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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Malayalam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Old Malayalam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Malayalam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Malayalam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Malayalam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Middle Malayalam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Malayalam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Malayalam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Malayalam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Modern Malayalam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Malayalam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Dialects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Dialects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-External_influences_and_loanwords" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_influences_and_loanwords"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 External influences and loanwords </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_influences_and_loanwords-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_distribution_and_population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_distribution_and_population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Geographic distribution and population </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_distribution_and_population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Sample text </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sample_text-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sample text subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sample_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malayalam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malayalam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Malayalam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malayalam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romanisation_(ISO_15919)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanisation_(ISO_15919)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Romanisation (ISO 15919) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romanisation_(ISO_15919)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IPA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IPA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 IPA </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IPA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Personal pronouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Other nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Words_adopted_from_Sanskrit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Words_adopted_from_Sanskrit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Words adopted from Sanskrit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Words_adopted_from_Sanskrit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.1 Nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Writing system </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Writing system subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Malayalam_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malayalam_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Malayalam script </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malayalam_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chillu_letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chillu_letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Chillu letters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chillu_letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Number_system_and_other_symbols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number_system_and_other_symbols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Number system and other symbols </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number_system_and_other_symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Numerals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fractions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fractions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Fractions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fractions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vattezhuthu_alphabet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vattezhuthu_alphabet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Vattezhuthu alphabet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vattezhuthu_alphabet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grantha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grantha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.7 Grantha </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grantha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karshoni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karshoni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.8 Karshoni </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karshoni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ponnani_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ponnani_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.9 Ponnani script </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ponnani_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Literature </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Literature subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Folk_Songs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Folk_Songs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Folk Songs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Folk_Songs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_and_Middle_Malayalam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_and_Middle_Malayalam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Old and Middle Malayalam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_and_Middle_Malayalam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Malayalam_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Malayalam_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Modern Malayalam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Malayalam_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Impact_of_European_scholars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_European_scholars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Impact of European scholars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_European_scholars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1850–1904" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1850–1904"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.2 1850–1904 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1850–1904-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twentieth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twentieth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Twentieth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twentieth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.1 Prose </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.2 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Malayalam</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 117 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-117" aria-hidden="true" > 117 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9B%E1%88%8B%E1%8B%AB%E1%88%8B%E1%88%9D" title="ማላያላም – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ማላያላም" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="मलयालम भाषा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="मलयालम भाषा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة الماليالامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الماليالامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="মালয়ালম ভাষা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মালয়ালম ভাষা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_malabar" title="Idioma malabar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma malabar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam_dili" title="Malayalam dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Malayalam dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="مالایالم دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مالایالم دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="মালয়ালম ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মালয়ালম ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Malayalam" title="Basa Malayalam – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Basa Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam-g%C3%AD" title="Malayalam-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Malayalam-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Малаялам – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Малаялам" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Малаялам – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Малаялам" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE" title="मलयालम – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="मलयालम" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Малаялам – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Малаялам" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalameg" title="Malayalameg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Malayalameg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malai%C3%A0lam" title="Malaiàlam – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Malaiàlam" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Малаялам – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Малаялам" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinulongang_Malayalam" title="Pinulongang Malayalam – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Pinulongang Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaj%C3%A1lam%C5%A1tina" title="Malajálamština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Malajálamština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam_(sprog)" title="Malayalam (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Malayalam (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%89%DE%A6%DE%8D%DE%A6%DE%94%DE%A7%DE%85%DE%A6%DE%89%DE%B0" title="މަލަޔާޅަމް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="މަލަޔާޅަމް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malajalami_keel" title="Malajalami keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Malajalami keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%BC" title="Μαλαγιαλάμ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαλαγιαλάμ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_malabar" title="Idioma malabar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma malabar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malajala_lingvo" title="Malajala lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malajala lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabarera" title="Malabarera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Malabarera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85" title="زبان مالایالم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان مالایالم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam_bhasa" title="Malayalam bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Malayalam bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Mhail%C3%A9alaimis" title="An Mhailéalaimis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Mhailéalaimis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_malayalam" title="Lingua malayalam – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua malayalam" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B3%E0%AA%AE_%E0%AA%AD%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B7%E0%AA%BE" title="મલયાળમ ભાષા – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="મલયાળમ ભાષા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam-ng%C3%AE" title="Malayalam-ngî – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Malayalam-ngî" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%90%EB%9D%BC%EC%96%84%EB%9E%8C%EC%96%B4" title="말라얄람어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="말라얄람어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="मलयालम भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मलयालम भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malajalam_jezik" title="Malajalam jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Malajalam jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayala_linguo" title="Malayala linguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Malayala linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Malayalam" title="Bahasa Malayalam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_malayalam" title="Lingua malayalam – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lingua malayalam" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Малаялам – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Малаялам" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_malayalam" title="Lingua malayalam – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua malayalam" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%9D" title="מלאיאלאם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלאיאלאם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%82" title="ಮಲಯಾಳಂ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಲಯಾಳಂ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="მალაიალამური ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მალაიალამური ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8E%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%9B%D9%B2%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D9%8E%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مَلیٛٲلی زَبان – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="مَلیٛٲلی زَبان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimalayalam" title="Kimalayalam – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kimalayalam" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Малаялам – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Малаялам" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Malabarica" title="Lingua Malabarica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Malabarica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaj%C4%81lama" title="Malajālama – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Malajālama" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malajali%C5%B3_kalba" title="Malajalių kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Malajalių kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaj%C3%A1lam_nyelv" title="Malajálam nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Malajálam nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE" title="मलयालम – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="मलयालम" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Малајалски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Малајалски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_malaialama" title="Fiteny malaialama – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny malaialama" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%82" title="മലയാളം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മലയാളം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B3%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="मल्याळम भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मल्याळम भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="მალაიალამური ნინა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მალაიალამური ნინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%89" title="لغه ماليالامى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لغه ماليالامى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85" title="مالایالم – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="مالایالم" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Malayalam" title="Bahasa Malayalam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Malayalam-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Malayalam-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="मलयालम भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मलयालम भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE" title="मलयालम – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="मलयालम" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A4%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A0%E8%AA%9E" title="マラヤーラム語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マラヤーラム語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaialam" title="Malaialam – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Malaialam" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%AE" title="ਮਲਿਆਲਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਲਿਆਲਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85" title="ملیالم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ملیالم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="مليالم ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مليالم ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_Malayalam" title="Lenga Malayalam – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_malajalam" title="Język malajalam – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język malajalam" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_malaiala" title="Língua malaiala – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua malaiala" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_malayalam" title="Limba malayalam – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba malayalam" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam_simi" title="Malayalam simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Malayalam simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Малаялам – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Малаялам" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="मलयाळम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="मलयाळम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A2" title="ᱢᱟᱞᱟᱭᱟᱞᱚᱢ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱟᱞᱟᱭᱟᱞᱚᱢ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_malajalame" title="Gjuha malajalame – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha malajalame" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="මලයාලම් භාෂාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මලයාලම් භාෂාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85" title="ملايالم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ملايالم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaj%C3%A1lam%C4%8Dina" title="Malajálamčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Malajálamčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malajalam%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Malajalamščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Malajalamščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malajalamsk%C5%8F_g%C5%8Fdka" title="Malajalamskŏ gŏdka – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Malajalamskŏ gŏdka" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%95%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85" title="مالەیالم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مالەیالم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC_(%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA)" title="Малајалам (језик) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Малајалам (језик)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malajalam_jezik" title="Malajalam jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Malajalam jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malajalam" title="Malajalam – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Malajalam" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Malayalam" title="Wikang Malayalam – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மலையாளம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மலையாளம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Малаялам теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Малаялам теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B3%E0%B0%82" title="మలయాళం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మలయాళం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AC%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A1" title="ภาษามลยาฬัม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษามลยาฬัม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%82_%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%86" title="ಮಲಯಾಳಂ ಬಾಸೆ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಮಲಯಾಳಂ ಬಾಸೆ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalamca" title="Malayalamca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Malayalamca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Малаялам – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Малаялам" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ملیالم زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ملیالم زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DA%86%DB%95" title="مالايالامچە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="مالايالامچە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Malayalam" title="Tiếng Malayalam – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Malayalam" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%8B%89%E4%B9%9F%E6%8B%89%E5%A7%86%E8%AF%AD" title="马拉也拉姆语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="马拉也拉姆语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E6%8B%89%E4%B9%9F%E6%9E%97%E6%96%87" title="馬拉也林文 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="馬拉也林文" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%8B%89%E9%9B%85%E6%8B%89%E5%A7%86%E8%AF%AD" title="马拉雅拉姆语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="马拉雅拉姆语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Malayalam" title="Bahasa Malayalam – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a>, an Austronesian language.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: mediumspringgreen;">Malayalam</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: mediumspringgreen;">മലയാളം, malayāḷaṁ</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Word_Malayalam.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Word_Malayalam.svg/200px-Word_Malayalam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Word_Malayalam.svg/300px-Word_Malayalam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Word_Malayalam.svg/400px-Word_Malayalam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="896" data-file-height="256" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Malayalam in <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam script</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Malayalam" title="Help:IPA/Malayalam">[mɐlɐjaːɭɐm]</a>; <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/9\/9e\/Malayalam.ogg\/Malayalam.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"pronunciation"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Malayalam.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/Malayalam.ogg/Malayalam.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">pronunciation</a><a href="/wiki/File:Malayalam.ogg" title="File:Malayalam.ogg">ⓘ</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">India</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern India">Southern India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari_district" title="Kanyakumari district">Kanyakumari district</a> and other districts bordering with kerala)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puducherry_(union_territory)" title="Puducherry (union territory)">Puducherry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mah%C3%A9_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahé district">Mahé</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a> (in the district of <a href="/wiki/Dakshina_Kannada" title="Dakshina Kannada">Dakshina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kodagu_district" title="Kodagu district">Kodagu</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Offlang-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-kerala.gov.in-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-P&ARD_Official_Languages-3">[3]</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Malayali" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayali">Malayali</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Speakers</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/L1_speakers" class="mw-redirect" title="L1 speakers">L1</a>: 37 million (2011)<a href="#cite_note-mw-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-malayalam_at_ethnologue-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/L2_speakers" class="mw-redirect" title="L2 speakers">L2</a>: 710,000<a href="#cite_note-malayalam_at_ethnologue-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> Southern<ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/South_Dravidian_languages" title="South Dravidian languages">Southern I</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Tamil–<a href="/wiki/Kannada_dialects" title="Kannada dialects">Kannada</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Tamil–<a href="/wiki/Kota_language_(India)" title="Kota language (India)">Kota</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Tamil–<a href="/wiki/Toda_language" title="Toda language">Toda</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Tamil–Irula<ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Tamil–<a href="/wiki/Kodava_language" title="Kodava language">Kodava</a>–<a href="/wiki/Urali_language" title="Urali language">Urali</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Tamiloid_languages" title="Tamiloid languages">Tamil</a>–<a href="/wiki/Malayalamoid_languages" title="Malayalamoid languages">Malayalam</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Malayalamoid_languages" title="Malayalamoid languages">Malayalamoid</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Malayalam</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Tamil_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Tamil language">Old Tamil</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Tamil_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Tamil language">Middle Tamil</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Malayalam" title="Middle Malayalam">Middle Malayalam</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Kasaragod_district" title="Kasaragod district">Kasaragod</a> <a href="/wiki/North_Malabar" title="North Malabar">North Malabar</a> <a href="/wiki/Wayanad" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayanad">Wayanad</a> <a href="/wiki/Kozhikode" title="Kozhikode">Kozhikode</a> <a href="/wiki/Eranad" title="Eranad">Eranad</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valluvanad" title="Kingdom of Valluvanad">Valluvanad</a> (<a href="/wiki/South_Malabar" title="South Malabar">South Malabar</a>) <a href="/wiki/Palakkad" title="Palakkad">Palakkad</a> <a href="/wiki/Thrissur" title="Thrissur">Thrissur</a>-<a href="/wiki/Kochi" title="Kochi">Kochi</a> North <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore</a> West <a href="/wiki/Vembanad" title="Vembanad">Vembanad</a> Central <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore</a> South <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore</a> <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> <a href="/wiki/Beary_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Beary language">Beary</a> <a href="/wiki/Ravula_language" title="Ravula language">Ravula</a><a href="#cite_note-Dravidian_Encyclopedia-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeseri" title="Jeseri">Jeseri</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Suriyani_Malayalam" title="Suriyani Malayalam">Suriyani</a> <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a> <a href="/wiki/Byari_dialect" title="Byari dialect">Byari</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam script</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_Braille" title="Malayalam Braille">Malayalam Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatteluttu alphabet">Vatteluttu</a> (historical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Koleluttu</a> (historical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a> (historical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grantha_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Grantha alphabet">Grantha</a> (historical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam_script" title="Arabi Malayalam script">Arabi Malayalam script</a> (mostly historical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriyani_Malayalam" title="Suriyani Malayalam">Suriyani Malayalam</a> (historical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew script">Hebrew script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> (informal)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: mediumspringgreen;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Official_languages_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Official languages of India">Official languages of India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C3%A9,_Puducherry" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahé, Puducherry">Mahé, Puducherry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">Regulated by</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_Sahitya_Akademi" title="Kerala Sahitya Akademi">Kerala Sahitya Akademi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Kerala" title="Government of Kerala">Government of Kerala</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: mediumspringgreen;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=ml">ml</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=280">mal</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mal" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:mal">mal</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/mala1464">mala1464</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=49-EBE-ba">49-EBE-ba</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Malayalam_language_(ml,_Q36236)_distribution.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Malayalam_language_%28ml%2C_Q36236%29_distribution.svg/320px-Malayalam_language_%28ml%2C_Q36236%29_distribution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Malayalam_language_%28ml%2C_Q36236%29_distribution.svg/480px-Malayalam_language_%28ml%2C_Q36236%29_distribution.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Malayalam_language_%28ml%2C_Q36236%29_distribution.svg/640px-Malayalam_language_%28ml%2C_Q36236%29_distribution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1623" /></a><div style="text-align:left;">Blue = majority or plurality speak Malayalam Light blue = A significant minority speak Malayalam or Malayalam languages are spoken alongside other languages</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Malayalam.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Malayalam.svg/40px-Malayalam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Malayalam.svg/60px-Malayalam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Malayalam.svg/80px-Malayalam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="183" data-file-height="130" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malayalam</a> is written in a <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">non-Latin script</a>. Malayalam text used in this article is transliterated into the Latin script according to the <a href="/wiki/ISO_15919" title="ISO 15919">ISO 15919</a> standard.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="background:#fff6d9"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Person</th><td class="infobox-data">Malayāḷi</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">People</th><td class="infobox-data">Malayāḷikaḷ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Language</th><td class="infobox-data">Malayāḷam</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Country</th><td class="infobox-data">Malayāḷa Nāṭu</td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm/220px--WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="123" data-durationhint="245" data-mwtitle="WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/83/WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1080" data-height="606" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/83/WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/83/WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/83/WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Netha_speaking_Malayalam.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>A Malayalam speaker, recorded in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></figcaption></figure> Malayalam (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌmæləˈjɑːləm/</a>;<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> മലയാളം, Malayāḷam, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>IPA: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Malayalam" title="Help:IPA/Malayalam">[mɐlɐjaːɭɐm]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/9\/9e\/Malayalam.ogg\/Malayalam.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Malayalam.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/Malayalam.ogg/Malayalam.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Malayalam.ogg" title="File:Malayalam.ogg">ⓘ</a>) is a <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian language</a> spoken in the Indian state of <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> and the union territories of <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puducherry_(union_territory)" title="Puducherry (union territory)">Puducherry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mah%C3%A9_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahé district">Mahé district</a>) by the <a href="/wiki/Malayali" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayali">Malayali</a> people. It is one of 22 <a href="/wiki/Languages_with_official_status_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages with official status in India">scheduled languages</a> of India. Malayalam was designated a "<a href="/wiki/Classical_Languages_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Languages of India">Classical Language of India</a>" in 2013.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Malayalam has <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> status in Kerala, Lakshadweep and Puducherry (<a href="/wiki/Mah%C3%A9,_Puducherry" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahé, Puducherry">Mahé</a>),<a href="#cite_note-kerala.gov.in-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-P&ARD_Official_Languages-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> and is also the primary spoken language of Lakshadweep. Malayalam is spoken by 35 million people in India.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Malayalam is also spoken by linguistic minorities in the neighbouring states; with a significant number of speakers in the <a href="/wiki/Kodagu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kodagu">Kodagu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dakshina_Kannada" title="Dakshina Kannada">Dakshina Kannada</a> districts of <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari_district" title="Kanyakumari district">Kanyakumari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coimbatore_district" title="Coimbatore district">Coimbatore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nilgiris_district" title="Nilgiris district">Nilgiris</a> district of Tamil Nadu. It is also spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Malayali_diaspora" title="Malayali diaspora">Malayali Diaspora</a> worldwide, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_states_of_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Arab states of the Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf countries</a>, due to the large populations of <a href="/wiki/Malayali" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayali">Malayali</a> expatriates there. They are a significant population in each city in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> including <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengaluru" title="Bengaluru">Bengaluru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chennai" title="Chennai">Chennai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad" title="Hyderabad">Hyderabad</a> etc. The origin of Malayalam remains a matter of dispute among scholars. The mainstream view holds that Malayalam descends from a western coastal dialect of early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Tamil" title="Middle Tamil">Middle Tamil</a> and separated from it sometime between the 9th and 13th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-ayyar-1936-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-krishnamurti-2003-15">[15]</a> A second view argues for the development of the two languages out of "Proto-Dravidian" or "Proto-Tamil-Malayalam" either in the prehistoric period or in the middle of the first millennium A.D.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherKumari1997xxiv-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014p._6-18">[18]</a>, although this is generally rejected by historical linguists.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Quilon_Syrian_copper_plates" title="Quilon Syrian copper plates">Quilon Syrian copper plates</a> of 849/850 CE are considered by some to be the oldest available inscription written in <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a>. However, the existence of Old Malayalam is sometimes disputed by scholars.