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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Temperature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precipitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precipitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Precipitation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precipitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Desertification_and_prehistoric_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Desertification_and_prehistoric_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Desertification and prehistoric climate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Desertification_and_prehistoric_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evidence_for_cycles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence_for_cycles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Evidence for cycles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence_for_cycles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecoregions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecoregions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Ecoregions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecoregions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flora_and_fauna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flora_and_fauna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Flora and fauna </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flora_and_fauna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kiffians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kiffians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Kiffians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kiffians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tenerians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tenerians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Tenerians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tenerians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tashwinat_Mummy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tashwinat_Mummy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Tashwinat Mummy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tashwinat_Mummy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nubians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nubians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Nubians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nubians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egyptians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egyptians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Egyptians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egyptians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tichitt_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tichitt_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Tichitt culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tichitt_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phoenicians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phoenicians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Phoenicians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phoenicians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greeks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greeks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Greeks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greeks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Garamantes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Garamantes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.9 Garamantes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Garamantes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_and_Arabic_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_and_Arabic_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.10 Islamic and Arabic expansion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_and_Arabic_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Turkish_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Turkish_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.11 Ottoman Turkish era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Turkish_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.12 European colonialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breakup_of_the_empires_and_afterwards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breakup_of_the_empires_and_afterwards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.13 Breakup of the empires and afterwards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breakup_of_the_empires_and_afterwards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-People,_culture,_and_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#People,_culture,_and_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 People, culture, and languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-People,_culture,_and_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Sahara</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 198 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-198" aria-hidden="true" > 198 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8D%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8D" title="Сэхарэ – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Сэхарэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B0%E1%88%90%E1%88%AB_%E1%89%A0%E1%88%A8%E1%88%93" title="ሰሐራ በረሓ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሰሐራ በረሓ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="सहारा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="सहारा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%89" title="الصحراء الكبرى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الصحراء الكبرى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desierto_d%27o_Sahara" title="Desierto d'o Sahara – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Desierto d'o Sahara" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A8%DC%9A%DC%AA%DC%90%DC%90" title="ܨܚܪܐܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܨܚܪܐܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1_%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF" title="Սահարա Անապատ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Սահարա Անապատ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF" title="চাহাৰা মৰুভূমি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="চাহাৰা মৰুভূমি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desiertu_d%27El_S%C3%A1%E1%B8%A5ara" title="Desiertu d'El Sáḥara – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Desiertu d'El Sáḥara" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="सहारा मरुभूमी – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="सहारा मरुभूमी" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C3%A1ra" title="Saára – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Saára" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D3%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="СахӀара – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="СахӀара" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A4%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9_%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="بؤیوک صحرا – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بؤیوک صحرا" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurun_Sahara" title="Gurun Sahara – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Gurun Sahara" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF" title="সাহারা মরুভূমি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সাহারা মরুভূমি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="सहारा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सहारा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draeples_blong_Sahara" title="Draeples blong Sahara – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Draeples blong Sahara" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A7%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%90%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8D" title="ས་ཧ་ར་བྱེ་ཐང་ཆེན་པོ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ས་ཧ་ར་བྱེ་ཐང་ཆེན་པོ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A0hara" title="Sàhara – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sàhara" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara_(desyerto)" title="Sahara (desyerto) – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Sahara (desyerto)" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaada" title="Amaada – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Amaada" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="الصحرا لكبيرة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="الصحرا لكبيرة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="सहारा मरुभूमी – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="सहारा मरुभूमी" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%B1%CF%87%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B1" title="Σαχάρα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σαχάρα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1hara" title="Sáhara – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sáhara" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saharo" title="Saharo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Saharo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1hara" title="Sáhara – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Sáhara" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B2%D8%B1%DA%AF_%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7" title="صحرای بزرگ آفریقا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="صحرای بزرگ آفریقا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_dal_Sahara" title="Desert dal Sahara – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Desert dal Sahara" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Sah%C3%A1ra" title="An Sahára – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Sahára" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A0sach_Sahara" title="Fàsach Sahara – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Fàsach Sahara" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deserto_do_S%C3%A1hara" title="Deserto do Sáhara – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Deserto do Sáhara" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%8C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Сахьаре – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Сахьаре" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%92%92%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89" title="撒哈拉 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="撒哈拉" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guw mw-list-item"><a href="https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Gun" lang="guw" hreflang="guw" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Gungbe" data-language-local-name="Gun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gungbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%95%98%EB%9D%BC_%EC%82%AC%EB%A7%89" title="사하라 사막 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사하라 사막" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1_%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF" title="Սահարա անապատ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սահարա անապատ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B2" title="सहारा मरुस्थल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सहारा मरुस्थल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurun_Sahara" title="Gurun Sahara – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gurun Sahara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%C3%A6" title="Сахарæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Сахарæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deserto_del_Sahara" title="Deserto del Sahara – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Deserto del Sahara" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%94" title="סהרה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סהרה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara_Ka%C3%B1%C9%A9nb%CA%8Asa%C9%A3" title="Sahara Kañɩnbʊsaɣ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Sahara Kañɩnbʊsaɣ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0" title="ಸಹಾರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಹಾರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="საჰარა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საჰარა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubutayu_bwa_sahara" title="Ubutayu bwa sahara – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Ubutayu bwa sahara" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desyerto_del_Sahara" title="Desyerto del Sahara – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Desyerto del Sahara" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sah%C4%81ra" title="Sahāra – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sahāra" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachara" title="Sachara – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sachara" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/sa%27aras.zei_kutytu%27a" title="sa'aras.zei kutytu'a – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="sa'aras.zei kutytu'a" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szahara_(sivatag)" title="Szahara (sivatag) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szahara (sivatag)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="सहारा मरुभूमी – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="सहारा मरुभूमी" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B1" title="സഹാറ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സഹാറ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C4%A7ara" title="Saħara – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Saħara" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="सहारा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सहारा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="საჰარა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="საჰარა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%89" title="الصحرا الكبرى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الصحرا الكبرى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A7_%DA%AF%D8%AA_%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="آفريقا گت صحرا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="آفريقا گت صحرا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurun_Sahara" title="Gurun Sahara – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Gurun Sahara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurun_Sahara" title="Gurun Sahara – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Gurun Sahara" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%86%D3%A9%D0%BB" title="Сахарын цөл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Сахарын цөл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%9F%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B2%E1%80%80%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B" title="ဆဟာရ သဲကန္တာရ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆဟာရ သဲကန္တာရ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF" title="सहारा मरुभूमि – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सहारा मरुभूमि" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="सहारा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सहारा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B5%E3%83%8F%E3%83%A9%E7%A0%82%E6%BC%A0" title="サハラ砂漠 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="サハラ砂漠" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%8C%D1%85%D1%8C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Саьхьара – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Саьхьара" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahroi_Kabir" title="Sahroi Kabir – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sahroi Kabir" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A5%E0%A8%B2" title="ਸਹਾਰਾ ਮਾਰੂਥਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਹਾਰਾ ਮਾਰੂਥਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="صحارا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="صحارا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7_%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="د افریقا صحرا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د افریقا صحرا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%27aara" title="Sa'aara – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Sa'aara" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saara" title="Saara – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Saara" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deserto_do_Saara" title="Deserto do Saara – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Deserto do Saara" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxara" title="Saxara – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Saxara" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Sahra" title="Büyük Sahra – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Büyük Sahra" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сагара – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Сагара" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0h%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Саhаара – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Саhаара" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="सहारा – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सहारा" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9F" title="ᱥᱟᱦᱟᱨᱟ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱟᱦᱟᱨᱟ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saharaja" title="Saharaja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Saharaja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%84%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA" title="සහරා කාන්තාරය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සහරා කාන්තාරය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%B1%D9%8A%DA%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="صحارا ريگستان – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="صحارا ريگستان" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamadegaanka_Saxara" title="Lamadegaanka Saxara – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Lamadegaanka Saxara" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B2%D9%86" title="بیابانی مەزن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بیابانی مەزن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE" title="சகாரா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சகாரா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ane%E1%BA%93ruf_Ameqran" title="Aneẓruf Ameqran – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Aneẓruf Ameqran" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deserte_d%27u_Sahara" title="Deserte d'u Sahara – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="Deserte d'u Sahara" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tarandíne</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахра – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Сахра" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%8E%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF" title="సహారా ఎడారి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సహారా ఎడారి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2" title="ทะเลทรายสะฮารา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทะเลทรายสะฮารา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panli%C9%9B%CC%88td%C3%AFt" title="Panliɛ̈tdït – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Panliɛ̈tdït" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target">Thuɔŋjäŋ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D2%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Саҳрои бузург – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Саҳрои бузург" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahra" title="Sahra – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sahra" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%CC%B1hara" title="Sa̱hara – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Sa̱hara" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сахара – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сахара" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%92_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85" title="صحرائے اعظم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="صحرائے اعظم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%DA%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%89_%D9%83%DB%95%D8%A8%D9%89%D8%B1" title="سەھرايى كەبىر – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="سەھرايى كەبىر" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saharan_rahvahatoi_ma" title="Saharan rahvahatoi ma – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Saharan rahvahatoi ma" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa_m%E1%BA%A1c_Sahara" title="Sa mạc Sahara – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sa mạc Sahara" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahar%C3%A4n" title="Saharän – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Saharän" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara" title="Sara – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Sara" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Sahara" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saara" title="Saara – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Saara" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%92%92%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E6%B2%99%E6%BC%A0" title="撒哈拉沙漠 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="撒哈拉沙漠" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%90" title="סאהארא – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="סאהארא" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A0h%C3%A1r%C3%A0" title="Sàhárà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Sàhárà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%92%92%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89" title="撒哈拉 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="撒哈拉" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sehra" title="Sehra – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Sehra" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachara" title="Sachara – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Sachara" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%92%92%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E6%B2%99%E6%BC%A0" title="撒哈拉沙漠 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="撒哈拉沙漠" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88w%C3%AA_Sayara" title="Èwê Sayara – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Èwê Sayara" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q6583#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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.latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sahara&params=23_N_13_E_type:landmark_source:googlemaps_scale:30000000_dim:2400km">23°N 13°E / 23°N 13°E / 23; 13</a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected due to vandalism"><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sahara_Desert&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara Desert">Sahara Desert</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Desert on the African continent</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Sahara_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sahara (disambiguation)">Sahara (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard" style="line-height: 1.5em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color: #e7dcc3;">Sahara</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Sahara_real_color.