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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Treatment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Treatment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Snake_identification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Snake_identification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Snake identification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Snake_identification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_aid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_aid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 First aid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_aid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pressure_immobilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pressure_immobilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Pressure immobilization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pressure_immobilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antivenom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antivenom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Antivenom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antivenom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronic_Complications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronic_Complications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Chronic Complications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronic_Complications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outmoded" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outmoded"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Outmoded </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outmoded-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 In development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Epidemiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Mechanics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mechanics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mechanics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Predatory_vs._defensive_bites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predatory_vs._defensive_bites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Predatory vs. defensive bites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predatory_vs._defensive_bites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Venom_Metering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Venom_Metering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Venom Metering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Venom_Metering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Venom_Spitting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Venom_Spitting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Venom Spitting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Venom_Spitting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Society and culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Other animals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Snakebite</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" > 50 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%AB%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="لدغة ثعبان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لدغة ثعبان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="সৰ্পদংশন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="সৰ্পদংশন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordedura_de_culiebra" title="Mordedura de culiebra – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Mordedura de culiebra" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="সর্পদংশন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সর্পদংশন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picada_de_serp" title="Picada de serp – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Picada de serp" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C5%A1tknut%C3%AD_hadem" title="Uštknutí hadem – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Uštknutí hadem" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlangenbiss" title="Schlangenbiss – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schlangenbiss" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maohammustus" title="Maohammustus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Maohammustus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordedura_de_serpiente" title="Mordedura de serpiente – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mordedura de serpiente" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suge-hozkada" title="Suge-hozkada – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Suge-hozkada" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="مارگزیدگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مارگزیدگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morsure_de_serpent" title="Morsure de serpent – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Morsure de serpent" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trabada_de_serpe" title="Trabada de serpe – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Trabada de serpe" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EA%B5%90%EC%83%81" title="사교상 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사교상" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cizon_maciji" title="Cizon maciji – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Cizon maciji" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D5%B1%D5%AB_%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A9%D5%B8%D6%81" title="Օձի խայթոց – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օձի խայթոց" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="सर्पदंश – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सर्पदंश" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugriz_zmije" title="Ugriz zmije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ugriz zmije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigitan_ular" title="Gigitan ular – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gigitan ular" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%A9%D7%AA_%D7%A0%D7%97%D7%A9" title="הכשת נחש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הכשת נחש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cokotan_ula" title="Cokotan ula – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Cokotan ula" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%81_%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4" title="ಹಾವು ಕಡಿತ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಹಾವು ಕಡಿತ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyvat%C4%97s_%C4%AFkirtimas" title="Gyvatės įkirtimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Gyvatės įkirtimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekisubi_kimusaze" title="Ekisubi kimusaze – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Ekisubi kimusaze" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="सर्पदंश – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सर्पदंश" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="لدغة تعبان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لدغة تعبان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%87%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6%E1%81%9C%E1%80%B6%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="ဇြုံၜံက် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ဇြုံၜံက်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slangenbeet" title="Slangenbeet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Slangenbeet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="सर्पदंश – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सर्पदंश" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%9B%87%E5%92%AC%E5%82%B7" title="蛇咬傷 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="蛇咬傷" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AA_%E0%AC%A6%E0%AC%82%E0%AC%B6" title="ସର୍ପ ଦଂଶ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସର୍ପ ଦଂଶ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilon_chaqishi" title="Ilon chaqishi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ilon chaqishi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%AA_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%A1%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%BE" title="ਸੱਪ ਦਾ ਡੱਸਣਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੱਪ ਦਾ ਡੱਸਣਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%86%D9%8A%DA%86%D9%84" title="مارچيچل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مارچيچل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordedura_de_serpente" title="Mordedura de serpente – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mordedura de serpente" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%81" title="Змеиный укус – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Змеиный укус" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A7%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A8" title="ᱵᱤᱧᱜᱮᱨ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱵᱤᱧᱜᱮᱨ" 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Injury caused by bite from snakes</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Snakebite_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Snakebite (disambiguation)">Snakebite (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Snakebite</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Cobra_bite_in_Thailand_(image,_2023).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Cobra_bite_in_Thailand_%28image%2C_2023%29.jpg/220px-Cobra_bite_in_Thailand_%28image%2C_2023%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Cobra_bite_in_Thailand_%28image%2C_2023%29.jpg/330px-Cobra_bite_in_Thailand_%28image%2C_2023%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Cobra_bite_in_Thailand_%28image%2C_2023%29.jpg/440px-Cobra_bite_in_Thailand_%28image%2C_2023%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="2419" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">A <a href="/wiki/Cobra" title="Cobra">cobra</a> bite on the foot of a girl in <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Two <a href="/wiki/Puncture_wound" class="mw-redirect" title="Puncture wound">puncture wounds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Redness" class="mw-redirect" title="Redness">redness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">swelling</a>, severe pain at the area<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhage">Bleeding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">severe allergic reaction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">tissue death</a> around the bite, breathing problems, <a href="/wiki/Amputation" title="Amputation">amputation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Envenomation" title="Envenomation">envenomation</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Snakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Snakes">Snakes</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">Risk factors</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Working outside with one's hands (<a href="/wiki/Farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Farming">farming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a>, construction);<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a> harassment;<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Drunkenness" class="mw-redirect" title="Drunkenness">drunkenness</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prevention</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protective_footwear&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protective footwear (page does not exist)">Protective footwear</a>, avoiding areas where snakes live, not handling snakes<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data">Washing the wound with soap and water, <a href="/wiki/Antivenom" title="Antivenom">antivenom</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHONeg-7">[7]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Prognosis" title="Prognosis">Prognosis</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Depends on type of snake<a href="#cite_note-Marx2010-8">[8]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">Up to 5 million a year<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">94,000–125,000 per year<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> A snakebite is an injury caused by the bite of a snake, especially a <a href="/wiki/Venomous_snake" title="Venomous snake">venomous snake</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> A common sign of a bite from a venomous snake is the presence of two <a href="/wiki/Puncture_wound" class="mw-redirect" title="Puncture wound">puncture wounds</a> from the animal's <a href="/wiki/Fang" title="Fang">fangs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a> Sometimes <a href="/wiki/Envenomation" title="Envenomation">venom injection from the bite</a> may occur.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a> This may result in redness, swelling, and severe pain at the area, which may take up to an hour to appear.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">Vomiting</a>, blurred vision, tingling of the limbs, and sweating may result.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a> Most bites are on the hands, arms, or legs.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">Fear</a> following a bite is common with symptoms of a <a href="/wiki/Tachycardia" title="Tachycardia">racing heart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dizziness" title="Dizziness">feeling faint</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venom</a> may cause <a href="/wiki/Hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhage">bleeding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">severe allergic reaction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">tissue death</a> around the bite, or breathing problems.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a> Bites may result in the <a href="/wiki/Amputation" title="Amputation">loss of a limb</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Chronic_condition" title="Chronic condition">chronic problems</a> or even death.<a href="#cite_note-Healthline_Media_UK_Ltd-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a> The outcome depends on the type of snake, the area of the body bitten, the amount of <a href="/wiki/Snake_venom" title="Snake venom">snake venom</a> injected, the general health of the person bitten, and whether or not anti-venom serum has been administered by a doctor in a timely manner.<a href="#cite_note-Healthline_Media_UK_Ltd-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marx2010-8">[8]</a> Problems are often more severe in children than adults, due to their smaller size.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHOantivenoms-13">[13]</a> Allergic reactions to snake venom can further complicate outcomes and can include <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">anaphylaxis</a>, requiring additional treatment and in some cases resulting in death.<a href="#cite_note-Healthline_Media_UK_Ltd-11">[11]</a> Snakes bite both as a method of hunting and as a means of protection.<a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">Risk factors</a> for bites include working outside with one's hands such as in <a href="/wiki/Farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Farming">farming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a>, and construction.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a> Snakes commonly involved in envenomations include <a href="/wiki/Elapid" class="mw-redirect" title="Elapid">elapids</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Krait" class="mw-redirect" title="Krait">kraits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobra" title="Cobra">cobras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mamba" title="Mamba">mambas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Viper" title="Viper">vipers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sea_snake" title="Sea snake">sea snakes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHONeg-7">[7]</a> The majority of snake species do not have venom and kill their prey by <a href="/wiki/Constriction" title="Constriction">constriction</a> (squeezing them).