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class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EarthOvershootDay_Countries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="World map coloured according to the number of days each country takes to exhaust the resources it produces in the same year (green-high to red-low)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/EarthOvershootDay_Countries.png/410px-EarthOvershootDay_Countries.png" decoding="async" width="410" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/EarthOvershootDay_Countries.png/615px-EarthOvershootDay_Countries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/EarthOvershootDay_Countries.png/820px-EarthOvershootDay_Countries.png 2x" data-file-width="6300" data-file-height="3094" /></a><figcaption>The Global North consumption is higher than its production (shown by the red color), while the Global South produces more than consumes (green color). The resource proportion between consumption and production relates to the amount of environmental degradation.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Ecological debt</b> refers to the accumulated debt seen by some campaigners as owed by the <a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">Global North</a> to <a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South#Uses_of_the_term_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">Global South</a> countries, due to the net sum of historical <a href="/wiki/Environmental_injustice" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental injustice">environmental injustice</a>, especially through <a href="/wiki/Resource_exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource exploitation">resource exploitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat degradation">habitat degradation</a>, and pollution by waste discharge.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept was coined by Global Southerner non-governmental organizations in the 1990s and its definition has varied over the years, in several attempts of greater specification.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within the ecological debt broad definition, there are two main aspects: the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">ecological damage</a> caused over time by a country in one or other countries or to <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> beyond national jurisdiction through its production and consumption patterns; and the exploitation or use of ecosystems over time by a country at the expense of the <a href="/wiki/Equitable_right" title="Equitable right">equitable rights</a> to these ecosystems by other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="history">history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term 'ecological debt' first appeared on paper in 1985, in a yellow booklet with the title "Women in movement" made by the German ecofeminist <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Eva_Quistorp" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Eva Quistorp">Eva Quistorp</a> and edited by the <a href="/wiki/Green_Party_(Germany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Party (Germany)">Green Party</a> in Germany in 1985. The work was intended to be used for a workshop she gave on 'women, peace and ecology' in Nairobi during the <a href="/wiki/UN_Women" title="UN Women">United Nation Women's Conference</a> (the first workshop of this kind). </p><p> In 1992, the term appeared again in two reports published in different places around the world: “<i>Deuda ecológica</i>” by Robleto and Marcelo in Chile and “<i>Miljöskulden</i>” by Jernelöv in Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Robleto and Marcelo's report, published by the critical NGO <i>Instituto de Ecologia Politica</i> (IEP),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a political and activist response to the global environmental negotiations happening during the Rio Summit. It shed light on the debate occurring in Latin America since the 1980s about the crucial nature's heritage that had been consumed and not returned (i.e. ecological debt). On the other hand, Jernelöv's report goal was to calculate the Swedish debt for <a href="/wiki/Future_generations" title="Future generations">future generations</a> and was intended to serve nationally for the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency_(Sweden)" title="Environmental Protection Agency (Sweden)">Swedish Environmental Advisory</a>. Although the last one had less world-wide influence in the concept's debate, it is important to note that both reports have opposite approach in considering the ecological debt: Robleto and Marcelo's report expresses it in symbolic terms, focusing on the moral and political aspects, whereas Jernelöv's report tries to quantify and monetize it in economic terms.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Klimaforum09_closing_ceremony_wahu_kaara.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Klimaforum09_closing_ceremony_wahu_kaara.jpg/220px-Klimaforum09_closing_ceremony_wahu_kaara.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Klimaforum09_closing_ceremony_wahu_kaara.jpg/330px-Klimaforum09_closing_ceremony_wahu_kaara.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Klimaforum09_closing_ceremony_wahu_kaara.jpg/440px-Klimaforum09_closing_ceremony_wahu_kaara.jpg 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="659" /></a><figcaption>Wahu Kaara (<a href="/wiki/Global_justice" title="Global justice">Global justice</a> activist / Kenya Debt Relief Network) spoke at the closing ceremony of Klimaforum09 – People's Climate Summit in Copenhagen December 2009.</figcaption></figure><p>In 1994, the Colombian lawyer <a href="/wiki/Misael_Pastrana_Borrero" title="Misael Pastrana Borrero">Borrero</a>, wrote a book on ecological debt.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It referred to the environmental liabilities of Northern countries for the excessive per capita production of greenhouse gases, historically and at present. The concept has then been reused by some <a href="/wiki/Environmental_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental organization">environmental organizations</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Global_south" class="mw-redirect" title="Global south">Global south</a>. Campaigns on the ecological debt were launched since 1997 by <a href="/wiki/Accion_Ecologica" class="mw-redirect" title="Accion Ecologica">Accion Ecologica</a> of Ecuador and <a href="/wiki/Friends_of_the_Earth" title="Friends of the Earth">Friends of the Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Overall, the ecological debt 'movement' was born of the convergence of three main factors during the 80s–90s: 1) the consequences of the debt crisis in the 70s due to the <a href="/wiki/Volcker_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcker shock">Volcker shocks</a> or the drastic increase of interest rates (followed by <a href="/wiki/Structural_adjustment" title="Structural adjustment">structural adjustments</a> made by the US to solve the <a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">stagflation</a> in 1981, and thus putting heavily indebted third world countries