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sahara_real_color.jpg/272px-Sahara_real_color.jpg" decoding="async" width="272" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sahara_real_color.jpg/408px-Sahara_real_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sahara_real_color.jpg/544px-Sahara_real_color.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3700" data-file-height="2000" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The Sahara taken by <a href="/wiki/Apollo_17" title="Apollo 17">Apollo 17</a> astronauts, 1972</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Sahara.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Sahara.svg/272px-Sahara.svg.png" decoding="async" width="272" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Sahara.svg/408px-Sahara.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Sahara.svg/544px-Sahara.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Geographical map of the Sahara</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Length</th><td class="infobox-data">4,800 km (3,000 mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Width</th><td class="infobox-data">1,800 km (1,100 mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Area</th><td class="infobox-data">9,200,000 km2 (3,600,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e7dcc3;">Naming</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Native name</th><td class="infobox-data nickname"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: الصحراء الكبرى</li><li>aṣ-ṣaḥrā' al-kubrá</li><li>"The greatest desert"</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e7dcc3;">Geography</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Countries</th><td class="infobox-data label"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>List</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Flag_of_Chad.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chad.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Flag_of_Chad.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chad.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Flag_of_Chad.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chad.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/23px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/35px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/45px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" 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title="Mali">Mali</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_Mauritania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mauritania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_Mauritania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mauritania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_Mauritania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Mauritania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/23px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/35px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/45px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg/18px-Flag_of_Niger.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg/27px-Flag_of_Niger.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg/35px-Flag_of_Niger.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /> <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_territorial_disputes" title="List of territorial disputes">disputed</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sahara&params=23_N_13_E_type:landmark_source:googlemaps_scale:30000000_dim:2400km">23°N 13°E / 23°N 13°E / 23; 13</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> The Sahara (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/səˈhɑːrə/</a>, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/səˈhærə/</a>) is a desert spanning across <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. With an area of 9,200,000 square kilometres (3,600,000 sq mi), it is the largest hot desert in the world and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts_by_area" title="List of deserts by area">third-largest desert</a> overall, smaller only than the deserts of <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and the northern <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-geology.com-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Size_and_Population_of_Sahara-3">[3]</a> The name "Sahara" is derived from <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: صَحَارَى, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: ṣaḥārā <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">/sˤaħaːraː/</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Broken_plural" title="Broken plural">broken plural</a> form of ṣaḥrā' (صَحْرَاء <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">/sˤaħraːʔ/</a>), meaning "desert".<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The desert covers much of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, excluding the fertile region on the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> coast, the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas Mountains</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile Valley</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> It stretches from the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> in the east and the Mediterranean in the north to the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> in the west, where the landscape gradually changes from desert to coastal plains. To the south it is bounded by the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>, a belt of <a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">semi-arid tropical savanna</a> around the <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger River</a> valley and the <a href="/wiki/Sudan_(region)" title="Sudan (region)">Sudan region</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>. The Sahara can be divided into several regions, including the western Sahara, the central <a href="/wiki/Ahaggar_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahaggar Mountains">Ahaggar Mountains</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tibesti_Mountains" title="Tibesti Mountains">Tibesti Mountains</a>, the <a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFr_Mountains" title="Aïr Mountains">Aïr Mountains</a>, the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9n%C3%A9r%C3%A9" title="Ténéré">Ténéré</a> desert, and the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert" title="Libyan Desert">Libyan Desert</a>. For several hundred thousand years, the Sahara has alternated between desert and savanna grassland in a 20,000-year cycle<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> caused by the <a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">precession</a> of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt#Earth" title="Axial tilt">axis</a> (about 26,000 years) as it rotates around the Sun, which changes the location of the <a href="/wiki/North_African_climate_cycles" title="North African climate cycles">North African monsoon</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vegetation_Africa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Vegetation_Africa.png/290px-Vegetation_Africa.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Vegetation_Africa.png/435px-Vegetation_Africa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Vegetation_Africa.png/580px-Vegetation_Africa.png 2x" data-file-width="1295" data-file-height="1165" /></a><figcaption>The main biomes in Africa</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sahara_satellite_hires.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sahara_satellite_hires.jpg/220px-Sahara_satellite_hires.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sahara_satellite_hires.jpg/330px-Sahara_satellite_hires.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sahara_satellite_hires.jpg/440px-Sahara_satellite_hires.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7432" data-file-height="4168" /></a><figcaption>A 2002 satellite image of the Sahara by <a href="/wiki/NASA_WorldWind" title="NASA WorldWind">NASA WorldWind</a></figcaption></figure> The Sahara covers large parts of <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, and parts of southern <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>. It covers 9 million square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi), 31% of the African continent. If all areas with a mean annual precipitation of less than 250 mm (9.8 in) were included, the Sahara would be 11 million square kilometres (4,200,000 sq mi). It is one of three distinct <a href="/wiki/Physiographic_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiographic provinces">physiographic provinces</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Physiographic_regions_of_the_world#Compendium_table_of_the_worlds_physiographic_regions" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiographic regions of the world">African massive physiographic division</a>. The Sahara is so large and bright that, in theory, it could be detected from other stars as a surface feature of Earth, with near-current technology.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The Sahara is mainly rocky <a href="/wiki/Hamada" title="Hamada">hamada</a> (stone plateaus); <a href="/wiki/Erg_(landform)" title="Erg (landform)">ergs</a> (sand seas – large areas covered with sand <a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">dunes</a>) form only a minor part, contrary to <a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions" title="List of common misconceptions">common misconception</a>,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> but many of the <a href="/wiki/Sand_dune" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand dune">sand dunes</a> are over 180 metres (590 ft) high.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">Wind</a> or rare rainfall shape the desert features: sand dunes, dune fields, sand seas, stone plateaus, gravel plains (reg), <a href="/wiki/Wadi" title="Wadi">dry valleys</a> (wadi), <a href="/wiki/Dry_lake" title="Dry lake">dry lakes</a> (oued), and <a href="/wiki/Salt_pan_(geology)" title="Salt pan (geology)">salt flats</a> (shatt or chott).<a href="#cite_note-PA1327-13">[13]</a> Unusual landforms include the <a href="/wiki/Richat_Structure" title="Richat Structure">Richat Structure</a> in Mauritania. Several deeply dissected mountains, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the <a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFr_Mountains" title="Aïr Mountains">Aïr Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahaggar_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahaggar Mountains">Ahaggar Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saharan_Atlas" title="Saharan Atlas">Saharan Atlas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibesti_Mountains" title="Tibesti Mountains">Tibesti Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adrar_des_Iforas" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrar des Iforas">Adrar des Iforas</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_Hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Sea Hills">Red Sea Hills</a>. The highest peak in the Sahara is <a href="/wiki/Emi_Koussi" title="Emi Koussi">Emi Koussi</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Shield_volcano" title="Shield volcano">shield volcano</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tibesti" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibesti">Tibesti</a> range of northern Chad. The central Sahara is <a href="/wiki/Hyperarid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperarid">hyperarid</a>, with sparse vegetation. The northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and <a href="/wiki/Desert_shrub" class="mw-redirect" title="Desert shrub">desert shrub</a>, with trees and taller shrubs in <a href="/wiki/Wadi" title="Wadi">wadis</a>, where moisture collects. In the central, hyperarid region, there are many subdivisions of the great desert: <a href="/wiki/Tanezrouft" title="Tanezrouft">Tanezrouft</a>, the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9n%C3%A9r%C3%A9" title="Ténéré">Ténéré</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert" title="Libyan Desert">Libyan Desert</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Desert" title="Eastern Desert">Eastern Desert</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nubian_Desert" title="Nubian Desert">Nubian Desert</a> and others. These extremely arid areas often receive no rain for years. To the north, the Sahara skirts the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> in Egypt and portions of Libya, but in <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, the Sahara borders the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_forest,_woodland,_and_scrub" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean forest, woodland, and scrub">Mediterranean forest, woodland, and scrub</a> eco-regions of northern Africa, all of which have a <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Mediterranean climate</a> characterized by hot summers and cool and rainy winters. According to the botanical criteria of <a href="/wiki/Frank_White_(botanist)" title="Frank White (botanist)">Frank White</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> and geographer Robert Capot-Rey,<a href="#cite_note-Grove1958-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bisson2003-16">[16]</a> the northern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the northern limit of <a href="/wiki/Date_palm" title="Date palm">date palm</a> cultivation and the southern limit of the range of <a href="/wiki/Esparto" title="Esparto">esparto</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grass</a> typical of the Mediterranean climate portion of the Maghreb and <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a>. The northern limit also corresponds to the 100 mm (3.9 in) <a href="/wiki/Isotherm_(contour_line)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotherm (contour line)">isohyet</a> of annual precipitation.<a href="#cite_note-Walton2007-17">[17]</a> To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of dry <a href="/wiki/Tropical_savanna" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical savanna">tropical savanna</a> with a summer rainy season that extends across Africa from east to west. The southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of <a href="/wiki/Cornulaca_monacantha" title="Cornulaca monacantha">Cornulaca monacantha</a> (a drought-tolerant member of the <a href="/wiki/Chenopodiaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chenopodiaceae">Chenopodiaceae</a>), or northern limit of <a href="/wiki/Cenchrus_biflorus" title="Cenchrus biflorus">Cenchrus biflorus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grass</a> typical of the Sahel.<a href="#cite_note-Grove1958-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bisson2003-16">[16]</a> According to climatic criteria, the southern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the 150 mm (5.9 in) isohyet of annual precipitation (this is a long-term average, since <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> varies annually).<a href="#cite_note-Walton2007-17">[17]</a> Important cities located in the Sahara include <a href="/wiki/Nouakchott" title="Nouakchott">Nouakchott</a>, the capital of Mauritania; <a href="/wiki/Tamanrasset" title="Tamanrasset">Tamanrasset</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ouargla" title="Ouargla">Ouargla</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9char" title="Béchar">Béchar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hassi_Messaoud" title="Hassi Messaoud">Hassi Messaoud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gharda%C3%AFa" title="Ghardaïa">Ghardaïa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/El_Oued" title="El Oued">El Oued</a> in Algeria; <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a> in Mali; <a href="/wiki/Agadez" title="Agadez">Agadez</a> in Niger; <a href="/wiki/Ghat,_Libya" title="Ghat, Libya">Ghat</a> in Libya; and <a href="/wiki/Faya-Largeau" title="Faya-Largeau">Faya-Largeau</a> in Chad. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate">Climate</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hoggar8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Hoggar8.jpg/220px-Hoggar8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Hoggar8.jpg/330px-Hoggar8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Hoggar8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">oasis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ahaggar_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahaggar Mountains">Ahaggar Mountains</a>. Oases support some life forms in extremely arid deserts.</figcaption></figure> The Sahara is the world's largest <a href="/wiki/Hot_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot desert">hot desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> It is located in the <a href="/wiki/Horse_latitudes" title="Horse latitudes">horse latitudes</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Subtropical_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical ridge">subtropical ridge</a>, a significant belt of semi-permanent subtropical warm-core high pressure where the air from the upper troposphere usually descends, warming and drying the lower troposphere and preventing cloud formation. The permanent absence of clouds allows unhindered light and thermal radiation. The <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_instability#Stable_atmosphere" title="Atmospheric instability">stability of the atmosphere</a> above the desert prevents any convective overturning, thus making rainfall virtually non-existent. As a consequence, the weather tends to be sunny, dry and stable with a minimal chance of rainfall. Subsiding, diverging, dry air masses associated with subtropical <a href="/wiki/High-pressure_system" class="mw-redirect" title="High-pressure system">high-pressure systems</a> are extremely unfavorable for the development of convectional showers. The subtropical ridge is the predominant factor that explains the <a href="/wiki/Hot_desert_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot desert climate">hot desert climate</a> (<a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="Köppen climate classification">Köppen climate classification</a> BWh) of this vast region. The descending airflow is the strongest and the most effective over the eastern part of the Great Desert, in the Libyan Desert: this is the sunniest, driest and the most nearly "rainless" place on the planet, rivaling the <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Desert" title="Atacama Desert">Atacama Desert</a>, lying in <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>. The rainfall inhibition and the dissipation of cloud cover are most accentuated over the eastern section of the Sahara rather than the western. The prevailing <a href="/wiki/Air_mass" title="Air mass">air mass</a> lying above the Sahara is the continental tropical (cT) air mass, which is hot and dry. Hot, dry air masses primarily form over the North-African desert from the heating of the vast continental land area, and it affects the whole desert during most of the year. Because of this <a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">extreme heating</a> process, a <a href="/wiki/Thermal_low" title="Thermal low">thermal low</a> is usually noticed near the surface, and is the strongest and the most developed during the summertime. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sahara_High&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sahara High (page does not exist)">Sahara High</a> represents the eastern continental extension of the <a href="/wiki/Azores_High" title="Azores High">Azores High</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] centered over the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic Ocean">North Atlantic Ocean</a>. The subsidence of the Sahara High nearly reaches the ground during the coolest part of the year, while it is confined to the upper troposphere during the hottest periods. The effects of local surface low pressure are extremely limited because upper-level subsidence still continues to block any form of air ascent. Also, to be protected against rain-bearing weather systems by the atmospheric circulation itself, the desert is made even drier by its geographical configuration and location. Indeed, the extreme aridity of the Sahara is not only explained by the subtropical high pressure: the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas Mountains</a> of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia also help to enhance the aridity of the northern part of the desert. These major mountain ranges act as a barrier, causing a strong <a href="/wiki/Rain_shadow" title="Rain shadow">rain shadow</a> effect on the leeward side by dropping much of the humidity brought by atmospheric disturbances along the <a href="/wiki/Polar_front" title="Polar front">polar front</a> which affects the surrounding Mediterranean climates. The primary source of rain in the Sahara is the <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a>, a continuous belt of low-pressure systems near the equator which bring the brief, short and irregular <a href="/wiki/Rainy_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainy season">rainy season</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> and southern Sahara. Rainfall in this giant desert has to overcome the physical and atmospheric barriers that normally prevent the production of precipitation. The harsh climate of the Sahara is characterized by: extremely low, unreliable, highly erratic rainfall; extremely high sunshine duration values; high temperatures year-round; negligible rates of <a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">relative humidity</a>; a significant <a href="/wiki/Diurnal_temperature_variation" class="mw-redirect" title="Diurnal temperature variation">diurnal temperature variation</a>; and extremely high levels of <a href="/wiki/Potential_evaporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Potential evaporation">potential evaporation</a> which are the highest recorded worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature">Temperature</h3></div> The sky is usually clear above the desert, and the <a href="/wiki/Sunshine_duration" title="Sunshine duration">sunshine duration</a> is extremely high everywhere in the Sahara. Most of the desert has more than 3,600 hours of bright sunshine per year (over 82% of daylight hours), and a wide area in the eastern part has over 4,000 hours of bright sunshine per year (over 91% of daylight hours). The highest values are very close to the theoretical maximum value. A value of 4300 hours (98%) of the time would be[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] recorded in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxor" title="Luxor">Luxor</a>) and in the Nubian Desert (<a href="/wiki/Wadi_Halfa" title="Wadi Halfa">Wadi Halfa</a>).