<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a> Venomous snakes can be found on every continent except <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a> Determining the type of snake that caused a bite is often not possible.<a href="#cite_note-WHONeg-7">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> says snakebites are a "neglected <a href="/wiki/Public_health_issue" class="mw-redirect" title="Public health issue">public health issue</a> in many tropical and subtropical countries",<a href="#cite_note-WHOantivenoms-13">[13]</a> and in 2017, the WHO categorized snakebite envenomation as a <a href="/wiki/Neglected_Tropical_Disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Neglected Tropical Disease">Neglected Tropical Disease</a> (Category A). The WHO also estimates that between 4.5 and 5.4 million people are bitten each year, and of those figures, 40–50% develop some kind of clinical illness as a result.<a href="#cite_note-Langley2020-15">[15]</a> Furthermore, the death toll from such an injury could range between 80,000 and 130,000 people per year.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Langley2020-15">[15]</a> The purpose was to encourage research, expand the accessibility of antivenoms, and improve snakebite management in "<a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>".<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Prevention of snake bites can involve wearing protective footwear, avoiding areas where snakes live, and not handling snakes.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a> Treatment partly depends on the type of snake.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a> Washing the wound with soap and water and holding the limb still is recommended.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHONeg-7">[7]</a> Trying to suck out the venom, cutting the wound with a knife, or using a <a href="/wiki/Tourniquet" title="Tourniquet">tourniquet</a> is not recommended.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antivenom" title="Antivenom">Antivenom</a> is effective at preventing death from bites; however, antivenoms frequently have <a href="/wiki/Side_effect" title="Side effect">side effects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2007-18">[18]</a> The type of antivenom needed depends on the type of snake involved.<a href="#cite_note-WHONeg-7">[7]</a> When the type of snake is unknown, antivenom is often given based on the types known to be in the area.<a href="#cite_note-WHONeg-7">[7]</a> In some areas of the world, getting the right type of antivenom is difficult and this partly contributes to why they sometimes do not work.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a> An additional issue is the cost of these medications.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a> Antivenom has little effect on the area around the bite itself.<a href="#cite_note-WHONeg-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_ventilation" title="Mechanical ventilation">Supporting the person's breathing</a> is sometimes also required.<a href="#cite_note-WHONeg-7">[7]</a> The number of venomous snakebites that occur each year may be as high as five million.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a> They result in about 2.5 million envenomations and 20,000 to 125,000 deaths.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a> The frequency and severity of bites vary greatly among different parts of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a> They occur most commonly in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>,<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a> with rural areas more greatly affected.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHOantivenoms-13">[13]</a> Deaths are relatively rare in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2007-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chippaux1998-19">[19]</a> For example, in the United States, about seven to eight thousand people per year are bitten by venomous snakes (about one in 40 thousand people) and about five people die (about one death per 65 million people).<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-1">[1]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snake_bite_symptoms.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Snake_bite_symptoms.png/330px-Snake_bite_symptoms.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Snake_bite_symptoms.png/500px-Snake_bite_symptoms.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Snake_bite_symptoms.png/960px-Snake_bite_symptoms.png 2x" data-file-width="1826" data-file-height="1817" /></a><figcaption>The most common symptoms of any kind of snake envenomation.<a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlus-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> However, there is vast variation in symptoms between bites from different types of snakes.<a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlus-20">[20]</a></figcaption></figure> The most common first symptom of all snakebites is an overwhelming fear, which may contribute to other symptoms, and may include <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vertigo_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertigo (medical)">vertigo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fainting" class="mw-redirect" title="Fainting">fainting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tachycardia" title="Tachycardia">tachycardia</a>, and cold, clammy skin.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kitchens1987-23">[23]</a> Snake bites can have a variety of different signs and symptoms depending on their species.<a href="#cite_note-Healthline_Media_UK_Ltd-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dry_bite" title="Dry bite">Dry snakebites</a> and those inflicted by a non-venomous species may still cause severe injury. The bite may become infected from the snake's saliva. The fangs sometimes harbor pathogenic microbial organisms, including <a href="/wiki/Clostridium_tetani" title="Clostridium tetani">Clostridium tetani</a>, and may require an updated tetanus immunization.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Langley2020-15">[15]</a> Most snakebites, from either a venomous or a non-venomous snake, will have some type of local effect.<a href="#cite_note-Online_Khabar-25">[25]</a> Minor pain and <a href="/wiki/Erythema" title="Erythema">redness</a> occur in over 90 percent of cases, although this varies depending on the site.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a> Bites by <a href="/wiki/Viper_(animal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Viper (animal)">vipers</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Cobra" title="Cobra">cobras</a> may be extremely painful, with the local tissue sometimes becoming tender and severely <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">swollen</a> within five minutes.<a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2007-18">[18]</a> This area may also bleed and blister and may lead to tissue <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a>. Other common initial symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Pit_viper" title="Pit viper">pit viper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viper_(animal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Viper (animal)">viper</a> bites include lethargy, bleeding, weakness, nausea, and vomiting.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2007-18">[18]</a> Symptoms may become more life-threatening over time, developing into <a href="/wiki/Hypotension" title="Hypotension">hypotension</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tachypnea" title="Tachypnea">tachypnea</a>, severe tachycardia, severe internal bleeding, altered <a href="/wiki/Sensorium" title="Sensorium">sensorium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_failure" title="Respiratory failure">respiratory failure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2007-18">[18]</a> Bites by some snakes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kraits" class="mw-redirect" title="Kraits">kraits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral_snake" title="Coral snake">coral snake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mojave_rattlesnake" class="mw-redirect" title="Mojave rattlesnake">Mojave rattlesnake</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Crotalus_mitchellii" title="Crotalus mitchellii">speckled rattlesnake</a>, may cause little or no pain, despite their serious and potentially life-threatening venom.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a> Some people report experiencing a "rubbery", "minty", or "metallic" taste after being bitten by certain species of rattlesnake.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Spitting_cobra" title="Spitting cobra">Spitting cobras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rinkhals" title="Rinkhals">rinkhalses</a> can spit venom in a person's eyes. This results in immediate pain, <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmoparesis" title="Ophthalmoparesis">ophthalmoparesis</a>, and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">blindness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Warrell1976-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ismail1993-27">[27]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tissue_necrosis_following_bite_from_Bothrops_asper_PLoS_Medicine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Tissue_necrosis_following_bite_from_Bothrops_asper_PLoS_Medicine.jpg/170px-Tissue_necrosis_following_bite_from_Bothrops_asper_PLoS_Medicine.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Tissue_necrosis_following_bite_from_Bothrops_asper_PLoS_Medicine.jpg/255px-Tissue_necrosis_following_bite_from_Bothrops_asper_PLoS_Medicine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Tissue_necrosis_following_bite_from_Bothrops_asper_PLoS_Medicine.jpg/340px-Tissue_necrosis_following_bite_from_Bothrops_asper_PLoS_Medicine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="1459" /></a><figcaption>Severe <a href="/wiki/Tissue_necrosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tissue necrosis">tissue necrosis</a> following <a href="/wiki/Bothrops_asper" title="Bothrops asper">Bothrops asper</a> envenomation that required <a href="/wiki/Amputation" title="Amputation">amputation</a> above the knee. The person was an 11-year-old boy, bitten two weeks earlier in <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, but treated only with <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2006-28">[28]</a></figcaption></figure> Some Australian elapids and most viper envenomations will cause <a href="/wiki/Coagulopathy" title="Coagulopathy">coagulopathy</a>, sometimes so severe that a person may bleed spontaneously from the mouth, nose, and even old, seemingly healed wounds.<a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2007-18">[18]</a> Internal organs may bleed, including the brain and intestines,<a href="#cite_note-Cunha2021-29">[29]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecchymosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecchymosis">ecchymosis</a> (bruising) of the skin is often seen.<a href="#cite_note-SmallAnimalToxicology-30">[30]</a> The venom of elapids, including <a href="/wiki/Sea_snakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea snakes">sea snakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bungarus" title="Bungarus">kraits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naja" title="Naja">cobras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ophiophagus_hannah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophiophagus hannah">king cobra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dendroaspis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dendroaspis">mambas</a>, and many Australian species, contains toxins which attack the nervous system, causing <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">neurotoxicity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2007-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Phillips2002-31">[31]</a> The person may present with strange disturbances to their vision, including blurriness. <a href="/wiki/Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">Paresthesia</a> throughout the body, as well as difficulty in speaking and breathing, may be reported.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a> Nervous system problems will cause a huge array of symptoms, and those provided here are not exhaustive. If not treated immediately they may die from <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_failure" title="Respiratory failure">respiratory failure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ManagementofRespiratoryFailure-32">[32]</a> Venom emitted from some types of cobras, almost all vipers, and some sea snakes cause <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a> of muscle tissue.<a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2007-18">[18]</a> Muscle tissue will begin to die throughout the body, a condition known as <a href="/wiki/Rhabdomyolysis" title="Rhabdomyolysis">rhabdomyolysis</a>. Rhabdomyolysis can result in damage to the kidneys as a result of myoglobin accumulation in the renal tubules. This, coupled with <a href="/wiki/Hypotension" title="Hypotension">hypotension</a>, can lead to <a href="/wiki/Acute_kidney_injury" title="Acute kidney injury">acute kidney injury</a>, and, if left untreated, eventually death.<a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2007-18">[18]</a> Snakebite is also known to cause depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in a high proportion of people who survive.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cause">Cause</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Cause">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_dangerous_snakes" title="List of dangerous snakes">List of dangerous snakes</a></div> In the developing world most snakebites occur in those who work outside such as farmers, hunters, and fishermen. They often happen when a person steps on the snake or approaches it too closely. In the United States and Europe snakebites most commonly occur in those who keep them as pets.<a href="#cite_note-Brut2013-34">[34]</a> The type of snake that most often delivers serious bites depends on the region of the world. In Africa, it is <a href="/wiki/Mamba" title="Mamba">mambas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cobra" title="Egyptian cobra">Egyptian cobras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bitis_arietans" class="mw-redirect" title="Bitis arietans">puff adders</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carpet_viper" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpet viper">carpet vipers</a>. In the Middle East, it is carpet vipers and <a href="/wiki/Elapid" class="mw-redirect" title="Elapid">elapids</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>, it is snakes of the <a href="/wiki/Bothrops" title="Bothrops">Bothrops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crotalus" title="Crotalus">Crotalus</a> types, the latter including <a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake" title="Rattlesnake">rattlesnakes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brut2013-34">[34]</a> In North America, rattlesnakes are the primary concern, and up to 95% of all snakebite-related deaths in the United States are attributed to the <a href="/wiki/Crotalus_atrox" class="mw-redirect" title="Crotalus atrox">western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crotalus_adamanteus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crotalus adamanteus">eastern diamondback</a> rattlesnakes.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a> The greatest number of bites are inflicted on the hands.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] People get bitten by handling snakes or in the outdoors by putting their hands on the wrong places. The next largest number of bites occur on the ankles, as snakes are often hidden or camouflaged extremely well to fend off predators. Most bite victims are bitten by surprise, and it is a comfortable fiction that rattlesnakes always forewarn their bite victims - often the bite is the first indication a snake is near. Since most venomous snakes move about during the dawn dusk or night, one may expect more encounters during the early morning or late afternoon, though many species such as the Western Diamondback may be encountered at any time of day and in fact most bites occur during the month of April when both snakes and humans are out and about and encounter one another hiking, in yards, or on pathways. Children playing within short distances of their homes crawl under porches, jump into bushes, pull boards of wood from a pile and are bitten. Most however occur when people handle rattlesnakes.