<a href="#cite_note-freeman-2003-20">[20]</a> They regard the <a href="/wiki/Chera/Perumals_of_Makotai" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera/Perumals of Makotai">Chera Perumal</a> inscriptional language as a diverging dialect or variety of contemporary <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-freeman-2003-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The oldest extant literary work in Malayalam distinct from the Tamil tradition is Ramacharitam (late 12th or early 13th century).<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The earliest script used to write Malayalam was the <a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatteluttu alphabet">Vatteluttu script</a>.<a href="#cite_note-krishnamurti-2003-15">[15]</a> The current <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam script</a> is based on the Vatteluttu script, which was extended with <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha script</a> letters to adopt <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a> loanwords.<a href="#cite_note-krishnamurti-2003-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> It bears high similarity with the <a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari script</a>, a historical script that was used to write the <a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu language</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Canara" title="South Canara">South Canara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> in the adjacent <a href="/wiki/Malabar_District" title="Malabar District">Malabar region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vinodh_rajan-24">[24]</a> The modern Malayalam grammar is based on the book <a href="/wiki/Kerala_Panineeyam" title="Kerala Panineeyam">Kerala Panineeyam</a> written by <a href="/wiki/A._R._Raja_Raja_Varma" title="A. R. Raja Raja Varma">A. R. Raja Raja Varma</a> in late 19th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018a-25">[25]</a> The first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam <a href="/wiki/Varthamanappusthakam" title="Varthamanappusthakam">Varthamanappusthakam</a>, written by <a href="/wiki/Paremmakkal_Thoma_Kathanar" title="Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar">Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar</a> in 1785.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Caldwell" title="Robert Caldwell">Robert Caldwell</a> describes the extent of Malayalam in the 19th century as extending from the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Kumbla" title="Kumbla">Kumbla</a> in the north where it supersedes with <a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu</a> to <a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari" title="Kanyakumari">Kanyakumari</a> in the south, where it begins to be superseded by <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> beside the inhabited islands of <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> In a 7th century poem written by the Tamil poet <a href="/wiki/Sambandar" title="Sambandar">Sambandar</a> the people of Kerala are referred to as malaiyāḷar (mountain people).<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The word Malayalam is also said to originate from the words mala, meaning '<a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">mountain</a>', and alam, meaning '<a href="/wiki/Region" title="Region">region</a>' or '-ship' (as in "township"); Malayalam thus translates directly as 'the <a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">mountain</a> region'. The term <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar</a> was used as an alternative term for Malayalam in foreign trade circles to denote the southwestern coast of the Indian peninsula, which also means The land of hills.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The term originally referred to the western hilly <a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">land</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera dynasty</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Zamorin" title="Zamorin">Zamorins</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochin" title="Kingdom of Cochin">Kingdom of Cochin</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mushika_dynasty" title="Mushika dynasty">Kingdom of Ezhimala</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Kolathunadu" title="Kolathunadu">Kolathunadu</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Ay_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ay kingdom">Ay kingdom</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore</a>), and only later became the name of its language.<a href="#cite_note-caldwell-34">[34]</a> The language Malayalam was alternatively called Alealum, Malayalani, Malayali, Malabari, Malean, Maliyad, Mallealle, and Kerala Bhasha until the early 19th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-ethnologuecom-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The earliest extant <a href="/wiki/Literary" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary">literary</a> works in the regional <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> of present-day <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> probably date back to as early as the <a href="/wiki/12th_century" title="12th century">12th century</a>. At that time, the language was differentiated by the name Kerala Bhasha. The earliest mention of Malayalam as a language is found outside of Kerala in the 15th century <a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a> work Śrībhīmēśvarapurāṇamu by Śrīnātha.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The distinctive "Malayalam" named identity of this <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> appears to have come into existence in Kerala only around the <a href="/wiki/16th_century" title="16th century">16th century</a>, when it was known as "Malayayma" or "Malayanma"; the words were also used to refer to the <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">script</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Region" title="Region">region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-arvind_raghunathan_professor_of_south_asian_studies_sheldon_pollock-2003-39">[39]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Duarte_Barbosa" title="Duarte Barbosa">Duarte Barbosa</a>, a Portuguese visitor who visited Kerala in the early 16th century CE, the people in the southwestern <a href="/wiki/Malabar_coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Malabar coast">Malabar coast</a> of India from <a href="/wiki/Kumbla" title="Kumbla">Kumbla</a> in north to <a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari" title="Kanyakumari">Kanyakumari</a> in south had a unique language, which was called "Maliama" by them.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Prior to this <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">period</a>, the people of Kerala usually referred to their language as "Tamil", and both terms overlapped into the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">colonial period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[note 1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quilon_Syrian_copper_plates_(849_AD).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Quilon_Syrian_copper_plates_%28849_AD%29.jpg/220px-Quilon_Syrian_copper_plates_%28849_AD%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Quilon_Syrian_copper_plates_%28849_AD%29.jpg/330px-Quilon_Syrian_copper_plates_%28849_AD%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Quilon_Syrian_copper_plates_%28849_AD%29.jpg/440px-Quilon_Syrian_copper_plates_%28849_AD%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10000" data-file-height="6832" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Quilon_Syrian_copper_plates" title="Quilon Syrian copper plates">Quilon Syrian copper plates</a> (849/850 CE) are considered as the oldest available inscription written in <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> Besides <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a>, the copper plate also contains signatures in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> (Kufic script), <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> (cursive Pahlavi script) and <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a> (standard square <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>) scripts.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a></figcaption></figure> Due to the geographical isolation of the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a> from the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian peninsula</a> due to the presence of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a> mountain ranges which lie parallel to the coast, the dialect of <a href="/wiki/Old_Tamil" title="Old Tamil">Old Tamil</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> was different from that spoken in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> The mainstream view holds that Malayalam began to grow as a distinct literary language from the western coastal dialect of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Tamil" title="Middle Tamil">Middle Tamil</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> and the linguistic separation completed sometime between the 9th and 13th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014p._6-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGopinathan_Nair2009682-46">[45]</a> The renowned poets of <a href="/wiki/Old_Tamil" title="Old Tamil">Classical Tamil</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Paranar" title="Paranar">Paranar</a> (1st century CE), <a href="/wiki/Ilango_Adigal" title="Ilango Adigal">Ilango Adigal</a> (2nd–3rd century CE), and <a href="/wiki/Kulasekhara_Alvar" title="Kulasekhara Alvar">Kulasekhara Alvar</a> (9th century CE) were <a href="/wiki/Malayali" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayali">Keralites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam works</a> can be considered as the ancient predecessor of Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018b-47">[46]</a> Some scholars however believe that both <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> and Malayalam developed during the prehistoric period from a common ancestor, "Proto-Tamil-Malayalam", and that the notion of Malayalam being a "daughter" of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> is misplaced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherKumari1997xxiv-16">[16]</a> This is based on the fact that Malayalam and several <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian languages</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Coastal_Plains" title="Western Coastal Plains">Western Coast</a> have common archaic features which are not found even in the oldest historical forms of literary Tamil.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> Despite this, Malayalam shares many common innovations with Tamil that emerged during the early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Tamil" title="Middle Tamil">Middle Tamil</a> period, thus making independent descent impossible.<a href="#cite_note-ayyar-1936-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[note 2]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Old_Tamil" title="Old Tamil">Old Tamil</a> lacks the first and second person plural pronouns with the ending kaḷ. It is in the Early Middle Tamil stage that kaḷ first appears:<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> <table class="wikitable plainrowheaders"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="1" style="background:#FEBAFE;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;">Language </th> <th rowspan="1" style="background:#FEBAFE;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;">Plural Pronouns </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="1" style="background:#FCCCFD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Tamil" title="Old Tamil">Old Tamil</a> </th> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#FCCCFD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;">yām, nām, nīr, nīyir </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="1" style="background:#FBDCFC;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Tamil" title="Middle Tamil">Middle Tamil</a> </th> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#FBDCFC;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;">nānkaḷ, nām, nīnkaḷ, enkaḷ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="1" style="background:#F9EBFB;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;">Malayalam </th> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#F9EBFB;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;">ñaṅṅaḷ, nām, niṅṅaḷ, nammaḷ </td></tr></tbody></table> Indeed, most features of Malayalam morphology are derivable from a form of speech corresponding to early Middle Tamil.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Caldwell" title="Robert Caldwell">Robert Caldwell</a>, in his 1856 book "A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages", opined that literary Malayalam branched from Classical Tamil and over time gained a large amount of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> vocabulary and lost the personal terminations of verbs.<a href="#cite_note-caldwell-34">[34]</a> As the language of scholarship and administration, Old-Tamil, which was written in <a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a> and the Vatteluttu alphabet later, greatly influenced the early development of Malayalam as a literary language. The <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam script</a> began to diverge from the <a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a> and the Western <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a> scripts in the 8th and 9th centuries of <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>. By the end of the 13th century, a written form of the language emerged which was unique from the <a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a> script that was used to write Tamil on the eastern coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahapatra1989307-53">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Malayalam">Old Malayalam</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a> (Paḻaya Malayāḷam), an inscriptional language found in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> from circa 9th to circa 13th century CE,<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> is the earliest attested form of Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-narayanan-2013-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> The beginning of the development of <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a> from a western coastal dialect of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Tamil" title="Middle Tamil">Middle Tamil</a> can be dated to circa 8th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014152–153-57">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-krishnamurti-2003-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> It remained a west coast dialect until circa 9th century CE or a little later.<a href="#cite_note-krishnamurti-59">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014152–153-57">[55]</a> The origin of <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_calendar" title="Malayalam calendar">Malayalam calendar</a> dates back to year 825 CE.<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> It is generally agreed that the western coastal dialect of Tamil began to separate, diverge, and grow as a distinct language due to geographical separation of Kerala from the Tamil country<a href="#cite_note-krishnamurti-59">[57]</a> and the influence of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Nambudiri" title="Nambudiri">Nambudiri</a> <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmins</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a>.<a href="#cite_note-narayanan-2013-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a> language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the <a href="/wiki/Chera/Perumals_of_Makotai" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera/Perumals of Makotai">Chera Perumal</a> kings, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">upper-caste</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nambudiri" title="Nambudiri">Nambudiri</a>) village temples).<a href="#cite_note-narayanan-2013-55">[53]</a> Most of the inscriptions in <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a> were found from the <a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_of_Kerala" title="List of districts of Kerala">northern districts of Kerala</a>, those lie adjacent to <a href="/wiki/Tulu_Nadu" title="Tulu Nadu">Tulu Nadu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-narayanan-2013-55">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a> was mostly written in <a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a> script (with <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Pallava/Southern Grantha</a> characters).<a href="#cite_note-narayanan-2013-55">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a> had several features distinct from the contemporary Tamil, which include the nasalisation of adjoining sounds, substitution of palatal sounds for dental sounds, contraction of vowels, and the rejection of gender verbs.<a href="#cite_note-narayanan-2013-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramacharitam" title="Ramacharitam">Ramacharitam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thirunizhalmala" title="Thirunizhalmala">Thirunizhalmala</a> are the possible literary works of <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a> found so far. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Malayalam">Middle Malayalam</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a> gradually developed into <a href="/wiki/Middle_Malayalam" title="Middle Malayalam">Middle Malayalam</a> (Madhyakaala Malayalam) by the 13th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a> also completely diverged from <a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature" title="Tamil literature">Tamil literature</a> during this period. Works including Unniyachi Charitham, Unnichiruthevi Charitham, and Unniyadi Charitham, are written in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Malayalam" title="Middle Malayalam">Middle Malayalam</a>, and date back to the 13th and 14th centuries of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> The Sandesha Kavyas of 14th century CE written in <a href="/wiki/Manipravalam" title="Manipravalam">Manipravalam</a> language include <a href="/wiki/Unnuneeli_Sandesam" title="Unnuneeli Sandesam">Unnuneeli Sandesam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> Kannassa Ramayanam and Kannassa Bharatham by Rama Panikkar of the <a href="/wiki/Niranam_poets" title="Niranam poets">Niranam poets</a> who lived between 1350 and 1450, are representative of this language.<a href="#cite_note-kerala_india-2003-67">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulloor_S._Parameswara_Iyer" title="Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer">Ulloor</a> has opined that Rama Panikkar holds the same position in <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a> that <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a> does in <a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">English literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kerala_india-2003-67">[65]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Champu" title="Champu">Champu</a> Kavyas written by Punam Nambudiri, one among the Pathinettara Kavikal (Eighteen and a half poets) in the court of the <a href="/wiki/Zamorin_of_Calicut" class="mw-redirect" title="Zamorin of Calicut">Zamorin of Calicut</a>, also belong to Middle Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The literary works of this period were heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Manipravalam" title="Manipravalam">Manipravalam</a>, which was a combination of contemporary <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> The word Mani-Pravalam literally means Diamond-Coral or Ruby-Coral. The 14th-century <a href="/wiki/Lilatilakam" title="Lilatilakam">Lilatilakam</a> text states Manipravalam to be a Bhashya (language) where "Dravida and Sanskrit should combine together like ruby and coral, without the least trace of any discord".<a href="#cite_note-arvind_raghunathan-2003-68">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-ke_rāmacandr̲an_nāyar-69">[67]</a> The scripts of <a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a> were also used to write <a href="/wiki/Middle_Malayalam" title="Middle Malayalam">Middle Malayalam</a>. In addition to Vatteluthu and <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha script</a>, those were used to write <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> The literary works written in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Malayalam" title="Middle Malayalam">Middle Malayalam</a> were heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a>, while comparing them with the modern <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copy_of_Ezhuthachan%27s_Adhyathma_ramayanam_Kilippattu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Copy_of_Ezhuthachan%27s_Adhyathma_ramayanam_Kilippattu.jpg/251px-Copy_of_Ezhuthachan%27s_Adhyathma_ramayanam_Kilippattu.jpg" decoding="async" width="251" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Copy_of_Ezhuthachan%27s_Adhyathma_ramayanam_Kilippattu.jpg/377px-Copy_of_Ezhuthachan%27s_Adhyathma_ramayanam_Kilippattu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Copy_of_Ezhuthachan%27s_Adhyathma_ramayanam_Kilippattu.jpg/502px-Copy_of_Ezhuthachan%27s_Adhyathma_ramayanam_Kilippattu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="780" /></a><figcaption>Copy of Ezhuthachan's <a href="/wiki/Stylus" title="Stylus">stylus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adhyathmaramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Adhyathmaramayanam">Adhyatma Ramayanam</a> preserved at <a href="/wiki/Thunchan_Parambu,_Tirur" title="Thunchan Parambu, Tirur">Thunchan Parambu, Tirur</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Malayalam">Modern Malayalam</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Malayalam" title="Middle Malayalam">Middle Malayalam</a> was succeeded by Modern Malayalam (Aadhunika Malayalam) by 15th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> The poem <a href="/wiki/Krishnagatha" title="Krishnagatha">Krishnagatha</a> written by <a href="/wiki/Cherusseri_Namboothiri" title="Cherusseri Namboothiri">Cherusseri Namboothiri</a>, who was the court poet of the king Udaya Varman Kolathiri (1446–1475) of <a href="/wiki/Kolathunadu" title="Kolathunadu">Kolathunadu</a>, is written in modern Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The language used in Krishnagatha is the modern spoken form of Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> During the 16th century CE, <a href="/wiki/Thunchaththu_Ezhuthachan" title="Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan">Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tanur" title="Kingdom of Tanur">Kingdom of Tanur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poonthanam_Nambudiri" title="Poonthanam Nambudiri">Poonthanam Nambudiri</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valluvanad" title="Kingdom of Valluvanad">Kingdom of Valluvanad</a>, followed the new trend initiated by Cherussery in their poems. The <a href="/wiki/Adhyathmaramayanam_Kilippattu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu">Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu</a> and Mahabharatham <a href="/wiki/Kilippattu" title="Kilippattu">Kilippattu</a>, written by Ezhuthachan, and <a href="/wiki/Jnanappana" title="Jnanappana">Jnanappana</a>, written by Poonthanam, are also included in the earliest form of Modern Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> <table class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left:2em"> <caption>Comparison of <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam scripts</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th colspan="5">Letter </th></tr> <tr> <th>Script</th> <th>ka</th> <th>kha</th> <th>ga</th> <th>gha</th> <th>ṅa </th></tr> <tr> <td>Malayalam</td> <td>ക</td> <td>ഖ</td> <td>ഗ</td> <td>ഘ</td> <td>ങ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Grantha</td> <td>𑌕</td> <td>𑌖</td> <td>𑌗</td> <td>𑌘</td> <td>𑌙 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tigalari</td> <td>𑎒</td> <td>𑎓</td> <td>𑎔</td> <td>𑎕</td> <td>𑎖 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tamil</td> <td>க</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>ங </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sinhala</td> <td>ක්</td> <td>ඛ</td> <td>ග</td> <td>ඝ</td> <td>ණ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kannada</td> <td>ಕ</td> <td>ಖ</td> <td>ಗ</td> <td>ಘ</td> <td>ಙ </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Thunchaththu_Ezhuthachan" title="Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan">Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan</a> is also credited with developing the <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam script</a> into the current form through the intermixing and modification of the erstwhile scripts of <a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha script</a>, which were used to write the inscriptions and literary works of Old and Middle Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> He further eliminated excess and unnecessary letters from the modified script.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> Hence, Ezhuthachan is also known as The Father of modern Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The development of modern <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam script</a> was also heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari script</a>, which was used to write <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, due to the influence of <a href="/wiki/Tuluva_Brahmin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuluva Brahmin">Tuluva Brahmins</a> in Kerala.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The language used in the <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a> works of the 16th–17th century CE is a mixture of Modern Malayalam and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> They follow the syntax of modern Malayalam, though written in a modified form of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a>, which is known as <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam_script" title="Arabi Malayalam script">Arabi Malayalam script</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> P. Shangunny Menon ascribes the authorship of the medieval work <a href="/wiki/Keralolpathi" title="Keralolpathi">Keralolpathi</a>, which describes the <a href="/wiki/Parashurama" title="Parashurama">Parashurama</a> legend and the departure of the final <a href="/wiki/Thajuddin" title="Thajuddin">Cheraman Perumal</a> king to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, to Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan.<a href="#cite_note-history_of_travancore_by_shungunny_menon-70">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kunchan_Nambiar" title="Kunchan Nambiar">Kunchan Nambiar</a> introduced a new literary form called Thullal, and <a href="/wiki/Unnayi_Variyar" title="Unnayi Variyar">Unnayi Variyar</a> introduced reforms in <a href="/wiki/Kathakali" title="Kathakali">Attakkatha literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The printing, prose literature, and <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_journalism" title="Malayalam journalism">Malayalam journalism</a>, developed after the latter-half of the 18th century CE. Modern literary movements in Malayalam literature began in the late 19th century with the rise of the famous Modern Triumvirate consisting of <a href="/wiki/Kumaran_Asan" title="Kumaran Asan">Kumaran Asan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulloor_S._Parameswara_Iyer" title="Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer">Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vallathol_Narayana_Menon" title="Vallathol Narayana Menon">Vallathol Narayana Menon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> In the second half of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Jnanpith" class="mw-redirect" title="Jnanpith">Jnanpith</a> winning poets and writers like <a href="/wiki/G._Sankara_Kurup" title="G. Sankara Kurup">G. Sankara Kurup</a>, <a href="/wiki/S._K._Pottekkatt" title="S. K. Pottekkatt">S. K. Pottekkatt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thakazhi_Sivasankara_Pillai" title="Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai">Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai</a>, <a href="/wiki/M._T._Vasudevan_Nair" title="M. T. Vasudevan Nair">M. T. Vasudevan Nair</a>, <a href="/wiki/O._N._V._Kurup" title="O. N. V. Kurup">O. N. V. Kurup</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Akkitham_Achuthan_Namboothiri" title="Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri">Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri</a>, had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.<a href="#cite_note-subodh_kapoor-2002-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-eg_smith_for_the_us_library_of_congress_office_new_delhi-1994-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-nirmala_sadanand_publishers-1967-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-sahitya_akademi-1987-77">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-kerala_sahitya_akademi-1993-78">[76]</a> The life and works of <a href="/wiki/Edasseri_Govindan_Nair" title="Edasseri Govindan Nair">Edasseri Govindan Nair</a> have assumed greater socio-literary significance after his death and Edasseri is now recognised as an important poet of Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> Later, writers like <a href="/wiki/O._V._Vijayan" title="O. V. Vijayan">O. V. Vijayan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kamaladas" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamaladas">Kamaladas</a>, <a href="/wiki/M._Mukundan" title="M. Mukundan">M. Mukundan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arundhati_Roy" title="Arundhati Roy">Arundhati Roy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vaikom_Muhammed_Basheer" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaikom Muhammed Basheer">Vaikom Muhammed Basheer</a>, have gained international recognition.<a href="#cite_note-c_gopinathan_pillai-2004-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-ed_vinod_kumar_maheshwari-2002-81">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-amit_chaudhuri-2008-82">[80]</a> Malayalam has also borrowed a lot of its words from various foreign languages: mainly from the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> including <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European languages</a> including <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, due to the long heritage of <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a> and the Portuguese-Dutch colonization of the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2></div> Variations in <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a> patterns, vocabulary, and distribution of grammatical and <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> elements are observable along the parameters of region, religion, community, occupation, social stratum, style and register. According to the Dravidian Encyclopedia, the regional <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a> of Malayalam can be divided into fifteen dialect areas.<a href="#cite_note-Dravidian_Encyclopedia-7">[7]</a> They are as follows: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kasaragod_district" title="Kasaragod district">Kasaragod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Malabar" title="North Malabar">North Malabar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayanad" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayanad">Wayanad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kozhikode" title="Kozhikode">Kozhikode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eranad" title="Eranad">Eranad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valluvanad" title="Kingdom of Valluvanad">Valluvanad</a> (<a href="/wiki/South_Malabar" title="South Malabar">South Malabar</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palakkad" title="Palakkad">Palakkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrissur" title="Thrissur">Thrissur</a>-<a href="/wiki/Kochi" title="Kochi">Kochi</a></li> <li>North Travancore</li> <li>West <a href="/wiki/Vembanad" title="Vembanad">Vembanad</a></li> <li>Central <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore</a></li> <li>South <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beary_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Beary language">Beary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravula_language" title="Ravula language">Ravula</a></li></ul> </div> According to Ethnologue, the dialects are:<a href="#cite_note-ethnologuecom-35">[35]</a> Malabar, Nagari-Malayalam, North Kerala, Central Kerala, South Kerala, Kayavar, <a href="/wiki/Namboodiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Namboodiri">Namboodiri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nair" title="Nair">Nair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Mappila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beary_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Beary language">Beary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeseri" title="Jeseri">Jeseri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ravula_language" title="Ravula language">Yerava</a>, Pulaya, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christians" title="Saint Thomas Christians">Nasrani</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kasargod" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasargod">Kasargod</a>. The community dialects are: <a href="/wiki/Nambudiri" title="Nambudiri">Namboodiri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nair" title="Nair">Nair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a>, Pulaya, and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christians" title="Saint Thomas Christians">Nasrani</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ethnologuecom-35">[35]</a> Whereas both the <a href="/wiki/Nambudiri" title="Nambudiri">Namboothiri</a> and Nair dialects have a common nature, the <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a> is among the most divergent of dialects, differing considerably from literary Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-ethnologuecom-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeseri" title="Jeseri">Jeseri</a> is a dialect of Malayalam spoken mainly in the Union territory of <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beary_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Beary language">Beary</a> is spoken in <a href="/wiki/Tulu_Nadu" title="Tulu Nadu">Tulu Nadu</a> which are nearer to Kerala. Of the total 33,066,392 Malayalam speakers in India in 2001, 33,015,420 spoke the standard dialects, 19,643 spoke the <a href="/wiki/Ravula_language" title="Ravula language">Yerava</a> dialect and 31,329 spoke non-standard regional variations like <a href="/wiki/Aranadan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aranadan language">Eranadan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> The dialects of Malayalam spoken in the districts like <a href="/wiki/Kasaragod_district" title="Kasaragod district">Kasaragod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kannur_district" title="Kannur district">Kannur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wayanad" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayanad">Wayanad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kozhikode" title="Kozhikode">Kozhikode</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malappuram_district" title="Malappuram district">Malappuram</a> in the former <a href="/wiki/Malabar_District" title="Malabar District">Malabar District</a> have few influences from <a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> For example, the words those start with the sound "V" in Malayalam become "B" in these districts as in <a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> Also the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">Voiced retroflex approximant</a> (/ɻ/) which is seen in both Tamil and the standard form of Malayalam, are not seen in the northern dialects of Malayalam, as in <a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> For example, the words Vazhi (Path), Vili (Call), Vere (Another), and Vaa (Come/Mouth), become Bayi, Bili, Bere, and Baa in the northern dialects of Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> Similarly the Malayalam spoken in the southern districts of Kerala, i.e., <a href="/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram_district" title="Thiruvananthapuram district">Thiruvananthapuram</a>-<a href="/wiki/Kollam_district" title="Kollam district">Kollam</a>-<a href="/wiki/Pathanamthitta_district" title="Pathanamthitta district">Pathanamthitta</a> area is influenced by Tamil.