<a href="#cite_note-books.google.fr-21">[21]</a> The annual average direct <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">solar irradiation</a> is around 2,800 kWh/(m2 year) in the Great Desert. The Sahara has a huge potential for solar energy production.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Algeria_Sahara_Desert_Photo_From_Drone_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Algeria_Sahara_Desert_Photo_From_Drone_5.jpg/220px-Algeria_Sahara_Desert_Photo_From_Drone_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Algeria_Sahara_Desert_Photo_From_Drone_5.jpg/330px-Algeria_Sahara_Desert_Photo_From_Drone_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Algeria_Sahara_Desert_Photo_From_Drone_5.jpg/440px-Algeria_Sahara_Desert_Photo_From_Drone_5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sand_dunes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand dunes">Sand dunes</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algerian</a> Sahara</figcaption></figure> The high position of the Sun, the extremely low relative humidity, and the lack of <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> and rainfall make the Great Desert the hottest large region in the world, and the hottest place on Earth during summer in some spots. The average high temperature exceeds 38 to 40 °C (100.4 to 104.0 °F) during the hottest month nearly everywhere in the desert except at very high altitudes. The world's highest officially recorded average daily high temperature[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] was 47 °C (116.6 °F) in a remote desert town in the <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Desert" title="Algerian Desert">Algerian Desert</a> called <a href="/wiki/Bou_Bernous" title="Bou Bernous">Bou Bernous</a>, at an elevation of 378 metres (1,240 ft) above sea level,<a href="#cite_note-books.google.fr-21">[21]</a> and only <a href="/wiki/Death_Valley,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Death Valley, California">Death Valley, California</a> rivals it.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Other hot spots in Algeria such as <a href="/wiki/Adrar,_Algeria" title="Adrar, Algeria">Adrar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timimoun" title="Timimoun">Timimoun</a>, <a href="/wiki/In_Salah" title="In Salah">In Salah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ouallene" title="Ouallene">Ouallene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aoulef" title="Aoulef">Aoulef</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reggane" title="Reggane">Reggane</a> with an elevation between 200 and 400 metres (660 and 1,310 ft) above sea level get slightly lower summer average highs, around 46 °C (114.8 °F) during the hottest months of the year. Salah, well known in Algeria for its extreme heat, has average high temperatures of 43.8 °C (110.8 °F), 46.4 °C (115.5 °F), 45.5 °C (113.9 °F) and 41.9 °C (107.4 °F) in June, July, August and September respectively. There are even hotter spots in the Sahara, but they are located in extremely remote areas, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Azalai" title="Azalai">Azalai</a>, lying in northern Mali. The major part of the desert experiences around three to five months when the average high strictly[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] exceeds 40 °C (104 °F); while in the southern central part of the desert, there are up to six or seven months when the average high temperature strictly[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] exceeds 40 °C (104 °F). Some examples of this are <a href="/wiki/Bilma" title="Bilma">Bilma</a>, Niger and Faya-Largeau, Chad. The annual average daily temperature exceeds 20 °C (68 °F) everywhere and can approach 30 °C (86 °F) in the hottest regions year-round. However, most of the desert has a value in excess of 25 °C (77 °F). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunset_in_Sahara.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Sunset_in_Sahara.jpg/220px-Sunset_in_Sahara.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Sunset_in_Sahara.jpg/330px-Sunset_in_Sahara.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Sunset_in_Sahara.jpg/440px-Sunset_in_Sahara.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="906" /></a><figcaption>Sunset in the Sahara</figcaption></figure> Sand and ground temperatures are even more extreme. During daytime, the sand temperature is extremely high: it can easily reach 80 °C (176 °F) or more.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-23">[23]</a> A sand temperature of 83.5 °C (182.3 °F) has been recorded in <a href="/wiki/Port_Sudan" title="Port Sudan">Port Sudan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-23">[23]</a> Ground temperatures of 72 °C (161.6 °F) have been recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Adrar_Plateau" title="Adrar Plateau">Adrar of Mauritania</a> and a value of 75 °C (167 °F) has been measured in <a href="/wiki/Borkou" class="mw-redirect" title="Borkou">Borkou</a>, northern Chad.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-23">[23]</a> Due to lack of cloud cover and very low humidity, the desert usually has high <a href="/wiki/Diurnal_temperature_variation" class="mw-redirect" title="Diurnal temperature variation">diurnal temperature variations</a> between days and nights. However, it is a myth that the nights are especially cold after extremely hot days in the Sahara.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] On average, nighttime temperatures tend to be 13–20 °C (23–36 °F) cooler than in the daytime. The smallest variations are found along the coastal regions due to high humidity and are often even lower than a 10 °C (18 °F) difference, while the largest variations are found in inland desert areas where the humidity is the lowest, mainly in the southern Sahara. Still, it is true that winter nights can be cold, as it can drop to the freezing point and even below, especially in high-elevation areas.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] The frequency of subfreezing winter nights in the Sahara is strongly influenced by the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic Oscillation">North Atlantic Oscillation</a> (NAO), with warmer winter temperatures during negative NAO events and cooler winters with more frosts when the NAO is positive.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> This is because the weaker clockwise flow around the eastern side of the subtropical anticyclone during negative NAO winters, although too dry to produce more than negligible precipitation, does reduce the flow of dry, cold air from higher latitudes of Eurasia into the Sahara significantly.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precipitation">Precipitation</h3></div> The average annual rainfall ranges from very low in the northern and southern fringes of the desert to nearly non-existent over the central and the eastern part. The thin northern fringe of the desert receives more winter cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Low_pressure_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Low pressure system">low pressure systems</a> over the Mediterranean Sea along the polar front, although very attenuated by the rain shadow effects of the mountains and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, <a href="/wiki/Biskra" title="Biskra">Biskra</a>, Algeria, and <a href="/wiki/Ouarzazate" title="Ouarzazate">Ouarzazate</a>, Morocco, are found in this zone. The southern fringe of the desert along the border with the Sahel receives summer cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of the Intertropical Convergence Zone from the south and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, Timbuktu, Mali and <a href="/wiki/Agadez" title="Agadez">Agadez</a>, Niger are found in this zone. The vast central hyper-arid core of the desert is virtually never affected by northerly or southerly atmospheric disturbances and permanently remains under the influence of the strongest anticyclonic weather regime, and the annual average rainfall can drop to less than 1 millimetre (0.04 in). In fact, most of the Sahara receives less than 20 millimetres (0.8 in). Of the 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi) of desert land in the Sahara, an area of about 2,800,000 square kilometres (1,100,000 sq mi) (about 31% of the total area) receives an annual average rainfall amount of 10 millimetres (0.4 in) or less, while some 1,500,000 square kilometres (580,000 sq mi) (about 17% of the total area) receives an average of 5 millimetres (0.2 in) or less.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-26">[26]</a> The annual average rainfall is virtually zero over a wide area of some 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi) in the eastern Sahara comprising deserts of: Libya, Egypt and Sudan (<a href="/wiki/Tazirbu" title="Tazirbu">Tazirbu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kufra" title="Kufra">Kufra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dakhla_Oasis" title="Dakhla Oasis">Dakhla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kharga" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharga">Kharga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farafra" class="mw-redirect" title="Farafra">Farafra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis" title="Siwa Oasis">Siwa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asyut" title="Asyut">Asyut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sohag" title="Sohag">Sohag</a>, Luxor, Aswan, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Simbel_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Simbel temples">Abu Simbel</a>, Wadi Halfa) where the long-term mean approximates 0.5 millimetres (0.02 in) per year.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-26">[26]</a> Rainfall is very unreliable and erratic in the Sahara as it may vary considerably year by year. In full contrast to the negligible annual rainfall amounts, the annual rates of potential evaporation are extraordinarily high, roughly ranging from 2,500 millimetres (100 in) per year to more than 6,000 millimetres (240 in) per year in the whole desert.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Nowhere else on Earth has air been found as dry and evaporative as in the Sahara region. However, at least two instances of snowfall have been recorded in Sahara, in February 1979 and December 2016, both in the town of <a href="/wiki/Ain_Sefra" class="mw-redirect" title="Ain Sefra">Ain Sefra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Desertification_and_prehistoric_climate">Desertification and prehistoric climate</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sahara_pump_theory" title="Sahara pump theory">Sahara pump theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_humid_period" title="African humid period">African humid period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_North_Africa" title="Prehistoric North Africa">Prehistoric North Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_African_climate_cycles" title="North African climate cycles">North African climate cycles</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Journal.pone.0076514.g004.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Journal.pone.0076514.g004.png/220px-Journal.pone.0076514.g004.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Journal.pone.0076514.g004.png/330px-Journal.pone.0076514.g004.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Journal.pone.0076514.g004.png/440px-Journal.pone.0076514.g004.png 2x" data-file-width="4156" data-file-height="3950" /></a><figcaption>Vegetation and water bodies in early <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> (top), between about 12,000 and 7,000 years ago, and <a href="/wiki/Eemian" class="mw-redirect" title="Eemian">Eemian</a> (bottom)</figcaption></figure> One theory for the formation of the Sahara is that the monsoon in Northern Africa was weakened because of glaciation during the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> period, starting two or three million years ago. Another theory is that the monsoon was weakened when the ancient <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys Sea</a> dried up during the <a href="/wiki/Tortonian" title="Tortonian">Tortonian</a> period around 7 million years ago.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variations between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years,<a href="#cite_note-Lakes-30">[30]</a> believed to be caused by long-term changes in the <a href="/wiki/North_African_climate_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="North African climate cycle">North African climate cycle</a> that alters the path of the <a href="/wiki/North_African_Monsoon" class="mw-redirect" title="North African Monsoon">North African Monsoon</a> – usually southward. The cycle is caused by a 41,000-year cycle in which the tilt of the earth changes between 22° and 24.5°.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-26">[26]</a> At present, it is in a dry period, but it is expected that the Sahara will become green again in 15,000 years. When the North African monsoon is at its strongest, annual precipitation and subsequent vegetation in the Sahara region increase, resulting in conditions commonly referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Green_Sahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Sahara">green Sahara</a>". For a relatively weak North African monsoon, the opposite is true, with decreased annual precipitation and less vegetation resulting in a phase of the Sahara climate cycle known as the "desert Sahara".<a href="#cite_note-Foley1-31">[31]</a> The idea that changes in <a href="/wiki/Insolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Insolation">insolation</a> (solar heating) caused by long-term changes in Earth's orbit are a controlling factor for the long-term variations in the strength of monsoon patterns across the globe was first suggested by Rudolf Spitaler in the late nineteenth century,<a href="#cite_note-Ruddiman3-32">[32]</a> The hypothesis was later formally proposed and tested by the meteorologist John Kutzbach in 1981.<a href="#cite_note-Kutzbach4-33">[33]</a> Kutzbach's ideas about the impacts of insolation on global monsoonal patterns have become widely accepted today as the underlying driver of long-term monsoonal cycles. Kutzbach never formally named his hypothesis and as such it is referred to here as the "<a href="/wiki/North_African_climate_cycles#Orbital_Monsoon_Hypothesis" title="North African climate cycles">Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis</a>" as suggested by Ruddiman in 2001.<a href="#cite_note-Ruddiman3-32">[32]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Village_Telly_in_Mali.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Village_Telly_in_Mali.jpg/220px-Village_Telly_in_Mali.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Village_Telly_in_Mali.jpg/330px-Village_Telly_in_Mali.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Village_Telly_in_Mali.jpg/440px-Village_Telly_in_Mali.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> region of Mali</figcaption></figure> During the last <a href="/wiki/Glacial_period" title="Glacial period">glacial period</a>, the Sahara was much larger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The end of the glacial period brought more rain to the Sahara, from about 8000 BCE to 6000 BCE, perhaps because of <a href="/wiki/Low_pressure_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Low pressure area">low pressure areas</a> over the collapsing <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a> to the north.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Once the ice sheets were gone, the northern Sahara dried out. In the southern Sahara, the drying trend was initially counteracted by the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a>, which brought rain further north than it does today. By around 4200 BCE, however, the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today,<a href="#cite_note-Science_Daily-36">[36]</a> leading to the gradual <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> of the Sahara.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The Sahara is now as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Lakes-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lake_Chad" title="Lake Chad">Lake Chad</a> is the remnant of a former inland sea, paleolake Mega-Chad, which existed during the African humid period. At its largest extent, sometime before 5000 BCE, Lake Mega-Chad was the largest of four Saharan paleolakes, and is estimated to have covered an area of 350,000 km2.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sahara_pump_theory" title="Sahara pump theory">Sahara pump theory</a> describes this cycle. During periods of a wet or "<a href="/wiki/Green_Sahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Sahara">Green Sahara</a>", the Sahara becomes a <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savanna</a> grassland and various flora and fauna become more common. Following inter-pluvial arid periods, the Sahara area then reverts to desert conditions and the flora and fauna are forced to retreat northwards to the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas Mountains</a>, southwards into <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, or eastwards into the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile Valley">Nile Valley</a>. This separates <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">populations</a> of some of the species in areas with different <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climates</a>, forcing them to <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapt</a>, possibly giving rise to <a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">allopatric speciation</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_green_wall_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Great_green_wall_map.svg/220px-Great_green_wall_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Great_green_wall_map.svg/330px-Great_green_wall_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Great_green_wall_map.svg/440px-Great_green_wall_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall</a>, participating countries and Sahel. In August 2023, it was reported that the GGW had only covered 18% of the planned area.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></figcaption></figure> It is also proposed that humans accelerated the drying-out period from 6000 to 2500 BCE by pastoralists overgrazing available grassland.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evidence_for_cycles">Evidence for cycles</h4></div> The growth of <a href="/wiki/Speleothems" class="mw-redirect" title="Speleothems">speleothems</a> (which requires rainwater) was detected in Hol-Zakh, <a href="/wiki/Ashalim" title="Ashalim">Ashalim</a>, Even-Sid, Ma'ale-ha-Meyshar, Ktora Cracks, Nagev Tzavoa Cave, and elsewhere, and has allowed tracking of prehistoric rainfall. The Red Sea coastal route was extremely arid before 140 and after 115 kya (thousands of years ago). Slightly wetter conditions appear at 90–87 kya, but it still was just one tenth the rainfall around 125 kya. In the southern <a href="/wiki/Negev_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Negev Desert">Negev Desert</a> speleothems did not grow between 185 and 140 kya (<a href="/wiki/Marine_isotope_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine isotope stage">MIS</a> 6), 110–90 (MIS 5.4–5.2), nor after 85 kya nor during most of the interglacial period (MIS 5.1), the glacial period and <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a>. This suggests that the southern Negev was arid-to-hyper-arid in these periods.<a href="#cite_note-Vaks2007-41">[41]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum" title="Last Glacial Maximum">Last Glacial Maximum</a> (LGM) the Sahara was more extensive than it is now with the extent of the tropical forests being greatly reduced,<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> and the lower temperatures reduced the strength of the <a href="/wiki/Hadley_Cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadley Cell">Hadley Cell</a>. This is a climate cell which causes rising tropical air of the <a href="/wiki/Inter-Tropical_Convergence_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone">Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone</a> (ITCZ) to bring rain to the tropics, while dry descending air, at about <a href="/wiki/20th_parallel_north" title="20th parallel north">20 degrees north</a>, flows back to the equator and brings desert conditions to this region. It is associated with high rates of wind-blown mineral dust, and these dust levels are found as expected in marine cores from the north tropical Atlantic. But around 12,500 BCE the amount of dust in the cores in the <a href="/wiki/B%C3%B8lling_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bølling Oscillation">Bølling</a>/<a href="/wiki/Aller%C3%B8d_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Allerød Oscillation">Allerød</a> phase suddenly plummets and shows a period of much wetter conditions in the Sahara, indicating a <a href="/wiki/Dansgaard-Oeschger_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Dansgaard-Oeschger event">Dansgaard-Oeschger</a> (DO) event (a sudden warming followed by a slower cooling of the climate). The moister Saharan conditions had begun about 12,500 BCE, with the extension of the ITCZ northward in the northern hemisphere summer, bringing moist wet conditions and a savanna climate to the Sahara, which (apart from a short dry spell associated with the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a>) peaked during the <a href="/wiki/Holocene_thermal_maximum" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocene thermal maximum">Holocene thermal maximum</a> climatic phase at 4000 BCE when mid-latitude temperatures seem to have been between 2 and 3 degrees warmer than in the recent past. Analysis of <a href="/wiki/Nile_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile River">Nile River</a> deposited sediments in the delta also shows this period had a higher proportion of sediments coming from the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Nile" title="Blue Nile">Blue Nile</a>, suggesting higher rainfall also in the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Highlands" title="Ethiopian Highlands">Ethiopian Highlands</a>. This was caused principally by a stronger <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoonal</a> circulation throughout the sub-tropical regions, affecting India, Arabia and the Sahara.