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In South Asia, it was previously believed that <a href="/wiki/Indian_cobra" title="Indian cobra">Indian cobras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Common_krait" title="Common krait">common kraits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_viper" title="Russell's viper">Russell's viper</a>, and carpet vipers were the most dangerous; other snakes, however, may also cause significant problems in this area of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Brut2013-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pathophysiology">edit</a>]</div> Since <a href="/wiki/Envenomation" title="Envenomation">envenomation</a> is completely voluntary, all venomous snakes are capable of biting without injecting venom into a person. Snakes may deliver such a "<a href="/wiki/Dry_bite" title="Dry bite">dry bite</a>" rather than waste their venom on a creature too large for them to eat, a behaviour called <a href="/wiki/Venom_metering" class="mw-redirect" title="Venom metering">venom metering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Young2002-36">[36]</a> However, the percentage of dry bites varies among species: 80 percent of bites inflicted by <a href="/wiki/Sea_snakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea snakes">sea snakes</a>, which are normally timid, do not result in envenomation,<a href="#cite_note-Phillips2002-31">[31]</a> whereas for <a href="/wiki/Pit_viper" title="Pit viper">pit viper</a> bites the number is closer to 25 percent.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a> Furthermore, some snake <a href="/wiki/Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake" title="Rattlesnake">rattlesnakes</a>, can internally regulate the amount of venom they inject.<a href="#cite_note-Young2001-37">[37]</a> There is a wide variance in the composition of venoms from one species of venomous snake to another. Some venoms may have their greatest effect on a victim's respiration or circulatory system. Others may damage or destroy tissues. This variance has imparted to the venom of each species a distinct chemistry. Sometimes antivenins have to be developed for individual species. For this reason, standard therapeutic measures will not work in all cases. Some dry bites may also be the result of imprecise timing on the snake's part, as venom may be prematurely released before the fangs have penetrated the person.<a href="#cite_note-Young2002-36">[36]</a> Even without venom, some snakes, particularly large constrictors such as those belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Boidae" title="Boidae">Boidae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pythonidae" title="Pythonidae">Pythonidae</a> families, can deliver damaging bites; large specimens often cause severe <a href="/wiki/Laceration" class="mw-redirect" title="Laceration">lacerations</a>, or the snake itself pulls away, causing the flesh to be torn by the needle-sharp recurved teeth embedded in the person. While not as life-threatening as a bite from a venomous species, the bite can be at least temporarily debilitating and could lead to dangerous infections if improperly dealt with.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] While most snakes must open their mouths before biting, African and Middle Eastern snakes belonging to the family <a href="/wiki/Atractaspididae" title="Atractaspididae">Atractaspididae</a> can fold their fangs to the side of their head without opening their mouth and jab a person.<a href="#cite_note-Deufel2003-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Snake_venom">Snake venom</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Snake venom">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Snake_venom" title="Snake venom">Snake venom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venom-induced_consumption_coagulopathy" title="Venom-induced consumption coagulopathy">Venom-induced consumption coagulopathy</a></div> It has been suggested that snakes evolved the mechanisms necessary for venom formation and delivery sometime during the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> epoch.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson2003-39">[39]</a> During the mid-<a href="/wiki/Tertiary" title="Tertiary">Tertiary</a>, most snakes were large <a href="/wiki/Ambush_predator" title="Ambush predator">ambush predators</a> belonging to the superfamily <a href="/wiki/Henophidia" title="Henophidia">Henophidia</a>, which use constriction to kill their prey. As open grasslands replaced forested areas in parts of the world, some snake families evolved to become smaller and thus more agile. However, subduing and killing prey became more difficult for the smaller snakes, leading to the evolution of snake venom. The most likely hypothesis holds that venom glands evolved from specialized salivary glands. The venom itself evolved through the process of natural selection; it retained and emphasized the qualities that made it useful in killing or subduing prey. Today we can find various snake species in stages of this hypothesized development. There are the highly efficient envenoming machines - like the rattlesnakes - with large capacity venom storage, hollow fangs that swing into position immediately before the snake bites, and spare fangs ready to replace those damaged or lost.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jackson2003-39">[39]</a> Other research on <a href="/wiki/Toxicofera" title="Toxicofera">Toxicofera</a>, a hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> thought to be ancestral to most living reptiles, suggests an earlier time frame for the evolution of snake venom, possibly to the order of tens of millions of years, during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fry2006-41">[41]</a> Snake venom is produced in modified <a href="/wiki/Parotid_gland" title="Parotid gland">parotid glands</a> normally responsible for secreting saliva. It is stored in structures called <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alveolus" class="extiw" title="wikt:alveolus">alveoli</a> behind the animal's eyes and ejected voluntarily through its hollow tubular <a href="/wiki/Fangs" class="mw-redirect" title="Fangs">fangs</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Venom in many snakes, such as pit vipers, affects virtually every organ system in the human body and can be a combination of many toxins, including <a href="/wiki/Cytotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytotoxins">cytotoxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemotoxins">hemotoxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotoxins">neurotoxins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Myotoxin" title="Myotoxin">myotoxins</a>, allowing for an enormous variety of symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Russell1980a-42">[42]</a> Snake venom may cause <a href="/wiki/Cytotoxicity" title="Cytotoxicity">cytotoxicity</a> as various enzymes including <a href="/wiki/Hyaluronidase" title="Hyaluronidase">hyaluronidases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Collagenase" title="Collagenase">collagenases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proteinase" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteinase">proteinases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phospholipase" title="Phospholipase">phospholipases</a> lead to breakdown (dermonecrosis) and injury of local tissue and inflammation which leads to pain, edema and blister formation.<a href="#cite_note-Seifert-43">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Metalloproteinase" title="Metalloproteinase">Metalloproteinases</a> further lead to breakdown of the extracellular matrix (releasing inflammatory mediators) and cause microvascular damage, leading to hemorrhage, skeletal muscle damage (necrosis), blistering and further dermonecrosis.<a href="#cite_note-Seifert-43">[43]</a> The metalloproteinase release of the inflammatory mediators leads to pain, swelling, and white blood cell (<a href="/wiki/Leukocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocyte">leukocyte</a>) infiltration. The lymphatic system may be damaged by the various enzymes contained in the venom leading to edema; or the lymphatic system may also allow the venom to be carried systemically.<a href="#cite_note-Seifert-43">[43]</a> Snake venom may cause muscle damage or <a href="/wiki/Myotoxin" title="Myotoxin">myotoxicity</a> via the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Phospholipase_A2" title="Phospholipase A2">phospholipase A2</a> which disrupts the plasma membrane of muscle cells. This damage to muscle cells may cause <a href="/wiki/Rhabdomyolysis" title="Rhabdomyolysis">rhabdomyolysis</a>, respiratory muscle compromise, or both.<a href="#cite_note-Seifert-43">[43]</a> Other enzymes such as bradykinin potentiating peptides, natriuretic peptides, <a href="/wiki/Vascular_endothelial_growth_factor" title="Vascular endothelial growth factor">vascular endothelial growth factors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proteases" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteases">proteases</a> can also cause <a href="/wiki/Hypotension" title="Hypotension">hypotension</a> or low blood pressure.<a href="#cite_note-Seifert-43">[43]</a> Toxins in snake venom can also cause kidney damage (nephrotoxicity) via the same inflammatory cytokines. The toxins cause direct damage to the <a href="/wiki/Glomerulus_(kidney)" title="Glomerulus (kidney)">glomeruli</a> in the kidneys as well as causing protein deposits in <a href="/wiki/Bowman%27s_capsule" title="Bowman's capsule">Bowman's capsule</a>. Or the kidneys may be indirectly damaged by envenomation due to shock, clearance of toxic substances such as immune complexes, blood degradation products, or products of muscle breakdown (rhabdomyolysis).<a href="#cite_note-Seifert-43">[43]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Venom-induced_consumption_coagulopathy" title="Venom-induced consumption coagulopathy">venom-induced consumption coagulopathy</a>, toxins in snake venom promote hemorrhage via activation, consumption, and subsequent depletion of clotting factors in the blood.<a href="#cite_note-Seifert-43">[43]</a> These clotting factors normally work as part of the <a href="/wiki/Coagulation_cascade" class="mw-redirect" title="Coagulation cascade">coagulation cascade</a> in the blood to form blood clots and prevent hemorrhage. Toxins in snake venom (especially the venom of New World pit vipers (the family <a href="/wiki/Crotalina" class="mw-redirect" title="Crotalina">crotalina</a>)) may also cause low platelets (<a href="/wiki/Thrombocytopenia" title="Thrombocytopenia">thrombocytopenia</a>) or altered platelet function also leading to bleeding.<a href="#cite_note-Seifert-43">[43]</a> Snake venom is known to cause neuromuscular paralysis, usually as a flaccid paralysis that is descending; starting at the facial muscles, causing <a href="/wiki/Ptosis_(eyelid)" title="Ptosis (eyelid)">ptosis</a> or drooping eyelids and <a href="/wiki/Dysarthria" title="Dysarthria">dysarthria</a> or poor articulation of speech, and descending to the respiratory muscles causing respiratory compromise.<a href="#cite_note-Seifert-43">[43]</a> The neurotoxins can either bind to and block membrane receptors at the post-synaptic neurons or they can be taken up into the pre-synaptic neuron cells and impair neurotransmitter release.<a href="#cite_note-Seifert-43">[43]</a> Venom toxins that are taken up intra-cellularly, into the cells of the pre-synaptic neurons are much more difficult to reverse using anti-venom as they are inaccessible to the anti-venom when they are intracellular.<a href="#cite_note-Seifert-43">[43]</a> The strength of venom differs markedly between species and even more so between families, as measured by <a href="/wiki/Median_lethal_dose" title="Median lethal dose">median lethal dose</a> (LD50) in mice. Subcutaneous LD50 varies by over 140-fold within elapids and by more than 100-fold in vipers. The amount of venom produced also differs among species, with the <a href="/wiki/Gaboon_viper" title="Gaboon viper">Gaboon viper</a> able to potentially deliver from 450 to 600 milligrams of venom in a single bite, the most of any snake.<a href="#cite_note-Spawls-44">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/Opisthoglyphous" class="mw-redirect" title="Opisthoglyphous">Opisthoglyphous</a> colubrids have venom ranging from life-threatening (in the case of the <a href="/wiki/Boomslang" title="Boomslang">boomslang</a>) to barely noticeable (as in <a href="/wiki/Tantilla" title="Tantilla">Tantilla</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RodriguezParkHoustonSnakes.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/RodriguezParkHoustonSnakes.JPG/220px-RodriguezParkHoustonSnakes.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/RodriguezParkHoustonSnakes.JPG/330px-RodriguezParkHoustonSnakes.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/RodriguezParkHoustonSnakes.JPG/440px-RodriguezParkHoustonSnakes.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>Sign at Sylvan Rodriguez Park in <a href="/wiki/Houston,_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="Houston, Texas">Houston, Texas</a>, warning of the presence of snakes</figcaption></figure> Snakes are most likely to bite when they feel threatened, are startled, are provoked, or when they have been cornered. Snakes are likely to approach residential areas when attracted by prey, such as <a href="/wiki/Rodents" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodents">rodents</a>. Regular <a href="/wiki/Pest_control" title="Pest control">pest control</a> can reduce the threat of snakes considerably. It is beneficial to know the species of snake that are common in local areas, or while travelling or hiking. <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Neotropics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neotropics">Neotropics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> in particular are populated by many dangerous species of snake. Being aware of—and ultimately avoiding—areas known to be heavily populated by dangerous snakes is strongly recommended.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] When in the wilderness, treading heavily creates ground vibrations and noise, which will often cause snakes to flee from the area. However, this generally only applies to vipers, as some larger and more aggressive snakes in other parts of the world, such as <a href="/wiki/Mamba" title="Mamba">mambas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cobra" title="Cobra">cobras</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Haji-45">[45]</a> will respond more aggressively. If presented with a direct encounter, it is best to remain silent and motionless. If the snake has not yet fled, it is important to step away slowly and cautiously.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The use of a flashlight when engaged in camping activities, such as gathering firewood at night, can be helpful. Snakes may also be unusually active during especially warm nights when ambient temperatures exceed 21 °C (70 °F). It is advised not to reach blindly into hollow logs, flip over large rocks, and enter old <a href="/wiki/Log_cabin" title="Log cabin">cabins</a> or other potential snake hiding places. When <a href="/wiki/Climbing" title="Climbing">rock climbing</a>, it is not safe to grab ledges or crevices without examining them first, as snakes are <a href="/wiki/Ectotherm" title="Ectotherm">cold-blooded</a> and often sunbathe atop rock ledges.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the United States, more than 40 percent of people bitten by snakes intentionally put themselves in harm's way by attempting to capture wild snakes or by carelessly handling their dangerous pets—40 percent of that number had a <a href="/wiki/Blood_alcohol_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood alcohol level">blood alcohol level</a> of 0.1 percent or more.