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> Labels such as "Nampoothiri Dialect", "Mappila Dialect", and "Nasrani Dialect" refer to overall patterns constituted by the sub-dialects spoken by the subcastes or sub-groups of each such caste. The most outstanding features of the major communal dialects of Malayalam are summarized below: <ul><li>Lexical items with phonological features reminiscent of Sanskrit (e.g., viddhi meaning 'fool'), bhosku 'lie', musku 'impudence', dustu 'impurity', and eebhyan and sumbhan (both meaning 'good-for-nothing fellow') abound in Nampoothiri dialect.<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a></li> <li>The Muslim dialect, also known as <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a>, shows maximum divergence from the literary Standard Dialect of Malayalam. It is very much influenced by <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> rather than by Sanskrit or by English. The retroflex continuant zha of the literary dialect is realised in the Muslim dialect as the palatal ya. In some other dialects of Northern Kerala too, zha of the literary dialect is realised as ya.</li> <li>The Syrian Christian or Nasrani dialect of Malayalam is quite close to the <a href="/wiki/Nair" title="Nair">Nair</a> dialect, especially in <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>. The speech of the educated section among Syrian Christians and that of those who are close to the church are peculiar in having a number of assimilated as well as unassimilated loan words from <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>. The few loan words which have found their way into the Christian dialect are assimilated in many cases through the process of de-aspiration.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-a_sacredlanguage_is_vanishing_from_state_archived_10_july_2013_at_the_wayback_machine-86">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-prayer_from_the_past_archived_4_april_2014_at_the_wayback_machine-87">[85]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ravula_language" title="Ravula language">Ravula</a> is a tribal dialect of Malayalam spoken by the members of <a href="/wiki/Ravula" title="Ravula">Ravula</a>, an indigenous people's tribe who are primarily inhabitants of the <a href="/wiki/Kodagu_district" title="Kodagu district">Kodagu district</a> of <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a></li> <li>Tamil spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari_district" title="Kanyakumari district">Kanyakumari district</a> has influences from Malayalam language.<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External_influences_and_loanwords">External influences and loanwords</h3></div> Malayalam has incorporated many elements from other languages over the years, the most notable of these being <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> and later, English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherKumari1997xxiv,_xxv-90">[88]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Sooranad_Kunjan_Pillai" title="Sooranad Kunjan Pillai">Sooranad Kunjan Pillai</a> who compiled the authoritative Malayalam lexicon, the other principal languages whose vocabulary was incorporated over the ages were <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> <ul><li>Many medieval <a href="/wiki/Liturgical" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical">liturgical</a> texts were written in an admixture of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> and early Malayalam, called <a href="/wiki/Manipravalam" title="Manipravalam">Manipravalam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> The influence of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> was very prominent in formal Malayalam used in the medieval literature. Malayalam has a substantially high number of Sanskrit loanwords but these are seldom used.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a></li> <li>Some <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> loanwords like adālattŭ (court of justice), jāmyaṃ (bail), japti (foreclosure), jilla (district), tālukkŭ (subdistrict), etc., are used in the formal literary Malayalam for administrative purposes.</li> <li>Loanwords and influences also from <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ladino_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladino language">Ladino</a> abound in the <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Jewish Malayalam dialects</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> in the Christian dialects, while <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> and Persian elements predominate in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> dialects.</li> <li>The Muslim dialect known as <a href="/wiki/Mappila_Malayalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Mappila Malayalam">Mappila Malayalam</a> is predominantly in the northern districts of Kerala. Another Muslim dialect called <a href="/wiki/Beary_bashe" class="mw-redirect" title="Beary bashe">Beary bashe</a> is used in the extreme northern part of Kerala along with the southern part of Karnataka in a former region called <a href="/wiki/Tulu_Nadu" title="Tulu Nadu">Tulu Nadu</a>.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Examples of vocabulary from various origins </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:#92EE92;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;">Malayalam word </th> <th scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:#92EE92;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;">Source </th></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">ഉമ്മ, umma, 'mother' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: أُمّ, ʔumm </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">മാമോദീസ, māmōdīsa, 'baptism' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Syriac_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>: ܡܥܡܘܕܝܬܐ, maʿmōdīṯā </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">തപാല്‍, tapāl, 'post or mail' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: de paal </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">ആപ്പിൾ, āppiḷ, 'apple' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>: apple </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">നങ്കൂരം, naṅkūraṁ, 'anchor' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: ἄγκῡρα, ánkūra </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">മിനിയാൻ, miniyāṉ, 'quorum' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: מניין, minyán </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">പഞ്ചായത്ത്, pañcāyattŭ, '<a href="/wiki/Panchayat" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchayat">panchayat</a>' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hindi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi language">Hindi</a>: पंचायत, pañcāyat </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">അച്ഛൻ, acchaṉ, 'father' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81h%C4%81r%C4%81%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADri_Pr%C4%81krit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Māhārāṣṭri Prākrit language">Māhārāṣṭri Prākrit</a>: 𑀅𑀚𑁆𑀚, ajja </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">പടക്, paṭakŭ, 'boat' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Malayo-Polynesian languages">Malayo-Polynesian languages</a>: *paʀaqu </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">പത്തേമാരി, pattēmāri, 'a type of boat' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a>: पतेमारी, patemārī </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">വാത്ത, vātta, 'duck' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: بط, baṭ </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">ജനാല, jaṉāla, 'window' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>: janela </td></tr> <tr class="plainrowheaders"> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;">ലക്ഷം, lakṣam, '<a href="/wiki/Lakh" title="Lakh">lakh</a>' </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background:#DBF5DD;color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: लक्ष, lakṣa </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution_and_population">Geographic distribution and population</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Kerala_Gulf_diaspora" title="Kerala Gulf diaspora">Kerala Gulf diaspora</a> and <a href="/wiki/States_of_India_by_Malayalam_speakers" title="States of India by Malayalam speakers">States of India by Malayalam speakers</a></div> <table class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">State/Union Territory </th> <th scope="col">Malayalam speakers 2011<a href="#cite_note-mw-4">[4]</a> </th> <th scope="col">Proportion </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:#fde"><a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> </th> <td style="background:#fde">32,413,213 </td> <td style="background:#fde">97.03% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:#fde"><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> </th> <td style="background:#fde">54,264 </td> <td style="background:#fde">84.17% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:#fde"><a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a> </th> <td style="background:#fde">27,475 </td> <td style="background:#fde">7.22% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:#fde"><a href="/wiki/Puducherry_(union_territory)" title="Puducherry (union territory)">Puducherry</a> </th> <td style="background:#fde">47,973 </td> <td style="background:#fde">3.84% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:#fde"><a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a> </th> <td style="background:#fde">701,673 </td> <td style="background:#fde">1.14% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:#fde"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> </th> <td style="background:#fde">957,705 </td> <td style="background:#fde">2.70% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:#fde"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> </th> <td style="background:#fde">34,838,819 </td> <td style="background:#fde">2.88% </td></tr></tbody></table> Malayalam is a language spoken by the native people of southwestern India and the islands of <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a>. According to the Indian census of 2011, there were 32,413,213 speakers of Malayalam in Kerala, making up 93.2% of the total number of Malayalam speakers in India, and 97.03% of the total population of the state. There were a further 701,673 (1.14% of the total number) in <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, 957,705 (2.70%) in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, and 406,358 (1.2%) in <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>. The number of Malayalam speakers in <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> is 51,100, which is only 0.15% of the total number, but is as much as about 84% of the population of Lakshadweep. Malayalam was the most spoken language in erstwhile <a href="/wiki/Gudalur_taluk" title="Gudalur taluk">Gudalur taluk</a> (now Gudalur and Panthalur taluks) of <a href="/wiki/Nilgiris_district" title="Nilgiris district">Nilgiris district</a> in Tamil Nadu which accounts for 48.8% population and it was the second most spoken language in <a href="/wiki/Mangalore" title="Mangalore">Mangalore</a> and Puttur taluks of <a href="/wiki/South_Canara" title="South Canara">South Canara</a> accounting for 21.2% and 15.4% respectively according to 1951 census report.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> 25.57% of the total population in the <a href="/wiki/Kodagu_district" title="Kodagu district">Kodagu district</a> of <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a> are <a href="/wiki/Malayali" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayali">Malayalis</a>, and they form the single largest linguistic group accounting for 35.5% in the <a href="/wiki/Virajpet" title="Virajpet">Virajpet</a> Taluk.<a href="#cite_note-censusindiagovin-95">[93]</a> Around one-third of the <a href="/wiki/Malayali" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayali">Malayalis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kodagu_district" title="Kodagu district">Kodagu district</a> speak the <a href="/wiki/Ravula_language" title="Ravula language">Yerava dialect</a> according to the 2011 census, which is native to Kodagu and <a href="/wiki/Wayanad" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayanad">Wayanad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-censusindiagovin-95">[93]</a> In all, Malayalis made up 3.22% of the total Indian population in 2011. Of the total 34,713,130 Malayalam speakers in India in 2011, 33,015,420 spoke the standard dialects, 19,643 spoke the Yerava dialect and 31,329 spoke non-standard regional variations like Eranadan.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> As per the 1991 census data, 28.85% of all Malayalam speakers in India spoke a second language and 19.64% of the total knew three or more languages. Just before independence, <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</a> attracted many Malayalis. Large numbers of Malayalis have settled in <a href="/wiki/Chennai" title="Chennai">Chennai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengaluru" title="Bengaluru">Bengaluru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mangaluru" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangaluru">Mangaluru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad,_Telangana" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyderabad, Telangana">Hyderabad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Navi_Mumbai" title="Navi Mumbai">Navi Mumbai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pune" title="Pune">Pune</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mysuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Mysuru">Mysuru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>. Many Malayalis have also emigrated to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, the United States, and Europe. There were 179,860 speakers of Malayalam in the United States, according to the 2000 census, with the highest concentrations in <a href="/wiki/Bergen_County,_New_Jersey" title="Bergen County, New Jersey">Bergen County, New Jersey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rockland_County,_New_York" title="Rockland County, New York">Rockland County, New York</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> There are 144,000 of Malayalam speakers in <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] There were 11,687 Malayalam speakers in Australia in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> The 2001 <a href="/wiki/Canadian_census" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian census">Canadian census</a> reported 7,070 people who listed Malayalam as their mother tongue, mainly in <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>. The 2006 New Zealand census reported 2,139 speakers.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> 134 Malayalam speaking households were reported in 1956 in <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a>. There is also a considerable <a href="/wiki/Malayali" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayali">Malayali</a> population in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> regions, especially in <a href="/wiki/Dubai" title="Dubai">Dubai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> and <a href="/wiki/Doha" title="Doha">Doha</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malayalam_vowels.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Malayalam_vowels.png/250px-Malayalam_vowels.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Malayalam_vowels.png/375px-Malayalam_vowels.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Malayalam_vowels.png/500px-Malayalam_vowels.png 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="608" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">Monophthongs</a> of Malayalam, from Namboodiripad, Savithry (2016)<a href="#cite_note-namboodiripad-2016-100">[98]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="91" data-mwtitle="Ken.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Ken.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Ken.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4e/Ken.ogg/Ken.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Spoken Malayalam</figcaption></figure> For the consonants and vowels, the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA) symbol is given, followed by the Malayalam character and the <a href="/wiki/ISO_15919" title="ISO 15919">ISO 15919</a> transliteration.<a href="#cite_note-haowen_jiang-2010-101">[99]</a> The current Malayalam script bears high similarity with <a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari script</a>, which was used for writing the <a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu language</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Tulu_Nadu" title="Tulu Nadu">coastal Karnataka</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dakshina_Kannada" title="Dakshina Kannada">Dakshina Kannada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Udupi_district" title="Udupi district">Udupi</a> districts) and the northernmost <a href="/wiki/Kasargod_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasargod district">Kasargod district</a> of Kerala.<a href="#cite_note-vinodh_rajan-24">[24]</a> Tigalari script was also used for writing <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> in <a href="/wiki/Malabar_District" title="Malabar District">Malabar region</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malayalam.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Malayalam.svg/220px-Malayalam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Malayalam.svg/330px-Malayalam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Malayalam.svg/440px-Malayalam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="183" data-file-height="130" /></a><figcaption>The first letter in Malayalam</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">Short</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="3">Long </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td style="text-align:center;">/<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>/ ഇ i </td> <td style="text-align:center;">/<a href="/wiki/Extra-shortness" title="Extra-shortness">ɨ̆</a>/ ് ŭ </td> <td style="text-align:center;">/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/ ഉ u </td> <td style="text-align:center;">/<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a>/ ഈ ī </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a>/ ഊ ū </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td style="text-align:center;">/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>/എ e </td> <td style="text-align:center;"> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>/ ഒ o </td> <td style="text-align:center;">/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a>/ ഏ ē </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a>/ ഓ ō </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">/<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>/ അ a </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">/<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a>/ ആ ā </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>⟨്⟩ /ɨ̆/ formed from word final short /u/'s but now there are /u/'s finally as well, mostly in loanwords but also natively like in guru, kuru, puẓu and native pērŭ, there are minimal pairs as well appŭ "water", appu a given name; It is also added to the end of loanwords ending in some consonants, e.g. Sanskrit manas, suhr̥t, Malayalam manassŭ, suhr̥ttŭ, English current Ml. karaṇṭŭ. It is the saṁvr̥tōkāram, an <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthentic vowel</a> in Malayalam. Therefore, it has no independent vowel letter (because it never occurs at the beginning of words) but, when it comes after a consonant, there are various ways of representing it. In medieval times, it was just represented with the symbol for /u/ ⟨കു⟩, but later on it was just completely omitted (that is, written as an inherent vowel ⟨ക⟩, thus, ⟨പേര്⟩ pērŭ "name" was once written as ⟨പേര⟩ pēra which means "guava"). In modern times, it is written in two different ways – the Northern style, in which a <a href="/wiki/Chandrakkala" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandrakkala">chandrakkala</a> is used ⟨ക്⟩, and the Southern or <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore</a> style, in which the diacritic for a /u/ is attached to the preceding consonant and a chandrakkala is written above ⟨കു്⟩. According to one author, this alternative form ⟨കു്⟩ is historically more correct, though the simplified form without a vowel sign u is common nowadays.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a></li> <li>/a/ (phonetically central: [ä]) is represented as basic or the "default" vowel in the <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugida</a> script.</li></ul> Malayalam has also borrowed the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Diphthongs" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphthongs">diphthongs</a> of /ai̯/ (represented in Malayalam as ഐ, ai) and /au̯/ (represented in Malayalam as ഔ, au) although these mostly occur only in Sanskrit loanwords. Traditionally (as in Sanskrit), four vocalic consonants (usually pronounced in Malayalam as consonants followed by the saṁvr̥tōkāram, which is not officially a vowel, and not as actual vocalic consonants) have been classified as vowels: vocalic r (ഋ, /rɨ̆/, r̥), long vocalic r (ൠ, /rɨː/, r̥̄), vocalic l (ഌ, /lɨ̆/, l̥) and long vocalic l (ൡ, /lɨː/, l̥̄). Except for the first, the other three have been omitted from the current script used in Kerala as there are no words in current Malayalam that use them. Some authors say that Malayalam has no diphthongs and /ai̯, au̯/ are clusters of V+glide j/ʋ<a href="#cite_note-krishnamurti-2003-15">[15]</a> while others consider all V+glide clusters to be diphthongs /ai̯, aːi̯, au̯, ei̯, oi̯, i̯a/ as in kai, vāypa, auṣadhaṁ, cey, koy and kāryaṁ<a href="#cite_note-haowen_jiang-2010-101">[99]</a> Vowel length is phonemic and all of the vowels have minimal pairs for example kaṭṭi "thickness", kāṭṭi "showed", koṭṭi "tapped", kōṭṭi "twisted, stick, marble", er̠i "throw", ēr̠i "lots"<a href="#cite_note-haowen_jiang-2010-101">[99]</a> Some speakers also have /æː/, /ɔː/, /ə/ from English loanwords e.g. /bæːŋgɨ̆/ "bank" but most speakers replace it with /aː/, /eː/ or /ja/; /oː/ or /aː/ and /e/ or /a/.<a href="#cite_note-krishnamurti-2003-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex">Retroflex</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Postalveolar">Postalveolar</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Velar" class="mw-redirect" title="Velar">Velar</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> മ ⟨m⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental nasal">n̪</a> ന ⟨n⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> ന / ഩ<a href="#cite_note-103">[a]</a> ⟨ṉ⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_nasal" title="Voiced retroflex nasal">ɳ</a> ണ ⟨ṇ⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a> ഞ ⟨ñ⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a> ങ ⟨ṅ⟩ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4" scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> പ ⟨p⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t̪</a> ത ⟨t⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> റ്റ ⟨ṟṟ⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a> ട ⟨ṭ⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">t͡ɕ</a>~<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a> ച ⟨c⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> ക ⟨k⟩ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a> ഫ ⟨ph⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">t̪ʰ</a> ഥ ⟨th⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʈʰ</a> ഠ ⟨ṭh⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">t͡ɕʰ</a>~<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">t͡ʃʰ</a> ഛ ⟨ch⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a> ഖ ⟨kh⟩ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> ബ ⟨b⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental plosive">d̪</a> ദ ⟨d⟩ </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>)<a href="#cite_note-104">[b]</a> ന്റ ⟨nṟ⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiced retroflex plosive">ɖ</a> ഡ ⟨ḍ⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate">d͡ʑ</a>~<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a> ജ ⟨j⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> ഗ ⟨g⟩ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">bʱ</a> ഭ ⟨bh⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">d̪ʱ</a> ധ ⟨dh⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">ɖʱ</a> ഢ ⟨ḍh⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">d͡ʑʱ~d͡ʒʱ</a> ഝ ⟨jh⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">ɡʱ</a> ഘ ⟨gh⟩ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> ഫ ⟨f⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> സ ⟨s⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a> ഷ ⟨ṣ⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>~<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a> ശ ⟨ś⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> ഹ ⟨h⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approx.</a> </th> <th scope="row">central </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_approximant" title="Voiced labiodental approximant">ʋ</a> വ ⟨v⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">ɻ</a> ഴ ⟨ḻ⟩<a href="#cite_note-105">[c]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> യ ⟨y⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> ല ⟨l⟩ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex lateral approximant">ɭ</a> ള ⟨ḷ⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Tap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Tap consonant">Tap</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a> ര ⟨r⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a> റ ⟨ṟ⟩ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>As in other Dravidian languages, the retroflex series are true <a href="/wiki/Subapical_consonant" title="Subapical consonant">subapical consonants</a>, in which the underside of the tongue contacts the roof.<a href="#cite_note-106">[101]</a></li> <li>All of the alveolars except /s/ are apical.<a href="#cite_note-haowen_jiang-2010-101">[99]</a></li> <li>/ɕ ~ ʃ, t͡ɕ ~ t͡ʃ, t͡ɕʰ ~ t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʑ ~ d͡ʒ, d͡ʑʱ ~ d͡ʒʱ/ can either be postalveolar or alveolo-palatal depending upon the speaker and dialect; the postalveolar and alveolo-palatal realizations are in free variation.<a href="#cite_note-namboodiripad-2016-100">[98]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar nasal">alveolar nasal</a> once had a separate character ⟨ഩ⟩ that is now obsolete and the sound is now almost always represented by the symbol that was originally used only for the <a href="/wiki/Dental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental nasal">dental nasal</a>. However, both sounds are extensively used in current colloquial and official Malayalam, and although they were allophones in Old Malayalam, they now occasionally contrast in gemination – for example, eṉṉāl ('by me', first person singular pronoun in the instrumental case) and ennāl ('if that is so'), which are both written ennāl (എന്നാൽ).</li> <li>The unaspirated alveolar stop also had a separate character ⟨ഺ⟩ but it has become obsolete, as the sound only occurs in geminate form (when geminated it is written with a റ below another റ ⟨റ്റ⟩) or immediately following other consonants (in these cases, റ or ററ are usually written in small size underneath the first consonant).</li> <li>The proto Dravidian alveolar stop *ṯ developed into an alveolar trill /r/ in many of the <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian languages</a> and *ṉṯ became nn in Malayalam while *ṯṯ remained.<a href="#cite_note-krishnamurti-2003-15">[15]</a> Currently Malayalam only has [nd] in the genitive case ending -ṉṟe and a word formed with it taṉṟēṭam; Malayalam regained it from the older genitive case ending -ṉuṭaiya > -ṉuṭe > -ṉṭe > -ṉṟe, Malayalam still retains both forms in words like eṉṉuṭe and eṉṟe though the former is dated, a similar process happened in some Sri Lankan Tamil dialects.<a href="#cite_note-107">[102]</a></li> <li>ന്റ is pronounced as [nd] but ൻറ can be pronounced as [nd] or [nr]; [nr] doesn't occur natively but it occurs in loans like എൻറോൾ (en̠r̠ōḷ) 'enroll' or ഹെൻറി (hen̠r̠i) 'Henry'.<a href="#cite_note-108">[103]</a></li> <li>All non geminated voiceless stops and affricate become voiced intervocalically and after a nasal as in Tamil.<a href="#cite_note-haowen_jiang-2010-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-krishnamurti-2003-15">[15]</a></li> <li>The geminated velars /kk/ and /ŋŋ/ are sometimes palatalized word medially after /j, i(:), e(:)/ like in the words കിടക്കുക [kiɖɐk:ugɐ] vs ഇരിക്കുക [iɾikʲ:ugɐ] and മങ്ങൽ [mɐŋ:ɐl] vs. മത്തങ്ങ [mɐt̪:ɐŋʲ:ɐ], their distribution is unpredictable e.g. it doesn't palatalize in vikkŭ but does in irikkŭ. If the palatalization is from /j/ it is sometimes deleted e.g. poykko can be [pojkʲːo] or [pokʲːo], aḍaykka as [ɐɖɐjkʲːɐ] or [ɐɖɐkʲːɐ]. Some of the northern dialects might pronounce them without palatalization.<a href="#cite_note-namboodiripad-2016-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-haowen_jiang-2010-101">[99]</a></li> <li>The letter ഫ represents both /pʰ/, a phoneme occurring in Sanskrit loanwords, and /f/, which is mostly found in comparatively recent borrowings from European languages. Though nowadays most people (especially youngsters) pronounce /pʰ/ as /f/ like in the word ഫലം /falam/.<a href="#cite_note-haowen_jiang-2010-101">[99]</a> In the Jesari dialect the native word-initial /p/ too spirantized to [f].<a href="#cite_note-109">[104]</a></li> <li>/m, n, ɳ, l, ɭ/ are unreleased word finally.<a href="#cite_note-haowen_jiang-2010-101">[99]</a> Words will never begin or end with a geminated consonant. /ɻ/ never occur word initially. All consonants appear word medially.<a href="#cite_note-haowen_jiang-2010-101">[99]</a></li> <li>The plain stops, affricates, nasals, laterals, the fricatives /s/ and /ʃ/ and approximants other than /ɻ/ can be geminated and gemination can sometimes change the meaning of the word, e.g. കളം /kaɭam/ 'cell', കള്ളം /kaɭɭam/ 'lie'.<a href="#cite_note-haowen_jiang-2010-101">[99]</a> /n̪, ɲ, ŋ, t/ only occur in geminated form intervocalically.<a href="#cite_note-namboodiripad-2016-100">[98]</a></li> <li>The approximant /ɻ/ has both rhotic and lateral qualities, and is indeterminate between an approximant and a fricative. The articulation of /ɻ/ changes part-way through, perhaps explaining why it behaves as both a rhotic and a lateral, both an approximant and a fricative, but the nature of the change is not understood.<a href="#cite_note-110">[105]</a></li> <li>/n, t, ɾ, l, ɻ/ are weakly palatalized and have an advanced tongue root while /n̪, r, ɭ/ are clear or velarized and have a retracted tongue root, particularly noticeable in geminates.<a href="#cite_note-namboodiripad-2016-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[106]</a></li> <li>/ʋ/ may be realized as [ʋ], [v], [w] or [β̞].<a href="#cite_note-namboodiripad-2016-100">[98]</a></li> <li>Around 75% of nk and 50% of ñc and nt from Old Malayalam got assimilated to ṅṅ, ññ and nn, almost all of the ṉṯ merged with nn suggesting an earlier merger of some of the n̠t̠ and nt (for e.g. the cognate of Tamil nan̠r̠i is spelt as nandi and pronounced nanni); mp and ṇṭ were unchanged, e.g. Tamil mūṉṟu, maruntu, kañci, teṅku, Malayalam mūnnŭ, marunnŭ, kaññi, teṅṅŭ.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrishnamurti2003167-112">[107]</a> Word final ai, āy and ey became a unless the word is monosyllabic, e.g. Tamil avai, māṅgāy, veṇṇey Malayalam ava, māṅṅa, veṇṇa. Final āy in monosyllabic words became āya e.g. Tamil kāy, Malayalam kāya.</li> <li>Loanwords with /z/ are replaced with /s/ and not with /d͡ʒ/ like in Hindi or Telugu e.g. /brasi:l/ English "Brazil" unless it was loaned through Hindi then the Hindi pronunciation is taken e.g. /d͡ʒilla/ Hi. /d͡ʒilaː/ Per. /zilʔ/, other Perso-Arabic phonemes like /q, x, ɣ, ħ, Cˤ, ʕ, ʔ/ are replaced with /k, kʰ, g, h, C, ∅, ∅/, sometimes /q, x/ are replaced with /kʰ, k/ e.g. Arabic قطر qaṭar, خَطّ‎ xaṭṭ as ഖത്തർ khattaṟ, കത്ത് kattŭ. English loans with /θ, ð, ʒ/ are replaced with /t̪, d̪, ʃ/; the dentals do not clash with English loans with /t, d/, which are replaced with [t, d] or [ʈ, ɖ] though [d] is rare because of the limited distribution natively e.g. "taxi" as ṯāksi or more commonly ṭāksi. The English /ɹ/ is loaned as either /ɾ/ or /r/ unpredictably, for e.g. 'current' got loaned as karaṇḍŭ but 'maroon' got loaned as mar̠ūṇ or mer̠ūṇ but the cluster /ɹs/ is loaned as /ɻs/ other clusters are loaned as /rC/ or /ɾC/, /ɻ/ only occurs in words with /ɹs/ e.g. 'force' as fōḻsŭ. Speakers with non rhotic English accents don't have /ɹC/ clusters in English loans and pronounce it as fōs(ŭ). In Sanskrit loans with /t̪C/ and /d̪C/ (unless C is a sonorant or a dental stop) sometimes the /t̪, d̪/ becomes /l/ especially in /t̪s/ e.g. utsava > ulsavam, utpādana > ulpādaṉam, udghāṭana > ulghāḍaṉam. There are some native words with /s/ (urasŭ) and /ʃ/ (vīśŭ) but rest of the fricatives (except /f/ in native words of Jesari) and aspirates are only found in loans.</li> <li>Rarely some speakers pronounce the voiced aspirated consonants as voiceless so words like dhaṉam as thaṉam, it is more commonly deaspirated so dhaṉam as daṉam and kharam as karam, intervocalically the voiceless aspirate also becomes voiced so mukham as mugam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteever201563-113">[108]</a></li> <li>The pronunciation of <a href="#Chillu_letters">chillu letters</a> is often omitted, in a manner akin to the final single consonants in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_text">Sample text</h2></div> The following text is Article 1 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English">English</h3></div> All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malayalam">Malayalam</h3></div> മനുഷ്യരെല്ലാവരും തുല്യാവകാശങ്ങളോടും അന്തസ്സോടും സ്വാതന്ത്ര്യത്തോടുംകൂടി ജനിച്ചിട്ടുള്ളവരാണ്‌. അന്യോന്യം ഭ്രാതൃഭാവത്തോടെ പെരുമാറുവാനാണ്‌ മനുഷ്യന് വിവേകബുദ്ധിയും മനസാക്ഷിയും സിദ്ധമായിരിക്കുന്നത്‌. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romanisation_(ISO_15919)">Romanisation (ISO 15919)</h3></div> manuṣyarellāvaruṁ tulyāvakāśaṅṅaḷōṭuṁ antassōṭuṁ svātantryattōṭuṅkūṭi janicciṭṭuḷḷavarāṇ‌ŭ. anyōnyaṁ bhrātr̥bhāvattōṭe perumāṟuvānāṇ‌ŭ manuṣyanŭ vivēkabuddhiyuṁ manasākṣiyuṁ siddhamāyirikkunnat‌ŭ. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IPA">IPA</h3></div> /manuʂjaɾellaːʋaɾum t̪uljaːʋakaːʃaŋŋaɭoːʈum an̪t̪assoːʈum sʋaːt̪an̪tɾjat̪t̪oːʈuŋkuːʈi d͡ʒanit͡ʃt͡ʃiʈʈuɭɭaʋaɾaːɳɨ̆ ǁ anjoːnjam bʱraːt̪rɨ̆bʱaːʋat̪t̪oːʈe peɾumaːruʋaːnaːɳɨ̆ manuʂjanɨ̆ ʋiʋeːkabud̪d̪ʱijum manasaːkʂijum sid̪d̪ʱamaːjiɾikkun̪ːat̪ɨ̆ ǁ/ <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_grammar" title="Malayalam grammar">Malayalam grammar</a></div> Malayalam has a canonical word order of <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">SOV</a> (subject–object–verb), as do other <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[109]</a> A rare <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">OSV</a> word order occurs in interrogative clauses when the interrogative word is the subject.<a href="#cite_note-115">[110]</a> Both <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Possessive_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive adjective">possessive adjectives</a> precede the <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a> they modify. Malayalam has 6<a href="#cite_note-116">[111]</a> or 7<a href="#cite_note-117">[112]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical cases</a>. Verbs are conjugated for tense, mood and aspect, but not for person, gender nor number except in archaic or poetic language. The modern Malayalam grammar is based on the book <a href="/wiki/Kerala_Panineeyam" title="Kerala Panineeyam">Kerala Panineeyam</a> written by <a href="/wiki/A._R._Raja_Raja_Varma" title="A. R. Raja Raja Varma">A. R. Raja Raja Varma</a> in late 19th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018a-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declensional</a> paradigms for some common nouns and pronouns are given below. As Malayalam is an agglutinative language, it is difficult to delineate the cases strictly and determine how many there are, although seven or eight is the generally accepted number. <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar plosive">Alveolar plosives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar nasal">nasals</a> (although the modern <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam script</a> does not distinguish the latter from the <a href="/wiki/Dental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental nasal">dental nasal</a>) are underlined for clarity, following the convention of the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_at_Kolkata_romanization" class="mw-redirect" title="National Library at Kolkata romanization">National Library at Kolkata romanization</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_pronouns">Personal pronouns</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">Vocative</a> forms are given in parentheses after the <a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a>, as the only pronominal vocatives that are used are the third person ones, which only occur in compounds. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Singular </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case വിഭക്തി </th> <th rowspan="2">1st person </th> <th rowspan="2">2nd person informal<a href="#cite_note-118">[i]</a> </th> <th colspan="3">3rd person (distal)<a href="#cite_note-119">[ii]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>masculine</th> <th>feminine</th> <th>neutral </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative സംബോധന </th> <td>ñāṉ</td> <td>nī</td> <td>avaṉ (voc. avaṉē)</td> <td>avaḷ (voc. avaḷē)</td> <td>adŭ (voc. athinē) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">Accusative</a> പ്രതിഗ്രാഹിക </th> <td>eṉṉe</td> <td>niṉṉe</td> <td>avaṉe</td> <td>avaḷe</td> <td>atiṉe </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive</a> സംബന്ധിക </th> <td>eṉte (also eṉ, eṉṉute)</td> <td>niṉte (also niṉ, niṉṉute)</td> <td>avaṉte (also avaṉute)</td> <td>avaḷute</td> <td>atiṉte </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative</a> ഉദ്ദേശിക </th> <td>eṉikkŭ</td> <td>niṉakkŭ</td> <td>avaṉŭ</td> <td>avaḷkkŭ</td> <td>atiṉŭ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a> പ്രായോജിക </th> <td>eṉṉāl</td> <td>niṉṉāl</td> <td>avaṉāl</td> <td>avaḷāl</td> <td>atiṉāl </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Locative</a> ആധാരിക </th> <td>eṉṉil</td> <td>niṉṉil</td> <td>avaṉil</td> <td>avaḷil</td> <td>atil </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Sociative_case" title="Sociative case">Sociative</a> സംയോജിക </th> <td>eṉṉōḍŭ</td> <td>niṉṉōḍŭ</td> <td>avaṉōḍŭ</td> <td>avaḷōḍŭ</td> <td>adinōḍŭ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Notes: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-roman"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> 2nd person singular formal is similar to 2nd person plural. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> For proximal form, replace the initial 'a' with an 'i'. </li> </ol></div></div> </th></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Plural </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case വിഭക്തി </th> <th colspan="2">1st person </th> <th rowspan="2">2nd person </th> <th rowspan="2">3rd person </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">exclusive</a> </th> <th>inclusive </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative സംബോധന </th> <td>ñaṅṅaḷ</td> <td>nām/ nammaḷ</td> <td>niṅṅaḷ</td> <td>avar̠ (voc. avarē) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">Accusative</a> പ്രതിഗ്രാഹിക </th> <td>ñaṅṅaḷe</td> <td>nammaḷe</td> <td>niṅṅaḷe</td> <td>avare </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive</a> സംബന്ധിക </th> <td>ñaṅṅaḷuḍe (also ñaṅṅuḍe)</td> <td>nammuḍe</td> <td>niṅṅaḷuḍe</td> <td>avaruḍe </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative</a> ഉദ്ദേശിക </th> <td>ñaṅṅaḷkkŭ</td> <td>nammaḷkkŭ (also namukkŭ)</td> <td>niṅṅaḷkkŭ</td> <td>avar̠kkŭ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a> പ്രായോജിക </th> <td>ñaṅṅaḷāl (also ñaṅṅāl)</td> <td>nammāl</td> <td>niṅṅaḷāl</td> <td>avarāl </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Locative</a> ആധാരിക </th> <td>ñaṅṅaḷil</td> <td>nammil</td> <td>niṅṅaḷil</td> <td>avaril (also avaṟkal) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Sociative_case" title="Sociative case">Sociative</a> സംയോജിക </th> <td>ñaṅṅaḷōḍŭ</td> <td>nammōḍŭ</td> <td>niṅṅaḷōḍŭ</td> <td>avarōḍŭ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_nouns">Other nouns</h3></div> The following are examples of some of the most common declension patterns. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="row">Word (translated) </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">"Tree" </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">"Elephant" </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">"Human" </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">"Dog" </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Case </th> <th scope="col">Singular </th> <th scope="col">Plural </th> <th scope="col">Singular </th> <th scope="col">Plural </th> <th scope="col">Singular </th> <th scope="col">Plural </th> <th scope="col">Singular </th> <th scope="col">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Nominative </th> <td>മരം maram </td> <td>മരങ്ങൾ maraṅṅaḷ </td> <td>ആന āṉa </td> <td>ആനകൾ āṉakaḷ </td> <td>മനുഷ്യൻ maṉuṣyaṉ </td> <td>മനുഷ്യർ maṉuṣyaṟ </td> <td>പട്ടി paṭṭi </td> <td>പട്ടികൾ paṭṭigaḷ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Vocative </th> <td>മരമേ maramē </td> <td>മരങ്ങളേ maraṅṅaḷē </td> <td>ആനേ āṉē </td> <td>ആനകളേ āṉakaḷē </td> <td>മനുഷ്യാ maṉuṣyā </td> <td>മനുഷ്യരേ maṉuṣyarē </td> <td>പട്ടീ paṭṭī </td> <td>പട്ടികളേ paṭṭikaḷē </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Accusative </th> <td>മരത്തെ maratte </td> <td>മരങ്ങളെ maraṅṅaḷe </td> <td>ആനയെ āṉaye </td> <td>ആനകളെ āṉakaḷe </td> <td>മനുഷ്യനെ maṉuṣyaṉe </td> <td>മനുഷ്യരെ maṉuṣyare </td> <td>പട്ടിയെ paṭṭiye </td> <td>പട്ടികളെ paṭṭikaḷe </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Genitive </th> <td>മരത്തിൻ്റെ marattiṉd̠e </td> <td>മരങ്ങളുടെ maraṅṅaḷuḍe </td> <td>ആനയുടെ āṉayuḍe </td> <td>ആനകളുടെ āṉagaḷuḍe </td> <td>മനുഷ്യൻ്റെ maṉuṣyaṉd̠e </td> <td>മനുഷ്യരുടെ maṉuṣyaruḍe </td> <td>പട്ടിയുടെ paṭṭiyuḍe </td> <td>പട്ടികളുടെ paṭṭikaḷuḍe </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Dative </th> <td>മരത്തിന് marattiṉŭ </td> <td>മരങ്ങൾക്ക് maraṅṅaḷkkŭ </td> <td>ആനയ്ക്ക് āṉaykkŭ </td> <td>ആനകൾക്ക് āṉakaḷkkŭ </td> <td>മനുഷ്യന് maṉuṣyaṉŭ </td> <td>മനുഷ്യർക്ക് maṉuṣyaṟkkŭ </td> <td>പട്ടിയ്ക്ക് paṭṭiykkŭ </td> <td>പട്ടികൾക്ക് paṭṭikaḷkkŭ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Instrumental </th> <td>മരത്താൽ marattāl </td> <td>മരങ്ങളാൽ maraṅṅaḷāl </td> <td>ആനയാൽ āṉayāl </td> <td>ആനകളാൽ āṉakaḷāl </td> <td>മനുഷ്യനാൽ maṉuṣyaṉāl </td> <td>മനുഷ്യരാൽ maṉuṣyarāl </td> <td>പട്ടിയാൽ paṭṭiyāl </td> <td>പട്ടികളാൽ paṭṭikaḷāl </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Locative </th> <td>മരത്തിൽ marattil </td> <td>മരങ്ങളിൽ maraṅṅaḷil </td> <td>ആനയിൽ āṉayil </td> <td>ആനകളിൽ āṉakaḷil </td> <td>മനുഷ്യനിൽ maṉuṣyaṉil </td> <td>മനുഷ്യരിൽ maṉuṣyaril </td> <td>പട്ടിയിൽ paṭṭiyil </td> <td>പട്ടികളിൽ paṭṭikaḷil </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Sociative </th> <td>മരത്തോട് marattōḍŭ </td> <td>മരങ്ങളോട് maraṅṅaḷōḍŭ </td> <td>ആനയോട് āṉayōḍŭ </td> <td>ആനകളോട് āṉakaḷōḍŭ </td> <td>മനുഷ്യനോട് maṉuṣyaṉōḍŭ </td> <td>മനുഷ്യരോട് maṉuṣyarōḍŭ </td> <td>പട്ടിയോട് paṭṭiyōḍŭ </td> <td>പട്ടികളോട് paṭṭikaḷōḍŭ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Words_adopted_from_Sanskrit">Words adopted from Sanskrit</h3></div> When words are adopted from Sanskrit, their endings are usually changed to conform to Malayalam norms: <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nouns_2">Nouns</h4></div> <ul><li>Masculine <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> nouns with a <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">word stem</a> ending in a short /a/ take the ending /an/ in the nominative singular. For example, <a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Kr̥ṣṇa</a> → Kr̥ṣṇan. The final /n/ is dropped before masculine surnames, honorifics, or titles ending in /an/ and beginning with a consonant other than /n/ – e.g., "Krishna Menon", "Krishna Kaniyaan" etc., but "Krishnan Ezhutthachan". Surnames ending with /ar/ or /aḷ/ (where these are plural forms of "an" denoting respect) are treated similarly – "Krishna Pothuval", "Krishna Chakyar", but "Krishnan Nair", "Krishnan Nambiar", as are Sanskrit surnames such "Varma(n)", "Sharma(n)", or "Gupta(n)" (rare) – e.g., "Krishna Varma", "Krishna Sharman". If a name is a compound, only the last element undergoes this transformation – e.g., "Kr̥ṣṇa" + "dēva" = "Kr̥ṣṇadēvan", not "Kr̥ṣṇandēvan".</li> <li>Feminine words ending in a long /ā/ or /ī/ are changed to end in a short /a/ or /i/, for example "<a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sītā</a>" → "Sīta" and "<a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakṣmī</a>" → "Lakṣmi". However, the long vowel still appears in compound words, such as "Sītādēvi" or" Lakṣmīdēvi". The long ī is generally reserved for the <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative</a> forms of these names, although in Sanskrit the vocative actually takes a short /i/. There are also a small number of nominative /ī/ endings that have not been shortened – a prominent example being the word "strī" for "woman".</li> <li>Nouns that have a stem in /-an/ and which end with a long /ā/ in the masculine nominative singular have /vŭ/ added to them, for example "<a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmā">Brahmā</a>" (stem "Brahman") → "Brahmāvŭ". When the same nouns are declined in the neuter and take a short /a/ ending in Sanskrit, Malayalam adds an additional /m/, e.g. "Brahma" (neuter nominative singular of "<a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>") becomes "Brahmam". This is again omitted when forming compounds.</li> <li>Words whose roots end in /-an/ but whose nominative singular ending is /-a-/ (for example, the Sanskrit root of "<a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>" is actually "karman") are also changed. The original root is ignored and "karma" (the form in Malayalam being "karmam" because it ends in a short /a/) is taken as the basic form of the noun when declining.<a href="#cite_note-120">[113]</a> However, this does not apply to all consonant stems, as "unchangeable" stems such as "manas" ("mind") and "suhr̥t" ("friend") are identical to the Malayalam nominative singular forms (although the regularly derived "manam" sometimes occurs as an alternative to "manas").</li> <li>Sanskrit words describing things or animals rather than people with a stem in short /a/ end with an /m/ in Malayalam. For example, "<a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Rāmāyaṇa</a>" → "Rāmāyaṇam". In most cases, this is actually the same as the Sanskrit accusative case ending, which is also /m/ (or, allophonically, anusvara due to the requirements of the <a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a> word-combining rules) in the neuter nominative. However, "things and animals" and "people" are not always differentiated based on whether or not they are sentient beings; for example, "<a href="/wiki/Narasimha" title="Narasimha">Narasimha</a>" becomes "Narasiṃham" and not "Narasiṃhan", whereas "<a href="/wiki/Ananta_Shesha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ananta Shesha">Ananta</a>" becomes "Anantan" even though both are sentient. This does not strictly correspond to the Sanskrit neuter gender, as both "Narasiṃha" and "Ananta" are masculine nouns in the original Sanskrit.</li> <li>Nouns with short vowel stems other than /a/, such as "<a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Viṣṇu</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Prajapati" title="Prajapati">Prajāpati</a>" etc. are declined with the Sanskrit stem acting as the Malayalam nominative singular (the Sanskrit nominative singular is formed by adding a visarga, e.g., as in "Viṣṇuḥ")</li> <li>The original Sanskrit vocative is often used in formal or poetic Malayalam, e.g. "Harē" (for "<a href="/wiki/Hari" title="Hari">Hari</a>") or "Prabhō" (for "Prabhu" – "Lord"). This is restricted to certain contexts – mainly when addressing deities or other exalted individuals, so a normal man named Hari would usually be addressed using a Malayalam vocative such as "Harī". The Sanskrit genitive is also occasionally found in Malayalam poetry, especially the personal pronouns "mama" ("my" or "mine") and "tava" ("thy" or "thine"). Other cases are less common and generally restricted to the realm of Maṇipravāḷam.</li> <li>Along with these <a href="/wiki/Tatsama" title="Tatsama">tatsama</a> borrowings, there are also many <a href="/wiki/Tadbhava" title="Tadbhava">tadbhava</a> words in common use. These were incorporated via borrowing before the separation of Malayalam and Tamil. As the language did not then accommodate Sanskrit phonology as it now does, words were changed to conform to the Old Tamil phonological system, for example "Kr̥ṣṇa" → "Kaṇṇan".<a href="#cite_note-121">[114]</a> Most of his works are oriented on the basic Malayalam family and cultures and many of them were path-breaking in the history of Malayalam literature</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam script</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayalam braille">Malayalam braille</a></div> Aside from the Malayalam script, the Malayalam language has been written in other scripts like <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suriyani_Malayalam" title="Suriyani Malayalam">Syriac</a><a href="#cite_note-suriyani_malayalam_archived_11_june_2014_at_the_wayback_machine-122">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-a_sacredlanguage_is_vanishing_from_state_archived_10_july_2013_at_the_wayback_machine-86">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-prayer_from_the_past_archived_4_april_2014_at_the_wayback_machine-87">[85]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabic</a>. <a href="/wiki/Suriyani_Malayalam" title="Suriyani Malayalam">Suriyani Malayalam</a> was used by <a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christians" title="Saint Thomas Christians">Saint Thomas Christians</a> (also known as Nasranis) until the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-suriyani_malayalam_archived_11_june_2014_at_the_wayback_machine-122">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-a_sacredlanguage_is_vanishing_from_state_archived_10_july_2013_at_the_wayback_machine-86">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-prayer_from_the_past_archived_4_april_2014_at_the_wayback_machine-87">[85]</a> Arabic scripts particularly were taught in <a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">madrasahs</a> in Kerala and the <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakshadweep Islands">Lakshadweep Islands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malayalam_script">Malayalam script</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St_angelo_fort_Arakkal_Museum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/St_angelo_fort_Arakkal_Museum.JPG/220px-St_angelo_fort_Arakkal_Museum.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/St_angelo_fort_Arakkal_Museum.JPG/330px-St_angelo_fort_Arakkal_Museum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/St_angelo_fort_Arakkal_Museum.JPG/440px-St_angelo_fort_Arakkal_Museum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A Malayalam signboard from <a href="/wiki/Kannur" title="Kannur">Kannur</a>, Kerala. Malayalam is official language in the <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> state of <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> and the union territories of <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puducherry_(union_territory)" title="Puducherry (union territory)">Puduchery</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malayalam_board_with_old_style_Malayalam_letter_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Malayalam_board_with_old_style_Malayalam_letter_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Malayalam_board_with_old_style_Malayalam_letter_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Malayalam_board_with_old_style_Malayalam_letter_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Malayalam_board_with_old_style_Malayalam_letter_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Malayalam_board_with_old_style_Malayalam_letter_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Malayalam_board_with_old_style_Malayalam_letter_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3686" data-file-height="1741" /></a><figcaption>A Board in Malayalam which uses the complex letters in traditional script</figcaption></figure> Historically, several scripts were used to write Malayalam. Among these were the Vatteluttu, <a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a> scripts. But it was the <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha script</a>, another <a href="/wiki/Southern_Brahmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Brahmi">Southern Brahmi</a> variation, which gave rise to the modern <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam script</a>. The modern Malayalam script bears high similarity to <a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari script</a>, which was used for writing <a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu language</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Canara" title="South Canara">Coastal Karnataka</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dakshina_Kannada" title="Dakshina Kannada">Dakshina Kannada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Udupi_district" title="Udupi district">Udupi</a> districts) and the northernmost <a href="/wiki/Kasaragod_district" title="Kasaragod district">Kasaragod district</a> of Kerala.<a href="#cite_note-vinodh_rajan-24">[24]</a> It is syllabic in the sense that the sequence of graphic elements means that syllables have to be read as units, though in this system the elements representing individual vowels and consonants are for the most part readily identifiable. In the 1960s Malayalam dispensed with many special letters representing less frequent conjunct consonants and combinations of the vowel /u, u:/ with different consonants. Malayalam script consists of a total of 578 characters. The script contains 52 letters including 16 vowels and 36 consonants, which forms 576 syllabic characters, and contains two additional diacritic characters named <a href="/wiki/Anusv%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Anusvāra">anusvāra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Visarga" title="Visarga">visarga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[119]</a> The earlier style of writing has been superseded by a new style as of 1981. This new script reduces the different letters for typesetting from 900 to fewer than 90. This was mainly done to include Malayalam in the keyboards of typewriters and computers. In 1999 a group named "Rachana Akshara Vedi" produced a set of free <a href="/wiki/Typeface" title="Typeface">fonts</a> containing the entire character repertoire of more than 900 <a href="/wiki/Glyph" title="Glyph">glyphs</a>. This was announced and released along with a <a href="/wiki/Text_editor" title="Text editor">text editor</a> in the same year at <a href="/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram" title="Thiruvananthapuram">Thiruvananthapuram</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>. In 2004, the fonts were released under the <a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GPL</a> license by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Cochin_University_of_Science_and_Technology" title="Cochin University of Science and Technology">Cochin University of Science and Technology</a> in Kochi, Kerala. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chillu_letters">Chillu letters</h3></div> A chillu (ചില്ല്, cillŭ), or a chillaksharam (ചില്ലക്ഷരം, cillakṣaram), is a special consonant letter that represents a pure consonant independently, without help of a <a href="/wiki/Virama" title="Virama">virama</a>. Unlike a consonant represented by an ordinary consonant letter, this consonant is never followed by an inherent vowel. <a href="#Anusvaram">Anusvara</a> and <a href="#Visargam">visarga</a> fit this definition but are not usually included. ISCII and Unicode 5.0 treat a chillu as a glyph variant of a normal ("base") consonant letter.<a href="#cite_note-127">[120]</a> In Unicode 5.1 and later, chillu letters are treated as independent characters, encoded atomically. <table class="wikitable" style="margin-left:30px"> <caption>Chillu letters </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Letter </th> <th scope="col">Unicode name </th> <th scope="col">Base </th> <th scope="col">Remarks </th> <th scope="col">Examples </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ൺ </th> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">.mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace}</style>CHILLU NN</td> <td>ṇa ണ</td> <td></td> <td>കൂൺ (kūṇ, "mushroom") </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ൻ </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734">CHILLU N</td> <td>ṉa ന</td> <td>Chillu of dental – alveolar nasal ṉa.</td> <td>അവൻ (avaṉ, "he") </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ർ </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734">CHILLU RR</td> <td>ṟa റ</td> <td>Historically stood for ra ര, not ṟa റ.</td> <td>അവർ (avar̠, "they") </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ൽ </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734">CHILLU L</td> <td>la ല</td> <td></td> <td>കാൽ (kāl, "foot") </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ൾ </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734">CHILLU LL</td> <td>ḷa ള</td> <td></td> <td>അവൾ (avaḷ, "she") </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ൿ </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734">CHILLU K</td> <td>ka ക</td> <td>Not in modern use</td> <td>വാൿചാതുരി (doesn't occur word finally.) </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ൔ </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734">CHILLU M</td> <td>ma മ</td> <td>Not in modern use</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ൕ </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734">CHILLU Y</td> <td>ya യ</td> <td>Not in modern use</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ൖ </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734">CHILLU LLL</td> <td>ḻa ഴ</td> <td>Not in modern use</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Number_system_and_other_symbols">Number system and other symbols</h3></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:80%;margin-left:30px;"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="row">Praślēṣam </th> <td>ഽ</td> <td>Corresponds to <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> <a href="/wiki/Avagraha" title="Avagraha">avagraha</a>, used when a Sanskrit phrase containing an avagraha is written in Malayalam script. The symbol indicates the <a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">elision</a> of the word-initial vowel a after a word that ends in ā, ē, or ō, and is transliterated as an apostrophe ('), or sometimes as a colon + an apostrophe (:'). (<a href="/wiki/Malayalam_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayalam language">Malayalam</a>: പ്രശ്ലേഷം, praślēṣam) </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Malayalam date mark </th> <td>൹ </td> <td>Used in an abbreviation of a date. </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Danda" title="Danda">Danda</a> </th> <td>। </td> <td rowspan="2">Archaic punctuation marks. </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Double danda </th> <td>॥ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numerals">Numerals</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_numerals" title="Malayalam numerals">Malayalam numerals</a></div> Malayalam numbers and fractions are written as follows. These are archaic and no longer used. Instead, the common <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic numeral system</a> is followed. There is a confusion about the glyph of Malayalam digit zero. The correct form is oval-shaped, but occasionally the glyph for <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1⁄4 (൳) is erroneously shown as the glyph for 0. <table class="wikitable" style="margin-left:30px;"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">0 </th> <th scope="col">1 </th> <th scope="col">2 </th> <th scope="col">3 </th> <th scope="col">4 </th> <th scope="col">5 </th> <th scope="col">6 </th> <th scope="col">7 </th> <th scope="col">8 </th> <th scope="col">9 </th> <th scope="col">10 </th> <th scope="col">100 </th> <th scope="col">1000 </th> <th scope="col"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1⁄4 </th> <th scope="col"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1⁄2 </th> <th scope="col"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">3⁄4 </th></tr> <tr style="font-size:medium;" lang="ml"> <td>൦</td> <td>൧</td> <td>൨</td> <td>൩</td> <td>൪</td> <td>൫</td> <td>൬</td> <td>൭</td> <td>൮</td> <td>൯</td> <td>൰</td> <td>൱</td> <td>൲</td> <td>൳</td> <td>൴</td> <td>൵ </td></tr></tbody></table> Number "11" is written as "൰൧" and not "൧൧". "32" is written as "൩൰൨" similar to the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_numerals" title="Tamil numerals">Tamil numeral system</a>. <table class="wikitable" style="margin-left:30px"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">11 </th> <th scope="col">20 </th> <th scope="col">21 </th> <th scope="col">30 </th> <th scope="col">110 </th> <th scope="col">10,099 </th></tr> <tr style="font-size:medium" lang="ml"> <td>൰൧</td> <td>൨൰ </td> <td>൨൰൧</td> <td>൩൰ </td> <td>൱൰</td> <td>൰൲൯൰൯ </td></tr></tbody></table> For example, the number "2013" is read in Malayalam as രണ്ടായിരത്തി പതിമൂന്ന് (raṇḍāyiratti padimūnnŭ). It is split into: <ul><li>രണ്ട് (raṇḍŭ) : 2 – ൨</li> <li>ആയിരം (āyiram) : 1000 – ൲</li> <li>പത്ത് (pattŭ) : 10 – ൰</li> <li>മൂന്ന് (mūnnŭ) : 3 – ൩</li></ul> Combine them together to get the Malayalam number ൨൲൰൩.<a href="#cite_note-128">[121]</a> And 1,00,000 as "൱൲" = hundred(൱), thousand(൲) (100×1000), 10,00,000 as "൰൱൲" = ten(൰), hundred(൱), thousand(൲) (10×100×1000) and 1,00,00,000 as "൱൱൲" = hundred(൱), hundred(൱), thousand(൲) (100×100×1000). Later on this system got reformed to be more similar to the Hindu-Arabic numerals so 10,00,000 in the reformed numerals it would be ൧൦൦൦൦൦൦.<a href="#cite_note-alex-2013-129">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fractions">Fractions</h3></div> In Malayalam you can transcribe any fraction by affixing (-il) after the denominator followed by the numerator, so a fraction like <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">7⁄10 would be read as പത്തിൽ ഏഴ് (pattil ēḻŭ) 'out of ten, seven' but fractions like <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1⁄2 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1⁄4 and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">3⁄4 have distinct names (ara, kāl, mukkāl) and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1⁄8 (arakkāl) 'half quarter'.<a href="#cite_note-alex-2013-129">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vattezhuthu_alphabet">Vattezhuthu alphabet</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tigalari-sanskrit-manuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Tigalari-sanskrit-manuscript.jpg/220px-Tigalari-sanskrit-manuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Tigalari-sanskrit-manuscript.jpg/330px-Tigalari-sanskrit-manuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Tigalari-sanskrit-manuscript.jpg/440px-Tigalari-sanskrit-manuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1339" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>A medieval <a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari</a> manuscript (Bears high similarity with modern Malayalam script)</figcaption></figure> Vatteluttu (<a href="/wiki/Malayalam_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayalam language">Malayalam</a>: വട്ടെഴുത്ത്, Vaṭṭezhuthŭ, "round writing") is a script that had evolved from <a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a> and was once used extensively in the southern part of present-day <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>. Malayalam was first written in Vattezhuthu. The <a href="/wiki/Vazhappally" title="Vazhappally">Vazhappally</a> inscription issued by <a href="/wiki/Rajashekhara_Varman" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajashekhara Varman">Rajashekhara Varman</a> is the earliest example, dating from about 830 CE.<a href="#cite_note-ager-1998-130">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[124]</a> During the medieval period, the <a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari script</a> that was used for writing <a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Canara" title="South Canara">South Canara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> in the adjacent <a href="/wiki/Malabar_District" title="Malabar District">Malabar region</a>, had a close similarity to the modern Malayalam script.<a href="#cite_note-vinodh_rajan-24">[24]</a> In the Tamil country, the modern <a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil script</a> had supplanted Vattezhuthu by the 15th century, but in the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar</a> region, Vattezhuthu remained in general use up to the 17th century,<a href="#cite_note-132">[125]</a> or the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-malayalam_resource_centre-133">[126]</a> A variant form of this script, <a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a>, was used until about the 19th century mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_District" title="Malabar District">Malabar</a>-<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochin" title="Kingdom of Cochin">Cochin</a> area.<a href="#cite_note-government_of_kerala-134">[127]</a> Vatteluttu was in general use, but was not suitable for literature where many Sanskrit words were used. Like Tamil-Brahmi, it was originally used to write <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>, and as such, did not have letters for voiced or aspirated consonants used in Sanskrit but not used in Tamil. For this reason, Vatteluttu and the Grantha alphabet were sometimes mixed, as in the <a href="/wiki/Manipravalam" title="Manipravalam">Manipravalam</a>. One of the oldest examples of the Manipravalam literature, Vaishikatantram (വൈശികതന്ത്രം, Vaiśikatantram), dates back to the 12th century,<a href="#cite_note-135">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[129]</a> where the earliest form of the Malayalam script was used, which seems to have been systematized to some extent by the first half of the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-ager-1998-130">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-malayalam_resource_centre-133">[126]</a> Another variant form, <a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a>, was used in the south of <a href="/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram" title="Thiruvananthapuram">Thiruvananthapuram</a>.<a href="#cite_note-government_of_kerala-134">[127]</a> By the 19th century, old scripts like Kolezhuthu had been supplanted by Arya-eluttu – that is the current Malayalam script. Nowadays, it is widely used in the press of the Malayali population in Kerala.<a href="#cite_note-137">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grantha">Grantha</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha script</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:9th_century_Tamil_Grantha_script_Sanskrit_Chera_era_font.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/9th_century_Tamil_Grantha_script_Sanskrit_Chera_era_font.jpg/251px-9th_century_Tamil_Grantha_script_Sanskrit_Chera_era_font.jpg" decoding="async" width="251" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/9th_century_Tamil_Grantha_script_Sanskrit_Chera_era_font.jpg/377px-9th_century_Tamil_Grantha_script_Sanskrit_Chera_era_font.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/9th_century_Tamil_Grantha_script_Sanskrit_Chera_era_font.jpg/502px-9th_century_Tamil_Grantha_script_Sanskrit_Chera_era_font.jpg 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera era</a> <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha inscription</a></figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Coke_Burnell" title="Arthur Coke Burnell">Arthur Coke Burnell</a>, one form of the Grantha alphabet, originally used in the <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola dynasty</a>, was imported into the southwest coast of India in the 8th or 9th century, which was then modified in course of time in this secluded area, where communication with the east coast was very limited.<a href="#cite_note-burnell-138">[131]</a> It later evolved into Tigalari-Malayalam script was used by the <a href="/wiki/Malayali" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayali">Malayali</a>, Havyaka Brahmins and Tulu Brahmin people, but was originally only applied to write <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>. This script split into two scripts: Tigalari and Malayalam. While Malayalam script was extended and modified to write vernacular language Malayalam, the Tigalari was written for Sanskrit only.<a href="#cite_note-burnell-138">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[132]</a> In Malabar, this writing system was termed Arya-eluttu (ആര്യ എഴുത്ത്, Ārya eḻuttŭ),<a href="#cite_note-140">[133]</a> meaning "Arya writing" (Sanskrit is <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan language</a> while Malayalam is a <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian language</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Karshoni">Karshoni</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg/220px-East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg/330px-East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg/440px-East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>East Syriac Script Thaksa (<a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Syrian_Church" title="Chaldean Syrian Church">Chaldean Syrian Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrissur" title="Thrissur">Thrissur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, India)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Suriyani_Malayalam" title="Suriyani Malayalam">Suriyani Malayalam</a> (സുറിയാനി മലയാളം, ܣܘܪܝܢܝ ܡܠܝܠܡ), also known as Karshoni, Syro-Malabarica or Syriac Malayalam, is a version of Malayalam written in a variant form of the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac alphabet</a> which was popular among the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christians" title="Saint Thomas Christians">Saint Thomas Christians</a> (also known as Syrian Christians or Nasranis) of <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-suriyani_malayalam_archived_11_june_2014_at_the_wayback_machine-122">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-a_sacredlanguage_is_vanishing_from_state_archived_10_july_2013_at_the_wayback_machine-86">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-prayer_from_the_past_archived_4_april_2014_at_the_wayback_machine-87">[85]</a> It uses Malayalam grammar, the <a href="/wiki/Madnhaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Madnhaya">Maḏnḥāyā</a> or "Eastern" Syriac script with special <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthographic</a> features, and vocabulary from Malayalam and East Syriac. This originated in the South Indian region of the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a> (modern-day Kerala). Until the 20th century, the script was widely used by Syrian Christians in Kerala. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ponnani_script">Ponnani script</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArabiMalayalam_alphabet.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/ArabiMalayalam_alphabet.png/220px-ArabiMalayalam_alphabet.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/ArabiMalayalam_alphabet.png/330px-ArabiMalayalam_alphabet.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/ArabiMalayalam_alphabet.png/440px-ArabiMalayalam_alphabet.png 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="573" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a> alphabet with Malayalam alphabet correspondences</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam_script" title="Arabi Malayalam script">Arabi Malayalam script</a>, otherwise known as the <a href="/wiki/Ponnani" title="Ponnani">Ponnani</a> script,<a href="#cite_note-142">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[137]</a> is a writing system – a variant form of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a> with special <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthographic</a> features – which was developed during the early medieval period and used to write <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a> until the early 20th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-145">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[139]</a> Though the script originated and developed in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, today it is predominantly used in <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> by the migrant <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> community.<a href="#cite_note-147">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a> can be considered as the ancient predecessor of Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018b-47">[46]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Iravatham_Mahadevan" title="Iravatham Mahadevan">Iravatham Mahadevan</a>, the earliest Malayalam inscription discovered until now is the Edakal-5 inscription (ca. late 4th century – early 5th century) reading ī pazhama (<abbr title="translation">transl.</abbr> 'this is old').<a href="#cite_note-149">[142]</a> Although this has been disputed by many scholars who regard it as a regional dialect of Old Tamil.<a href="#cite_note-150">[143]</a> The use of the pronoun ī and the lack of the literary Tamil -ai ending are archaisms from Proto-Dravidian rather than unique innovations of Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-152">[note 3]</a> The early literature of Malayalam comprised three types of composition:<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> Malayalam Nada, Tamil Nada and Sanskrit Nada.