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Lake_Victoria" title="Lake Victoria">Lake Victoria</a> only recently became the source of the <a href="/wiki/White_Nile" title="White Nile">White Nile</a> and dried out almost completely around 15 kya.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The sudden subsequent movement of the ITCZ southwards with a <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_event" title="Heinrich event">Heinrich event</a> (a sudden cooling followed by a slower warming), linked to changes with the <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</a> cycle, led to a rapid drying out of the Saharan and Arabian regions, which quickly became desert. This is linked to a marked decline in the scale of the Nile floods between 2700 and 2100 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecoregions">Ecoregions</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saharan_topographic_elements_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Saharan_topographic_elements_map.png/390px-Saharan_topographic_elements_map.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Saharan_topographic_elements_map.png/585px-Saharan_topographic_elements_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Saharan_topographic_elements_map.png/780px-Saharan_topographic_elements_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1396" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>The major topographic features of the Saharan region</figcaption></figure> The Sahara comprises several distinct <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregions</a>. With their variations in temperature, rainfall, elevation, and soil, these regions harbor distinct communities of plants and animals. <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_coastal_desert" title="Atlantic coastal desert">Atlantic coastal desert</a> is a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast where fog generated offshore by the cool <a href="/wiki/Canary_Current" title="Canary Current">Canary Current</a> provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">succulents</a>, and shrubs. It covers an area of 39,900 square kilometers (15,400 sq mi) in the south of Morocco and Mauritania.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/North_Saharan_steppe_and_woodlands" title="North Saharan steppe and woodlands">North Saharan steppe and woodlands</a> is along the northern desert, next to the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_forests,_woodlands,_and_scrub" title="Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub">Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub</a> ecoregions of the northern Maghreb and Cyrenaica. Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the Mediterranean climate regions to the north and the hyper-arid Sahara proper to the south. It covers 1,675,300 square kilometers (646,840 sq mi) in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Sahara_desert_(ecoregion)" title="Sahara desert (ecoregion)">Sahara desert ecoregion</a> covers the hyper-arid central portion of the Sahara where rainfall is minimal and sporadic. Vegetation is rare, and this ecoregion consists mostly of sand dunes (erg, chech, raoui), stone plateaus (hamadas), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadis), and salt flats. It covers 4,639,900 square kilometres (1,791,500 sq mi) of: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-PA1327-13">[13]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/South_Saharan_steppe_and_woodlands" title="South Saharan steppe and woodlands">South Saharan steppe and woodlands</a> ecoregion is a narrow band running east and west between the hyper-arid Sahara and the Sahel savannas to the south. Movements of the equatorial Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) bring summer rains during July and August which average 100 to 200 mm (4 to 8 in) but vary greatly from year to year. These rains sustain summer pastures of grasses and herbs, with dry woodlands and shrublands along seasonal watercourses. This ecoregion covers 1,101,700 square kilometres (425,400 sq mi) in Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/West_Saharan_montane_xeric_woodlands" title="West Saharan montane xeric woodlands">West Saharan montane xeric woodlands</a>, several volcanic highlands provide a cooler, moister environment that supports Saharo-Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands. The ecoregion covers 258,100 square kilometres (99,650 sq mi), mostly in the <a href="/wiki/Tassili_n%27Ajjer" title="Tassili n'Ajjer">Tassili n'Ajjer</a> of Algeria, with smaller enclaves in the <a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFr_Mountains" title="Aïr Mountains">Aïr</a> of Niger, the <a href="/wiki/Adrar_Plateau" title="Adrar Plateau">Adrar Plateau</a> of Mauritania, and the <a href="/wiki/Adrar_des_Ifoghas" title="Adrar des Ifoghas">Adrar des Iforas</a> of Mali and Algeria.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tibesti-Jebel_Uweinat_montane_xeric_woodlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands">Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands</a> ecoregion consists of the Tibesti and <a href="/wiki/Jebel_Uweinat" class="mw-redirect" title="Jebel Uweinat">Jebel Uweinat</a> highlands. Higher and more regular rainfall and cooler temperatures support woodlands and shrublands of date palm, <a href="/wiki/Acacia" title="Acacia">acacias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myrtus" title="Myrtus">myrtle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oleander" class="mw-redirect" title="Oleander">oleander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamarix" title="Tamarix">tamarix</a>, and several rare and endemic plants. The ecoregion covers 82,200 square kilometres (31,700 sq mi) in the Tibesti of Chad and Libya, and Jebel Uweinat on the border of Egypt, Libya, and Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></li> <li>The Saharan halophytics is an area of seasonally flooded saline depressions which is home to <a href="/wiki/Halophytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Halophytic">halophytic</a> (salt-adapted) plant communities. The Saharan halophytics cover 54,000 square kilometres (21,000 sq mi) including: the <a href="/wiki/Qattara_Depression" title="Qattara Depression">Qattara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Siwa Depression">Siwa</a> depressions in northern Egypt, the <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_salt_lakes" title="Tunisian salt lakes">Tunisian salt lakes</a> of central Tunisia, <a href="/wiki/Chott_Melghir" class="mw-redirect" title="Chott Melghir">Chott Melghir</a> in Algeria, and smaller areas of Algeria, Mauritania, and the southern part of Morocco.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tanezrouft" title="Tanezrouft">Tanezrouft</a> is one of the Sahara's most arid regions, with no vegetation and very little life. A barren, flat gravel plain, it extends south of <a href="/wiki/Reggane" title="Reggane">Reggane</a> in Algeria towards the <a href="/wiki/Adrar_des_Ifoghas" title="Adrar des Ifoghas">Adrar des Ifoghas</a> highlands in northern Mali.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flora_and_fauna">Flora and fauna</h2></div> The flora of the Sahara is highly diversified based on the bio-geographical characteristics of this vast desert. <a href="/wiki/Floristics" title="Floristics">Floristically</a>, the Sahara has three zones based on the amount of rainfall received – the Northern (Mediterranean), Central and Southern Zones. There are two transitional zones – the Mediterranean-Sahara transition and the Sahel transition zone.<a href="#cite_note-Mares1999-51">[51]</a> The Saharan flora comprises around 2800 species of <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a>. Approximately a quarter of these are <a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemic</a>. About half of these species are common to the flora of the Arabian deserts.<a href="#cite_note-Houérou2008-52">[52]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GueltaCamels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/GueltaCamels.jpg/220px-GueltaCamels.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/GueltaCamels.jpg/330px-GueltaCamels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/GueltaCamels.jpg/440px-GueltaCamels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="763" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Camels in the <a href="/wiki/Guelta_d%27Archei" title="Guelta d'Archei">Guelta d'Archei</a>, in north-eastern <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a></figcaption></figure> The central Sahara is estimated to include five hundred species of plants, which is extremely low considering the huge extent of the area. Plants such as acacia trees, palms, succulents, spiny shrubs, and grasses have adapted to the arid conditions, by growing lower to avoid water loss by strong winds, by storing water in their thick stems to use it in dry periods, by having long roots that travel horizontally to reach the maximum area of water and to find any surface moisture, and by having small thick leaves or needles to prevent water loss by <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a>. Plant leaves may dry out totally and then recover. Several species of fox live in the Sahara including: the <a href="/wiki/Fennec_fox" title="Fennec fox">fennec fox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pale_fox" title="Pale fox">pale fox</a> and <a href="/wiki/R%C3%BCppell%27s_fox" title="Rüppell's fox">Rüppell's fox</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Addax" title="Addax">addax</a>, a large white <a href="/wiki/Antelope" title="Antelope">antelope</a>, can go nearly a year in the desert without drinking. The <a href="/wiki/Dorcas_gazelle" title="Dorcas gazelle">dorcas gazelle</a> is a north African gazelle that can also go for a long time without water. Other notable gazelles include the <a href="/wiki/Rhim_gazelle" title="Rhim gazelle">rhim gazelle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dama_gazelle" title="Dama gazelle">dama gazelle</a>. The Saharan <a href="/wiki/Cheetah" title="Cheetah">cheetah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Northwest_African_cheetah" title="Northwest African cheetah">northwest African cheetah</a>) lives in Algeria, <a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a>, Niger, Mali, <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a>. There remain fewer than 250 mature cheetahs, which are very cautious, fleeing any human presence. The cheetah avoids the sun from April to October, seeking the shelter of shrubs such as <a href="/wiki/Balanites" title="Balanites">balanites</a> and acacias. They are unusually pale.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> The other cheetah subspecies (<a href="/wiki/Northeast_African_cheetah" title="Northeast African cheetah">northeast African cheetah</a>) lives in Chad, Sudan and the eastern region of Niger. However, it is currently extinct in the wild in Egypt and Libya. There are approximately 2000 mature individuals left in the wild. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Libya_5391_Ubari_Lakes_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Libya_5391_Ubari_Lakes_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg/220px-Libya_5391_Ubari_Lakes_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Libya_5391_Ubari_Lakes_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg/330px-Libya_5391_Ubari_Lakes_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Libya_5391_Ubari_Lakes_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg/440px-Libya_5391_Ubari_Lakes_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Idehan_Ubari" title="Idehan Ubari">Idehan Ubari</a> oasis lake, with <a href="/wiki/Native_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Native plant">native</a> grasses and <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_dactylifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenix dactylifera">date palms</a></figcaption></figure> Other animals include the <a href="/wiki/Monitor_lizard" title="Monitor lizard">monitor lizards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyrax" title="Hyrax">hyrax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerastes_(genus)" title="Cerastes (genus)">sand vipers</a>, and small populations of <a href="/wiki/African_wild_dog" title="African wild dog">African wild dog</a>,<a href="#cite_note-iucn-55">[55]</a> in perhaps only 14 countries<a href="#cite_note-Borrell-56">[56]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red-necked_ostrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Red-necked ostrich">red-necked ostrich</a>. Other animals exist in the Sahara (birds in particular) such as <a href="/wiki/African_silverbill" title="African silverbill">African silverbill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black-faced_firefinch" title="Black-faced firefinch">black-faced firefinch</a>, among others. There are also small <a href="/wiki/Desert_crocodile" class="mw-redirect" title="Desert crocodile">desert crocodiles</a> in Mauritania and the <a href="/wiki/Ennedi_Plateau" title="Ennedi Plateau">Ennedi Plateau</a> of Chad.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Deathstalker" title="Deathstalker">deathstalker</a> scorpion can be 10 cm (3.9 in) long. Its venom contains large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Agitoxin" title="Agitoxin">agitoxin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scyllatoxin" title="Scyllatoxin">scyllatoxin</a> and is very dangerous; however, a sting from this scorpion rarely kills a healthy adult. The <a href="/wiki/Saharan_silver_ant" title="Saharan silver ant">Saharan silver ant</a> is unique in that due to the extreme high temperatures of their habitat, and the threat of predators, the ants are active outside their nest for only about ten minutes per day.<a href="#cite_note-WehnerEtAl1992-58">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dromedary" title="Dromedary">Dromedary</a> camels and <a href="/wiki/Goat" title="Goat">goats</a> are the domesticated animals most commonly found in the Sahara. Because of its qualities of endurance and speed, the dromedary is the favourite animal used by <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomads</a>. Human activities are more likely to affect the habitat in areas of permanent water (oases) or where water comes close to the surface. Here, the local pressure on natural resources can be intense. The remaining populations of large mammals have been greatly reduced by hunting for food and recreation. In recent years development projects have started in the deserts of Algeria and Tunisia using irrigated water pumped from underground aquifers. These schemes often lead to <a href="/wiki/Soil_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil degradation">soil degradation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">salinization</a>. Researchers from <a href="/wiki/Hacettepe_University" title="Hacettepe University">Hacettepe University</a> have reported that Saharan soil may have bio-available <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and also some essential macro and micro nutrient elements suitable for use as fertilizer for growing wheat.<a href="#cite_note-YTSB2011-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mathendous_giraffes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Mathendous_giraffes.jpg/220px-Mathendous_giraffes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Mathendous_giraffes.jpg/330px-Mathendous_giraffes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Mathendous_giraffes.jpg/440px-Mathendous_giraffes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saharan_rock_art" title="Saharan rock art">Saharan rock art</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Fezzan" title="Fezzan">Fezzan</a></figcaption></figure> People lived on the edge of the <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">desert</a> thousands of years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Post-Ice_Age_Sahara-60">[60]</a> since the end of the <a href="/wiki/Last_glacial_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Last glacial period">last glacial period</a>. In the Central Sahara, engraved and painted rock art were created perhaps as early as 10,000 years ago, spanning the <a href="/wiki/Bubaline_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Bubaline Period">Bubaline Period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kel_Essuf_Period" title="Kel Essuf Period">Kel Essuf Period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Round_Head_Period" title="Round Head Period">Round Head Period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral Period">Pastoral Period</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Caballine_Period&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caballine Period (page does not exist)">Caballine Period</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cameline_Period&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cameline Period (page does not exist)">Cameline Period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Soukopova-61">[61]</a> The Sahara was then a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 <a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">petroglyphs</a> of river <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Crocodile" title="Crocodile">crocodiles</a><a href="#cite_note-Crocodiles-62">[62]</a> survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria. <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossils</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2018_Dinosaur-63">[63]</a> including <a href="/wiki/Afrovenator" title="Afrovenator">Afrovenator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jobaria" title="Jobaria">Jobaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ouranosaurus" title="Ouranosaurus">Ouranosaurus</a>, have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not lush in vegetation, except in the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> Valley, at a few <a href="/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">oases</a>, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olive</a> tree are found to grow. Shifts in <a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">Earth's axis</a> increased temperatures and decreased precipitation, which caused an abrupt beginning of North Africa desertification about 5,400 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Science_Daily-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kiffians">Kiffians</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Kiffian_culture" title="Kiffian culture">Kiffian culture</a> is a prehistoric industry, or domain, that existed between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago in the Sahara, during the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Subpluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic Subpluvial">Neolithic Subpluvial</a>. Human remains from this culture were found in 2000 at a site known as <a href="/wiki/Gobero" title="Gobero">Gobero</a>, located in <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> in the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9n%C3%A9r%C3%A9" title="Ténéré">Ténéré Desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-scidaily-64">[64]</a> The site is known as the largest and earliest grave of Stone Age people in the Sahara.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes-65">[65]</a> The Kiffians were skilled <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunters</a>. Bones of many large savannah animals that were discovered in the same area suggest that they lived on the shores of a lake that was present during the Holocene Wet Phase, a period when the Sahara was verdant and wet.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes-65">[65]</a> The Kiffian people were tall, standing over six feet in height.<a href="#cite_note-scidaily-64">[64]</a> Craniometric analysis indicates that this early <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> population was closely related to the Late Pleistocene <a href="/wiki/Iberomaurusian" title="Iberomaurusian">Iberomaurusians</a> and early Holocene <a href="/wiki/Capsian_culture" title="Capsian culture">Capsians</a> of the Maghreb, as well as mid-Holocene <a href="/wiki/Mechta-Afalou" title="Mechta-Afalou">Mechta</a> groups.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Traces of the Kiffian culture do not exist after 8,000 years ago, as the Sahara went through a dry period for the next thousand years.<a href="#cite_note-newscientist-67">[67]</a> After this time, the <a href="/wiki/Tenerian_culture" title="Tenerian culture">Tenerian culture</a> colonized the area. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tenerians">Tenerians</h3></div> Gobero was discovered in 2000 during an archaeological expedition led by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sereno" title="Paul Sereno">Paul Sereno</a>, which sought <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a> remains. Two distinct prehistoric cultures were discovered at the site: the early <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> Kiffian culture, and the middle Holocene <a href="/wiki/Tenerian_culture" title="Tenerian culture">Tenerian culture</a>. The post-Kiffian desiccation lasted until around 4600 BCE, when the earliest artefacts associated with the Tenerians have been dated to. Some 200 skeletons have been discovered at Gobero. The Tenerians were considerably shorter in height and less robust than the earlier Kiffians. Craniometric analysis also indicates that they were osteologically distinct. The Kiffian skulls are akin to those of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Pleistocene" title="Late Pleistocene">Late Pleistocene</a> <a href="/wiki/Iberomaurusian" title="Iberomaurusian">Iberomaurusians</a>, early Holocene <a href="/wiki/Capsian_culture" title="Capsian culture">Capsians</a>, and mid-Holocene <a href="/wiki/Mechta-Afalou" title="Mechta-Afalou">Mechta</a> groups, whereas the Tenerian crania are more like those of Mediterranean groups.