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> It is also important to avoid snakes that <a href="/wiki/Apparent_death" title="Apparent death">appear to be dead</a>, as some species will roll over on their backs and stick out their tongue to fool potential threats. A snake's detached head can immediately act by <a href="/wiki/Reflex_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Reflex action">reflex</a> and potentially bite. The induced bite can be just as severe as that of a live snake.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> As a dead snake is incapable of regulating the venom injected, a bite from a dead snake can often contain large amounts of venom.<a href="#cite_note-Suchard1999-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</a>]</div> It may be difficult to determine if a bite by any species of snake is life-threatening. A bite by a North American <a href="/wiki/Agkistrodon_contortrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Agkistrodon contortrix">copperhead</a> on the ankle is usually a moderate injury to a healthy adult, but a bite to a child's abdomen or face by the same snake may be fatal. The outcome of all snakebites depends on a multitude of factors: the type of snake, the size, physical condition, and temperature of the snake, the age and physical condition of the person, the area and tissue bitten (e.g., foot, torso, vein or muscle), the amount of venom injected, the time it takes for the person to find treatment, and finally the quality of that treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gold1994-49">[49]</a> An overview of systematic reviews on different aspects of snakebite management found that the evidence base from majority of treatment modalities is low quality.<a href="#cite_note-Interventions_for_the_management_of-50">[50]</a> An analysis of World Health Organization guidelines found that they are of low quality, with inadequate stakeholder involvement and poor methodological rigour.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> In addition, access to effective treatment modalities is a major challenge in some regions, particularly in most African countries.<a href="#cite_note-:0-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Snake_identification">Snake identification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Snake identification">edit</a>]</div> Identification of the snake is important in planning treatment in certain areas of the world but is not always possible. Ideally, the dead snake would be brought in with the person, but in areas where snake bite is more common, local knowledge may be sufficient to recognize the snake. However, in regions where polyvalent <a href="/wiki/Antivenom" title="Antivenom">antivenoms</a> are available, such as North America, identification of snakes is not a high-priority item. Attempting to catch or kill the offending snake also puts one at risk for re-envenomation or creating a second person bitten, and generally is not recommended.<a href="#cite_note-auto-53">[53]</a> The three types of venomous snakes that cause the majority of major clinical problems are <a href="/wiki/Viper_(animal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Viper (animal)">vipers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bungarus" title="Bungarus">kraits</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Naja" title="Naja">cobras</a>. Knowledge of what species are present locally can be crucial, as is knowledge of typical signs and symptoms of envenomation by each type of snake. A scoring system can be used to try to determine the biting snake based on clinical features,<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> but these scoring systems are extremely specific to particular geographical areas and might be compromised by the presence of escaped or released non-native species.<a href="#cite_note-auto-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_aid">First aid</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: First aid">edit</a>]</div> Snakebite <a href="/wiki/First_aid" title="First aid">first aid</a> recommendations vary, in part because different snakes have different types of venom. Some have little local effect, but life-threatening systemic effects, in which case containing the venom in the region of the bite by pressure immobilization is desirable. Other venoms instigate localized tissue damage around the bitten area, and immobilization may increase the severity of the damage in this area, but also reduce the total area affected; whether this trade-off is desirable remains a point of controversy. Because snakes vary from one country to another, first aid methods also vary.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Many organizations, including the <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_Red_Cross" title="American Red Cross">American Red Cross</a>, recommend washing the bite with soap and water. Australian recommendations for snake bite treatment are against cleaning the wound. Traces of venom left on the skin/bandages from the strike can be used in combination with a snake bite identification kit to identify the species of snake. This speeds the determination of which antivenom to administer in the emergency room.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pressure_immobilization">Pressure immobilization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pressure immobilization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pressure_immobilization_technique" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure immobilization technique">Pressure immobilization technique</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-KA-01-019,_Tibetexpedition,_Melken_einer_Schlange.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-KA-01-019%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Melken_einer_Schlange.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-KA-01-019%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Melken_einer_Schlange.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-KA-01-019%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Melken_einer_Schlange.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-KA-01-019%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Melken_einer_Schlange.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-KA-01-019%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Melken_einer_Schlange.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-KA-01-019%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Melken_einer_Schlange.jpg 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_viper" title="Russell's viper">Russell's viper</a> is being "milked". Laboratories use extracted snake venom to produce <a href="/wiki/Antivenom" title="Antivenom">antivenom</a>, which is often the only effective treatment for potentially fatal snakebites.</figcaption></figure> As of 2008, clinical evidence for <a href="/wiki/Pressure_immobilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure immobilization">pressure immobilization</a> via the use of an <a href="/wiki/Elastic_bandage" title="Elastic bandage">elastic bandage</a> is limited.<a href="#cite_note-Currie2008-56">[56]</a> It is recommended for snakebites that have occurred in Australia (due to <a href="/wiki/Elapids" class="mw-redirect" title="Elapids">elapids</a> which are neurotoxic).<a href="#cite_note-Walker2013-57">[57]</a> It is not recommended for bites from non-neurotoxic snakes such as those found in North America and other regions of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Walker2013-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-ACM2011-58">[58]</a> The British military recommends pressure immobilization in all cases where the type of snake is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The object of pressure immobilization is to contain venom within a bitten limb and prevent it from moving through the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a> to the vital organs. This therapy has two components: pressure to prevent lymphatic drainage, and immobilization of the bitten limb to prevent the pumping action of the <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscles</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antivenom">Antivenom</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Antivenom">edit</a>]</div> Until the advent of <a href="/wiki/Antivenom" title="Antivenom">antivenom</a>, bites from some species of snake were almost universally fatal.<a href="#cite_note-INCHEM-60">[60]</a> Despite huge advances in emergency therapy, antivenom is often still the only effective treatment for envenomation. The first antivenom was developed in 1895 by French physician <a href="/wiki/Albert_Calmette" title="Albert Calmette">Albert Calmette</a> for the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Indian_cobra" title="Indian cobra">Indian cobra</a> bites. Antivenom is made by injecting a small amount of venom into an animal (usually a horse or sheep) to initiate an immune system response. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a> are then harvested from the animal's blood.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Antivenom is injected into the person <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy" title="Intravenous therapy">intravenously</a>, and works by binding to and neutralizing venom enzymes. It cannot undo the damage already caused by venom, so antivenom treatment should be sought as soon as possible. Modern antivenoms are usually polyvalent, making them effective against the venom of numerous snake species. Pharmaceutical companies that produce antivenom target their products against the species native to a particular area. The availability of antivenom is a major concern in some areas, including most of Africa, due to economic reasons (antivenom crisis).<a href="#cite_note-:0-52">[52]</a> In Sub-Saharan Africa, the efficacy of antivenom is often poorly characterised and some of the few available products have even been found to lack effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Although some people may develop serious adverse reactions to antivenom, such as <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">anaphylaxis</a>, in emergency situations this is usually treatable in a hospital setting and hence the benefit outweighs the potential consequences of not using antivenom. Giving <a href="/wiki/Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">adrenaline</a> (epinephrine) to prevent adverse reactions to antivenom before they occur might be reasonable in cases where they occur commonly.<a href="#cite_note-Nuch2000-62">[62]</a> Antihistamines do not appear to provide any benefit in preventing adverse reactions.<a href="#cite_note-Nuch2000-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronic_Complications">Chronic Complications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Chronic Complications">edit</a>]</div> Chronic health effects of snakebite include but are not limited to non-healing and chronic ulcers, musculoskeletal disorders, amputations, chronic kidney disease, and other neurological and endocrine complications.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The treatment of chronic complications of snakebite has not been well researched and there a systems approach consisting of a multi-component intervention.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Interventions_for_the_management_of-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outmoded">Outmoded</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Outmoded">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snakebite_kit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Snakebite_kit.jpg/220px-Snakebite_kit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Snakebite_kit.jpg/330px-Snakebite_kit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Snakebite_kit.jpg/440px-Snakebite_kit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="355" /></a><figcaption>Old-style snake bite kit that should not be used</figcaption></figure> The following treatments, while once recommended, are considered of no use or harmful, including tourniquets, incisions, suction, application of cold, and application of electricity.<a href="#cite_note-ACM2011-58">[58]</a> Cases in which these treatments appear to work may be the result of <a href="/wiki/Dry_bite" title="Dry bite">dry bites</a>. <ul><li>Application of a <a href="/wiki/Tourniquet" title="Tourniquet">tourniquet</a> to the bitten limb is generally not recommended. There is no convincing evidence that it is an effective first-aid tool as ordinarily applied.<a href="#cite_note-theak-66">[66]</a> Tourniquets have been found to be completely ineffective in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Crotalus_durissus" title="Crotalus durissus">Crotalus durissus</a> bites,<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> but some positive results have been seen with properly applied tourniquets for cobra venom in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Uninformed tourniquet use is dangerous since reducing or cutting off circulation can lead to <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a>, which can be fatal.<a href="#cite_note-theak-66">[66]</a> The use of a compression bandage is generally as effective, and much safer.</li> <li>Cutting open the bitten area, an action often taken before suction, is not recommended since it causes further damage and increases the risk of infection; the subsequent cauterization of the area with fire or silver nitrate (also known as infernal stone) is also potentially threatening.<a href="#cite_note-peola-69">[69]</a></li> <li>Sucking out venom, either by mouth or with a pump, does not work and may harm the affected area directly.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16781926-70">[70]</a> Suction started after three minutes removes a clinically insignificant quantity—less than one-thousandth of the venom injected—as shown in a human study.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In a study with pigs, suction not only caused no improvement but led to <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a> in the suctioned area.<a href="#cite_note-pmid11055564-72">[72]</a> Suctioning by mouth presents a risk of further poisoning through the mouth's <a href="/wiki/Oral_mucosa" title="Oral mucosa">mucous tissues</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The helper may also release bacteria into the person's wound, leading to infection.</li> <li>Immersion in warm water or sour milk, followed by the application of <a href="/wiki/Snake-stones" class="mw-redirect" title="Snake-stones">snake-stones</a> (also known as la Pierre Noire), which are believed to draw off the poison in much the way a sponge soaks up water.</li> <li>Application of a one-percent solution of <a href="/wiki/Potassium_permanganate" title="Potassium permanganate">potassium permanganate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chromic_acid" title="Chromic acid">chromic acid</a> to the cut, exposed area.<a href="#cite_note-peola-69">[69]</a> The latter substance is notably toxic and carcinogenic.</li> <li>Drinking abundant quantities of alcohol following the cauterization or disinfection of the wound area.<a href="#cite_note-peola-69">[69]</a></li> <li>Use of electroshock therapy in animal tests has shown this treatment to be useless and potentially dangerous.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></li></ul> In extreme cases, in remote areas, all of these misguided attempts at treatment have resulted in injuries far worse than an otherwise mild to moderate snakebite. In worst-case scenarios, thoroughly constricting tourniquets have been applied to bitten limbs, completely shutting off blood flow to the area. By the time the person finally reached appropriate medical facilities, their limbs had to be <a href="/wiki/Amputated" class="mw-redirect" title="Amputated">amputated</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_development">In development</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: In development">edit</a>]</div> Several new drugs and treatments are under development for snakebite. For instance, the metal chelator <a href="/wiki/Dimercaprol" title="Dimercaprol">dimercaprol</a> has recently been shown to potently antagonize the activity of Zn2+-dependent snake venom <a href="/wiki/Metalloproteinase" title="Metalloproteinase">metalloproteinases</a> in vitro.