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> <ul><li>Classical songs known as <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Kerala" title="Music of Kerala">Nadan Pattu</a><a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipravalam" title="Manipravalam">Manipravalam</a> of the Sanskrit tradition, which permitted a generous interspersing of Sanskrit with Malayalam. <a href="/wiki/Niranam_poets" title="Niranam poets">Niranam poets</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[145]</a> Manipravalam Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar wrote Manipravalam poetry in the 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a></li> <li>The folk song rich in native elements</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a> has been profoundly influenced by poets <a href="/wiki/Cherusseri_Namboothiri" title="Cherusseri Namboothiri">Cherusseri Namboothiri</a>,<a href="#cite_note-154">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thunchaththu_Ezhuthachan" title="Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan">Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poonthanam_Nambudiri" title="Poonthanam Nambudiri">Poonthanam Nambudiri</a>,<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[147]</a> in the 15th and the 16th centuries of Common Era.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[148]</a> <a href="/wiki/Unnayi_Variyar" title="Unnayi Variyar">Unnayi Variyar</a>, a probable 17th–18th century poet,<a href="#cite_note-157">[149]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kunchan_Nambiar" title="Kunchan Nambiar">Kunchan Nambiar</a>, a poet of 18th century,<a href="#cite_note-158">[150]</a> also greatly influenced <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a> in its early form.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The words used in many of the <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a> works those date back to 16th–17th centuries of <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a> are also very closer to the modern Malayalam language.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[151]</a> The prose literature, criticism, and <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_journalism" title="Malayalam journalism">Malayalam journalism</a> began after the latter half of 18th century CE. Contemporary <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a> deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern poetry is often towards <a href="/wiki/Political_radicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political radicalism">political radicalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-south_asian_arts-160">[152]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a> has been presented with six <a href="/wiki/Jnanpith_Award" title="Jnanpith Award">Jnanapith awards</a>, the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language.<a href="#cite_note-161">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[154]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_poetry" title="Malayalam poetry">Malayalam poetry</a> to the late 20th century betrays varying degrees of the fusion of the three different strands. The oldest examples of Pattu and Manipravalam, respectively, are Ramacharitam and Vaishikatantram, both from the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-163">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The earliest extant prose work in the language is a commentary in simple Malayalam, Bhashakautalyam (12th century) on <a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a>. <a href="/wiki/Adhyathmaramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Adhyathmaramayanam">Adhyatmaramayanam</a> by <a href="/wiki/Thunchaththu_Ramanujan_Ezhuthachan" class="mw-redirect" title="Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan">Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan</a> (known as the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a>) who was born in <a href="/wiki/Tirur" title="Tirur">Tirur</a>, one of the most important works in Malayalam literature. <a href="/wiki/Unnunili_Sandesam" class="mw-redirect" title="Unnunili Sandesam">Unnunili Sandesam</a> written in the 14th century is amongst the oldest literary works in Malayalam language.<a href="#cite_note-164">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cherusseri_Namboothiri" title="Cherusseri Namboothiri">Cherusseri Namboothiri</a> of 15th century (<a href="/wiki/Kannur" title="Kannur">Kannur</a>-based poet), <a href="/wiki/Poonthanam_Nambudiri" title="Poonthanam Nambudiri">Poonthanam Nambudiri</a> of 16th century (<a href="/wiki/Perinthalmanna" title="Perinthalmanna">Perinthalmanna</a>-based poet), <a href="/wiki/Unnayi_Variyar" title="Unnayi Variyar">Unnayi Variyar</a> of 17th–18th centuries (<a href="/wiki/Thrissur" title="Thrissur">Thrissur</a>-based poet), and <a href="/wiki/Kunchan_Nambiar" title="Kunchan Nambiar">Kunchan Nambiar</a> of 18th century (<a href="/wiki/Palakkad" title="Palakkad">Palakkad</a>-based poet), have played a major role in the development of <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a> into current form.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The words used in many of the <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a> works, which dates back to 16th–17th centuries are also very closer to modern Malayalam language.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The basin of the river <a href="/wiki/Bharathappuzha" title="Bharathappuzha">Bharathappuzha</a>, which is otherwise known as <a href="/wiki/Ponnani" title="Ponnani">River Ponnani</a>, and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature.<a href="#cite_note-165">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> By the end of the 18th century some of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian missionaries">Christian missionaries</a> from Kerala started writing in Malayalam but mostly travelogues, dictionaries and religious books. <a href="/wiki/Varthamanappusthakam" title="Varthamanappusthakam">Varthamanappusthakam</a> (1778), written by <a href="/wiki/Paremmakkal_Thoma_Kathanar" title="Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar">Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[158]</a> is considered to be the first travelogue in an Indian language. The modern Malayalam grammar is based on the book <a href="/wiki/Kerala_Panineeyam" title="Kerala Panineeyam">Kerala Panineeyam</a> written by <a href="/wiki/A._R._Raja_Raja_Varma" title="A. R. Raja Raja Varma">A. R. Raja Raja Varma</a> in late 19th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018a-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Folk_Songs">Folk Songs</h3></div> For the first 600 years of the <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_calendar" title="Malayalam calendar">Malayalam calendar</a>, Malayalam literature remained in a preliminary stage. During this time, Malayalam literature consisted mainly of various genres of songs (Pattu).<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> Folk songs are the oldest literary form in Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018a-25">[25]</a> They were just oral songs.<a href="#cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018a-25">[25]</a> Many of them were related to agricultural activities, including Pulayar Pattu, Pulluvan Pattu, Njattu Pattu, Koythu Pattu, etc.<a href="#cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018a-25">[25]</a> Other <a href="/wiki/Ballad" title="Ballad">Ballads</a> of Folk Song period include the <a href="/wiki/Vadakkan_Pattukal" title="Vadakkan Pattukal">Vadakkan Pattukal</a> (Northern songs) in <a href="/wiki/North_Malabar" title="North Malabar">North Malabar</a> region and the Thekkan Pattukal (Southern songs) in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Division_(Travancore)" title="Southern Division (Travancore)">Southern Travancore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018a-25">[25]</a> Some of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Mappila_song" class="mw-redirect" title="Mappila song">Mappila songs</a> (Muslim songs) were also folk songs.<a href="#cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018a-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_and_Middle_Malayalam">Old and Middle Malayalam</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Malayalam" title="Middle Malayalam">Middle Malayalam</a></div> The earliest known poems in Malayalam, <a href="/wiki/Ramacharitam" title="Ramacharitam">Ramacharitam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thirunizhalmala" title="Thirunizhalmala">Thirunizhalmala</a>, dated to the 12th to 14th century, were completed before the introduction of the Sanskrit alphabet. It was written by a poet with the pen name Cheeramakavi who, according to poet Ulloor S Parameswara Iyer, was Sree Veerarama Varman, a king of southern Kerala from AD 1195 to 1208.<a href="#cite_note-167">[159]</a> However the claim that it was written in Southern Kerala is expired on the basis of new discoveries.<a href="#cite_note-school_of_distance_education-168">[160]</a> Other experts, like Chirakkal T Balakrishnan Nair, K.M. George, M. M. Purushothaman Nair, and P.V. Krishnan Nair, state that the origin of the book is in <a href="/wiki/Kasaragod_district" title="Kasaragod district">Kasaragod district</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Malabar" title="North Malabar">North Malabar</a> region.<a href="#cite_note-school_of_distance_education-168">[160]</a> They cite the use of certain words in the book and also the fact that the manuscript of the book was recovered from <a href="/wiki/Nileshwaram" title="Nileshwaram">Nileshwaram</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Malabar" title="North Malabar">North Malabar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[161]</a> The influence of <a href="/wiki/Ramacharitam" title="Ramacharitam">Ramacharitam</a> is mostly seen in the contemporary literary works of Northern Kerala.<a href="#cite_note-school_of_distance_education-168">[160]</a> The words used in Ramacharitam such as Nade (Mumbe), Innum (Iniyum), Ninna (Ninne), Chaaduka (Eriyuka) are special features of the dialect spoken in <a href="/wiki/North_Malabar" title="North Malabar">North Malabar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kasaragod" title="Kasaragod">Kasaragod</a>-<a href="/wiki/Kannur" title="Kannur">Kannur</a> region).<a href="#cite_note-school_of_distance_education-168">[160]</a> Furthermore, the <a href="/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram" title="Thiruvananthapuram">Thiruvananthapuram</a> mentioned in Ramacharitham is not the Thiruvananthapuram in Southern Kerala.<a href="#cite_note-school_of_distance_education-168">[160]</a> But it is <a href="/wiki/Ananthapura_Lake_Temple" title="Ananthapura Lake Temple">Ananthapura Lake Temple</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kumbla" title="Kumbla">Kumbla</a> in the northernmost <a href="/wiki/Kasaragod_district" title="Kasaragod district">Kasaragod district</a> of Kerala.<a href="#cite_note-school_of_distance_education-168">[160]</a> The word Thiru is used just by the meaning Honoured.<a href="#cite_note-school_of_distance_education-168">[160]</a> Today it is widely accepted that Ramacharitham was written somewhere in <a href="/wiki/North_Malabar" title="North Malabar">North Malabar</a> (most likely near <a href="/wiki/Kasaragod" title="Kasaragod">Kasaragod</a>).<a href="#cite_note-school_of_distance_education-168">[160]</a> But the period of the earliest available literary document cannot be the sole criterion used to determine the antiquity of a language. In its early literature, Malayalam has songs, Pattu, for various subjects and occasions, such as harvesting, love songs, heroes, gods, etc. A form of writing called Campu emerged from the 14th century onwards. It mixed poetry with prose and used a vocabulary strongly influenced by Sanskrit, with themes from epics and Puranas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahapatra1989307-53">[51]</a> The works including Unniyachi Charitham, Unnichirudevi Charitham, and Unniyadi Charitham, are written in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Malayalam" title="Middle Malayalam">Middle Malayalam</a>, those date back to 13th and 14th centuries of <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> The Sandesha Kavyas of 14th century CE written in <a href="/wiki/Manipravalam" title="Manipravalam">Manipravalam</a> language include <a href="/wiki/Unnuneeli_Sandesam" title="Unnuneeli Sandesam">Unnuneeli Sandesam</a><a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> The literary works written in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Malayalam" title="Middle Malayalam">Middle Malayalam</a> were heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a>, while comparing them with the modern <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a> The word Manipravalam literally means Diamond-Coral or Ruby-Coral. The 14th-century <a href="/wiki/Lilatilakam" title="Lilatilakam">Lilatilakam</a> text states Manipravalam to be a Bhashya (language) where "Malayalam and Sanskrit should combine together like ruby and coral, without the least trace of any discord".<a href="#cite_note-arvind_raghunathan-2003-68">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-ke_rāmacandr̲an_nāyar-69">[67]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Champu" title="Champu">Champu</a> Kavyas written by Punam Nambudiri, one among the Pathinettara Kavikal (Eighteen and a half poets) in the court of the <a href="/wiki/Zamorin_of_Calicut" class="mw-redirect" title="Zamorin of Calicut">Zamorin of Calicut</a>, also belong to Middle Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Malayalam_2">Modern Malayalam</h3></div> The poem <a href="/wiki/Krishnagatha" title="Krishnagatha">Krishnagatha</a> written by <a href="/wiki/Cherusseri_Namboothiri" title="Cherusseri Namboothiri">Cherusseri Namboothiri</a>, who was the court poet of the king Udaya Varman Kolathiri (1446–1475) of <a href="/wiki/Kolathunadu" title="Kolathunadu">Kolathunadu</a>, is written in modern Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The language used in Krishnagatha is the modern spoken form of Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> It appears to be the first literary work written in the present-day language of Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> During the 16th century CE, <a href="/wiki/Thunchaththu_Ezhuthachan" title="Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan">Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tanur" title="Kingdom of Tanur">Kingdom of Tanur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poonthanam_Nambudiri" title="Poonthanam Nambudiri">Poonthanam Nambudiri</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valluvanad" title="Kingdom of Valluvanad">Kingdom of Valluvanad</a> followed the new trend initiated by Cherussery in their poems. The <a href="/wiki/Adhyathmaramayanam_Kilippattu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu">Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu</a> and Mahabharatham <a href="/wiki/Kilippattu" title="Kilippattu">Kilippattu</a> written by Ezhuthachan and <a href="/wiki/Jnanappana" title="Jnanappana">Jnanappana</a> written by Poonthanam are also included in the earliest form of Modern Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The words used in most of the <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a> works, which dates back to 16th–17th centuries, are also very closer to modern Malayalam language.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> P. Shangunny Menon ascribes the authorship of the medieval work <a href="/wiki/Keralolpathi" title="Keralolpathi">Keralolpathi</a>, which describes the <a href="/wiki/Parashurama" title="Parashurama">Parashurama</a> legend and the departure of the final <a href="/wiki/Legend_of_Cheraman_Perumals" class="mw-redirect" title="Legend of Cheraman Perumals">Cheraman Perumal</a> king to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, to Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan.<a href="#cite_note-history_of_travancore_by_shungunny_menon-70">[68]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:THUNCHAN_MEMORIAL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/THUNCHAN_MEMORIAL.jpg/300px-THUNCHAN_MEMORIAL.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/THUNCHAN_MEMORIAL.jpg/450px-THUNCHAN_MEMORIAL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/THUNCHAN_MEMORIAL.jpg/600px-THUNCHAN_MEMORIAL.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5165" data-file-height="2507" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Thunchath_Ezhuthachan_Malayalam_University" title="Thunchath Ezhuthachan Malayalam University">Thunchath Ezhuthachan Malayalam University</a> is situated at <a href="/wiki/Thunchan_Parambu" class="mw-redirect" title="Thunchan Parambu">Thunchan Parambu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tirur" title="Tirur">Tirur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malappuram_district" title="Malappuram district">Malappuram</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Kunchan_Nambiar" title="Kunchan Nambiar">Kunchan Nambiar</a>, the founder of Thullal movement, was a prolific literary figure of the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Impact_of_European_scholars">Impact of European scholars</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samkshepavedartham_1772.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Samkshepavedartham_1772.pdf/page1-220px-Samkshepavedartham_1772.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="378" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Samkshepavedartham_1772.pdf/page1-330px-Samkshepavedartham_1772.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Samkshepavedartham_1772.pdf/page1-440px-Samkshepavedartham_1772.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1314" data-file-height="2256" /></a><figcaption>Cover page of Nasranikal okkekkum ariyendunna samkshepavedartham which is the first book to be printed in Malayalam in 1772.</figcaption></figure> The British printed Malabar English Dictionary<a href="#cite_note-170">[162]</a> by Graham Shaw in 1779 was still in the form of a Tamil-English Dictionary.<a href="#cite_note-171">[163]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paremmakkal_Thoma_Kathanar" title="Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar">Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar</a> wrote the first Malayalam travelogue called <a href="/wiki/Varthamanappusthakam" title="Varthamanappusthakam">Varthamanappusthakam</a> in 1789. <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Gundert" title="Hermann Gundert">Hermann Gundert</a>, (1814–1893), a German missionary and scholar of exceptional linguistic talents, played a distinguishable role in the development of Malayalam literature. His major works are Keralolpathi (1843), Pazhancholmala (1845), Malayalabhaasha Vyakaranam (1851), Paathamala (1860) the first Malayalam school text book, Kerala pazhama (1868), the first Malayalam dictionary (1872), Malayalarajyam (1879) – Geography of Kerala, Rajya Samacharam (1847 June) the first Malayalam news paper, Paschimodayam (1879) – Magazine.<a href="#cite_note-172">[164]</a> He lived in <a href="/wiki/Thalassery" title="Thalassery">Thalassery</a> for around 20 years. He learned the language from well established local teachers Ooracheri Gurukkanmar from Chokli, a village near <a href="/wiki/Thalassery" title="Thalassery">Thalassery</a> and consulted them in works. He also translated the Bible into Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-173">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[166]</a> In 1821, the <a href="/wiki/Church_Mission_Society" title="Church Mission Society">Church Mission Society</a> (CMS) at <a href="/wiki/Kottayam" title="Kottayam">Kottayam</a> in association with the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox Church</a> started a seminary at <a href="/wiki/Kottayam" title="Kottayam">Kottayam</a> in 1819 and started printing books in Malayalam when Benjamin Bailey, an <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> priest, made the first Malayalam types. In addition, he contributed to standardizing the prose.<a href="#cite_note-175">[167]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Gundert" title="Hermann Gundert">Hermann Gundert</a> from <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, Germany, started the first Malayalam newspaper, Rajya Samacaram in 1847 at <a href="/wiki/Thalassery" title="Thalassery">Talasseri</a>. It was printed at <a href="/wiki/Basel_Mission" title="Basel Mission">Basel Mission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[168]</a> Malayalam and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> were increasingly studied by Christians of <a href="/wiki/Kottayam" title="Kottayam">Kottayam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pathanamthitta" title="Pathanamthitta">Pathanamthitta</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Marthomite" class="mw-redirect" title="Marthomite">Marthomite</a> movement in the mid-19th century called for replacement of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> by Malayalam for liturgical purposes. By the end of the 19th century Malayalam replaced <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> as language of <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a> in all Syrian Christian churches. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1850–1904">1850–1904</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_journalism" title="Malayalam journalism">Malayalam journalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venmani_School" title="Venmani School">Venmani School</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Travancore_Rupee_-_Reverse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Travancore_Rupee_-_Reverse.jpg/220px-Travancore_Rupee_-_Reverse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Travancore_Rupee_-_Reverse.jpg/330px-Travancore_Rupee_-_Reverse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Travancore_Rupee_-_Reverse.jpg/440px-Travancore_Rupee_-_Reverse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1269" data-file-height="1256" /></a><figcaption>Malayalam letters on old <a href="/wiki/Travancore_Rupee" title="Travancore Rupee">Travancore Rupee</a> coin</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Vengayil_Kunhiraman_Nayanar" title="Vengayil Kunhiraman Nayanar">Vengayil Kunhiraman Nayanar</a>, (1861–1914) from <a href="/wiki/Thalassery" title="Thalassery">Thalassery</a> was the author of first Malayalam short story, Vasanavikriti. After him innumerable world class literature works by was born in Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/O._Chandu_Menon" class="mw-redirect" title="O. Chandu Menon">O. Chandu Menon</a> wrote his novels "Indulekha" and "Saradha" while he was the judge at Parappanangadi Munciff Court. Indulekha is also the first Major Novel written in Malayalam language.<a href="#cite_note-177">[169]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shakuntala_RRV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Shakuntala_RRV.jpg/220px-Shakuntala_RRV.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Shakuntala_RRV.jpg/330px-Shakuntala_RRV.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Shakuntala_RRV.jpg/440px-Shakuntala_RRV.jpg 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Shakuntala writes to Dushyanta. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Raja_Ravi_Varma" title="Raja Ravi Varma">Raja Ravi Varma</a>. The poetry was translated by <a href="/wiki/Kerala_Varma_Valiya_Koil_Thampuran" title="Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran">Kerala Varma</a> as <a href="/wiki/Abhijnanasakuntalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhijnanasakuntalam">Abhijnanasakuntalam</a></figcaption></figure>.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The third quarter of the 19th century CE bore witness to the rise of a new school of poets devoted to the observation of life around them and the use of pure Malayalam. The major poets of the <a href="/wiki/Venmani_School" title="Venmani School">Venmani School</a> were <a href="/wiki/Venmani_Achhan_Nambudiripad" title="Venmani Achhan Nambudiripad">Venmani Achhan Nambudiripad</a> (1817–1891), <a href="/wiki/Venmani_Mahan_Nambudiripad" title="Venmani Mahan Nambudiripad">Venmani Mahan Nambudiripad</a> (1844–1893), <a href="/wiki/Poonthottam_Achhan_Nambudiri" title="Poonthottam Achhan Nambudiri">Poonthottam Achhan Nambudiri</a> (1821–1865), <a href="/wiki/Poonthottam_Mahan_Nambudiri" title="Poonthottam Mahan Nambudiri">Poonthottam Mahan Nambudiri</a> (1857–1896) and the members of the <a href="/wiki/Kodungallur_Kovilakam" title="Kodungallur Kovilakam">Kodungallur Kovilakam</a> (Royal Family) such as <a href="/wiki/Kodungallur_Kunjikkuttan_Thampuran" title="Kodungallur Kunjikkuttan Thampuran">Kodungallur Kunjikkuttan Thampuran</a>. The style of these poets became quite popular for a while and influenced even others who were not members of the group like <a href="/wiki/Velutheri_Kesavan_Vaidyar" title="Velutheri Kesavan Vaidyar">Velutheri Kesavan Vaidyar</a> (1839–1897) and Perunlli Krishnan Vaidyan (1863–1894). The Venmani school pioneered a style of poetry that was associated with common day themes, and the use of pure Malayalam (Pachcha Malayalam) rather than Sanskrit.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twentieth_century">Twentieth century</h3></div> In the second half of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Jnanpith" class="mw-redirect" title="Jnanpith">Jnanpith</a> winning poets and writers like <a href="/wiki/G._Sankara_Kurup" title="G. Sankara Kurup">G. Sankara Kurup</a>, <a href="/wiki/S._K._Pottekkatt" title="S. K. Pottekkatt">S. K. Pottekkatt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thakazhi_Sivasankara_Pillai" title="Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai">Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai</a>, <a href="/wiki/M._T._Vasudevan_Nair" title="M. T. Vasudevan Nair">M. T. Vasudevan Nair</a>, <a href="/wiki/O._N._V._Kurup" title="O. N. V. Kurup">O. N. V. Kurup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edasseri_Govindan_Nair" title="Edasseri Govindan Nair">Edasseri Govindan Nair</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akkitham_Achuthan_Namboothiri" title="Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri">Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri</a>, had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.<a href="#cite_note-subodh_kapoor-2002-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-eg_smith_for_the_us_library_of_congress_office_new_delhi-1994-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-nirmala_sadanand_publishers-1967-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-sahitya_akademi-1987-77">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-kerala_sahitya_akademi-1993-78">[76]</a> Later, writers like <a href="/wiki/O._V._Vijayan" title="O. V. Vijayan">O. V. Vijayan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kamaladas" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamaladas">Kamaladas</a>, <a href="/wiki/M._Mukundan" title="M. Mukundan">M. Mukundan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arundhati_Roy" title="Arundhati Roy">Arundhati Roy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vaikom_Muhammed_Basheer" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaikom Muhammed Basheer">Vaikom Muhammed Basheer</a>, have gained international recognition.<a href="#cite_note-c_gopinathan_pillai-2004-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-ed_vinod_kumar_maheshwari-2002-81">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-amit_chaudhuri-2008-82">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prose">Prose</h4></div> The travelogues written by <a href="/wiki/S._K._Pottekkatt" title="S. K. Pottekkatt">S. K. Pottekkatt</a> were turning point in the travelogue literature.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> The writers like <a href="/wiki/Kavalam_Narayana_Panicker" title="Kavalam Narayana Panicker">Kavalam Narayana Panicker</a> have contributed much to Malayalam drama.<a href="#cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018a-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thakazhi_Sivasankara_Pillai" title="Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai">Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai</a> turned away from party politics and produced a moving romance in <a href="/wiki/Chemmeen_(novel)" title="Chemmeen (novel)">Chemmeen</a> (Shrimps) in 1956. For <a href="/wiki/S._K._Pottekkatt" title="S. K. Pottekkatt">S. K. Pottekkatt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vaikom_Muhammad_Basheer" title="Vaikom Muhammad Basheer">Vaikom Muhammad Basheer</a>, who had not dabbled in politics, the continuity is marked in the former's Vishakanyaka (Poison Maid, 1948) and the latter's <a href="/wiki/Ntuppuppakkoranendarnnu" title="Ntuppuppakkoranendarnnu">Ntuppuppakkoranendarnnu</a> (My Grandpa had an Elephant, 1951). The non-political social or domestic novel was championed by <a href="/wiki/Uroob" title="Uroob">P. C. Kuttikrishnan (Uroob)</a> with his <a href="/wiki/Ummachu" title="Ummachu">Ummachu</a> (1955) and <a href="/wiki/Sundarikalum_Sundaranmarum" title="Sundarikalum Sundaranmarum">Sundarikalum Sundaranmarum</a> (Men and Women of Charm, 1958).<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> In 1957 Basheer's <a href="/wiki/Pathummayude_Aadu" title="Pathummayude Aadu">Pathummayude Aadu</a> (Pathumma's Goat) brought in a new kind of prose tale, which perhaps only Basheer could handle with dexterity. The fifties thus mark the evolution of a new kind of fiction, which had its impact on the short stories as well. This was the auspicious moment for the entry of <a href="/wiki/M._T._Vasudevan_Nair" title="M. T. Vasudevan Nair">M. T. Vasudevan Nair</a> and <a href="/wiki/T._Padmanabhan" title="T. Padmanabhan">T. Padmanabhan</a> upon the scene. Front runners in the post-modern trend include <a href="/wiki/Kakkanadan" title="Kakkanadan">Kakkanadan</a>, <a href="/wiki/O._V._Vijayan" title="O. V. Vijayan">O. V. Vijayan</a>, <a href="/wiki/E._Harikumar" title="E. Harikumar">E. Harikumar</a>, <a href="/wiki/M._Mukundan" title="M. Mukundan">M. Mukundan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anand_(writer)" title="Anand (writer)">Anand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dr_k_ayyappa_panicker-2006-66">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> has the <a href="/wiki/Indian_states_ranking_by_media_exposure" title="Indian states ranking by media exposure">highest media exposure in India</a> with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and Malayalam.<a href="#cite_note-179">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry">Poetry</h4></div> Contemporary Malayalam poetry deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern poetry is often towards <a href="/wiki/Political_radicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political radicalism">political radicalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-south_asian_arts-160">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/32px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/48px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/64px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:India" title="Portal:India">India portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Languages">Languages portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeseri" title="Jeseri">Jeseri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_(Unicode_block)" title="Malayalam (Unicode block)">Malayalam (Unicode block)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_Braille" title="Malayalam Braille">Malayalam Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_calendar" title="Malayalam calendar">Malayalam calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_cinema" title="Malayalam cinema">Malayalam cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayalam languages">Malayalam languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_poetry" title="Malayalam poetry">Malayalam poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayali" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayali">Malayali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipravalam" title="Manipravalam">Manipravalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulabhadra" title="Mulabhadra">Mulabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mygurudu" title="Mygurudu">Mygurudu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriyani_Malayalam" title="Suriyani Malayalam">Suriyani Malayalam</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Offlang-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Offlang_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230807223707/http://164.100.166.181/annualreport/52ndReport_CLM_English.pdf">52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">Government of India</a> (Report). 9 August 2021. p. 124. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://164.100.166.181/annualreport/52ndReport_CLM_English.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 August 2023. 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Thiruvananthapuram, India. 24 May 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130927134256/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=%27Classical%27+status+for+Malayalam&rft.date=2013-05-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Ftodays-paper%2Ftp-national%2Fclassical-status-for-malayalam%2Farticle4744630.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/malayalam-gets-classical-language-status/">"Malayalam gets classical language status"</a>. The Indian Express. 24 May 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210907130207/https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/malayalam-gets-classical-language-status/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2021. 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Retrieved 3 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Malayalam&rft.pub=Ethnologue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Flanguage%2Fmal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ayyar-1936-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ayyar-1936_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ayyar-1936_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyyar1936" class="citation book cs1">Ayyar, Ramaswami (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/TheEvolutionOfMalayalamMorphology/The-Evolution-of-Malayalam-Morphology">The Evolution of Malayalam Morphology</a> (1st ed.). Cochin, Kerala: Cochin government press. pp. 1–37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Malayalam+Morphology&rft.place=Cochin%2C+Kerala&rft.pages=1-37&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cochin+government+press&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Ayyar&rft.aufirst=Ramaswami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FTheEvolutionOfMalayalamMorphology%2FThe-Evolution-of-Malayalam-Morphology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-krishnamurti-2003-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-krishnamurti-2003_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-krishnamurti-2003_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-krishnamurti-2003_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-krishnamurti-2003_15-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-krishnamurti-2003_15-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-krishnamurti-2003_15-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-krishnamurti-2003_15-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-krishnamurti-2003_15-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrishnamurti2003" class="citation book cs1">Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=54fV7Lwu3fMC&q=grantha+script">The Dravidian Languages</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-43533-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-43533-8"><bdi>978-1-139-43533-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210729185642/https://books.google.com/books?id=54fV7Lwu3fMC&q=grantha+script">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dravidian+Languages&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-139-43533-8&rft.aulast=Krishnamurti&rft.aufirst=Bhadriraju&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D54fV7Lwu3fMC%26q%3Dgrantha%2Bscript&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherKumari1997xxiv-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherKumari1997xxiv_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherKumari1997xxiv_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAsherKumari1997">Asher & Kumari 1997</a>, p. xxiv. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShulman2016" class="citation book cs1">Shulman, David (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1g69zdt">Tamil: A Biography</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt1g69zdt">10.2307/j.ctt1g69zdt</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05992-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05992-4"><bdi>978-0-674-05992-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1g69zdt">j.ctt1g69zdt</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil%3A+A+Biography&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1g69zdt%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt1g69zdt&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05992-4&rft.aulast=Shulman&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1g69zdt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988">"There has been a tendency among historical linguists to think of Malayalam as having diverged directly from Tamil (the Tamil spoken from ancient times in what is today Kerala), perhaps as late as the thirteenth century. But this view is almost certainly wrong. Tamil and Malayalam must have separated from one another at a much earlier stage, perhaps around the middle of the first millennium A.D., as we can see from several surviving archaic features of Malayalam." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014p._6-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014p._6_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014p._6_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKarashima2014">Karashima 2014</a>, p. 6: Other sources date this split to the 7th and 8th centuries. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> S.V. Shanmugam (1976). "Formation and Development of Malayalam", Indian Literature, Vol. 19, No. 3 (May–June 1976), pp. 5–30. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24157306">24157306</a> "Yet, some scholars of Malayalam still believe that Malayalam should have originated independently from the Proto-Dravidian at a very early stage [...] The native scholars are unwilling to accept Malayalam as an ausbau language; instead they take it to be an abstand language 'language by distance' contrary to historical evidence (pp.9–10)". </li> <li id="cite_note-freeman-2003-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-freeman-2003_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-freeman-2003_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2003" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Rich (2003). "The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Sheldon, Pollock (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520228214/literary-cultures-in-history">Literary Cultures in History</a>. 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(2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27192872">"The Syrian Christian Copper Plate of Tarisāppaḷḷy, and the Jewish and Muslim Merchants of Early Malabar"</a>. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 80: 184–191. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2249-1937">2249-1937</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27192872">27192872</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Indian+History+Congress&rft.atitle=The+Syrian+Christian+Copper+Plate+of+Taris%C4%81ppa%E1%B8%B7%E1%B8%B7y%2C+and+the+Jewish+and+Muslim+Merchants+of+Early+Malabar&rft.volume=80&rft.pages=184-191&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27192872%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=2249-1937&rft.aulast=Tintu&rft.aufirst=K.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27192872&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Malayalam-literature">"Malayalam literature | Facts, Writers, Poetry, & Examples"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230321055126/https://www.britannica.com/art/Malayalam-literature">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2023. 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Springer. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84800-329-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84800-329-3"><bdi>978-1-84800-329-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160429090130/https://books.google.com/books?id=WdSR9OJ0kxYC">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2016. 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Asian Educational Services. pp. 6, 16, 17–19, 20, 21–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0117-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0117-8"><bdi>978-81-206-0117-8</bdi></a>. <q>Malayalam is spoken along the Malabar coast, on the western side of the Ghauts, or Malaya range of mountains, from the vicinity of Kumbla near Mangalore, where it supersedes Tuļu, to Kanyakumari, where it begins to be superseded by Tamil. 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Narayanan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kHtbkuXruzwC">Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220503225405/https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=kHtbkuXruzwC&">Archived</a> 3 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (New Delhi: Northern Book Centre, 2003), xvi–xvii. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSreedhara_Menon2007" class="citation book cs1">Sreedhara Menon, A. (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82">Kerala Charitram</a> (2007 ed.). 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London: Trübner & Co. </li> <li id="cite_note-ethnologuecom-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologuecom_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologuecom_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologuecom_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologuecom_35-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mal">"Ethnologue report for language code: mal"</a>. Ethnologue.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130628195627/http://www.ethnologue.com/language/mal">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2013. Retrieved 20 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ethnologue+report+for+language+code%3A+mal&rft.pub=Ethnologue.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Flanguage%2Fmal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sreedhara_menon-2007-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sreedhara_menon-2007_36-20">u</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSreedhara_Menon2007" class="citation book cs1">Sreedhara Menon, A. (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82">Kerala Charitram</a> (2007 ed.). Kottayam: DC Books. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-264-1588-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-264-1588-5"><bdi>978-81-264-1588-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211113141403/https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kerala+Charitram&rft.place=Kottayam&rft.pages=27&rft.edition=2007&rft.pub=DC+Books&rft.date=2007-01&rft.isbn=978-81-264-1588-5&rft.aulast=Sreedhara+Menon&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFAlXPgAACAAJ%26q%3D%25E0%25B4%2595%25E0%25B5%2587%25E0%25B4%25B0%25E0%25B4%25B3%2B%25E0%25B4%259A%25E0%25B4%25B0%25E0%25B4%25BF%25E0%25B4%25A4%25E0%25B5%258D%25E0%25B4%25B0%25E0%25B4%2582&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Malabar Manual (1887), William Logan, Calicut </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeluthat2018" class="citation journal cs1">Veluthat, Kesavan (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2348448918759852">"History and historiography in constituting a region: The case of Kerala"</a>. Studies in People's History. 5 (1): 13–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2348448918759852">10.1177/2348448918759852</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2348-4489">2348-4489</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+People%27s+History&rft.atitle=History+and+historiography+in+constituting+a+region%3A+The+case+of+Kerala&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-31&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2348448918759852&rft.issn=2348-4489&rft.aulast=Veluthat&rft.aufirst=Kesavan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F2348448918759852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-arvind_raghunathan_professor_of_south_asian_studies_sheldon_pollock-2003-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-arvind_raghunathan_professor_of_south_asian_studies_sheldon_pollock-2003_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-arvind_raghunathan_professor_of_south_asian_studies_sheldon_pollock-2003_39-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheldon_PollockArvind_Raghunathan_Professor_of_South_Asian_Studies_Sheldon_Pollock2003" class="citation book cs1">Sheldon Pollock; Arvind Raghunathan Professor of South Asian Studies Sheldon Pollock (19 May 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC&pg=PA442">Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia</a>. University of California Press. pp. 441–442. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22821-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22821-4"><bdi>978-0-520-22821-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161226111650/https://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC&pg=PA442">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literary+Cultures+in+History%3A+Reconstructions+from+South+Asia&rft.pages=441-442&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003-05-19&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22821-4&rft.au=Sheldon+Pollock&rft.au=Arvind+Raghunathan+Professor+of+South+Asian+Studies+Sheldon+Pollock&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dak9csfpY2WoC%26pg%3DPA442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbosa1989" class="citation book cs1">Barbosa, Duarte (1989). The Book of Duarte Barbosa: An Account of the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean and their inhabitants (Volume 2). Asian Educational Services. pp. 1–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120604513" title="Special:BookSources/9788120604513"><bdi>9788120604513</bdi></a>. <q>Per Barbosa, Malabar begins at the point where the kingdom of Narasyngua or Vijayanagar ends, that is at Cumbola (Cambola) on the Chandragiri river.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Duarte+Barbosa%3A+An+Account+of+the+countries+bordering+on+the+Indian+Ocean+and+their+inhabitants+%28Volume+2%29&rft.pages=1-7&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9788120604513&rft.aulast=Barbosa&rft.aufirst=Duarte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbosaDames1918" class="citation web cs1">Barbosa, Duarte; Dames, Mansel Longworth (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indianculture.gov.in/libraries/pdf.js/web/viewer.html?file=https%3A%2F%2Findianculture.gov.in%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2FdigitalFilesICWeb%2Fnlirepository%2F23567%2F61%2520B%2520275%2520%2528ii%2529%252021.pdf#page=301&zoom=60,0,1344">"PDF.js viewer"</a> (PDF). indianculture.gov.in. Asian Educational Services. pp. 194–198. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220424123531/https://indianculture.gov.in/libraries/pdf.js/web/viewer.html?file=https%3A%2F%2Findianculture.gov.in%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2FdigitalFilesICWeb%2Fnlirepository%2F23567%2F61%2520B%2520275%2520%2528ii%2529%252021.pdf#page=301&zoom=60,0,1344">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=indianculture.gov.in&rft.atitle=PDF.js+viewer&rft.pages=194-198&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Barbosa&rft.aufirst=Duarte&rft.au=Dames%2C+Mansel+Longworth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findianculture.gov.in%2Flibraries%2Fpdf.js%2Fweb%2Fviewer.html%3Ffile%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Findianculture.gov.in%252Fsystem%252Ffiles%252FdigitalFilesICWeb%252Fnlirepository%252F23567%252F61%252520B%252520275%252520%252528ii%252529%25252021.pdf%23page%3D301%26zoom%3D60%2C0%2C1344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNarayanan2013" class="citation book cs1">Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=Perumals+of+Kerala">Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy</a>. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788188765072" title="Special:BookSources/9788188765072"><bdi>9788188765072</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210607091744/https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=Perumals+of+Kerala">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Perumals+of+Kerala%3A+Brahmin+Oligarchy+and+Ritual+Monarchy&rft.place=Thrissur+%28Kerala%29&rft.pub=CosmoBooks&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9788188765072&rft.aulast=Narayanan&rft.aufirst=M.+G.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0YDCngEACAAJ%26q%3DPerumals%2Bof%2BKerala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCereti2009" class="citation book cs1">Cereti, C. G. (2009). "The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates". In Sundermann, W.; Hintze, A.; de Blois, F. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams">Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams</a>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05937-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05937-4"><bdi>978-3-447-05937-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210505085830/https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Pahlavi+Signatures+on+the+Quilon+Copper+Plates&rft.btitle=Exegisti+Monumenta%3A+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-Williams&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-447-05937-4&rft.aulast=Cereti&rft.aufirst=C.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db3gOdaiXNKkC%26q%3DExegisti%2BMonumenta%3A%2BFestschrift%2Bin%2BHonour%2Bof%2BNicholas%2BSims-%2BWilliams&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages">"Dravidian languages – History, Grammar, Map, & Facts"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170709173402/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dravidian+languages+%E2%80%93+History%2C+Grammar%2C+Map%2C+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FDravidian-languages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGopinathan_Nair2009682-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGopinathan_Nair2009682_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGopinathan_Nair2009">Gopinathan Nair (2009)</a>, p. 682: "[...] Malayalam emerged from Proto-Tamil–Malayalam; divergence occurred over a period of four or five centuries, from the 8th century onward". </li> <li id="cite_note-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018b-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018b_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-p_v_chandran_managing_editor_mathrubhumi_printing_publishing_company_limited_kozhikode-2018b_47-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus – 2019 (Malayalam ed.). Kozhikode: P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited, Kozhikode. 2018. p. 450. <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.in/dp/8182676444">8182676444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathrubhumi+Yearbook+Plus+%E2%80%93+2019&rft.place=Kozhikode&rft.pages=450&rft.edition=Malayalam&rft.pub=P.+V.+Chandran%2C+Managing+Editor%2C+Mathrubhumi+Printing+%26+Publishing+Company+Limited%2C+Kozhikode&rft.date=2018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> A. Govindankutty (1972) – From proto-Tamil-Malayalam to West Coast dialects. Indo-Iranian Journal, Vol. 14 No. (1/2), pp. 52–60 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVariar1980" class="citation book cs1">Variar, K. M. Prabhakara (1980). "Early Malayalam and ancient Tamil works". In S.V., Subramanian (ed.). Heritage of the Tamils - Language and Grammar. International Institute of Tamil Studies. pp. 382–392.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+Malayalam+and+ancient+Tamil+works&rft.btitle=Heritage+of+the+Tamils+-+Language+and+Grammar&rft.pages=382-392&rft.pub=International+Institute+of+Tamil+Studies&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Variar&rft.aufirst=K.+M.+Prabhakara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyyar1936" class="citation book cs1">Ayyar, Ramaswami (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/TheEvolutionOfMalayalamMorphology/The-Evolution-of-Malayalam-Morphology">The Evolution of Malayalam Morphology</a> (1st ed.). Cochin, Kerala: Cochin government press. pp. 35–37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Malayalam+Morphology&rft.place=Cochin%2C+Kerala&rft.pages=35-37&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cochin+government+press&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Ayyar&rft.aufirst=Ramaswami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FTheEvolutionOfMalayalamMorphology%2FThe-Evolution-of-Malayalam-Morphology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyyar1936" class="citation book cs1">Ayyar, Ramaswami (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/TheEvolutionOfMalayalamMorphology/The-Evolution-of-Malayalam-Morphology">The Evolution of Malayalam Morphology</a> (1st ed.). Cochin, Kerala: Cochin government press. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Malayalam+Morphology&rft.place=Cochin%2C+Kerala&rft.pages=2&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cochin+government+press&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Ayyar&rft.aufirst=Ramaswami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FTheEvolutionOfMalayalamMorphology%2FThe-Evolution-of-Malayalam-Morphology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahapatra1989307-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahapatra1989307_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahapatra1989307_53-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahapatra1989">Mahapatra 1989</a>, p. 307. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. 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Studies in People's History. 5 (1): 13–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2348448918759852">10.1177/2348448918759852</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2348-4489">2348-4489</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:166060066">166060066</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210913063330/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2348448918759852">Archived</a> from the original on 13 September 2021. 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University of California Press. pp. 449, 455–472. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22821-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22821-4"><bdi>978-0-520-22821-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200227041301/https://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literary+Cultures+in+History%3A+Reconstructions+from+South+Asia&rft.pages=449%2C+455-472&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003-05-19&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22821-4&rft.au=Sheldon+Pollock&rft.au=Arvind+Raghunathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dak9csfpY2WoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ke_rāmacandr̲an_nāyar-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ke_rāmacandr̲an_nāyar_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ke_rāmacandr̲an_nāyar_69-1">b</a> Ke Rāmacandr̲an Nāyar (1971). Early Manipravalam: a study. Anjali. Foreign Language Study. pp. 78 </li> <li id="cite_note-history_of_travancore_by_shungunny_menon-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-history_of_travancore_by_shungunny_menon_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-history_of_travancore_by_shungunny_menon_70-1">b</a> History of Travancore by Shungunny Menon, page 28 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.poemhunter.com/kumaran-asan/">"Kumaran Asan – Kumaran Asan Poems – Poem Hunter"</a>. poemhunter.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170729045813/https://www.poemhunter.com/kumaran-asan/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=poemhunter.com&rft.atitle=Kumaran+Asan+%E2%80%93+Kumaran+Asan+Poems+%E2%80%93+Poem+Hunter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.poemhunter.com%2Fkumaran-asan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.poemhunter.com/ulloor-s-parameswara-iyer/">"Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer – Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer Poems – Poem Hunter"</a>. poemhunter.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170729044216/https://www.poemhunter.com/ulloor-s-parameswara-iyer/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=poemhunter.com&rft.atitle=Ulloor+S.+Parameswara+Iyer+%E2%80%93+Ulloor+S.+Parameswara+Iyer+Poems+%E2%80%93+Poem+Hunter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.poemhunter.com%2Fulloor-s-parameswara-iyer%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.poemhunter.com/vallathol-narayana-menon/">"Vallathol Narayana Menon – Vallathol Narayana Menon Poems – Poem Hunter"</a>. poemhunter.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170729044157/https://www.poemhunter.com/vallathol-narayana-menon/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=poemhunter.com&rft.atitle=Vallathol+Narayana+Menon+%E2%80%93+Vallathol+Narayana+Menon+Poems+%E2%80%93+Poem+Hunter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.poemhunter.com%2Fvallathol-narayana-menon%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-subodh_kapoor-2002-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-subodh_kapoor-2002_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-subodh_kapoor-2002_74-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubodh_Kapoor2002" class="citation book cs1">Subodh Kapoor (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mc6C5dVHbGAC&pg=PA4542">The Indian Encyclopaedia: Biographical, Historical, Religious, Administrative, Ethnological, Commercial and Scientific. Mahi-Mewat</a>. Cosmo. p. 4542. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8177552720" title="Special:BookSources/978-8177552720"><bdi>978-8177552720</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130527070907/http://books.google.com/books?id=mc6C5dVHbGAC&pg=PA4542">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2013. 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E.G. Smith for the U.S. Library of Congress Office, New Delhi. 1994. p. 21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140102114016/http://books.google.com/books?id=lPcoAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2014. 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Nirmala Sadanand Publishers. 1967. p. 21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140102114455/http://books.google.com/books?id=1wUtAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2014. 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Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deccan+Chronicle&rft.atitle=New+university+centre+for+Arabi+Malayalam&rft.date=2017-10-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deccanchronicle.com%2Fnation%2Fin-other-news%2F151017%2Fnew-university-centre-for-arabi-malayalam.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-south_asian_arts-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-south_asian_arts_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-south_asian_arts_160-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/556016/South-Asian-arts/65212/Tamil#toc65213">"South Asian arts"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140910083744/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/556016/South-Asian-arts/65212/Tamil#toc65213">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2014. 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Gyan Publishing House. p. 289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7835-370-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7835-370-8"><bdi>978-81-7835-370-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160527102140/https://books.google.com/books?id=TDCKdPpbFPAC">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2015. <q>This Bungalow in Tellicherry ... was the residence of Dr. Herman Gundert .He lived here for 20 years</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Land+and+people+of+Indian+states+and+union+territories&rft.pages=289&rft.pub=Gyan+Publishing+House&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-81-7835-370-8&rft.au=S.+C.+Bhatt+and+Gopal+K.+Bhargava&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTDCKdPpbFPAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hindu.com/2010/02/05/stories/2010020551770300.htm#">"Banjamin Bailey"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100210130555/http://www.hindu.com/2010/02/05/stories/2010020551770300.htm">Archived</a> 10 February 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Hindu, 5 February 2010 </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kerala.gov.in/kerala_callingoct/pg31-33.pdf">Rajya Samacaram, "1847 first Newspaper in Malayalam"</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍], Kerala Government </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Visakham thirunal. [Place of publication not identified]: Duc. 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-613-9-12064-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-613-9-12064-2"><bdi>978-613-9-12064-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/940373421">940373421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visakham+thirunal.&rft.place=%5BPlace+of+publication+not+identified%5D&rft.pub=Duc&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F940373421&rft.isbn=978-613-9-12064-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyall1997" class="citation news cs1">Lyall, Sarah (15 October 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A01E6DD173FF936A25753C1A961958260">"Indian's First Novel Wins Booker Prize in Britain"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211121224622/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/15/world/indian-s-first-novel-wins-booker-prize-in-britain.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Indian%27s+First+Novel+Wins+Booker+Prize+in+Britain&rft.date=1997-10-15&rft.aulast=Lyall&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9A01E6DD173FF936A25753C1A961958260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dhsprogram.com/what-we-do/survey/survey-display-355.cfm">"The DHS Program – India: Standard DHS, 2015–16"</a>. dhsprogram.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021080422/https://www.dhsprogram.com/what-we-do/survey/survey-display-355.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 12 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dhsprogram.com&rft.atitle=The+DHS+Program+%E2%80%93+India%3A+Standard+DHS%2C+2015%E2%80%9316&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdhsprogram.com%2Fwhat-we-do%2Fsurvey%2Fsurvey-display-355.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Report.shtml">"National Family Health Survey"</a>. rchiips.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211003131317/http://rchiips.org/NFHS/NFHS-4Report.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=rchiips.org&rft.atitle=National+Family+Health+Survey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frchiips.org%2Fnfhs%2FNFHS-4Report.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGopinathan_Nair2009" class="citation book cs1">Gopinathan Nair, B. (2009). "Malayalam". In Keith Brown; Sarah Ogilvie (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. pp. 680–683.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Malayalam&rft.btitle=Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Languages+of+the+World&rft.pages=680-683&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Gopinathan+Nair&rft.aufirst=B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarashima2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Noboru_Karashima" title="Noboru Karashima">Karashima, Noboru</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdVoAEACAAJ">A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-809977-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-809977-2"><bdi>978-0-19-809977-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+South+India%3A+Issues+and+Interpretations&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-809977-2&rft.aulast=Karashima&rft.aufirst=Noboru&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfpdVoAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahapatra1989" class="citation book cs1">Mahapatra, B. P. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yU8nq-C6wnoC">Constitutional Languages</a>. The Written Languages of the World: A Survey of the Degree and Modes of Use. Vol. 2. Presses Université Laval. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7637-7186-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7637-7186-1"><bdi>978-2-7637-7186-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Languages&rft.series=The+Written+Languages+of+the+World%3A+A+Survey+of+the+Degree+and+Modes+of+Use&rft.pub=Presses+Universit%C3%A9+Laval&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-2-7637-7186-1&rft.aulast=Mahapatra&rft.aufirst=B.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyU8nq-C6wnoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsherKumari1997" class="citation book cs1">Asher, R. E.; Kumari, T. C. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uFQG2DCaIsIC">Malayalam</a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02242-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02242-2"><bdi>978-0-415-02242-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malayalam&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-415-02242-2&rft.aulast=Asher&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rft.au=Kumari%2C+T.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuFQG2DCaIsIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Govindankutty, A. "From Proto-Tamil-Malayalam to West Coast Dialects", 1972. Indo-Iranian Journal, Vol. XIV, Nr. 1/2, pp. 52–60.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteever2015" class="citation book cs1">Steever, Sanford B. (15 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6WDxBwAAQBAJ">The Dravidian Languages</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-91171-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-91171-2"><bdi>978-1-136-91171-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dravidian+Languages&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015-04-15&rft.isbn=978-1-136-91171-2&rft.aulast=Steever&rft.aufirst=Sanford+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6WDxBwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <dl><dt>English</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Peet1841" class="citation book cs1">Joseph Peet (1841). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1841_A_Grammar_Of_The_Malayalim_Language">A Grammar of the Malayalim Language</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kottayam" title="Kottayam">Cottayam</a>: Church Missionary Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+the+Malayalim+Language&rft.place=Cottayam&rft.pub=Church+Missionary+Society&rft.date=1841&rft.au=Joseph+Peet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F1841_A_Grammar_Of_The_Malayalim_Language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHermann_Gundert1867" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Gundert" title="Hermann Gundert">Hermann Gundert</a> (1867). <a class="external text" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Catechism_of_Malayalam_Grammar_Gundert_1867.pdf">Catechism of Malayalam Grammar</a> (PDF). Translated by L. Grathwaite. <a href="/wiki/Cannanore" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannanore">Cannanore</a>: Government Book Depot. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230315121241/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Catechism_of_Malayalam_Grammar_Gundert_1867.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catechism+of+Malayalam+Grammar&rft.place=Cannanore&rft.pub=Government+Book+Depot&rft.date=1867&rft.au=Hermann+Gundert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2F7%2F7f%2FCatechism_of_Malayalam_Grammar_Gundert_1867.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHermann_Gundert1872" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Gundert" title="Hermann Gundert">Hermann Gundert</a> (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/amalayalamanden00gundgoog">A Malayalam and English Dictionary</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mangalore" title="Mangalore">Mangalore</a>: C. Stolz.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Malayalam+and+English+Dictionary&rft.place=Mangalore&rft.pub=C.+Stolz&rft.date=1872&rft.au=Hermann+Gundert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famalayalamanden00gundgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT._K._Krishna_Menon1939" class="citation book cs1">T. K. Krishna Menon (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/primerofmalayala0000kris">A Primer of Malayalam Literature</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a>: Asian Educational Services. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120606036" title="Special:BookSources/9788120606036"><bdi>9788120606036</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Primer+of+Malayalam+Literature&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1939&rft.isbn=9788120606036&rft.au=T.+K.+Krishna+Menon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprimerofmalayala0000kris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._C._Sekhar1953" class="citation book cs1">A. C. Sekhar (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.285276">Evolution of Malayalam</a>. Deccan College Dissertation Series. <a href="/wiki/Poona" class="mw-redirect" title="Poona">Poona</a>: <a href="/wiki/Deccan_College_Post-Graduate_and_Research_Institute" title="Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute">Deccan College</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+Malayalam&rft.place=Poona&rft.series=Deccan+College+Dissertation+Series&rft.pub=Deccan+College&rft.date=1953&rft.au=A.+C.+Sekhar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdli.ernet.285276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._K._Parameswaran_Nair1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/P._K._Parameswaran_Nair" title="P. K. Parameswaran Nair">P. K. Parameswaran Nair</a> (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmalayal0000unse">History of Malayalam Literature</a>. Translated by E. M. J. Venniyoor. <a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sahitya_Akademi" title="Sahitya Akademi">Sahitya Akademi</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Malayalam+Literature&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Sahitya+Akademi&rft.date=1967&rft.au=P.+K.+Parameswaran+Nair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmalayal0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._Sreedhara_Menon1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._Sreedhara_Menon" title="A. Sreedhara Menon">A. Sreedhara Menon</a> (1967). A Survey of Kerala History. <a href="/wiki/Kottayam" title="Kottayam">Kottayam</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sahithya_Pravarthaka_Co-operative_Society" title="Sahithya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society">S.P.C.S.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788126415786" title="Special:BookSources/9788126415786"><bdi>9788126415786</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Survey+of+Kerala+History&rft.place=Kottayam&rft.pub=S.P.C.S.&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9788126415786&rft.au=A.+Sreedhara+Menon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._M._George1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/K._M._George_(writer)" title="K. M. George (writer)">K. M. George</a> (1968). 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A Perspective of Malayalam Literature. <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a>: Annu Chithra Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Perspective+of+Malayalam+Literature&rft.place=Madras&rft.pub=Annu+Chithra+Publications&rft.date=1990&rft.au=K.+Ayyappa+Panicker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._E._AsherT._C._Kumari1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._E._Asher" class="mw-redirect" title="R. E. Asher">R. E. Asher</a>; T. C. Kumari (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/malayalam0000ashe">Malayalam</a>. <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02242-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02242-2"><bdi>978-0-415-02242-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malayalam&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-415-02242-2&rft.au=R.+E.+Asher&rft.au=T.+C.+Kumari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmalayalam0000ashe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Malayalam</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._Govindapilla1881" class="citation book cs1">P. Govindapilla (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.277954">മലയാളഭാഷാചരിത്രം [Malayala Bhasha Charitram]</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82+%5BMalayala+Bhasha+Charitram%5D&rft.date=1881&rft.au=P.+Govindapilla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.277954&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlloor_S._Parameswara_Iyer1953" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ulloor_S._Parameswara_Iyer" title="Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer">Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer</a> (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ax.sayahna.org/ulloor/index.html">കേരളസാഹിത്യചരിത്രം [Kerala Sahitya Charitram]</a>. <a href="/wiki/Trivandrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Trivandrum">Trivandrum</a>: <a href="/wiki/Travancore_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Travancore University">Travancore University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230205040807/http://ax.sayahna.org/ulloor/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82+%5BKerala+Sahitya+Charitram%5D&rft.place=Trivandrum&rft.pub=Travancore+University&rft.date=1953&rft.au=Ulloor+S.