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Graves show that the Tenerians observed spiritual traditions, as they were buried with artifacts such as jewelry made of hippo <a href="/wiki/Tusk" title="Tusk">tusks</a> and clay pots. The most interesting find is a triple burial, dated to 5300 years ago, of an adult female and two children, estimated through their teeth as being five and eight years old, hugging each other. Pollen residue indicates they were buried on a bed of flowers. The three are assumed to have died within 24 hours of each other, but as their skeletons hold no apparent trauma (they did not die violently) and they have been buried so elaborately – unlikely if they had died of a plague – the cause of their deaths is a mystery. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vue_de_Taghit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vue_de_Taghit.jpg/220px-Vue_de_Taghit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vue_de_Taghit.jpg/330px-Vue_de_Taghit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vue_de_Taghit.jpg/440px-Vue_de_Taghit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oued_Zouzfana" title="Oued Zouzfana">Oued Zouzfana</a> and village of <a href="/wiki/Taghit" title="Taghit">Taghit</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tashwinat_Mummy">Tashwinat Mummy</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Uan_Muhuggiag" title="Uan Muhuggiag">Uan Muhuggiag</a> appears to have been inhabited from at least the 6th millennium BCE to about 2700 BCE, although not necessarily continuously.<a href="#cite_note-Mori-1998-70">[70]</a> The most noteworthy find at Uan Muhuggiag is the well-preserved <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummy</a> of a young boy of approximately <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>2+1⁄2 years old. The child was in a fetal position, then embalmed, then placed in a sack made of antelope skin, which was insulated by a layer of leaves.<a href="#cite_note-Hooke-2003-71">[71]</a> The boy's organs were removed, as evidenced by incisions in his stomach and thorax, and an organic preservative was inserted to stop his body from decomposing.<a href="#cite_note-Cockburn-1980-72">[72]</a> An ostrich eggshell necklace was also found around his neck.<a href="#cite_note-Mori-1998-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon dating</a> determined the age of the mummy to be approximately 5600 years old, which makes it about 1000 years older than the earliest previously recorded mummy in ancient <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Temehu-73">[73]</a> In 1958–59, an archaeological expedition led by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Ascenzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Ascenzi (page does not exist)">Antonio Ascenzi</a> conducted anthropological, radiological, histological and chemical analyses on the Uan Muhuggiag mummy. The team claimed that the mummy was a 30-month-old child of uncertain sex. They also found a long incision on the specimen's abdominal wall, which indicated that the body had been initially mummified by evisceration and later underwent natural desiccation. The team also stated that the mummy possessed "<a href="/wiki/Negroid" title="Negroid">Negroid</a> features."<a href="#cite_note-Giuffra2010-74">[74]</a> However, modern genetics has since proven that the final claim is unscientific and not supported by evidence.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> A more recent publication referenced a laboratory examination of the <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">cutaneous</a> features of the <a href="/wiki/Uan_Muhuggiag#Tashwinat_Mummy" title="Uan Muhuggiag">child mummy</a> in which the results verified that the child possessed a dark skin complexion.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> One other individual, an adult, was found at Uan Muhuggiag, buried in a crouched position.<a href="#cite_note-Mori-1998-70">[70]</a> However, the body showed no evidence of evisceration or any other method of preservation. The body was estimated to date from about 7500 BP.<a href="#cite_note-Soukopova-2012-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nubians">Nubians</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sahara_pump_theory" title="Sahara pump theory">Sahara pump theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Subpluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic Subpluvial">Neolithic Subpluvial</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beni-Izguen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Beni-Izguen.jpg/220px-Beni-Izguen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Beni-Izguen.jpg/330px-Beni-Izguen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Beni-Izguen.jpg/440px-Beni-Izguen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/M%27zab" title="M'zab">Beni Isguen</a>, a holy city surrounded by thick walls in the Algerian Sahara</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> Era, before the onset of <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> around 9500 BCE, the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el-Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BCE, the people who inhabited what is now called <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> were full participants in the "agricultural revolution", living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen suggests the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Cattle_cult" class="mw-redirect" title="Cattle cult">cattle cult</a> like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">Megaliths</a> found at <a href="/wiki/Nabta_Playa" title="Nabta Playa">Nabta Playa</a> are overt examples of probably the world's first known <a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">archaeoastronomy</a> devices, predating <a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a> by some 2,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egyptians">Egyptians</h3></div> By 6000 BCE <a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Predynastic Egypt">predynastic Egyptians</a> in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BCE centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone. Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving were commonplace in this era also. There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the <a href="/wiki/Al_Fayyum" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Fayyum">Al Fayyum</a> in the 6th millennium BCE, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food-gathering. Stone <a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">arrowheads</a>, knives and scrapers from the era are commonly found.<a href="#cite_note-Fayum-83">[83]</a> Burial items included pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites, and the dead were buried facing due west.<a href="#cite_note-Predynastic-84">[84]</a> Several scholars have argued that the African origins of the Egyptian civilisation derived from pastoral communities which emerged in both the Egyptian and Sudanese regions of the Nile Valley in the fifth millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> By 3400 BCE, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, due to reduced precipitation and higher temperatures resulting from a shift in Earth's orbit.<a href="#cite_note-Science_Daily-36">[36]</a> As a result of this aridification, it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with the remaining settlements mainly being concentrated around the numerous oases that dot the landscape. Little trade or commerce is known to have passed through the interior in subsequent periods, the only major exception being the Nile Valley. The Nile, however, was impassable at several <a href="/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile" title="Cataracts of the Nile">cataracts</a>, making trade and contact by boat difficult. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tichitt_culture">Tichitt culture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tichitt_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Tichitt culture">Tichitt culture</a></div> In 4000 BCE, the start of sophisticated social structure (e.g., trade of cattle as valued assets) developed among herders amid the <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral Period">Pastoral Period</a> of the Sahara.<a href="#cite_note-Brass3-86">[86]</a> Saharan <a href="/wiki/Pastoral" title="Pastoral">pastoral</a> culture (e.g., fields of tumuli, lustrous stone rings, axes) was intricate.<a href="#cite_note-Brass_II-87">[87]</a> By 1800 BCE, Saharan pastoral culture expanded throughout the Saharan and Sahelian regions.<a href="#cite_note-Brass3-86">[86]</a> The initial stages of sophisticated social structure among Saharan herders served as the segue for the development of sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Hierarchies" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchies">hierarchies</a> found in African settlements, such as <a href="/wiki/Dhar_Tichitt" title="Dhar Tichitt">Dhar Tichitt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brass3-86">[86]</a> After migrating from the Central Sahara, proto-<a href="/wiki/Mande_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Mande peoples">Mande peoples</a> established their civilization in the Tichitt region<a href="#cite_note-Abd-El-Moniem-88">[88]</a> of the Western Sahara<a href="#cite_note-Kea-89">[89]</a> The Tichitt Tradition of eastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE<a href="#cite_note-McDougall-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Holl-91">[91]</a> to 200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_IV-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kay-93">[93]</a> Tichitt culture, at Dhar Néma, Dhar Tagant, Dhar Tichitt, and Dhar Walata, included a four-tiered hierarchal social structure, <a href="/wiki/Farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Farming">farming</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cereals" class="mw-redirect" title="Cereals">cereals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, numerous <a href="/wiki/Funerary" class="mw-redirect" title="Funerary">funerary</a> tombs, and a <a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">rock art</a> tradition<a href="#cite_note-Sterry-94">[94]</a> At Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata, <a href="/wiki/Pearl_millet" title="Pearl millet">pearl millet</a> may have also been independently tamed amid the <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_Neolithic" title="Pastoral Neolithic">Neolithic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Champion-95">[95]</a> Dhar Tichitt, which includes Dakhlet el Atrouss, may have served as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of the Tichitt Tradition,<a href="#cite_note-Linares-Matás-96">[96]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Malian_Lakes_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Malian Lakes Region">Malian Lakes Region</a>, which includes <a href="/wiki/Tondidarou" title="Tondidarou">Tondidarou</a>, may have served as a second regional center of the Tichitt Tradition.<a href="#cite_note-Vernet-97">[97]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban</a><a href="#cite_note-Kea-89">[89]</a> Tichitt Tradition may have been the earliest large-scale, <a href="/wiki/Complex_society" title="Complex society">complexly organized society</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>,<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_II-98">[98]</a> and an early <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a> of the Sahara,<a href="#cite_note-Abd-El-Moniem-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-McDougall-90">[90]</a> which may have served as the segue for <a href="/wiki/State_formation" title="State formation">state formation</a> in West Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Brass_II-87">[87]</a> As areas where the Tichitt cultural tradition were present, Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata were occupied more frequently than Dhar Néma.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_II-98">[98]</a> Farming of crops (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a>) may have been a feature of the Tichitt cultural tradition as early as 3rd millennium BCE in Dhar Tichitt.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_II-98">[98]</a> As part of a broader trend of iron metallurgy developed in the West African Sahel amid 1st millennium BCE, iron items (350 BCE – 100 CE) were found at Dhar Tagant, iron metalworking and/or items (800 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at <a href="/wiki/Dia,_Mali" title="Dia, Mali">Dia Shoma</a> and Walaldé, and the iron remnants (760 BCE – 400 BCE) found at Bou Khzama and Djiganyai.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_II-98">[98]</a> The iron materials that were found are evidence of iron metalworking at Dhar Tagant.<a href="#cite_note-Kay-93">[93]</a> In the late period of the Tichitt Tradition at Dhar Néma, tamed pearl millet was used to temper the tuyeres of a oval-shaped low shaft furnace; this furnace was one out of 16 iron furnaces located on elevated ground.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_IV-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Iron_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Iron metallurgy in Africa">Iron metallurgy</a> may have developed before the second half of 1st millennium BCE, as indicated by pottery dated between 800 BCE and 200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_IV-92">[92]</a> At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> was also used.<a href="#cite_note-Kea-89">[89]</a> After its decline in Mauritania, the Tichitt Tradition spread to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Niger" title="Middle Niger">Middle Niger</a> region (e.g., <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9ma" title="Méma">Méma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macina,_Mali" title="Macina, Mali">Macina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dia,_Mali" title="Dia, Mali">Dia Shoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jenne_Jeno" class="mw-redirect" title="Jenne Jeno">Jenne Jeno</a>) of Mali where it developed into and persisted as Faïta Facies ceramics between 1300 BCE and 400 BCE among <a href="/wiki/Rammed_earth" title="Rammed earth">rammed earth</a> architecture and iron metallurgy (which had developed after 900 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald2-99">[99]</a> Thereafter, the <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana Empire</a> developed in the 1st millennium CE.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald2-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_Sahara" title="History of Western Sahara">History of Western Sahara</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg/220px-Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg/330px-Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg/440px-Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Azalai" title="Azalai">Azalai</a> salt caravan. The French reported that the 1906 caravan numbered 20,000 camels.</figcaption></figure> The people of <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>, who flourished from 1200 to 800 BCE, created a chain of settlements along the coast of North Africa and traded extensively with its inhabitants. This put them in contact with the people of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">ancient Libya</a>, who were the ancestors of people who speak <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber languages</a> in North Africa and the Sahara today. The Libyco-Berber alphabet of the ancient Libyans of north Africa seems to have been based on Phoenician, and its descendant <a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a> is still used today by the (Berber) <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_people" title="Tuareg people">Tuareg</a> of the central Sahara. The Periplus of the Phoenician navigator <a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno</a>, who lived sometime in the 5th century BC, claims that he founded settlements along the Atlantic coast of Africa, possibly including the Western Sahara. The identification of the places discussed is controversial, and archeological confirmation is lacking. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greeks">Greeks</h3></div> By 500 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> arrived in the desert. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthaginians</a> explored the Atlantic coast of the desert, but the turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets caused a lack of presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were of constant concern to those living on the edge of the desert. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Garamantes">Garamantes</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghardaia01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Ghardaia01.jpg/220px-Ghardaia01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Ghardaia01.jpg/330px-Ghardaia01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Ghardaia01.jpg/440px-Ghardaia01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3375" data-file-height="2196" /></a><figcaption>Market on the main square of <a href="/wiki/Gharda%C3%AFa" title="Ghardaïa">Ghardaïa</a> (1971)</figcaption></figure> An urban civilization, the <a href="/wiki/Garamantes" title="Garamantes">Garamantes</a>, arose around 500 BCE in the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wadi_al-Ajal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wadi al-Ajal (page does not exist)">Wadi al-Ajal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fezzan" title="Fezzan">Fezzan</a>, Libya.<a href="#cite_note-Lakes-30">[30]</a> The Garamantes built a prosperous empire in the heart of the desert.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap <a href="/wiki/Fossil_water" title="Fossil water">fossil water</a> and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors, and capturing and enslaving many individuals who were forced to work by extending the tunnels. The ancient Greeks and the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with them, and a <a href="/wiki/Roman_bath" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman bath">Roman bath</a> has been found in the Garamantes' capital of Garama. <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeologists</a> have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes' territory. The Garamantes' civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a> and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels further into the mountains.<a href="#cite_note-Keys-101">[101]</a> Between the first century BCE and the fourth century CE, several <a href="/wiki/Romans_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in Sub-Saharan Africa">Roman expeditions into the Sahara</a> were conducted by groups of military and commercial units of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_and_Arabic_expansion">Islamic and Arabic expansion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">Trans-Saharan trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization of Sudan">Islamization of Sudan</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> ruled the northern shores of the Sahara from the 5th to the 7th centuries. After the Muslim conquest of Arabia, specifically the Arabian peninsula, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of North Africa">Muslim conquest of North Africa</a> began in the mid-7th to early 8th centuries and Islamic influence expanded rapidly on the Sahara. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Muslim hands. Trade across the desert intensified, and a significant <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">slave trade</a> crossed the desert. It has been estimated that from the 10th to 19th centuries some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Beni_%E1%B8%A4ass%C4%81n" title="Beni Ḥassān">Beni Ḥassān</a> and other nomadic Arab tribes dominated the <a href="/wiki/Sanhaja" title="Sanhaja">Sanhaja</a> <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berber</a> tribes of the western Sahara after the <a href="/wiki/Char_Bouba_war" title="Char Bouba war">Char Bouba war</a> of the 17th century. As a result, Arabian culture and language came to dominate, and the Berber tribes underwent some <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Turkish_era">Ottoman Turkish era</h3></div> In the 16th century the northern fringe of the Sahara, such as coastal regencies in present-day <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Algeria">Algeria</a> and Tunisia, as well as some parts of present-day Libya, together with the semi-autonomous kingdom of Egypt, were occupied by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. From 1517 Egypt was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire, ownership of which provided the Ottomans with control over the Nile Valley, the east Mediterranean and North Africa. The benefit of the Ottoman Empire was the freedom of movement for citizens and goods. Traders exploited the Ottoman land routes to handle the spices, gold and silk from the East, manufactured goods from Europe, and the slave and gold traffic from Africa. Arabic continued as the local language and Islamic culture was much reinforced. The Sahel and southern Sahara regions were home to several independent states or to roaming Tuareg clans. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_colonialism">European colonialism</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/European_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonialism">European colonialism</a> in the Sahara began in the 19th century. <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">France</a> conquered the regency of Algiers from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a> and eastwards from <a href="/wiki/French_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="French Senegal">Senegal</a> into the upper <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger</a> to include present-day Algeria, Chad, Mali then <a href="/wiki/French_Sudan" title="French Sudan">French Sudan</a> including <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a> (1893), Mauritania, Morocco (1912), Niger, and Tunisia (1881). By the beginning of the 20th century, the trans-Saharan trade had clearly declined because goods were moved through more modern and efficient means, such as airplanes, rather than across the desert.