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> New <a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody" title="Monoclonal antibody">monoclonal antibodies</a>, polymer gels and a small molecule inhibitor called <a href="/wiki/Varespladib" title="Varespladib">Varespladib</a> are in development.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> A core outcome set (minimal list of consensus outcomes that should be used in future intervention research) for snakebite in South Asia is being developed.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_snakebites" title="Epidemiology of snakebites">Epidemiology of snakebites</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_fatal_snake_bites_in_the_United_States" title="List of fatal snake bites in the United States">List of fatal snake bites in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_fatal_snake_bites_in_Australia" title="List of fatal snake bites in Australia">List of fatal snake bites in Australia</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:354px;max-width:354px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:World_distribution_of_snakes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/World_distribution_of_snakes.svg/350px-World_distribution_of_snakes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/World_distribution_of_snakes.svg/525px-World_distribution_of_snakes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/World_distribution_of_snakes.svg/700px-World_distribution_of_snakes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="477" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Map showing the approximate world distribution of snakes</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Number_of_snake_envenomings_(2007).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Number_of_snake_envenomings_%282007%29.svg/500px-Number_of_snake_envenomings_%282007%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Number_of_snake_envenomings_%282007%29.svg/525px-Number_of_snake_envenomings_%282007%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Number_of_snake_envenomings_%282007%29.svg/700px-Number_of_snake_envenomings_%282007%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="477" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Map showing the global distribution of snakebite morbidity</div></div></div></div></div> Earlier estimates for snakebite vary from 1.2 to 5.5 million, with 421,000 to 2.5 million being envenomings, and causing 20,000 to 125,000 deaths.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a> More recent modelling estimates that in 2019, about 63,400 people died globally from snakebite, with 51,100 of these deaths happening in India.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Since reporting is not mandatory in much of the world, the data on the frequency of snakebites is not precise.<a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a> Many people who survive bites have permanent tissue damage caused by venom, leading to disability.<a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2007-18">[18]</a> Most snake envenomings and fatalities occur in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>, with <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> reporting the most snakebite deaths of any country.<a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a> Available evidence on the effect of climate change on the epidemiology of snakebite is limited but it is expected that there will be a geographic shift in the risk of snakebite: northwards in North America and southwards in South America and Mozambique, and increase in the incidence of bite in Sri Lanka.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Most snakebites are caused by non-venomous snakes. Of the roughly 3,000 known species of snake found worldwide, only 15% are considered dangerous to humans.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a> Snakes are found on every continent except <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a> The most diverse and widely distributed snake family, the <a href="/wiki/Colubrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Colubrid">colubrids</a>, has approximately 700 venomous species,<a href="#cite_note-Mackessy2002-83">[83]</a> but only five <a href="/wiki/Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a>—<a href="/wiki/Boomslang" title="Boomslang">boomslangs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thelotornis" class="mw-redirect" title="Thelotornis">twig snakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhabdophis" title="Rhabdophis">keelback snakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philodryas" title="Philodryas">green snakes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tachymenis" title="Tachymenis">slender snakes</a>—have caused human fatalities.<a href="#cite_note-Mackessy2002-83">[83]</a> Worldwide, snakebites occur most frequently in the summer season when snakes are active and humans are outdoors.<a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-WingertChan1988-84">[84]</a> Agricultural and tropical regions report more snakebites than anywhere else.<a href="#cite_note-Kast2008-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gutierrez2006-28">[28]</a> In the United States, those bitten are typically male and between 17 and 27 years of age.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-WingertChan1988-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Children and the elderly are the most likely to die.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gold1994-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanics">Mechanics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mechanics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Envenomation" title="Envenomation">Envenomation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snake_Venom_Delivery_System_Diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Snake_Venom_Delivery_System_Diagram.jpg/220px-Snake_Venom_Delivery_System_Diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Snake_Venom_Delivery_System_Diagram.jpg/330px-Snake_Venom_Delivery_System_Diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Snake_Venom_Delivery_System_Diagram.jpg/440px-Snake_Venom_Delivery_System_Diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Basic diagram of a snake's venom delivery system</figcaption></figure> When venomous snakes bite a target, they secrete <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venom</a> through their venom delivery system. The venom delivery system generally consists of two venom glands, a compressor muscle, venom ducts, a fang sheath, and <a href="/wiki/Fang" title="Fang">fangs</a>. The primary and accessory venom glands store the venom quantities required during <a href="/wiki/Envenomation" title="Envenomation">envenomation</a>. The compressor muscle contracts during bites to increase the pressure throughout the venom delivery system. The pressurized venom travels through the primary venom duct to the secondary venom duct that leads down through the fang sheath and fang. The venom is then expelled through the exit <a href="/wiki/Body_orifice" title="Body orifice">orifice</a> of the fang. The total volume and flow rate of venom administered into a target varies widely, sometimes as much as an order of magnitude. One of the largest factors is snake species and size, larger snakes have been shown to administer larger quantities of venom.<a href="#cite_note-Hayes_et_al._2002-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predatory_vs._defensive_bites">Predatory vs. defensive bites</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Predatory vs. defensive bites">edit</a>]</div> Snake bites are classified as either predatory or defensive. During defensive strikes, the rate of venom expulsion and total volume of venom expelled is much greater than during predatory strikes. Defensive strikes can have 10 times as much venom volume expelled at 8.5 times the flow rate.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> This can be explained by the snake's need to quickly subdue a threat. While employing similar venom expulsion mechanics, predatory strikes are quite different from defensive strikes. Snakes usually release the prey shortly after the envenomation allowing the prey to run away and die. Releasing prey prevents retaliatory damage to the snake. The venom scent allows the snake to relocate the prey once it is deceased.<a href="#cite_note-Hayes_et_al._2002-86">[86]</a> The amount of venom injected has been shown to increase with the mass of the prey animal.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Larger venom volumes allow snakes to effectively euthanize larger prey while remaining economical during strikes against smaller prey. This is an important skill as venom is a metabolically expensive resource.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Venom_Metering">Venom Metering</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Venom Metering">edit</a>]</div> Venom metering is the ability of a snake to have neurological control over the amount of venom released into a target during a strike based on situational cues. This ability would prove useful as venom is a limited resource, larger animals are less susceptible to the effects of venom, and various situations require different levels of force. There is a lot of evidence to support the venom metering hypothesis. For example, snakes frequently use more venom during defensive strikes, administer more venom to larger prey, and are capable of dry biting. A dry bite is a bite from a venomous snake that results in very little or no venom expulsion, leaving the target asymptomatic.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> However, there is debate among many academics about venom metering in snakes. The alternative to venom metering is the pressure balance hypothesis.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The pressure balance hypothesis cites the retraction of the fang sheath as the many mechanisms for producing outward venom flow from the venom delivery system. When isolated, fang sheath retraction has experimentally been shown to induce very high pressures in the venom delivery system.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> A similar method was used to stimulate the compressor musculature, the main muscle responsible for the contraction and squeezing of the venom gland, and then measuring the induced pressures. It was determined that the pressure created from the fang sheath retraction was at times an order of magnitude greater than those created by the compressor musculature. Snakes do not have direct neurological control of the fang sheath, it can only be retracted as the fangs enter a target and the target's skin and body provide substantial resistance to retract the sheath. For these reasons, the pressure balance hypothesis concludes that external factors, mainly the bite and physical mechanics, are responsible for the quantity of venom expelled.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Venom_Spitting">Venom Spitting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Venom Spitting">edit</a>]</div> Venom spitting is another venom delivery method that is unique to some Asiatic and African <a href="/wiki/Cobra" title="Cobra">cobras</a>. In venom spitting, a stream of venom is propelled at very high pressures outwards up to 3 meters (300 centimeters). The venom stream is usually aimed at the eyes and face of the target as a deterrent for predators. There are non-spitting cobras that provide useful information on the unique mechanics behind venom spitting. Unlike the elongated oval shaped exit orifices of non-spitting cobras, spitting cobras have circular exit orifice at their fang tips.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> This combined with the ability to partially retract their fang sheath by displacing the palato-maxillary arch and contracting the adductor mandibulae, allows the spitting cobras to create large pressures within the venom delivery system.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> While venom spitting is a less common venom delivery system, the venom can still cause the effects if ingested.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Serpent_(symbolism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Serpent (symbolism)">Serpent (symbolism)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benczur-kleopatra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Benczur-kleopatra.jpg/220px-Benczur-kleopatra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Benczur-kleopatra.jpg/330px-Benczur-kleopatra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Benczur-kleopatra.jpg/440px-Benczur-kleopatra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1081" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>According to tradition, <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII</a> famously committed suicide by snakebite to her left breast, as depicted in this 1911 painting by Hungarian artist <a href="/wiki/Gyula_Bencz%C3%BAr" title="Gyula Benczúr">Gyula Benczúr</a>.</figcaption></figure> Snakes were both <a href="/wiki/Snake_worship" title="Snake worship">revered and worshipped</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">feared</a> by early civilizations. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptians">ancient Egyptians</a> recorded prescribed treatments for snakebites as early as the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Papyrus" title="Brooklyn Papyrus">Brooklyn Papyrus</a>, which includes at least seven venomous species common to the region today, such as the <a href="/wiki/Cerastes_(genus)" title="Cerastes (genus)">horned vipers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schneemann2004-93">[93]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nehushtan" title="Nehushtan">Nehushtan</a> was a pole with a snake made of copper fixed upon it. The object was regarded as a divinely empowered instrument of God that could bring healing to Jews bitten by venomous snakes while they were wandering in the desert after their <a href="/wiki/Exodus_from_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus from Egypt">exodus from Egypt</a>. Healing was said to occur by merely looking at the object as it was held up by <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Historically, snakebites were seen as a means of execution in some cultures.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Reportedly, in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Han" title="Southern Han">Southern Han</a> during <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period</a> and in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> a form of capital punishment was to throw people into <a href="/wiki/Snake_pit" title="Snake pit">snake pits</a>, leaving people to die from multiple venomous bites.<a href="#cite_note-Anil2004-95">[95]</a> According to popular belief, the Egyptian queen <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII</a> committed suicide by letting herself be bitten by an <a href="/wiki/Asp_(reptile)" class="mw-redirect" title="Asp (reptile)">asp</a>—likely an <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cobra" title="Egyptian cobra">Egyptian cobra</a><a href="#cite_note-Schneemann2004-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-96">[96]</a>—after hearing of <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>'s death, while some contemporary ancient authors rather assumed a direct application of poison.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Snakebite as a surreptitious form of murder has been featured in stories such as Sir <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle" title="Arthur Conan Doyle">Arthur Conan Doyle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Adventure_of_the_Speckled_Band" title="The Adventure of the Speckled Band">The Adventure of the Speckled Band</a>, but actual occurrences are virtually unheard of, with only a few documented cases.