical)">Abrasion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avulsion_injury" title="Avulsion injury">Avulsion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Blister" title="Blister">Blisters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_blister" title="Blood blister">Blood blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coma_blister" title="Coma blister">Coma blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delayed_blister" title="Delayed blister">Delayed blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edema_blister" title="Edema blister">Edema blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_blister" title="Fracture blister">Fracture blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_blister" title="Friction blister">Friction blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sucking_blister" title="Sucking blister">Sucking blister</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bruise" title="Bruise">Bruises</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hematoma" title="Hematoma">Hematoma</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ecchymosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecchymosis">Ecchymosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle%27s_sign" title="Battle's sign">Battle's sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raccoon_eyes" title="Raccoon eyes">Raccoon eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_eye" title="Black eye">Black eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subungual_hematoma" title="Subungual hematoma">Subungual hematoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cullen%27s_sign" title="Cullen's sign">Cullen's sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_Turner%27s_sign" title="Grey Turner's sign">Grey Turner's sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retroperitoneal_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroperitoneal hemorrhage">Retroperitoneal hemorrhage</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biting" title="Biting">Biting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite" title="Animal bite">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_bites_and_stings" class="mw-redirect" title="Insect bites and stings">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_bite" title="Spider bite">Spider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snakebite" title="Snakebite">Snake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballistic_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballistic trauma">Ballistic trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stab_wound" title="Stab wound">Stab wound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Splinter" title="Splinter">Splinter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blunt_trauma" title="Blunt trauma">Blunt trauma</a>/superficial/<a href="/wiki/Wound#Closed" title="Wound">closed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetrating_trauma" title="Penetrating trauma">Penetrating trauma</a>/<a href="/wiki/Wound#Open" title="Wound">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol_burn" title="Aerosol burn">Aerosol burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">Burn</a>/<a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">Corrosion</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chemical_burn" title="Chemical burn">Chemical burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frostbite" title="Frostbite">Frostbite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_injury" title="Occupational injury">Occupational injuries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amputation#Trauma" title="Amputation">Traumatic amputation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hand_injury" title="Hand injury">Hand injury</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Head injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chest_injury" title="Chest injury">Chest trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_trauma" title="Abdominal trauma">Abdominal trauma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox600" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: 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