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The French took advantage of long-standing animosity between the <a href="/wiki/Chaamba" title="Chaamba">Chaamba</a> Arabs and the Tuareg. The newly raised Méhariste <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9hariste" title="Méhariste">camel corps</a> were originally recruited mainly from the Chaamba nomadic tribe. In 1902, the French penetrated the <a href="/wiki/Hoggar_Mountains" title="Hoggar Mountains">Hoggar Mountains</a> and defeated <a href="/wiki/Kel_Ahaggar" title="Kel Ahaggar">Ahaggar Tuareg</a> in the battle of <a href="/wiki/Tit,_Tamanrasset" title="Tit, Tamanrasset">Tit</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png/220px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png/330px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png/440px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png 2x" data-file-width="2311" data-file-height="1142" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a> (blue) was the dominant presence in the Sahara.</figcaption></figure> The French Colonial Empire was the dominant presence in the Sahara. It established regular air links from <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a> (HQ of famed <a href="/wiki/A%C3%A9ropostale_(aviation)" title="Aéropostale (aviation)">Aéropostale</a>), to <a href="/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a> and over the Hoggar to Timbuktu and West to <a href="/wiki/Bamako" title="Bamako">Bamako</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dakar" title="Dakar">Dakar</a>, as well as trans-Sahara bus services run by La Compagnie Transsaharienne (est. 1927).<a href="#cite_note-wauthier1-104">[104]</a> A remarkable film shot by famous aviator Captain <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Wauthier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="René Wauthier (page does not exist)">René Wauthier</a> in 1933 documents the first crossing by a large truck convoy from Algiers to Tchad, across the Sahara.<a href="#cite_note-Reconnaissance_saharienne-105">[105]</a> Egypt, under <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali</a> and his successors, conquered Nubia in 1820–22, founded <a href="/wiki/Khartoum" title="Khartoum">Khartoum</a> in 1823, and conquered <a href="/wiki/Darfur" title="Darfur">Darfur</a> in 1874. Egypt, including Sudan, became a British protectorate in 1882. Egypt and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Britain</a> lost control of the Sudan from 1882 to 1898 as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Mahdist_War" title="Mahdist War">Mahdist War</a>. After its capture by British troops in 1898, the Sudan became an Anglo-Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Condominium_(international_law)" title="Condominium (international law)">condominium</a>. <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(Spain)" title="Restoration (Spain)">Spain</a> captured present-day <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> after 1874, although Rio del Oro remained largely under <a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahrawi people">Sahrawi</a> influence. In 1912, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a> captured parts of what was to be named <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Libya">Libya</a> from the Ottomans. To promote the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> religion in the desert, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a> appointed a delegate Apostolic of the Sahara and the Sudan in 1868; later in the 19th century his jurisdiction was reorganized into the <a href="/wiki/Vicariate_Apostolic_of_Sahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicariate Apostolic of Sahara">Vicariate Apostolic of Sahara</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breakup_of_the_empires_and_afterwards">Breakup of the empires and afterwards</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Libya_5101_Fozzigiaren_Arch_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Libya_5101_Fozzigiaren_Arch_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg/220px-Libya_5101_Fozzigiaren_Arch_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Libya_5101_Fozzigiaren_Arch_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg/330px-Libya_5101_Fozzigiaren_Arch_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Libya_5101_Fozzigiaren_Arch_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg/440px-Libya_5101_Fozzigiaren_Arch_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption>A natural rock arch in south western Libya</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hoggar_Desert_(Algerie).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Hoggar_Desert_%28Algerie%29.jpg/220px-Hoggar_Desert_%28Algerie%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Hoggar_Desert_%28Algerie%29.jpg/330px-Hoggar_Desert_%28Algerie%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Hoggar_Desert_%28Algerie%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>The Sahara today</figcaption></figure> Egypt became independent of Britain in 1936, although the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_treaty_of_1936" title="Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936">Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936</a> allowed Britain to keep troops in Egypt and to maintain the British-Egyptian condominium in the Sudan. British military forces were withdrawn in 1954. Most of the Saharan states achieved independence after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>: Libya in 1951; Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia in 1956; Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger in 1960; and Algeria in 1962. Spain withdrew from <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> in 1975, and it was partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco. Mauritania withdrew in 1979; Morocco continues to hold the territory (see <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a>).<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_people" title="Tuareg people">Tuareg people</a> in Mali <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_rebellions_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Tuareg rebellions (disambiguation)">rebelled</a> several times during the 20th century before finally forcing the Malian armed forces to withdraw below the line demarcating <a href="/wiki/Azawad" title="Azawad">Azawad</a> from southern Mali during the <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_rebellion_(2012)" title="Tuareg rebellion (2012)">2012 rebellion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Islamist rebels in the Sahara calling themselves <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda_in_the_Islamic_Maghreb" title="Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb">al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb</a> have stepped up their violence in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> In the post–World War II era, several <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mines</a> and communities have developed to use the desert's natural resources. These include large deposits of <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> in Algeria and Libya, and large deposits of <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphates</a> in Morocco and Western Sahara.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Libya's <a href="/wiki/Great_Man-Made_River" title="Great Man-Made River">Great Man-Made River</a> is the world's largest irrigation project.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The project uses a pipeline system that pumps <a href="/wiki/Fossil_water" title="Fossil water">fossil water</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System" title="Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System">Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System</a> to cities in the populous Libyan northern Mediterranean coast including Tripoli and Benghazi.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> A number of <a href="/wiki/Trans-African_Highway_network" title="Trans-African Highway network">Trans-African highways</a> have been proposed across the Sahara, including the <a href="/wiki/Cairo%E2%80%93Dakar_Highway" title="Cairo–Dakar Highway">Cairo–Dakar Highway</a> along the Atlantic coast, the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Sahara_Highway" title="Trans-Sahara Highway">Trans-Sahara Highway</a> from <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> on the Mediterranean to <a href="/wiki/Kano_(city)" title="Kano (city)">Kano</a> in Nigeria, the <a href="/wiki/Tripoli_%E2%80%93_Cape_Town_Highway" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripoli – Cape Town Highway">Tripoli – Cape Town Highway</a> from <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> in Libya to <a href="/wiki/N%27Djamena" title="N'Djamena">N'Djamena</a> in Chad, and the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_%E2%80%93_Cape_Town_Highway" class="mw-redirect" title="Cairo – Cape Town Highway">Cairo – Cape Town Highway</a> which follows the Nile. Each of these highways is partially complete, with significant gaps and unpaved sections. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="People,_culture,_and_languages">People, culture, and languages</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saharan_rock_art" title="Saharan rock art">Saharan rock art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rock_art#Sahara" title="Rock art">Rock art § Sahara</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/220px-Arabslavers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/330px-Arabslavers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/440px-Arabslavers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="378" /></a><figcaption>A 19th-century engraving of an Arab slave-trading caravan transporting black African slaves across the Sahara</figcaption></figure> The people of the Sahara are of various origins. Among them the <a href="/wiki/Amazigh" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazigh">Amazigh</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_people" title="Tuareg people">Tuareg</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Arabized" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabized">Arabized</a> Amaziɣ groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Hassaniya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hassaniya">Hassaniya</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Sahrawis" title="Sahrawis">Sahrawis</a>, whose populations include the <a href="/wiki/Znaga" class="mw-redirect" title="Znaga">Znaga</a>, a tribe whose name is a remnant of the pre-historic <a href="/wiki/Zenaga_language" title="Zenaga language">Zenaga language</a>. Other major groups of people include the: <a href="/wiki/Toubou" class="mw-redirect" title="Toubou">Toubou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nubians" title="Nubians">Nubians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaghawa_people" title="Zaghawa people">Zaghawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanuri_people" title="Kanuri people">Kanuri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hausa_people" title="Hausa people">Hausa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Songhai_people" title="Songhai people">Songhai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beja_people" title="Beja people">Beja</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fula_people" title="Fula people">Fula/Fulani</a> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Peul; <a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fula</a>: Fulɓe). The archaeological evidence from the Holocene period has shown that <a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nilo-Saharan">Nilo-Saharan</a> speaking groups had populated the central and southern Sahara before the influx of <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> speakers, around 1500 years ago, who now largely populate the Sahara in the modern era.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic dialects">Arabic dialects</a> are the most widely spoken languages in the Sahara. Arabic, Berber and its variants now regrouped under the term <a href="/wiki/Amazigh" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazigh">Amazigh</a> (which includes the <a href="/wiki/Guanche_language" title="Guanche language">Guanche language</a> spoken by the original Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands) and Beja languages are part of the <a href="/wiki/Afro-Asiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Asiatic">Afro-Asiatic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hamito-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamito-Semitic">Hamito-Semitic</a> family.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Unlike neighboring <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> and the central governments of the states that comprise the Sahara, the French language bears little relevance to inter-personal discourse and commerce within the region, its people retaining staunch ethnic and political affiliations with <a href="/wiki/Tuareg" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuareg">Tuareg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berber</a> leaders and culture.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> The legacy of the French <a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">colonial era</a> administration is primarily manifested in the territorial reorganization enacted by the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth</a> republics, which engendered artificial political divisions within a hitherto isolated and porous region.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Diplomacy with local clients was conducted primarily in Arabic, which was the traditional language of bureaucratic affairs. Mediation of disputes and inter-agency communication was served by interpreters contracted by the French government, who, according to Keenan, "documented a space of intercultural mediation," contributing much to preserving the indigenous cultural identities in the region.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_humid_period" title="African humid period">African humid period</a> – Holocene climate period during which northern Africa was wetter than today</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arid_Lands_Information_Network&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arid Lands Information Network (page does not exist)">Arid Lands Information Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts" title="List of deserts">List of deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts_by_area" title="List of deserts by area">List of deserts by area</a> – List of the largest deserts in the world by area</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Saharan_explorers" title="List of Saharan explorers">List of Saharan explorers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahara_Conservation_Fund" title="Sahara Conservation Fund">Sahara Conservation Fund</a> – International conservation organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahara_Sea" title="Sahara Sea">Sahara Sea</a> – Engineering project to flood parts of the Sahara Desert with sea water</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCookVizy2015" class="citation journal cs1">Cook, Kerry H.; Vizy, Edward K. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FJCLI-D-14-00230.1">"Detection and Analysis of an Amplified Warming of the Sahara Desert"</a>. Journal of Climate. 28 (16): 6560. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015JCli...28.6560C">2015JCli...28.6560C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FJCLI-D-14-00230.1">10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00230.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Climate&rft.atitle=Detection+and+Analysis+of+an+Amplified+Warming+of+the+Sahara+Desert&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=6560&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2FJCLI-D-14-00230.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015JCli...28.6560C&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Kerry+H.&rft.au=Vizy%2C+Edward+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252FJCLI-D-14-00230.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-geology.com-2"><a href="#cite_ref-geology.com_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geology.com/records/largest-desert.shtml">"Largest Desert in the World"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070817025305/http://geology.com/records/largest-desert.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Largest+Desert+in+the+World&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeology.com%2Frecords%2Flargest-desert.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Size_and_Population_of_Sahara-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Size_and_Population_of_Sahara_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://storymaps.esri.com/stories/2013/full-and-empty/">"Is the World Full or Empty?"</a>. Story Maps. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220115093724/https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/b4380439bc8c4293b36a4f9772c665ba">Archived</a> from the original on 15 January 2022. 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Retrieved 20 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlas+of+African+Affairs&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-06-17&rft.isbn=978-1-135-85552-9&rft.aulast=Griffiths&rft.aufirst=Ieuan+L.I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8C40QP8vyU0C%26q%3DSahara%2BDesert%2Ba%2Bwide%2Barea%2Bexperiences%2Bin%2Bexcess%2Bof%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.fr-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.fr_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.fr_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver2008" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, John E. (23 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-mwbAsxpRr0C&q=4,300+hours+of+sunshine+Wadi+Halfa&pg=PA13">Encyclopedia of World Climatology</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3264-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3264-6"><bdi>978-1-4020-3264-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230730165157/https://books.google.com/books?id=-mwbAsxpRr0C&q=4,300+hours+of+sunshine+Wadi+Halfa&pg=PA13">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2023. Retrieved 20 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+Climatology&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2008-04-23&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-3264-6&rft.aulast=Oliver&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-mwbAsxpRr0C%26q%3D4%2C300%2Bhours%2Bof%2Bsunshine%2BWadi%2BHalfa%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsDriscoll1982" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths, John F.; Driscoll, Dennis M. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8yxRAAAAMAAJ&q=bou+bernous+average">Survey of Climatology</a>. C.E. Merrill Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-675-09994-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-675-09994-3"><bdi>978-0-675-09994-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230730165157/https://books.google.com/books?id=8yxRAAAAMAAJ&q=bou+bernous+average">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Survey+of+Climatology&rft.pub=C.E.+Merrill+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-675-09994-3&rft.aulast=Griffiths&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft.au=Driscoll%2C+Dennis+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8yxRAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dbou%2Bbernous%2Baverage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholson2011" class="citation book cs1">Nicholson, Sharon E. (27 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fqussIGJ0NcC&q=Port-Sudan+84+%C2%B0C&pg=PA158">Dryland Climatology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-50024-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-50024-1"><bdi>978-1-139-50024-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230730165231/https://books.google.com/books?id=fqussIGJ0NcC&q=Port-Sudan+84+%C2%B0C&pg=PA158">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2023. Retrieved 20 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dryland+Climatology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011-10-27&rft.isbn=978-1-139-50024-1&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Sharon+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfqussIGJ0NcC%26q%3DPort-Sudan%2B84%2B%25C2%25B0C%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVisbeckHurrellPolvaniCullen2001" class="citation journal cs1">Visbeck, Martin H.; Hurrell, James W.; Polvani, Lorenzo; Cullen, Heidi M. (6 November 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC60791">"The North Atlantic Oscillation: Past, present, and future"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 98 (23): 12876–12877. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PNAS...9812876V">2001PNAS...9812876V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.231391598">10.1073/pnas.231391598</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC60791">60791</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11687629">11687629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+North+Atlantic+Oscillation%3A+Past%2C+present%2C+and+future&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=12876-12877&rft.date=2001-11-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC60791%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001PNAS...9812876V&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11687629&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.231391598&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Visbeck&rft.aufirst=Martin+H.&rft.au=Hurrell%2C+James+W.