<a href="#cite_note-Anil2004-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Warrell2009-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Straight1994-99">[99]</a> It has been suggested that <a href="/wiki/Boris_III_of_Bulgaria" title="Boris III of Bulgaria">Boris III of Bulgaria</a>, who was allied to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, may have been killed with snake venom,<a href="#cite_note-Anil2004-95">[95]</a> although there is no definitive evidence. At least one attempted suicide by snakebite has been documented in medical literature involving a <a href="/wiki/Bitis_arietans" class="mw-redirect" title="Bitis arietans">puff adder</a> bite to the hand.<a href="#cite_note-Strubel2008-100">[100]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, the goddess <a href="/wiki/Padmavati_(Jainism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Padmavati (Jainism)">Padmāvatī</a> has been associated with curing snakebites.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> In 2018, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> listed snakebite envenoming as a neglected tropical disease.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In 2019, they launched a strategy to prevent and control snakebite envenoming, which involved a program targeting affected communities and their health systems.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> A policy analysis however found that the placement of snakebite in the global health agenda of WHO is fragile due to reluctance to accept the disease in the neglected tropical disease community and the perceived colonial nature of the network driving the agenda.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Key institutions conducting snakebite research on snakebite are the George Institute for Global Health, the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, and the Indian Institute of Science. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Other animals">edit</a>]</div> Several animals acquired immunity against the venom of snakes that occur in the same habitat.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> This has been documented in some humans as well.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CDC2012-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2012_1-15">p</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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PLOS Medicine. 3 (6): e150. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0030150">10.1371/journal.pmed.0030150</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1472552">1472552</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16729843">16729843</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Medicine&rft.atitle=Confronting+the+neglected+problem+of+snake+bite+envenoming%3A+the+need+for+a+global+partnership&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e150&rft.date=2006-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1472552%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16729843&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0030150&rft.aulast=Guti%C3%A9rrez&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Theakston%2C+RD&rft.au=Warrell%2C+DA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1472552&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cunha2021-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Cunha2021_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCuhna2021" class="citation web cs1">Cuhna JP (6 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.emedicinehealth.com/snakebite/symptom.htm">"Symptoms and Signs of Snakebite (Snake Bite)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a>Health. <a href="/wiki/WebMD" title="WebMD">WebMD</a>. Retrieved 26 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=eMedicineHealth&rft.atitle=Symptoms+and+Signs+of+Snakebite+%28Snake+Bite%29&rft.date=2021-08-06&rft.aulast=Cuhna&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.emedicinehealth.com%2Fsnakebite%2Fsymptom.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SmallAnimalToxicology-30"><a href="#cite_ref-SmallAnimalToxicology_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPetersonTalcott2013" class="citation journal cs1">Peterson ME, Talcott PA (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781455707171000752">"Snake Bite: North American Pit Vipers"</a>. 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Newnes. p. 351. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-53499-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-53499-6"><bdi>978-0-444-53499-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170908174306/https://books.google.com/books?id=bJx3g30aDhIC&pg=PA351">Archived</a> from the original on 8 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroparasitology+and+tropical+neurology&rft.pages=351&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-444-53499-6&rft.aulast=Garcia&rft.aufirst=Hector+H.&rft.au=Tanowitz%2C+Herbert&rft.au=Del+Brutto%2C+Oscar+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbJx3g30aDhIC%26pg%3DPA351&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCampbellShaw1974" class="citation book cs1">Campbell S, Shaw CE (1974). 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Knopf</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-48882-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-48882-0"><bdi>978-0-394-48882-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Snakes+of+The+American+West&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-394-48882-0&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Charles+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Young2002-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Young2002_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young2002_36-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYoungLeeDaley2002" class="citation journal cs1">Young BA, Lee CE, Daley KM (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1641%2F0006-3568%282002%29052%5B1121%3ADSMV%5D2.0.CO%3B2">"Do Snakes Meter Venom?"</a>. BioScience. 52 (12): 1121–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1641%2F0006-3568%282002%29052%5B1121%3ADSMV%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[1121:DSMV]2.0.CO;2</a>. <q>The second major assumption that underlies venom metering is the snake's ability to accurately assess the target</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=Do+Snakes+Meter+Venom%3F&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1121-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1641%2F0006-3568%282002%29052%5B1121%3ADSMV%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=BA&rft.au=Lee%2C+CE&rft.au=Daley%2C+KM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1641%252F0006-3568%25282002%2529052%255B1121%253ADSMV%255D2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Young2001-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Young2001_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYoungZahn2001" class="citation journal cs1">Young BA, Zahn K (December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/204/24/4345.pdf">"Venom flow in rattlesnakes: mechanics and metering"</a> (PDF). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 204 (Pt 24): 4345–4351. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.204.24.4345">10.1242/jeb.204.24.4345</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11815658">11815658</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090109013518/http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/204/24/4345.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 January 2009. <q>With the species and size of target held constant, the duration of venom flow, maximum venom flow rate and total venom volume were all significantly lower in predatory than in defensive strikes</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Experimental+Biology&rft.atitle=Venom+flow+in+rattlesnakes%3A+mechanics+and+metering&rft.volume=204&rft.issue=Pt+24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4345-%3C%2Fspan%3E4351&rft.date=2001-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1242%2Fjeb.204.24.4345&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11815658&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=BA&rft.au=Zahn%2C+K&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjeb.biologists.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F204%2F24%2F4345.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deufel2003-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Deufel2003_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeufelCundall2003" class="citation journal cs1">Deufel A, Cundall D (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7083466">"Feeding in Atractaspis (Serpentes: Atractaspididae): a study in conflicting functional constraints"</a>. Zoology. 106 (1): 43–61. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Zool..106...43D">2003Zool..106...43D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1078%2F0944-2006-00088">10.1078/0944-2006-00088</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16351890">16351890</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160107214703/http://www.academia.edu/7083466/Feeding_in_Atractaspis_-_for_analysis">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2016. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geradts.com/anil/ij/vol_004_no_002/others/pg001.html">the original</a> on 18 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anil+Aggrawal%27s+Internet+Journal+of+Forensic+Medicine+and+Toxicology&rft.atitle=Homicide+with+snakes%3A+A+distinct+possibility+and+its+medicolegal+ramifications&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Anil&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geradts.com%2Fanil%2Fij%2Fvol_004_no_002%2Fothers%2Fpg001.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smithsonian-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCrawford2007" class="citation web cs1">Crawford A (1 April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/biography/cleopatra.html">"Who Was Cleopatra? Mythology, propaganda, Liz Taylor and the real Queen of the Nile"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_(magazine)" title="Smithsonian (magazine)">Smithsonian</a>. Retrieved 4 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=Who+Was+Cleopatra%3F+Mythology%2C+propaganda%2C+Liz+Taylor+and+the+real+Queen+of+the+Nile&rft.date=2007-04-01&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory-archaeology%2Fbiography%2Fcleopatra.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrant2011" class="citation book cs1">Grant M (14 July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7nk5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP179">Cleopatra: Cleopatra</a>. 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QJM. 102 (9): 593–601. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fqjmed%2Fhcp075">10.1093/qjmed/hcp075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19535618">19535618</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=QJM&rft.atitle=Commissioned+article%3A+management+of+exotic+snakebites&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E593-%3C%2Fspan%3E601&rft.date=2009-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fqjmed%2Fhcp075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19535618&rft.aulast=Warrell&rft.aufirst=DA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fqjmed%252Fhcp075&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Straight1994-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Straight1994_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStraightGlenn1994" class="citation journal cs1">Straight RC, Glenn JL (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ojs.lib.byu.edu/ojs/index.php/wnan/article/viewFile/545/1430">"Human fatalities caused by venomous animals in Utah, 1900–90"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Great_Basin_Naturalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Basin Naturalist">Great Basin Naturalist</a>. 53 (4): 390–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5962%2Fbhl.part.16607">10.5962/bhl.part.16607</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111008073525/https://ojs.lib.byu.edu/ojs/index.php/wnan/article/viewFile/545/1430">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 4 September 2009. <q>A third unusual death was a tragic fatality (1987), recorded as a homicide, which resulted when a large rattlesnake (G. v. lutosus) bit a 22-month-old girl after the snake had been placed around her neck (Washington County). The child died in approximately 5 h.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Great+Basin+Naturalist&rft.atitle=Human+fatalities+caused+by+venomous+animals+in+Utah%2C+1900%E2%80%9390&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E390-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5962%2Fbhl.part.16607&rft.aulast=Straight&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Glenn%2C+JL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fojs.lib.byu.edu%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fwnan%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2F545%2F1430&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strubel2008-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Strubel2008_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStrubelBirkhoferEyerWerber2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Strubel T, Birkhofer A, Eyer F, Werber KD, Förstl H (May 2008). 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BMJ Global Health. 8 (8): e011923. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmjgh-2023-011923">10.1136/bmjgh-2023-011923</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2059-7908">2059-7908</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10445399">10445399</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37604596">37604596</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ+Global+Health&rft.atitle=How+and+why+snakebite+became+a+global+health+priority%3A+a+policy+analysis&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e011923&rft.date=2023-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10445399%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2059-7908&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37604596&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmjgh-2023-011923&rft.aulast=Bhaumik&rft.aufirst=Soumyadeep&rft.au=Zwi%2C+Anthony+B.&rft.au=Norton%2C+Robyn&rft.au=Jagnoor%2C+Jagnoor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgh.bmj.com%2Fcontent%2F8%2F8%2Fe011923&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBittel" class="citation web cs1">Bittel J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/animals-venom-cant-touch-180960658/">"The Animals That Venom Can't Touch"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_(magazine)" title="Smithsonian (magazine)">Smithsonian</a>. Retrieved 29 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=The+Animals+That+Venom+Can%27t+Touch&rft.aulast=Bittel&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fscience-nature%2Fanimals-venom-cant-touch-180960658%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCollins2018" class="citation news cs1">Collins B (11 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/feb/11/poison-pass-the-man-who-became-immune-to-snake-venom-steve-ludwin">"Poison pass: the man who became immune to snake venom"</a>. the Guardian. Retrieved 29 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=Poison+pass%3A+the+man+who+became+immune+to+snake+venom&rft.date=2018-02-11&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2018%2Ffeb%2F11%2Fpoison-pass-the-man-who-became-immune-to-snake-venom-steve-ludwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <dl><dt>Bibliography</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreene1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harry_W._Greene" title="Harry W. Greene">Greene HW</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/snakesevolutiono00fogd">Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature</a>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20014-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20014-2"><bdi>978-0-520-20014-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Snakes%3A+The+Evolution+of+Mystery+in+Nature&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20014-2&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=HW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsnakesevolutiono00fogd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMackessy2010" class="citation book cs1">Mackessy SP, ed. (2010). Handbook of Venoms and Toxins of Reptiles (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-9165-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-9165-1"><bdi>978-0-8493-9165-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Venoms+and+Toxins+of+Reptiles&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-9165-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFValenta2010" class="citation book cs1">Valenta J (2010). Venomous Snakes: Envenoming, Therapy (2nd ed.). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60876-618-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60876-618-5"><bdi>978-1-60876-618-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Venomous+Snakes%3A+Envenoming%2C+Therapy&rft.place=Hauppauge%2C+NY&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Nova+Science+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-60876-618-5&rft.aulast=Valenta&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Snakebite <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Snakebite&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Snakebite">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Snakebite&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCampbellLamar2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_A._Campbell" title="Jonathan A. Campbell">Campbell JA</a>, Lamar WW (2004). The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 978-0-8014-4141-7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Venomous+Reptiles+of+the+Western+Hemisphere&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press+978-0-8014-4141-7&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=JA&rft.au=Lamar%2C+WW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSpawlsBranch1995" class="citation book cs1">Spawls S, Branch B (1995). The Dangerous Snakes of Africa: Natural History, Species Directory, Venoms and Snakebite. Sanibel Island, FL: Ralph Curtis Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88359-029-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88359-029-4"><bdi>978-0-88359-029-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dangerous+Snakes+of+Africa%3A+Natural+History%2C+Species+Directory%2C+Venoms+and+Snakebite&rft.place=Sanibel+Island%2C+FL&rft.pub=Ralph+Curtis+Publishing&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-88359-029-4&rft.aulast=Spawls&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Branch%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSullivanWingertNorris_Jr1995" class="citation journal cs1">Sullivan JB, Wingert WA, Norris Jr RL (1995). "North American Venomous Reptile Bites". Wilderness Medicine: Management of Wilderness and Environmental Emergencies. 3: 680–709.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wilderness+Medicine%3A+Management+of+Wilderness+and+Environmental+Emergencies&rft.atitle=North+American+Venomous+Reptile+Bites.&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E680-%3C%2Fspan%3E709&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=JB&rft.au=Wingert%2C+WA&rft.au=Norris+Jr%2C+RL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThorpeWüsterMalhotra1997" class="citation book cs1">Thorpe RS, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_W%C3%BCster" title="Wolfgang Wüster">Wüster W</a>, Malhotra A (14 May 1997). Venomous Snakes: Ecology, Evolution, and Snakebite. Oxford, England: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-854986-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-854986-4"><bdi>978-0-19-854986-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Venomous+Snakes%3A+Ecology%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Snakebite&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997-05-14&rft.isbn=978-0-19-854986-4&rft.aulast=Thorpe&rft.aufirst=RS&rft.au=W%C3%BCster%2C+W&rft.au=Malhotra%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Snakebite&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100506022208/http://apps.who.int/bloodproducts/snakeantivenoms/database/">WHO Snake Antivenoms Database</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOrganization2016" class="citation book cs1">Organization (2016). Guidelines for the management of snakebites. Regional Office for South-East Asia, World Health Organization. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10665%2F249547">10665/249547</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-9022-530-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-9022-530-0"><bdi>978-92-9022-530-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guidelines+for+the+management+of+snakebites&rft.pub=Regional+Office+for+South-East+Asia%2C+World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10665%2F249547&rft.isbn=978-92-9022-530-0&rft.au=Organization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASnakebite" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox32" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q68854" class="extiw" title="d:Q68854">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/T63.0">T63.0</a>, T14.1, W59 (nonvenomous), X20 (venomous)</li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=989.5">989.5</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=E905.0">E905.0</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=E906.2">E906.2</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012909">D012909</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb29733.htm">29733</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000031.htm">000031</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/med/2143-overview">med/2143</a></li><li>Scholia: <a class="external text" href="https://tools.wmflabs.org/scholia/topic/Q68854">Q68854</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="General_wounds_and_injuries99" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:General_injuries" title="Template:General injuries"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:General_injuries" title="Template talk:General injuries"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:General_injuries" title="Special:EditPage/Template:General injuries"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="General_wounds_and_injuries99" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">General <a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wounds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">injuries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Abrasions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasion_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrasion (medical)">Abrasion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avulsion_injury" title="Avulsion injury">Avulsion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Blister" title="Blister">Blisters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_blister" title="Blood blister">Blood blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coma_blister" title="Coma blister">Coma blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delayed_blister" title="Delayed blister">Delayed blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edema_blister" title="Edema blister">Edema blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_blister" title="Fracture blister">Fracture blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_blister" title="Friction blister">Friction blister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sucking_blister" title="Sucking blister">Sucking blister</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bruise" title="Bruise">Bruises</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hematoma" title="Hematoma">Hematoma</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ecchymosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecchymosis">Ecchymosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle%27s_sign" title="Battle's sign">Battle's sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raccoon_eyes" title="Raccoon eyes">Raccoon eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_eye" title="Black eye">Black eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subungual_hematoma" title="Subungual hematoma">Subungual hematoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cullen%27s_sign" title="Cullen's sign">Cullen's sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_Turner%27s_sign" title="Grey Turner's sign">Grey Turner's sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retroperitoneal_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroperitoneal hemorrhage">Retroperitoneal hemorrhage</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biting" title="Biting">Biting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite" title="Animal bite">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_bites_and_stings" class="mw-redirect" title="Insect bites and stings">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_bite" title="Spider bite">Spider</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Snake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballistic_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballistic trauma">Ballistic trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stab_wound" title="Stab wound">Stab wound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Splinter" title="Splinter">Splinter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blunt_trauma" title="Blunt trauma">Blunt trauma</a>/superficial/<a href="/wiki/Wound#Closed" title="Wound">closed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetrating_trauma" title="Penetrating trauma">Penetrating trauma</a>/<a href="/wiki/Wound#Open" title="Wound">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol_burn" title="Aerosol burn">Aerosol burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">Burn</a>/<a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">Corrosion</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chemical_burn" title="Chemical burn">Chemical burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frostbite" title="Frostbite">Frostbite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_injury" title="Occupational injury">Occupational injuries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amputation#Trauma" title="Amputation">Traumatic amputation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hand_injury" title="Hand injury">Hand injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_injury" title="Head injury">Head injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chest_injury" title="Chest injury">Chest trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_trauma" title="Abdominal trauma">Abdominal trauma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="*_Poisoning_*_Toxicity_*_Overdose1265" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Poisoning_and_toxicity" title="Template:Poisoning and toxicity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Poisoning_and_toxicity" title="Template talk:Poisoning and toxicity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Poisoning_and_toxicity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Poisoning and toxicity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="*_Poisoning_*_Toxicity_*_Overdose1265" class="hlist" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning" title="Poisoning">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">Toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">Overdose</a></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_poison" title="History of poison">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">Metals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Toxic_metal" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic metal">Toxic metals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beryllium_poisoning" title="Beryllium poisoning">Beryllium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_poisoning" title="Cadmium poisoning">Cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel#Toxicity" title="Nickel">Nickel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thallium_poisoning" title="Thallium poisoning">Thallium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_poisoning" title="Tin poisoning">Tin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dietary_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietary mineral">Dietary minerals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromium_toxicity" title="Chromium toxicity">Chromium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_poisoning" title="Cobalt poisoning">Cobalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_toxicity" title="Copper toxicity">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_poisoning" title="Iron poisoning">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganism" title="Manganism">Manganese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_toxicity" title="Zinc toxicity">Zinc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other non-toxic metals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argyria" title="Argyria">Silver</a>1</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">Metalloids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_poisoning" title="Arsenic poisoning">Arsenic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nonmetal_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonmetal (chemistry)">Nonmetals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid_poisoning" title="Sulfuric acid poisoning">Sulfuric acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium#Toxicity" title="Selenium">Selenium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorine_gas_poisoning" title="Chlorine gas poisoning">Chlorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluoride_toxicity" title="Fluoride toxicity">Fluoride</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide_poisoning" title="Pesticide poisoning">Pesticides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_phosphide_poisoning" title="Aluminium phosphide poisoning">Aluminium phosphide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organophosphate_poisoning" title="Organophosphate poisoning">Organophosphates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanide_poisoning" title="Cyanide poisoning">Cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine_poisoning" title="Nicotine poisoning">Nicotine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide_poisoning" title="Nitrogen dioxide poisoning">Nitrogen dioxide poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">CHO</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Short-term_effects_of_alcohol_consumption#Excessive_doses" title="Short-term effects of alcohol consumption">Ethanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylene_glycol_poisoning" title="Ethylene glycol poisoning">Ethylene glycol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanol_toxicity" title="Methanol toxicity">Methanol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">Carbon monoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toluene_toxicity" title="Toluene toxicity">Toluene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">Pharmaceutical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Drug_overdoses39" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">Drug overdoses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication" title="Alcohol intoxication">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticholinesterase_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticholinesterase poisoning">Anticholinesterase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspirin_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspirin poisoning">Aspirin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate_overdose" title="Barbiturate overdose">Barbiturates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_overdose" title="Benzodiazepine overdose">Benzodiazepines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine_toxicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocaine toxicity">Cocaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_toxicity" title="Lithium toxicity">Lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_overdose" title="Opioid overdose">Opioids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracetamol_poisoning" title="Paracetamol poisoning">Paracetamol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin_syndrome" title="Serotonin syndrome">Serotonergic substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant_overdose" title="Tricyclic antidepressant overdose">Tricyclic