+Parameswara+Iyer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fax.sayahna.org%2Fulloor%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._K._Parameswaran_Nair1956" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/P._K._Parameswaran_Nair" title="P. K. Parameswaran Nair">P. K. Parameswaran Nair</a> (1956). മലയാള സാഹിത്യചരിത്രം [Malayala Sahitya Charitram]. <a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sahitya_Akademi" title="Sahitya Akademi">Sahitya Akademi</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82+%5BMalayala+Sahitya+Charitram%5D&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Sahitya+Akademi&rft.date=1956&rft.au=P.+K.+Parameswaran+Nair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErumeli_Parameswaran_Pillai1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Erumeli_Parameswaran_Pillai" title="Erumeli Parameswaran Pillai">Erumeli Parameswaran Pillai</a> (1966). മലയാളസാഹിത്യം കാലഘട്ടങ്ങളിലൂടെ [Malayala Sahityam Kalaghattangaliloode]. <a href="/wiki/Kottayam" title="Kottayam">Kottayam</a>: Vidyarthi Mithram.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82+%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%98%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86+%5BMalayala+Sahityam+Kalaghattangaliloode%5D&rft.place=Kottayam&rft.pub=Vidyarthi+Mithram&rft.date=1966&rft.au=Erumeli+Parameswaran+Pillai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalayalam" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Obsolete </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Only occurs after ṉ. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Often transliterated as zh by Malayalis and Tamils, may also be transliterated as ẓ or r̤ by some others. </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> "Prior to this relatively modern coining of "Malayalam", the identity is even more fraught, for Kerala folk more usually referred to their language as "Tamil", just as those in the dominant kingdoms of Tamilnadu, east of the Western Ghats, had from the early centuries C.E. Use of the label "Tamil" continued to overlap with that of "Malayalam" into the colonial period".<a href="#cite_note-arvind_raghunathan_professor_of_south_asian_studies_sheldon_pollock-2003-39">[39]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Linguist K.M Prabhakar Variar further adds: "It is an accepted principle in comparative linguistics that 'innovations' rather than 'retentions' or 'losses' are to be relied on for sub-grouping of genetically related language. Every member of a language family has a stock of 'retentions of a few proto-features' together with a stock 'innovations'. It is the later that would show the relative distances among the member languages. Therefore, retention of a few proto-features in a particular language does not prove the earlier branching of the same from the proto-language. Malayalam, of course, has retained certain phonological and morphological features which can be reconstructed as belonging to the Proto-Dravidian and which have been lost or have suffered shape changes in the other member-languages. Which language in the Dravidian family doesn't have such retentions? Has anyone measured the relative percentages of retentions of archaic features in the twenty and odd Dravidian languages?".<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> "*aH and *iH are demonstrative adjectives reconstructed for Proto-Dravidian, as they show variation in vowel length. When they occur in isolation they occur as ā, and ī but when they are followed by a consonant initial word then they appear as a- and i- as in Ta. appoẓutu 'that time'., : Te. appuḍu id. and Ta. ippoẓutu 'that time'., : Te.ippuḍu id. However, Modern Tamil has replaced ā, and ī with anda and inda but most Dravidian languages have preserved it."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrishnamurti2003-151">[144]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Malayalam-language">Malayalam language</a> at <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0D00.pdf">Unicode Code Chart for Malayalam (PDF Format)</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 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<li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Dravidian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Dravidian languages">Southern Dravidian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Stages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karintamil" title="Karintamil">Karintamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Malayalam" title="Old Malayalam">Old Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Malayalam" title="Middle Malayalam">Middle Malayalam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manipravalam" title="Manipravalam">Manipravalam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern Malayalam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="First Sangam">First Sangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Sangam">Second Sangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Sangam">Third Sangam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayalam languages">Dialects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aranadan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aranadan language">Aranadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paniya_language" title="Paniya language">Paniya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravula_language" title="Ravula language">Ravula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadar_language" title="Kadar language">Kadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malapandaram_language" title="Malapandaram language">Malapandaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaryan_language" title="Malaryan language">Malaryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malavedan_language" title="Malavedan language">Malavedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannan_language" title="Mannan language">Mannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mullu_Kurumba_language" title="Mullu Kurumba language">Mullu Kurumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paliyan_language" title="Paliyan language">Paliyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandy_Malayalam" title="Pandy Malayalam">Pandy Malayalam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beary_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Beary language">Beary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeseri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeseri language">Jeseri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Sociolects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nambudiri" title="Nambudiri">Nambudiri dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nair_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nair dialect">Nair dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezhava" title="Ezhava">Ezhava dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriyani_Malayalam" title="Suriyani Malayalam">Suriyani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappila_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Mappila dialect">Mappila</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malankuravan_language" title="Malankuravan language">Malanmkuravan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakkala_language" title="Kakkala language">Kakkala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Global organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viswa_Malayala_Mahotsavam" class="mw-redirect" title="Viswa Malayala Mahotsavam">World Malayalam Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathrubhumi_International_Festival_of_Letters" title="Mathrubhumi International Festival of Letters">Mathrubhumi International Festival of Letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_Sahitya_Akademi" title="Kerala Sahitya Akademi">Kerala Sahitya Akademi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purogamana_Kala_Sahitya_Sangham" title="Purogamana Kala Sahitya Sangham">Purogamana Kala Sahitya Sangham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahithya_Pravarthaka_Co-operative_Society" title="Sahithya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society">Sahithya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_Literature_Festival" title="Kerala Literature Festival">Kerala Literature Festival</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sangam_poets" title="List of Sangam poets">List of Sangam poets</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Folk_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk songs">Folk songs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Pulayar Pattu</li> <li>Pulluvan Pattu</li> <li>Njattu Pattu</li> <li>Koythu Pattu</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vadakkan_Pattukal" title="Vadakkan Pattukal">Vadakkan Pattukal</a></li> <li>Thekkan Pattukal</li> <li>Bhadrakali Pattu</li> <li>Thottam Pattu</li> <li>Mavaratham Pattu</li> <li>Sasthanga Pattu</li> <li>Nizhalkoothu Pattu</li> <li>Sarpa Pattu</li> <li>Sastham Pattu</li> <li>Thiyyattu Pattu</li> <li>Pulluvar Pattu</li> <li>Mannar Pattu</li> <li>Panar Pattu</li> <li>Krishi Pattu</li> <li>Thamburan Pattu</li> <li>Pada Pattu</li> <li>Villadichan Pattu</li> <li>Onappattu</li> <li>Kummi</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramacharitam" title="Ramacharitam">Ramacharitam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirunizhalmala" title="Thirunizhalmala">Thirunizhalmala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipravala_champu" title="Manipravala champu">Manipravala champu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koothu" title="Koothu">Koothu</a></li> <li>Bhasha Bhagavadgita</li> <li>Bharatamala</li> <li>Ramayanam</li> <li>Bharatam</li> <li>Bhagavatam</li> <li>Sivarathri Mahatmyam</li> <li>Kannassa Ramayanam</li> <li>Kannassa Bharatam</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhyathmaramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Adhyathmaramayanam">Adhyathma Ramayanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishnagatha" title="Krishnagatha">Krishnagatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhyathmaramayanam_Kilippattu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu">Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jnanappana" title="Jnanappana">Jnanappana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narayaniyam" title="Narayaniyam">Narayaniyam</a></li> <li>Srimahabharatam</li> <li>Irupathinalu Vrittam</li> <li>Harinama Kirtanam</li> <li>Bhasha Karnamritam</li> <li>Kumaraharanam</li> <li>Santanagopalam Pana</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayalam theatre">Drama</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aattakatha_(performance)" title="Aattakatha (performance)">Aattakatha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seethaswayamvaram" title="Seethaswayamvaram">Seethaswayamvaram</a></li> <li>Balivadham</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoranayudham" title="Thoranayudham">Thoranayudham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirmeeravadham" title="Kirmeeravadham">Kirmeeravadham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakavadham" title="Bakavadham">Bakavadham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalyanasaugandhikam" title="Kalyanasaugandhikam">Kalyanasaugandhikam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalakeyavadham" title="Kalakeyavadham">Kalakeyavadham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keechakavadham" title="Keechakavadham">Keechakavadham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uttaraswayamvaram" title="Uttaraswayamvaram">Uttaraswayamvaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakshayagam" title="Dakshayagam">Dakshayagam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narakasuravadham" title="Narakasuravadham">Narakasuravadham</a></li> <li>Poothanamoksham</li> <li>Kamsavadham</li> <li>Balivijayam</li> <li>Ravanavijayam</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravanolbhavam" title="Ravanolbhavam">Ravanolbhavam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalacharitham" title="Nalacharitham">Nalacharitham</a></li> <li>Rugmangadacharitham</li> <li>Santhanagopalam</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subhadraharanam" title="Subhadraharanam">Subhadraharanam</a></li> <li>Ambareeshacharitham</li> <li>Karthyaveerarjunavijayam</li> <li>Kiratham</li> <li>Duryodhanavadham</li> <li>Rajasooyam</li> <li>Rugmineeswayamvaram</li> <li>Lavanasuravadham</li> <li>Karnasapatham</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_poetry" title="Malayalam poetry">Poetry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Naishadham</li> <li>Rajaratnavaliyam</li> <li>Kodia Viraham</li> <li>Chandrotsavam</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanchippattu" title="Vanchippattu">Vanchippattu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuchelavritham_Vanchippattu" title="Kuchelavritham Vanchippattu">Kuchelavritham Vanchippattu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odakkuzhal_(poetry_collection)" title="Odakkuzhal (poetry collection)">Odakkuzhal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makarakoythu" title="Makarakoythu">Makarakoythu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veena_Poovu_(poem)" title="Veena Poovu (poem)">Veena Poovu</a></li> <li>Vishwadarshanam</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">Prose</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manipravala_champu" title="Manipravala champu">Manipravala champu</a> <ul><li>Unniyachi Charitam</li> <li>Unnichiruthevi Charitam</li> <li>Unniyadi Charitam</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unnuneeli_Sandesam" title="Unnuneeli Sandesam">Unnuneeli Sandesam</a></li> <li>Ramakathapattu</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_novel" title="Malayalam novel">Novel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kundalatha" title="Kundalatha">Kundalatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indulekha_(novel)" title="Indulekha (novel)">Indulekha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marthandavarma_(novel)" title="Marthandavarma (novel)">Marthandavarma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Grammars and dictionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lilathilakam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lilathilakam">Lilathilakam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_Panineeyam" title="Kerala Panineeyam">Kerala Panineeyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabdatharavali" title="Sabdatharavali">Sabdatharavali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvavijnanakosam" title="Sarvavijnanakosam">Sarvavijnanakosam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viswasahityavijnanakosam" title="Viswasahityavijnanakosam">Viswasahityavijnanakosam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keralolpathi" title="Keralolpathi">Keralolpathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aithihyamala" title="Aithihyamala">Aithihyamala</a></li> <li>Keralappazhama</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mathematics and natural science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuktibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Yuktibhāṣā">Yuktibhāṣā</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Travelogue</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Varthamanappusthakam" title="Varthamanappusthakam">Varthamanappusthakam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherupaithangal" title="Cherupaithangal">Cherupaithangal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samkshepa_Vedartham" title="Samkshepa Vedartham">Samkshepa Vedartham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niranam_Grandhavari" title="Niranam Grandhavari">Niranam Grandhavari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappila_songs" title="Mappila songs">Mappila songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhyadheen_mala" title="Muhyadheen mala">Muhyadheen mala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_graffiti_symbols" title="Megalithic graffiti symbols">Megalithic graffiti symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grantha_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Grantha alphabet">Grantha alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatteluttu alphabet">Vatteluttu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Modern script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_Braille" title="Malayalam Braille">Malayalam Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam_script" title="Arabi Malayalam script">Arabi Malayalam script</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lexis and grammar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_grammar" title="Malayalam grammar">Malayalam grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_numerals" title="Malayalam numerals">Malayalam numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_phonology" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayalam phonology">Malayalam phonology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transliteration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15919" title="ISO 15919">ISO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozhi_(transliteration)" title="Mozhi (transliteration)">Mozhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venmani_School" title="Venmani School">Venmani Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_Decade" title="Pink Decade">Pink Decade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayalam University">Malayalam University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Malayalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Malayalam">Romanization of Malayalam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/States_of_India_by_Malayalam_speakers" title="States of India by Malayalam speakers">States of India by Malayalam speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Malayalam_literature" title="Women in Malayalam literature">Women in Malayalam literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_cinema" title="Malayalam cinema">Malayalam cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_journalism" title="Malayalam journalism">Malayalam journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_Wikipedia" title="Malayalam Wikipedia">Malayalam Wikipedia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mygurudu" title="Mygurudu">Mygurudu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachana_Malayalam" title="Rachana Malayalam">Rachana Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aattakatha_(performance)" title="Aattakatha (performance)">Aattakatha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_India" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_India" title="Template:Languages of India"><abbr title="View this 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style="width:1%">Union-level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Schedule_to_the_Constitution_of_India" title="Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India">8th schedule</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution of India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-classical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boro_language_(India)" title="Boro language (India)">Bodo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_language" title="Dogri language">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_language" title="Kashmiri language">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_language" title="Konkani language">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_language" title="Maithili language">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a> (Manipuri)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State-level only</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angika" title="Angika">Angika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_language" title="Bhojpuri language">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarhi_language" title="Chhattisgarhi language">Chhattisgarhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garo_language" title="Garo language">Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurung_language" title="Gurung language">Gurung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_language" title="Ho language">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KRNB_lects" class="mw-redirect" title="KRNB lects">Kamatapuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharia_language" title="Kharia language">Kharia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khasi_language" title="Khasi language">Khasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khortha_language" title="Khortha language">Khortha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok" title="Kokborok">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurmali_language" title="Kurmali language">Kurmali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurukh_language" title="Kurukh language">Kurukh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_language" title="Limbu language">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magahi_language" title="Magahi language">Magahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magar_language" title="Magar language">Magar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_language" title="Mizo language">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_language" title="Mundari language">Mundari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rai languages">Rai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangpuri_language" title="Rangpuri language">Rajbangshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadri language">Sadri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherpa_language" title="Sherpa language">Sherpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkimese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikkimese language">Sikkimese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language" title="Sunwar language">Sunwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamang_language" title="Tamang language">Tamang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers_in_India" title="List of languages by number of native speakers in India">Major unofficial languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers_in_India#More_than_one_million_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers in India">Over 1 million speakers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awadhi_language" title="Awadhi language">Awadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagheli_language" title="Bagheli language">Bagheli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagri_language" title="Bagri language">Bagri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajjika" title="Bajjika">Bajjika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhili_language" title="Bhili language">Bhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundeli_language" title="Bundeli language">Bundeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhundari_language" title="Dhundari language">Dhundhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garhwali_language" title="Garhwali language">Garhwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondi_language" title="Gondi language">Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harauti_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Harauti language">Harauti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haryanvi_language" title="Haryanvi language">Haryanvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangri_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Kangri dialect">Kangri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khandeshi_language" title="Khandeshi language">Khandeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumaoni_language" title="Kumaoni language">Kumaoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambadi" title="Lambadi">Lambadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malvi_language" title="Malvi language">Malvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwari_language" title="Marwari language">Marwari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mewari_language" title="Mewari language">Mewari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimadi_language" title="Nimadi language">Nimadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_languages" title="Rajasthani languages">Rajasthani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surjapuri_language" title="Surjapuri language">Surjapuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagdi" title="Wagdi">Wagdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varhadi_dialect" title="Varhadi dialect">Varhadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers_in_India#100,000_to_one_million_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers in India">100,000 – 1 million speakers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Adi language">Adi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angami_language" title="Angami language">Angami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongsen_Ao_language" title="Mongsen Ao language">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badaga_language" title="Badaga language">Badaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimasa_language" title="Dimasa language">Dimasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halbi_language" title="Halbi language">Halbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khotta_Bhasha" title="Khotta Bhasha">Khotta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kodava_language" title="Kodava language">Kodava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolami language">Kolami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konyak_language" title="Konyak language">Konyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korku_language" title="Korku language">Korku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koya_language" title="Koya language">Koya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kui_language_(India)" title="Kui language (India)">Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuvi_language" title="Kuvi language">Kuvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakhi_language" title="Ladakhi language">Ladakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotha_language" title="Lotha language">Lotha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malto_language" title="Malto language">Malto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mising_language" title="Mising language">Mising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishi_language" title="Nishi language">Nishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phom_language" title="Phom language">Phom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabha_language" title="Rabha language">Rabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sema_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sema language">Sema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhul_language" title="Tangkhul language">Tangkhul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thadou_language" title="Thadou language">Thadou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_history_of_India" title="Linguistic history of India">Linguistic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Languages_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Languages of India">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism_in_India" title="Multilingualism in India">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_endangered_languages_in_India" title="List of endangered languages in India">Endangered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_states_by_most_spoken_scheduled_languages" title="Indian states by most spoken scheduled languages">Scheduled languages in states</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_languages_of_South_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Template:Languages of South Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Template talk:Languages of South Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of South Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_languages_of_South_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Languages of South Asia">languages of South Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Afghanistan" title="Languages of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Bangladesh" title="Languages of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Bhutan" title="Languages of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers_in_India" title="List of languages by number of native speakers in India">list by number of speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_with_official_status_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages with official status in India">scheduled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Languages_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Languages of India">classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives#Languages" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nepal" title="Languages of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Pakistan" title="Languages of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Languages of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aka-Jeru_language" title="Aka-Jeru language">Aka-Jeru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aka-Bo_language" title="Aka-Bo language">Aka-Bo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahui_language" title="Brahui language">Brahui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_English" title="South Asian English">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_English" title="Bangladeshi English">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_English" title="Nepalese English">Nepalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_English" title="Pakistani English">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_English" title="Sri Lankan English">Sri Lankan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angika" title="Angika">Angika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_language" title="Bhojpuri language">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_language" title="Chakma language">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagonian_language" title="Chittagonian language">Chittagonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Dhivehi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_language" title="Dogri language">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinglish" title="Hinglish">Hinglish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindko" title="Hindko">Hindko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_language" title="Kashmiri language">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_language" title="Konkani language">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumaoni_language" title="Kumaoni language">Kumaoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magahi_language" title="Magahi language">Magahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Mahal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_language" title="Maithili language">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_languages" title="Rajasthani languages">Rajasthani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangpuri_language" title="Rangpuri language">Rangpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraiki_language" title="Saraiki language">Saraiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_language" title="Sinhala language">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_language" title="Sylheti language">Sylheti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balochi_language" title="Balochi language">Balochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dari" title="Dari">Dari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto" title="Pashto">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakhi_language" title="Wakhi language">Wakhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Isolates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Khasic_languages" title="Khasic languages">Khasic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khasi_language" title="Khasi language">Khasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyngngam_language" title="Lyngngam language">Lyngngam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pnar_language" title="Pnar language">Pnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_language" title="War language">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Malay_trade_and_creole_languages" title="Malay trade and creole languages">Malay creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Creole_Malay" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lankan Creole Malay">Sri Lankan Creole Malay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ho_language" title="Ho language">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korku_language" title="Korku language">Korku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_language" title="Mundari language">Mundari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Nicobarese_languages" title="Nicobarese languages">Nicobaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Car_language" title="Car language">Car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Nicobarese_languages" title="Central Nicobarese languages">Central Nicobarese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaura_language" title="Chaura language">Chaura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Nicobarese_language" title="Southern Nicobarese language">Southern Nicobarese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teressa_language" title="Teressa language">Teressa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96nge_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Önge language">Önge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarawa_language_(Andaman_Islands)" title="Jarawa language (Andaman Islands)">Jarawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_people_in_India#Indian_French" title="French people in India">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Portuguese_creoles" title="Indo-Portuguese creoles">Portuguese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ao_language" title="Ao language">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balti_language" title="Balti language">Balti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodo language">Bodo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha" title="Dzongkha">Dzongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garo_language" title="Garo language">Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajong_language" title="Hajong language">Hajong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakhi_language" title="Ladakhi language">Ladakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_language" title="Limbu language">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_language" title="Mizo language">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal_Bhasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepal Bhasa">Nepal Bhasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkimese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikkimese language">Sikkimese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenyidie_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenyidie language">Tenyidie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripuri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripuri language">Tripuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi</a> (Abugida)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus</a> (Undeciphered)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwi" title="Arwi">Arwi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahmukhi alphabet">Shahmukhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_alphabet" title="Bengali alphabet">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prestige language- influence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Englishisation" title="Englishisation">Englishisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinglish" title="Hinglish">Hinglish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perso-Arabization" class="mw-redirect" title="Perso-Arabization">Perso-Arabization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritisation (language)">Sanskritisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language_movement" title="Bengali language movement">Bengali movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hela_Havula" title="Hela Havula">Hela Havula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_associate_official_language_movement" title="Meitei associate official language movement">Meitei associate official language movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_classical_language_movement" title="Meitei classical language movement">Meitei classical language movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_linguistic_purism_movement" title="Meitei linguistic purism movement">Meitei linguistic purism movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal_Bhasa_movement" title="Nepal Bhasa movement">Newar movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_Language_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepali Language Movement">Nepali movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Language_Movement" title="Punjabi Language Movement">Punjabi Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Tamil_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure Tamil movement">Pure Tamil movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_revival" title="Sanskrit revival">Sanskrit revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu_movement" title="Urdu movement">Urdu movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dravidian_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dravidian_languages" title="Template:Dravidian languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dravidian_languages" title="Template talk:Dravidian languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dravidian_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dravidian languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dravidian_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Dravidian_languages" title="South Dravidian languages">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Tamil–Kannada" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tamil–Kannada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kannada - Badaga</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Kannadoid" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kannada_dialects" title="Kannada dialects">Kannadoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiya_language" title="Holiya language">Holiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maundadan_Chetti_language" title="Maundadan Chetti language">Maundadan Chetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sholaga_language" title="Sholaga language">Sholaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alu_Kurumba_language" title="Alu Kurumba language">Alu Kurumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betta_Kurumba_language" title="Betta Kurumba language">Betta Kurumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennu_Kurumba_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jennu Kurumba language">Jennu Kurumba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Badaga_language" title="Badaga language">Badaga</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Toda-Kota</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Toda_language" title="Toda language">Toda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kota_language_(India)" title="Kota language (India)">Kota</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kodagu</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kodava_language" title="Kodava language">Kodava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urali_language" title="Urali language">Urali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Irula</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irula_language" title="Irula language">Irula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muduga_language" title="Muduga language">Muduga</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attapady_Kurumba_language" title="Attapady Kurumba language">Attapady Kurumba</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tamil - Malayalam</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil languages">Tamiloid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sankethi_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Sankethi dialect">Sankethi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eravallan_language" title="Eravallan language">Eravallan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaikadi_language" title="Kaikadi language">Kaikadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mala_Malasar_language" title="Mala Malasar language">Mala Malasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malasar_language" title="Malasar language">Malasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malapandaram_language" title="Malapandaram language">Malapandaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannan_language" title="Mannan language">Mannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muthuvan_language" title="Muthuvan language">Muthuvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paliyan_language" title="Paliyan language">Paliyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattapu_language" title="Pattapu language">Pattapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerukala_language" title="Yerukala language">Yerukala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayalam languages">Malayalamoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malayalam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeseri" title="Jeseri">Jeseri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam (Mappila Malayalam)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byari_dialect" title="Byari dialect">Byari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriyani_Malayalam" title="Suriyani Malayalam">Suriyani Malayalam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allar_language" title="Allar language">Allar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eranadan_language" title="Eranadan language">Eranadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadar_language" title="Kadar language">Kadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalanadi_language" title="Kalanadi language">Kalanadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanikkaran_language" title="Kanikkaran language">Kanikkaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunduvadi_language" title="Kunduvadi language">Kunduvadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurichiya_language" title="Kurichiya language">Kurichiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malamuthan_language" title="Malamuthan language">Malamuthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malankuravan_language" title="Malankuravan language">Malankuravan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaryan_language" title="Malaryan language">Malaryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malavedan_language" title="Malavedan language">Malavedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mullu_Kurumba_language" title="Mullu Kurumba language">Mullu Kurumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paniya_language" title="Paniya language">Paniya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathiya_language" title="Pathiya language">Pathiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravula_language" title="Ravula language">Ravula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thachanadan_language" title="Thachanadan language">Thachanadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ullatan_language" title="Ullatan language">Ullatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishavan_language" title="Vishavan language">Vishavan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayanad_Chetti_language" title="Wayanad Chetti language">Wayanad Chetti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tulu-Koraga</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellari_language" title="Bellari language">Bellari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koraga_language" title="Koraga language">Koraga</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korra_Koraga_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Korra Koraga language">Korra Koraga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudu_Koraga_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mudu Koraga language">Mudu Koraga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kudiya_language" title="Kudiya language">Kudiya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholanaikkan_language" title="Cholanaikkan language">Cholanaikkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakkala_language" title="Kakkala language">Kakkala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaran_language" title="Kumbaran language">Kumbaran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South-Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telugu_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Telugu languages">Teluguic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chenchu_language" title="Chenchu language">Chenchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manna-Dora_language" title="Manna-Dora language">Manna-Dora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukha-Dora_language" title="Mukha-Dora language">Mukha-Dora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waddar_language" title="Waddar language">Waddar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gondi-Kui</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gondi_languages" title="Gondi languages">Gondi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gondi_language" title="Gondi language">Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khirwar_language" title="Khirwar language">Khirwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koya_language" title="Koya language">Koya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiya_language" title="Madiya language">Madiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muria_language" title="Muria language">Muria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarchal_language" title="Nagarchal language">Nagarchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardhan_language" title="Pardhan language">Pardhan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Konda-Kui</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konda_language_(Dravidian)" title="Konda language (Dravidian)">Konda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kui_language_(India)" title="Kui language (India)">Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuvi_language" title="Kuvi language">Kuvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manda_language_(India)" title="Manda language (India)">Manda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pengo_language" title="Pengo language">Pengo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kolami-Naiki</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolami language">Kolami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naiki_language" title="Naiki language">Naiki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parji–Gadaba</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duruwa_language" title="Duruwa language">Duruwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kondekor_language" title="Kondekor language">Kondekor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ollari_language" title="Ollari language">Ollari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Dravidian_languages" title="North Dravidian languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Kurukh-Malto" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kurukh-Malto</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurukh_language" title="Kurukh language">Kurukh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malto_language" title="Malto language">Malto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kumarbhag_Paharia_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumarbhag Paharia language">Kumarbhag Paharia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sauria_Paharia_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauria Paharia language">Sauria Paharia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahui_language" title="Brahui language">Brahui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Dravidian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Dravidian">Proto-Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-South_Dravidian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-South Dravidian">Proto-South Dravidian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="padding: 0.3em; line-height: 1.2em;"><div>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a> (no surviving native speakers and no spoken descendant)</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Kerala" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Kerala" title="Template:Languages of Kerala"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Kerala" title="Template talk:Languages of Kerala"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Kerala" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Kerala"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Kerala" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Languages of <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-tribal languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_language" title="Konkani language">Konkani</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Malayalam.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Malayalam.svg/50px-Malayalam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Malayalam.svg/75px-Malayalam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Malayalam.svg/100px-Malayalam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="183" data-file-height="130" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tribal languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allar_language" title="Allar language">Allar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellari_language" title="Bellari language">Bellari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eravallan_language" title="Eravallan language">Eravallan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irula_language" title="Irula language">Irula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadar_language" title="Kadar language">Kadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalanadi_language" title="Kalanadi language">Kalanadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanikkaran_language" title="Kanikkaran language">Kanikkaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kodava_language" title="Kodava language">Kodava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koraga_language" title="Koraga language">Koraga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kota_language_(India)" title="Kota language (India)">Kota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kudiya_language" title="Kudiya language">Kudiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaran_language" title="Kumbaran language">Kumbaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunduvadi_language" title="Kunduvadi language">Kunduvadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurumba_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurumba language">Kurumba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attapady_Kurumba_language" title="Attapady Kurumba language">Attapady Kurumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betta_Kurumba_language" title="Betta Kurumba language">Betta Kurumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennu_Kurumba_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jennu Kurumba language">Jennu Kurumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mullu_Kurumba_language" title="Mullu Kurumba language">Mullu Kurumba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malapandaram_language" title="Malapandaram language">Malapandaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaryan_language" title="Malaryan language">Malaryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malasar_language" title="Malasar language">Malasar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mala_Malasar_language" title="Mala Malasar language">Mala Malasar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malavedan_language" title="Malavedan language">Malavedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannan_language" title="Mannan language">Mannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muduga_language" title="Muduga language">Muduga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muthuvan_language" title="Muthuvan language">Muthuvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paliyan_language" title="Paliyan language">Paliyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paniya_language" title="Paniya language">Paniya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathiya_language" title="Pathiya language">Pathiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravula_language" title="Ravula language">Ravula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thachanadan_language" title="Thachanadan language">Thachanadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toda_language" title="Toda language">Toda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ullatan_language" title="Ullatan language">Ullatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urali_language" title="Urali language">Urali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayanad_Chetti_language" title="Wayanad Chetti language">Wayanad Chetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerukala_language" title="Yerukala language">Yerukala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other languages and creoles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aranadan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aranadan language">Aranadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beary_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Beary language">Beary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannanore_Portuguese_creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannanore Portuguese creole">Cannanore Portuguese creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Portuguese_creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochin Portuguese creole">Cochin Portuguese creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriyani_Malayalam" title="Suriyani Malayalam">Suriyani Malayalam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Languages of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Languages of South Asia">Languages of South Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Kerala" title="Category:Languages of Kerala">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kerala_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kerala_topics" title="Template:Kerala topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kerala_topics" title="Template talk:Kerala topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kerala_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kerala topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kerala_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> <a href="/wiki/Category:Kerala" title="Category:Kerala">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kerala" title="History of Kerala">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edakkal_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Edakkal Caves">Edakkal Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariyannur_Umbrellas" title="Ariyannur Umbrellas">Ariyannur Umbrellas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kudakkallu_Parambu" title="Kudakkallu Parambu">Kudakkallu Parambu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chovvanur_burial_cave" title="Chovvanur burial cave">Chovvanur burial cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamorin_of_Calicut" class="mw-redirect" title="Zamorin of Calicut">Zamorin of Calicut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venad" class="mw-redirect" title="Venad">Venad Swaroopam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolathunadu" title="Kolathunadu">Kingdom of Cannanore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Colachel" title="Battle of Colachel">Battle of Kulachal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arakkal_kingdom" title="Arakkal kingdom">Arakkal kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mysore_Wars" title="Anglo-Mysore Wars">Anglo-Mysore Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Quilon" title="Battle of Quilon">Battle of Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaikom_Satyagraham" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaikom Satyagraham">Vaikom Satyagraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Royal_Family" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochin Royal Family">Perumpadapu Swaroopam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malabar_Migration" title="Malabar Migration">Malabar Migration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Kerala" title="Government of Kerala">Government</a> <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_Kerala" title="Category:Politics of Kerala">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kerala_State_Government_Organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Kerala State Government Organizations">Agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chief_Ministers_of_Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Chief Ministers of Kerala">Chief Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governors of Kerala">Governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_Legislative_Assembly" title="Kerala Legislative Assembly">Legislative Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_Body_Election_in_Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="Local Body Election in Kerala">Panchayat elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saptakakshi_Munnani" class="mw-redirect" title="Saptakakshi Munnani">Saptakakshi Munnani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Front_(Kerala)" class="mw-redirect" title="United Front (Kerala)">Aikya Munnani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_Democratic_Front" title="Left Democratic Front">Left Democratic Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Democratic_Front_(Kerala)" title="United Democratic Front (Kerala)">United Democratic Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_politicians_of_Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="List of politicians of Kerala">Politicians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Incidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Incidents">Incidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peruman_railway_accident" title="Peruman railway accident">1988 Perumon tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadalundi_train_derailment" title="Kadalundi train derailment">2001 Kadalundi Train derailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puttingal_temple_fire" title="Puttingal temple fire">2016 Paravur temple fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Kerala_floods" title="2018 Kerala floods">2018 Kerala floods</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Kerala" title="Geography of Kerala">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agasthyamala_Biosphere_Reserve" title="Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve">Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashtamudi_Lake" title="Ashtamudi Lake">Ashtamudi Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kavvayi_Backwaters" title="Kavvayi Backwaters">Kavvayi Backwaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_Backwaters" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerala Backwaters">Backwaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="Districts of Kerala">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eravikulam_National_Park" title="Eravikulam National Park">Eravikulam National Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_and_fauna_of_Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora and fauna of Kerala">Flora and fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marayoor" class="mw-redirect" title="Marayoor">Marayoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelliampathi" title="Nelliampathi">Nelliampathi Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilgiri_Biosphere_Reserve" title="Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve">Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilgiris_(mountains)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nilgiris (mountains)">Nilgiri Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palakkad_Gap" title="Palakkad Gap">Palakkad Gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="Protected areas of Kerala">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasthamcotta_Lake" title="Sasthamcotta Lake">Sasthamcotta Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vembanad_Lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Vembanad Lake">Vembanad Lake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Kerala" title="Demographics of Kerala">Demographics</a> <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Kerala" title="Economy of Kerala">Economy</a> <a href="/wiki/Religions_of_Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="Religions of Kerala">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malayali" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayali">Malayalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namboothiri_Brahmin" class="mw-redirect" title="Namboothiri Brahmin">Namboothiris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambalavasi" title="Ambalavasi">Ambalavasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanta_Kshatriya" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanta Kshatriya">Samanthas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Nairs">Nairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Mappila" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Mappila">Mappilas</a></li> <li>Thiyyas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christians" title="Saint Thomas Christians">Saint Thomas Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_Iyers" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerala Iyers">Kerala Iyers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezhava" title="Ezhava">Ezhavas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochin Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Kerala" title="Jainism in Kerala">Jainism in Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulayar" title="Pulayar">Pulayar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Dravidian people">Dravidians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">Adivasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scheduled_Tribes_in_India#Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Scheduled Tribes in India">Scheduled Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_model" title="Kerala model">Kerala model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Kerala" title="Tourism in Kerala">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kerala" title="Education in Kerala">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colleges_in_Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="Colleges in Kerala">colleges and universities</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Kerala" title="Culture of Kerala">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_of_Kerala" title="Arts of Kerala">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Kerala" title="Architecture of Kerala">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Kerala" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of Kerala">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalarippayattu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalarippayattu">Kalarippayattu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarpam_Thullal" title="Sarpam Thullal">Sarpam Thullal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_poets_of_modern_Malayalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Triumvirate poets of modern Malayalam">Triumvirate poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallam_kali" title="Vallam kali">Vallam kali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Dance / Drama / Cinema</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kathakali" title="Kathakali">Kathakali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolkali" title="Kolkali">Kolkali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koodiyattam" title="Koodiyattam">Koodiyattam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohiniyattam" title="Mohiniyattam">Mohiniyattam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margamkali" title="Margamkali">Margamkali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottamthullal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottamthullal">Ottamthullal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theyyam" title="Theyyam">Theyyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_cinema" title="Malayalam cinema">Cinema of Kerala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Festivals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vishu" title="Vishu">Vishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onam" title="Onam">Onam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pooram" title="Pooram">Pooram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Fitr" title="Eid al-Fitr">Eid al-Fitr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Adha" title="Eid al-Adha">Eid al-Adha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_calendar" title="Malayalam calendar">Malayalam calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriyani_Malayalam" title="Suriyani Malayalam">Suriyani Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irula_language" title="Irula language">Irula language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Kerala" title="Music of Kerala">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chenda" title="Chenda">Chenda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thayambaka" title="Thayambaka">Thayambaka</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolkali" title="Kolkali">Kolkali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchari_melam" title="Panchari melam">Panchari melam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchavadyam" title="Panchavadyam">Panchavadyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sopanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sopanam">Sopanam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Organisations/Agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nair_Service_Society" title="Nair Service Society">Nair Service Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sree_Narayana_Dharma_Paripalana_Yogam_(SNDP)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP)">Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam</a></li> <li>Samastha <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Samastha_Kerala_Jem-iyyathul_Ulama_(1926%E2%80%931989)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1926–1989) (page does not exist)">Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1926–1989)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samastha_Kerala_Jem-iyyathul_Ulama_(1989%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1989–present)">Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1989–present)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_Nadvathul_Mujahideen" title="Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen">Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Malabar_Church" title="Syro-Malabar Church">Syro-Malabar Church</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Kerala" title="Tourism in Kerala">Tourism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alappuzha#Commerce_and_tourism" title="Alappuzha">Alappuzha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athirappilly_Falls" title="Athirappilly Falls">Athirappilly Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaches_in_Kerala" title="Beaches in Kerala">Beaches in Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bekal" title="Bekal">Bekal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chembra_Peak" title="Chembra Peak">Chembra Peak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_Backwaters" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerala Backwaters">Kerala Backwaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam#Tourism.2C_Places_of_interest_and_historical_significance" title="Kollam">Kollam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malappuram_district#Places_of_Interest" title="Malappuram district">Places of Interest in Malappuram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourist_attractions_in_Kannur" title="Tourist attractions in Kannur">Tourist attractions in Kannur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islands_of_Kollam" title="Islands of Kollam">Islands of Kollam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palakkad_district" title="Palakkad district">Tourist attractions of Palakkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kovalam" title="Kovalam">Kovalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tourist_attractions_in_Kasaragod" title="List of tourist attractions in Kasaragod">Tourism in Kasaragod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munnar" title="Munnar">Munnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzhappilangad_Beach" title="Muzhappilangad Beach">Muzhappilangad Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvanam" title="Peruvanam">Peruvanam</a></li> <li><a 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[\"CITEREFDon_M._de_Z._WickremasingheT.N._Menon2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowla_Khan2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDr._K._Ayyappa_Panicker2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEd._Vinod_Kumar_Maheshwari2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErumeli_Parameswaran_Pillai1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEṃ_MukundanC._Gopinathan_Pillai2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGanga_Ram_Garg1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaṅgopādhyāẏa2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGopinathan_Nair2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamann2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaowen_Jiang2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHermann_Gundert1867\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHermann_Gundert1872\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJayaseelan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph_Peet1841\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK._Ayyappa_Panicker1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK._Ayyappa_Panicker1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK._M._George1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK._M._George1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK._M._Prabhakara_Variar1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK._M._Tharakan1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarashima2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKerala_(India)2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrishna_Chaitanya1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrishna_Kaimal1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrishnamurti\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKrishnamurti2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKunnath2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeelavathi\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLyall1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahadevan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahapatra1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenon1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenon2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuller2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFN._V._Krishna_Warrier1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaha2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNamboodiripad2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarayanan1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarayanan2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFP._Govindapilla1881\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._K._Parameswaran_Nair1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._K._Parameswaran_Nair1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanakkal2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR._E._AsherT._C._Kumari1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR._Leela_Devi1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR._Leela_Devi1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRandathani2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS._C._Bhatt_and_Gopal_K._Bhargava2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS._Parameshwara_Aiyer1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSasibhooshan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheldon_PollockArvind_Raghunathan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheldon_PollockArvind_Raghunathan_Professor_of_South_Asian_Studies_Sheldon_Pollock2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShulman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSreedhara_Menon2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSteever2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSubodh_Kapoor2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFT._Bhaskaran1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFT._K._Krishna_Menon1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTintu2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUlloor_S._Parameswara_Iyer1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFV._Nagam_Aiya1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaishnavi_Murthy_K_YVinodh_Rajan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVariar1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVarma2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFVeluthat2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFVenu_GovindarajuSrirangaraj_Setlur2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerghese_Ittiavira1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZvelebil1965\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"ASIN\"] = 2,\n 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