&rft.au=Polvani%2C+Lorenzo&rft.au=Cullen%2C+Heidi+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC60791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurrellKushnirOttersenVisbeck2003" class="citation cs2">Hurrell, James W.; Kushnir, Yochanan; Ottersen, Geir; Visbeck, Martin (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/134GM01">"An Overview of the North Atlantic Oscillation"</a>, The North Atlantic Oscillation: Climatic Significance and Environmental Impact, vol. 134, American Geophysical Union (AGU), pp. 1–35, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003GMS...134....1H">2003GMS...134....1H</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F134gm01">10.1029/134gm01</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-66903-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-66903-7"><bdi>978-1-118-66903-7</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13890714">13890714</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220118181342/https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/134GM01">archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2022, retrieved 18 January 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+North+Atlantic+Oscillation%3A+Climatic+Significance+and+Environmental+Impact&rft.atitle=An+Overview+of+the+North+Atlantic+Oscillation&rft.volume=134&rft.pages=1-35&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F134gm01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13890714%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003GMS...134....1H&rft.isbn=978-1-118-66903-7&rft.aulast=Hurrell&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rft.au=Kushnir%2C+Yochanan&rft.au=Ottersen%2C+Geir&rft.au=Visbeck%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1029%2F134GM01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_26-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouérou2008" class="citation book cs1">Houérou, Henry N. (10 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rvs7NkfeLEC&q=Sahara+rainfall+virtually+zero&pg=PA16">Bioclimatology and Biogeography of Africa</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-85192-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-85192-9"><bdi>978-3-540-85192-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160547/https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rvs7NkfeLEC&q=Sahara+rainfall+virtually+zero&pg=PA16">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2023. 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Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4832-1663-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4832-1663-8"><bdi>978-1-4832-1663-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230730165232/https://books.google.com/books?id=EiTLBAAAQBAJ&q=Sahara+Desert+nebulosity&pg=PA122">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2023. 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Science Daily. 15 August 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080816060031/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/08/080815101317.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+Daily&rft.atitle=Stone+Age+Graveyard+Reveals+Lifestyles+of+A+%27Green+Sahara%27&rft.date=2008-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2008%2F08%2F080815101317.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nytimes-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nytimes_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nytimes_65-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilford2008" class="citation news cs1">Wilford, John Noble (14 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/science/15sahara.html">"Graves Found From Sahara's Green Period"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120123154828/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/science/15sahara.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Graves+Found+From+Sahara%27s+Green+Period&rft.date=2008-08-14&rft.aulast=Wilford&rft.aufirst=John+Noble&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F08%2F15%2Fscience%2F15sahara.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerenoGarcea_EAAJousseStojanowski2008" class="citation journal cs1">Sereno PC, Garcea EAA, Jousse H, Stojanowski CM, Saliège J-F, Maga A, et al. 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PLOS ONE. 3 (8): e2995. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PLoSO...3.2995S">2008PLoSO...3.2995S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002995">10.1371/journal.pone.0002995</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2515196">2515196</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18701936">18701936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Lakeside+Cemeteries+in+the+Sahara%3A+5000+Years+of+Holocene+Population+and+Environmental+Change&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e2995&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2515196%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18701936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002995&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PLoSO...3.2995S&rft.aulast=Sereno&rft.aufirst=PC&rft.au=Garcea+EAA&rft.au=Jousse%2C+H&rft.au=Stojanowski%2C+CM&rft.au=Sali%C3%A8ge+J-F&rft.au=Maga%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2515196&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-newscientist-67"><a href="#cite_ref-newscientist_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchultz2008" class="citation magazine cs1">Schultz, Nora (14 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14536-stone-age-mass-graves-reveal-green-sahara.html?DCMP=ILC-hmts&nsref=news3_head_dn14536">"Stone Age mass graves reveal green Sahara"</a>. New Scientist. Retrieved 15 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Stone+Age+mass+graves+reveal+green+Sahara&rft.date=2008-08-14&rft.aulast=Schultz&rft.aufirst=Nora&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn14536-stone-age-mass-graves-reveal-green-sahara.html%3FDCMP%3DILC-hmts%26nsref%3Dnews3_head_dn14536&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerenoGarceaJousseStojanowski2008" class="citation journal cs1">Sereno PC, Garcea EA, Jousse H, Stojanowski CM, Saliège JF, Maga A, et al. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2515196">"Lakeside Cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 Years of Holocene Population and Environmental Change"</a>. PLOS ONE. 3 (8): e2995. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PLoSO...3.2995S">2008PLoSO...3.2995S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002995">10.1371/journal.pone.0002995</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2515196">2515196</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18701936">18701936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Lakeside+Cemeteries+in+the+Sahara%3A+5000+Years+of+Holocene+Population+and+Environmental+Change&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e2995&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2515196%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18701936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002995&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PLoSO...3.2995S&rft.aulast=Sereno&rft.aufirst=PC&rft.au=Garcea%2C+EA&rft.au=Jousse%2C+H&rft.au=Stojanowski%2C+CM&rft.au=Sali%C3%A8ge%2C+JF&rft.au=Maga%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2515196&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilford2008" class="citation news cs1">Wilford, John Noble (14 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/14/health/14iht-15sahara.15304361.html?_r=0">"In the Sahara, Stone Age graves from greener days"</a>. The New York Times. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308154534/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/14/health/14iht-15sahara.15304361.html?_r=0">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 10 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+the+Sahara%2C+Stone+Age+graves+from+greener+days&rft.date=2008-08-14&rft.aulast=Wilford&rft.aufirst=John+Noble&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F08%2F14%2Fhealth%2F14iht-15sahara.15304361.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mori-1998-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mori-1998_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mori-1998_70-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mori-1998_70-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMori1998" class="citation book cs1">Mori, F. (1998). The Great Civilisations of the ancient Sahara: Neolithisation and the earliest evidence of anthropomorphic religions. Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-7062-971-6" title="Special:BookSources/88-7062-971-6"><bdi>88-7062-971-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Civilisations+of+the+ancient+Sahara%3A+Neolithisation+and+the+earliest+evidence+of+anthropomorphic+religions&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=L%27Erma+di+Bretschneider&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=88-7062-971-6&rft.aulast=Mori&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hooke-2003-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Hooke-2003_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Hooke, C. (Director), & Mosely, G. (Producer) (2003). 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-23020-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-23020-9"><bdi>0-521-23020-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mummies%2C+Disease+and+Ancient+Cultures&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-521-23020-9&rft.aulast=Cockburn&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmummiesdiseasean0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Temehu-73"><a href="#cite_ref-Temehu_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.temehu.com/wan-muhuggiag.htm">"Wan Muhuggiag"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151016012823/https://www.temehu.com/wan-muhuggiag.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 October 2015. 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Retrieved 24 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pathologica&rft.atitle=Antonio+Ascenzi+%281915%E2%80%932000%29%2C+a+Pathologist+devoted+to+Anthropology+and+Paleopathology&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-5&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20731247&rft.au=V.+Giuffra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pathologica.it%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F10%2FPATHOLOGICA_1-10.pdf%239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Templeton, A. (2016). "Evolution and Notions of Human Race". In Losos, J.; Lenski, R. (eds.). How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society. Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. pp. 346–361. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv7h0s6j?turn_away=true">10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211127055407/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv7h0s6j?turn_away=true">Archived</a> 27 November 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> American Association of Physical Anthropologists (27 March 2019). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/">AAPA Statement on Race and Racism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200322034009/https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/">Archived</a> 22 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". American Association of Physical Anthropologists. Retrieved 27 Nov 2021 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoukopova2013" class="citation book cs1">Soukopova, Jitka (16 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=07wwBwAAQBAJ&q=Tuareg&pg=PR5">Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara</a>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 19–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-4579-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-4579-3"><bdi>978-1-4438-4579-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230730165722/https://books.google.com/books?id=07wwBwAAQBAJ&q=Tuareg&pg=PR5">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2023. 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Retrieved 19 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CSMonitor.com&rft.atitle=Libya%27s+Qaddafi+taps+%27fossil+water%27+to+irrigate+desert+farms&rft.date=2010-08-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2FWorld%2FAfrica%2F2010%2F0823%2FLibya-s-Qaddafi-taps-fossil-water-to-irrigate-desert-farms%2F%2528page%2529%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoutaz_Ali2017" class="citation web cs1">Moutaz Ali (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world">"The Eighth Wonder of the World?"</a>. Quantara.de. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world">Archived</a> from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Quantara.de&rft.atitle=The+Eighth+Wonder+of+the+World%3F&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Moutaz+Ali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.qantara.de%2Fcontent%2Flibyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrakeBlenchArmitageBristow2011" class="citation journal cs1">Drake, Nick A.; Blench, Roger M.; Armitage, Simon J.; Bristow, Charlie S.; White, Kevin H. (11 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3021035">"Ancient watercourses and biogeography of the Sahara explain the peopling of the desert"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (2): 458–462. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PNAS..108..458D">2011PNAS..108..458D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1012231108">10.1073/pnas.1012231108</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1091-6490">1091-6490</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3021035">3021035</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21187416">21187416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Ancient+watercourses+and+biogeography+of+the+Sahara+explain+the+peopling+of+the+desert&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=458-462&rft.date=2011-01-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3021035%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PNAS..108..458D&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21187416&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1012231108&rft.issn=1091-6490&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=Nick+A.&rft.au=Blench%2C+Roger+M.&rft.au=Armitage%2C+Simon+J.&rft.au=Bristow%2C+Charlie+S.&rft.au=White%2C+Kevin+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3021035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Jane E. Goodman (2010) [2005]). Berber Culture on the World Stage: From Village to Video. Indiana University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21784-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21784-4">978-0-253-21784-4</a> pp. 49–68 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Ralph A. Austen. Trans-Saharan Africa in World History. Oxford University Press, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-979883-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-979883-4">0-19-979883-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Jeremy Keenan, ed. (2013). The Sahara: Past, Present and Future. Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-317-97001-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-317-97001-2">1-317-97001-2</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrett,_MichaelPrentess,_Elizabeth1996" class="citation book cs1">Brett, Michael; Prentess, Elizabeth (1996). The Berbers. Blackwell Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Berbers&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Brett%2C+Michael&rft.au=Prentess%2C+Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBulliet,_Richard_W.1975" class="citation book cs1">Bulliet, Richard W. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/camelwheel0000bull">The Camel and the Wheel</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674091306" title="Special:BookSources/9780674091306"><bdi>9780674091306</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Camel+and+the+Wheel&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=9780674091306&rft.au=Bulliet%2C+Richard+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcamelwheel0000bull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"> Republished with a new preface Columbia University Press, 1990.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGearon,_Eamonn2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eamonn_Gearon" title="Eamonn Gearon">Gearon, Eamonn</a> (2011). The Sahara: A Cultural History. Signal Books (UK), Oxford University Press (US).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sahara%3A+A+Cultural+History&rft.pub=Signal+Books+%28UK%29%2C+Oxford+University+Press+%28US%29&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Gearon%2C+Eamonn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulien,_Charles-Andre1970" class="citation book cs1">Julien, Charles-Andre (1970). History of North Africa: From the Arab Conquest to 1830. Praeger.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+North+Africa%3A+From+the+Arab+Conquest+to+1830&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Julien%2C+Charles-Andre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy,_Hugh1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Kennedy, Hugh</a> (1996). Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. Longman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+Spain+and+Portugal%3A+A+Political+History+of+al-Andalus&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaroui,_Abdallah_Laroui1977" class="citation book cs1">Laroui, Abdallah Laroui (1977). The History of the Maghrib: An Interpretive Essay. Princeton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Maghrib%3A+An+Interpretive+Essay&rft.pub=Princeton&rft.date=1977&rft.au=Laroui%2C+Abdallah+Laroui&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott,_Chris2005" class="citation book cs1">Scott, Chris (2005). Sahara Overland. Trailblazer Guides.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sahara+Overland&rft.pub=Trailblazer+Guides&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Scott%2C+Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade,_Lizzie2015" class="citation journal cs1">Wade, Lizzie (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/drones-and-satellites-spot-lost-civilizations-unlikely-places">"Drones and Satellites Spot Lost Civilizations in Unlikely Places"</a>. Science. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aaa7864">10.1126/science.aaa7864</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Drones+and+Satellites+Spot+Lost+Civilizations+in+Unlikely+Places&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aaa7864&rft.au=Wade%2C+Lizzie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fdrones-and-satellites-spot-lost-civilizations-unlikely-places&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Sahara at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Sahara" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Sahara">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sahara_Desert" class="extiw" title="c:Sahara Desert">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Sahara" class="extiw" title="q:Sahara">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Sahara" class="extiw" title="voy:Sahara">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200701/seas.beneath.the.sands.htm">About Sahara subsurface hydrology and planned usage of the aquifers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140805112417/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200701/seas.beneath.the.sands.htm">Archived</a> 5 August 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeawoodCana1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Heawood, Edward; Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Sahara">"Sahara" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). pp. 1004–1008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sahara&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=1004-1008&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Heawood&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Cana%2C+Frank+Richardson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASahara" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_deserts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Deserts" title="Template:Deserts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Deserts" title="Template talk:Deserts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Deserts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Deserts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_deserts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">World <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_desert" title="Polar desert">Polar desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts" title="List of deserts">List of deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts_by_area" title="List of deserts by area">List of deserts by area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_exploration" title="Desert exploration">Desert exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts#Africa" title="List of deserts">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Desert" title="Algerian Desert">Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayuda_Desert" title="Bayuda Desert">Bayuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Desert_(Egypt)" title="Black Desert (Egypt)">Black Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Desert" title="Blue Desert">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalbi_Desert" title="Chalbi Desert">Chalbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danakil_Desert" title="Danakil Desert">Danakil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djurab_Desert" title="Djurab Desert">Djurab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Desert" title="Eastern Desert">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferlo_Desert" title="Ferlo Desert">Ferlo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farafra,_Egypt" title="Farafra, Egypt">Farafra (White)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalahari_Desert" title="Kalahari Desert">Kalahari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert" title="Libyan Desert">Libyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo%C3%A7%C3%A2medes_Desert" title="Moçâmedes Desert">Moçâmedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namib" title="Namib">Namib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_Desert" title="Nubian Desert">Nubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyiri_Desert" title="Nyiri Desert">Nyiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaine_des_Sables" title="Plaine des Sables">Plaine des Sables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richtersveld" title="Richtersveld">Richtersveld</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanezrouft" title="Tanezrouft">Tanezrouft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9n%C3%A9r%C3%A9" title="Ténéré">Ténéré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert" title="Western Desert">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts#Asia" title="List of deserts">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ad-Dahna_Desert" title="Ad-Dahna Desert">Ad-Dahna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Nafud" class="mw-redirect" title="An Nafud">Nefud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Desert" title="Arabian Desert">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaean_Desert" title="Judaean