antidepressants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular system">Cardiovascular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digoxin_toxicity" title="Digoxin toxicity">Digoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dipyridamole#Overdose" title="Dipyridamole">Dipyridamole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin poisoning">Vitamin poisoning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_A" title="Hypervitaminosis A">Vitamin A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypervitaminosis D">Vitamin D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_E" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypervitaminosis E">Vitamin E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megavitamin-B6_syndrome" title="Megavitamin-B6 syndrome">Megavitamin-B6 syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological2</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Venomous_fish" title="Venomous fish">Fish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Seafood" title="Seafood">Seafood</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciguatera" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciguatera">Ciguatera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haff_disease" title="Haff disease">Haff disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyoallyeinotoxism" title="Ichthyoallyeinotoxism">Ichthyoallyeinotoxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scombroid_food_poisoning" title="Scombroid food poisoning">Scombroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellfish_poisoning" title="Shellfish poisoning">Shellfish poisoning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amnesic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Amnesic shellfish poisoning">Amnesic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarrhetic_shellfish_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning">Diarrhetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning">Neurotoxic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralytic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Paralytic shellfish poisoning">Paralytic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poisonous_amphibian" title="Poisonous amphibian">Amphibian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batrachotoxin" title="Batrachotoxin">Batrachotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombesin" title="Bombesin">Bombesin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bufotenin" title="Bufotenin">Bufotenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physalaemin" title="Physalaemin">Physalaemin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_bird" title="Toxic bird">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coturnism" title="Coturnism">Coturnism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venomous_mammal" title="Venomous mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venomous_snake" title="Venomous snake">Snakes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Snake_venom" title="Snake venom">Snake venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Bungarotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Bungarotoxin">Alpha-Bungarotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancrod" title="Ancrod">Ancrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batroxobin" title="Batroxobin">Batroxobin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod_bites_and_stings" title="Arthropod bites and stings">Arthropod bites and stings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_sting" title="Bee sting">Bee sting</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apitoxin" title="Apitoxin">Bee venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apamin" title="Apamin">Apamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melittin" title="Melittin">Melittin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpion_venom" class="mw-redirect" title="Scorpion venom">Scorpion venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charybdotoxin" title="Charybdotoxin">Charybdotoxin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_bite" title="Spider bite">spider venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latrotoxin" title="Latrotoxin">Latrotoxin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Latrodectism" title="Latrodectism">Latrodectism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loxoscelism" title="Loxoscelism">Loxoscelism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tick_paralysis" title="Tick paralysis">Tick paralysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonous_plants" title="List of poisonous plants">Plants</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonous_fungus_species" title="List of poisonous fungus species">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinchonism" title="Cinchonism">Cinchonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergotism" title="Ergotism">Ergotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_toxins" title="Fish toxins">Fish toxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lathyrism" title="Lathyrism">Lathyrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locoweed" title="Locoweed">Locoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushroom_poisoning" title="Mushroom poisoning">Mushroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strychnine_poisoning" title="Strychnine poisoning">Strychnine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite" title="Animal bite">Bite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stinger" title="Stinger">Stinger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stinging_plant" title="Stinging plant">plant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">Cnidocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_venomous_animals" title="List of venomous animals">Venomous animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonous_animals" title="List of poisonous animals">Poisonous animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_deadly_fungus_species" title="List of deadly fungus species">Deadly fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotoxicology" title="Mycotoxicology">Mycotoxicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances" title="EPA list of extremely hazardous substances">EPA list of hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_poisonings" title="Lists of poisonings">Lists of poisonings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_poison" title="List of types of poison">List of types of poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="1Silver_is_generally_non-toxic_metal,_but_in_large_doses_it_can_lead_to_argyria,_which_is_rare._2_including_venoms,_toxins,_foodborne_illnesses.190">1<a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a> is generally non-toxic metal, but in large doses it can lead to <a href="/wiki/Argyria" title="Argyria">argyria</a>, which is rare. 2 including <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">foodborne illnesses</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Toxicology" title="Category:Toxicology">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Toxicology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Toxicology">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Toxicology" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Toxicology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_bites_and_stings181" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_bites_and_stings" title="Template:Animal bites and stings"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animal_bites_and_stings" title="Template talk:Animal bites and stings"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animal_bites_and_stings" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animal bites and stings"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_bites_and_stings181" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite" title="Animal bite">Animal bites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stinger" title="Stinger">stings</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Invertebrate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod_bites_and_stings" title="Arthropod bites and stings">Arthropod</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centipede_bite" title="Centipede bite">Centipede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_bites_and_stings" class="mw-redirect" title="Insect bites and stings">Insect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_venom" title="Ant venom">Ant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed_bug_infestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bed bug infestation">Bed bug cimicosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_sting" title="Bee sting">Bee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulicosis" title="Pulicosis">Flea pulicosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_bite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosquito bite">Mosquito</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpion_sting" title="Scorpion sting">Scorpion scorpionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demodicosis" title="Demodicosis">Skin mite demodicosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_bite" title="Spider bite">Spider arachnidism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latrodectism" title="Latrodectism">Black widow spider latrodectism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loxoscelism" title="Loxoscelism">Recluse spider loxoscelism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millipede_burn" title="Millipede burn">Millipede</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bristleworm_sting" class="mw-redirect" title="Bristleworm sting">Bristleworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_attack" title="Cephalopod attack">Cephalopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_dermatitis" title="Coral dermatitis">Coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jellyfish_dermatitis" title="Jellyfish dermatitis">Jellyfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone_dermatitis" title="Sea anemone dermatitis">Sea anemone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin_injury" title="Sea urchin injury">Sea urchin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vertebrate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fatal_alligator_attacks_in_the_United_States" title="List of fatal alligator attacks in the United States">Alligator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_attack" title="Bear attack">Bear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_attack" title="Beaver attack">Beaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fatal_cougar_attacks_in_North_America" title="List of fatal cougar attacks in North America">Cougar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coyote_attack" title="Coyote attack">Coyote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocodile_attack" title="Crocodile attack">Crocodile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_bite" title="Cat bite">Domestic cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orca_attacks" title="Orca attacks">Orca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopard_attack" title="Leopard attack">Leopard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_bite" title="Monkey bite">Monkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_attack" title="Shark attack">Shark</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Snake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stingray_injury" title="Stingray injury">Stingray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_attack" title="Tiger attack">Tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venomous_fish" title="Venomous fish">Venomous fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walrus_attack" title="Walrus attack">Walrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_attacks_on_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf attacks on humans">Wolf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dog_bite" title="Dog bite">Dog</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dingo_attack" title="Dingo attack">Dingo</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_attack" title="Animal attack">Animal attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">Cnidocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-eating_animal" title="Man-eating animal">Man-eating animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stinging_plant" title="Stinging plant">Stinging plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabather%27s_eruption" title="Seabather's eruption">Seabather's eruption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_bites" title="Category:Animal bites">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Reptiles_in_culture84" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Reptiles_in_culture" title="Template:Reptiles in culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Reptiles_in_culture" title="Template talk:Reptiles in culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Reptiles_in_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Reptiles in culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Reptiles_in_culture84" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Reptiles_in_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Reptiles in culture">Reptiles in culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_dinosaurs" title="Cultural depictions of dinosaurs">Dinosaurs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_Palace_Dinosaurs" title="Crystal Palace Dinosaurs">Crystal Palace Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurassic_Park" title="Jurassic Park">Jurassic Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stegosaurus_in_popular_culture" title="Stegosaurus in popular culture">Stegosaurus in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus_in_popular_culture" title="Tyrannosaurus in popular culture">Tyrannosaurus in popular culture</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Charmeur_de_serpents_%C3%A0_Jaipur_(2).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Charmeur_de_serpents_%C3%A0_Jaipur_%282%29.JPG/70px-Charmeur_de_serpents_%C3%A0_Jaipur_%282%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="70" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Charmeur_de_serpents_%C3%A0_Jaipur_%282%29.JPG/105px-Charmeur_de_serpents_%C3%A0_Jaipur_%282%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Charmeur_de_serpents_%C3%A0_Jaipur_%282%29.JPG/140px-Charmeur_de_serpents_%C3%A0_Jaipur_%282%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">Snakes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilisk" title="Basilisk">Basilisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caduceus" title="Caduceus">Caduceus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpents_in_the_Bible" title="Serpents in the Bible">Serpents in the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_of_Asclepius" title="Rod of Asclepius">Rod of Asclepius</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Snakebite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_charming" title="Snake charming">Snake charming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpent_(symbolism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Serpent (symbolism)">Serpent (symbolism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_worship" title="Snake worship">Snake worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_turtles" title="Cultural depictions of turtles">Cultural depictions of turtles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bixi_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bixi (mythology)">Bixi (mythology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtle_Island" title="Turtle Island">Turtle Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Turtle" title="World Turtle">World Turtle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocodile_farm" title="Crocodile farm">Crocodile farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocodile_tears" title="Crocodile tears">Crocodile tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon" title="Dragon">Dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reptilian_humanoid" title="Reptilian humanoid">Reptilian humanoid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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