Desert">Judaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negev" title="Negev">Negev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramlat_al-Sab%27atayn" title="Ramlat al-Sab'atayn">Ramlat al-Sab'atayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rub%27_al_Khali" title="Rub' al Khali">Rub' al Khali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahiba_Sands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wahiba Sands">Wahiba Sands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aral_Karakum_Desert" title="Aral Karakum Desert">Aral Karakum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aralkum_Desert" title="Aralkum Desert">Aralkum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barsuki_Desert" title="Barsuki Desert">Barsuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betpak-Dala" title="Betpak-Dala">Betpak-Dala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Naomid" title="Dasht-e Naomid">Dasht-e Naomid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakum_Desert" title="Karakum Desert">Karakum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyzylkum_Desert" title="Kyzylkum Desert">Kyzylkum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moiynkum_Desert" title="Moiynkum Desert">Moiynkum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryn_Desert" title="Ryn Desert">Ryn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saryesik-Atyrau_Desert" title="Saryesik-Atyrau Desert">Saryesik-Atyrau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarykum" title="Sarykum">Sarykum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taukum" title="Taukum">Taukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ustyurt_Plateau" title="Ustyurt Plateau">Ustyurt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Badain_Jaran_Desert" title="Badain Jaran Desert">Badain Jaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobi_Desert" title="Gobi Desert">Gobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurbant%C3%BCngg%C3%BCt_Desert" title="Gurbantünggüt Desert">Gurbantünggüt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hami_Desert" title="Hami Desert">Hami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lop_Desert" title="Lop Desert">Lop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumtag_Desert" title="Kumtag Desert">Kumtag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordos_Desert" title="Ordos Desert">Ordos</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kubuqi_Desert" title="Kubuqi Desert">Kubuqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu_Us_Desert" title="Mu Us Desert">Mu Us</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qaidam_Basin" title="Qaidam Basin">Qaidam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taklamakan_Desert" title="Taklamakan Desert">Taklamakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengger_Desert" title="Tengger Desert">Tengger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholistan_Desert" title="Cholistan Desert">Cholistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Desert" title="Indus Valley Desert">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katpana_Desert" title="Katpana Desert">Katpana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharan_Desert" title="Kharan Desert">Kharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thal_Desert" title="Thal Desert">Thal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Thar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Kavir" title="Dasht-e Kavir">Kavir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Khash" title="Dasht-e Khash">Khash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Leili" title="Dasht-e Leili">Leili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Lut" title="Dasht-e Lut">Lut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Margo" title="Dasht-e Margo">Margo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Naomid" title="Dasht-e Naomid">Naomid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polond_Desert" title="Polond Desert">Polond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Registan_Desert" title="Registan Desert">Registan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Paz_Sand_Dunes" title="La Paz Sand Dunes">La Paz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts#Europe" title="List of deserts">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bardenas_Reales" title="Bardenas Reales">Bardenas Reales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabo_de_Gata-N%C3%ADjar_Natural_Park" title="Cabo de Gata-Níjar Natural Park">Cabo de Gata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monegros_Desert" title="Monegros Desert">Monegros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleshky_Sands" title="Oleshky Sands">Oleshky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernas_Desert" title="Tabernas Desert">Tabernas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliblatska_Pe%C5%A1%C4%8Dara" title="Deliblatska Peščara">Deliblato</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts#North_America" title="List of deserts">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvord_Desert" title="Alvord Desert">Alvord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amargosa_Desert" title="Amargosa Desert">Amargosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baja_California_desert" title="Baja California desert">Baja California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Rock_Desert" title="Black Rock Desert">Black Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcross_Desert" title="Carcross Desert">Carcross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carson_Desert" title="Carson Desert">Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channeled_Scablands" title="Channeled Scablands">Channeled scablands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chihuahuan_Desert" title="Chihuahuan Desert">Chihuahuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Desert" title="Colorado Desert">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escalante_Desert" title="Escalante Desert">Escalante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_Mile_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Forty Mile Desert">Forty Mile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Desierto_de_Altar" title="Gran Desierto de Altar">Gran Desierto de Altar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Basin_Desert" title="Great Basin Desert">Great Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Salt_Lake_Desert" title="Great Salt Lake Desert">Great Salt Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Desert_(Oregon)" title="High Desert (Oregon)">Great Sandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jornada_del_Muerto" title="Jornada del Muerto">Jornada del Muerto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%CA%BB%C5%AB_Desert" title="Kaʻū Desert">Kaʻū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lechuguilla_Desert" title="Lechuguilla Desert">Lechuguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mojave_Desert" title="Mojave Desert">Mojave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Arctic" title="North American Arctic">North American Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owyhee_Desert" title="Owyhee Desert">Owyhee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Desert_(Arizona)" title="Painted Desert (Arizona)">Painted Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Desert_(Wyoming)" title="Red Desert (Wyoming)">Red Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sevier_Desert" title="Sevier Desert">Sevier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_Creek_Desert" title="Smoke Creek Desert">Smoke Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonoran_Desert" title="Sonoran Desert">Sonoran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonopah_Desert" title="Tonopah Desert">Tonopah Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tule_Desert_(Arizona)" title="Tule Desert (Arizona)">Tule (Arizona)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tule_Desert_(Nevada)" title="Tule Desert (Nevada)">Tule (Nevada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuha_Desert" title="Yuha Desert">Yuha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_Desert" title="Yuma Desert">Yuma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts#Oceania" title="List of deserts">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts#Australia" title="List of deserts">Australia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gibson_Desert" title="Gibson Desert">Gibson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Sandy_Desert" title="Great Sandy Desert">Great Sandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Victoria_Desert" title="Great Victoria Desert">Great Victoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Sandy_Desert" title="Little Sandy Desert">Little Sandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullarbor_Plain" title="Nullarbor Plain">Nullarbor Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Desert_(South_Australia)" title="Painted Desert (South Australia)">Painted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedirka_Desert" title="Pedirka Desert">Pedirka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simpson_Desert" title="Simpson Desert">Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strzelecki_Desert" title="Strzelecki Desert">Strzelecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sturt_Stony_Desert" title="Sturt Stony Desert">Sturt Stony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanami_Desert" title="Tanami Desert">Tanami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirari_Desert" title="Tirari Desert">Tirari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts#New_Zealand" title="List of deserts">New Zealand</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rangipo_Desert" title="Rangipo Desert">Rangipo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts#South_America" title="List of deserts">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atacama_Desert" title="Atacama Desert">Atacama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Guajira_Desert" title="La Guajira Desert">La Guajira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9danos_de_Coro_National_Park" title="Médanos de Coro National Park">Los Médanos de Coro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Desert" title="Monte Desert">Monte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patagonian_Desert" title="Patagonian Desert">Patagonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sechura_Desert" title="Sechura Desert">Sechura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatacoa_Desert" title="Tatacoa Desert">Tatacoa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts#Polar_regions" title="List of deserts">Polar regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts#Antarctic" title="List of deserts">Antarctic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meyer_Desert" title="Meyer Desert">Meyer Desert</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_deserts#Arctic" title="List of deserts">Arctic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Arctic" title="North American Arctic">North American Arctic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_North_(Russia)" title="Far North (Russia)">Russian Arctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Deserts" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Deserts">Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts" title="Category:Deserts">Category</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Deserts" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Deserts">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Regions_of_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Regions_of_Africa" title="Template:Regions of Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Regions_of_Africa" title="Template talk:Regions of Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Regions_of_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Regions of Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Regions_of_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Subregion#Africa" title="Subregion">Regions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guinea_(region)" title="Guinea (region)">Guinea region</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Lopez" title="Cape Lopez">Cape Lopez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayombe" title="Mayombe">Mayombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igboland" title="Igboland">Igboland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mbaise" title="Mbaise">Mbaise</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pool_Malebo" title="Pool Malebo">Pool Malebo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Basin" title="Congo Basin">Congo Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad_Basin" title="Chad Basin">Chad Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroonian_Highlands_forests" title="Cameroonian Highlands forests">Cameroonian Highlands forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Sudanian_savanna" title="East Sudanian savanna">East Sudanian savanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolian_rainforests" title="Congolian rainforests">Congolian rainforests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouadda%C3%AF_highlands" title="Ouaddaï highlands">Ouaddaï highlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennedi_Plateau" title="Ennedi Plateau">Ennedi Plateau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">African Great Lakes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albertine_Rift" title="Albertine Rift">Albertine Rift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Rift" title="East African Rift">East African Rift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Rift_Valley" title="Great Rift Valley">Great Rift Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Rift" title="Gregory Rift">Gregory Rift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_lakes" title="Rift Valley lakes">Rift Valley lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virunga_Mountains" title="Virunga Mountains">Virunga Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kavirondo" title="Kavirondo">Kavirondo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanj" title="Zanj">Zanj</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_montane_forests" title="East African montane forests">East African montane forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arc_Mountains" title="Eastern Arc Mountains">Eastern Arc Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serengeti" title="Serengeti">Serengeti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afar_Triangle" title="Afar Triangle">Afar Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Habash" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Habash">Al-Habash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbaria_(East_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbaria (East Africa)">Barbaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danakil_Alps" title="Danakil Alps">Danakil Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danakil_Desert" title="Danakil Desert">Danakil Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Highlands" title="Ethiopian Highlands">Ethiopian Highlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahlak_Archipelago" title="Dahlak Archipelago">Dahlak Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanish_Islands" title="Hanish Islands">Hanish Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden" title="Gulf of Aden">Gulf of Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Tadjoura" title="Gulf of Tadjoura">Gulf of Tadjoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comoro_Islands" title="Comoro Islands">Comoro Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamu_Archipelago" title="Lamu Archipelago">Lamu Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Highlands_(Madagascar)" title="Central Highlands (Madagascar)">Central Highlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Highlands" title="Northern Highlands">Northern Highlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_Archipelago" title="Zanzibar Archipelago">Zanzibar Archipelago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_coast" title="Swahili coast">Swahili coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Desert" title="Eastern Desert">Eastern Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Ancient Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_Coast" title="Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar_Arc" title="Gibraltar Arc">Gibraltar Arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile Valley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashmur" title="Bashmur">Bashmur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile" title="Cataracts of the Nile">Cataracts of the Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darfur" title="Darfur">Darfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Egypt" title="Middle Egypt">Middle Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuba_Mountains" title="Nuba Mountains">Nuba Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sudans" title="The Sudans">The Sudans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibesti_Mountains" title="Tibesti Mountains">Tibesti Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesia_(region)" title="Rhodesia (region)">Rhodesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thembuland" title="Thembuland">Thembuland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_Karoo" title="Succulent Karoo">Succulent Karoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nama_Karoo" title="Nama Karoo">Nama Karoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushveld" title="Bushveld">Bushveld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maputaland" title="Maputaland">Maputaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highveld" title="Highveld">Highveld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fynbos" title="Fynbos">Fynbos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_coastal_belt" title="Indian Ocean coastal belt">Indian Ocean coastal belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_thickets" title="Albany thickets">Albany thickets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Floristic_Region" title="Cape Floristic Region">Cape Floristic Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeleton_Coast" title="Skeleton Coast">Skeleton Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalahari_Desert" title="Kalahari Desert">Kalahari Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okavango_Delta" title="Okavango Delta">Okavango Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Peninsula" title="Cape Peninsula">Cape Peninsula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_Bay" title="False Bay">False Bay</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pepper_Coast" title="Pepper Coast">Pepper Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(region)" title="Gold Coast (region)">Gold Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Palmas" title="Cape Palmas">Cape Palmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Mesurado" title="Cape Mesurado">Cape Mesurado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea_(region)" title="Guinea (region)">Guinea region</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guinean_Forests_of_West_Africa" title="Guinean Forests of West Africa">Guinean Forests of West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Guinean_forests" title="Upper Guinean forests">Upper Guinean forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Guinean_forests" title="Lower Guinean forests">Lower Guinean forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinean_forest-savanna_mosaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Guinean forest-savanna mosaic">Guinean forest-savanna mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea_Highlands" title="Guinea Highlands">Guinea Highlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomey_Gap" title="Dahomey Gap">Dahomey Gap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger Basin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Niger_Delta" title="Inner Niger Delta">Inner Niger Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Sudanian_savanna" title="West Sudanian savanna">West Sudanian savanna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yorubaland" title="Yorubaland">Yorubaland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Macro-regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aethiopia" title="Aethiopia">Aethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afromontane" title="Afromontane">Afromontane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_realm" title="Commonwealth realm">Commonwealth realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Africa" title="Equatorial Africa">Equatorial Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7afrique" title="Françafrique">Françafrique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Middle_East" title="Greater Middle East">Greater Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guineo-Congolian_region" title="Guineo-Congolian region">Guineo-Congolian region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islands_of_Africa" title="Islands of Africa">Islands of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_where_Arabic_is_an_official_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries where Arabic is an official language">List of countries where Arabic is an official language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MENASA" class="mw-redirect" title="MENASA">MENASA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miombo_woodlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Miombo woodlands">Miombo woodlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelafrika" title="Mittelafrika">Mittelafrika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negroland" title="Negroland">Negroland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Africa" title="Northeast Africa">Northeast Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese-speaking_African_countries" title="Portuguese-speaking African countries">Portuguese-speaking African countries</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Africa" title="Southeast Africa">Southeast Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan_(region)" title="Sudan (region)">Sudan (region)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sudanian_savanna" title="Sudanian savanna">Sudanian savanna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical Africa">Tropical Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zambezian_region" title="Zambezian region">Zambezian region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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