in an impossible situation in regards to debt repayment); 2) the rising of environmental awareness as seen previously (activists and NGOs attending the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Summit" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio Summit">Rio Summit</a> in 1992); 3) an increase in recognition of the violence caused by <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> over the years<sup id="cite_ref-salleh_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salleh-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (the demand of recognition is over 500 years, since <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Columbus</a> arrived in North America). </p><p>In 2009, <a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">ecofeminist</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Salleh" title="Ariel Salleh">Ariel Salleh</a> explained how the <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> processes at work in the global North <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">exploit nature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">people</a> simultaneously, ultimately sustaining a large ecological debt in her article, "Ecological Debt: Embodied Debt".<sup id="cite_ref-salleh_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salleh-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the 1992 <a href="/wiki/Rio_Earth_Summit" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio Earth Summit">Rio Earth Summit</a>, politicians and corporate leaders from the global North introduced the supposed solution for the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_debt" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign debt">foreign debt</a> crisis in the global South.<sup id="cite_ref-salleh_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salleh-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They proposed 'debt for nature swaps', which essentially means that those countries that possess abundant <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">environmental resources</a> would give them up to the global North in return for the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> reducing their debt.<sup id="cite_ref-salleh_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salleh-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Feminist environmentalists, Indigenous activists, and peasants from the Global South, exposed how the Global North is much more indebted to the Global South.<sup id="cite_ref-salleh_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salleh-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Salleh justified this by explaining how the 500-year-long colonization process involving the extraction of resources has caused immense damage and destruction to the ecosystem of the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-salleh_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salleh-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, scientists at the US National <a href="/wiki/Academy_for_Science_and_Design" title="Academy for Science and Design">Academy for Sciences</a> state that in the time period of 1961–2000, by analyzing the cost of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> created by the rich (the Global North) alone, it has become apparent that the rich have imposed climate changes on the poor that greatly outweigh the poor's foreign debt.<sup id="cite_ref-srinivasan_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-srinivasan-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of this <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a> amounts to ecological debt, seizing the people's livelihood resources in the Global South.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2009 as well, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Simms" title="Andrew Simms">Andrew Simms</a> used the ecological debt in a more bio-physical way and defined it as the consumption of resources from within an ecosystem that exceeds the system's regenerative capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is seen in particular in <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">non-renewable resources</a> wherein consumption outstrips production. In a general sense in his work, it refers to the depletion of global resources beyond the Earth's ability to regenerate them. The concept in this sense is based on the bio-physical <a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">carrying capacity</a> of an ecosystem; through measuring <a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprints" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological footprints">ecological footprints</a> human society can determine the rate at which it is depleting natural resources. Recent writings have highlighted the ubiquity of ecological debts, such as to Pacific salmon populations, groundwater and polluted waterways. Ultimately, the imperative of <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> requires human society to live within the means of the ecological system to support life over the long term. Ecological debt is a feature of unsustainable economic systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_dimension">Political dimension</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Political dimension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_context">Historical context</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Historical context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There have been several debates around the notion of ecological debt, and this is mostly because the concept arises from various social movements in response to the distributional injustice of climate change's consequences on the environment and people's livelihood. </p><p>Salleh, in particular, showed how the ecological debt manifested in the destruction of the environment and associated climate change the North has created is made possible through the process of <a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">modernization</a> and capitalism.<sup id="cite_ref-salleh_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salleh-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rise of the nature-culture divide that emerged due to rapid industrialisation is a perfect illustration of a human-nature dualism in which <a href="/wiki/Human_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Human being">human being</a> has the central role above everything else. The notion of humans being embedded in the ecosystem that they live in is crucial to the discipline of <a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">political ecology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-salleh_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salleh-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In political ecology, which reconnects nature and the economy, ecological debt is crucial because it recognizes that colonization has not only resulted in a loss of culture, way of life, and language for <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a>, but it has shaped the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world economy</a> into one that <a href="/wiki/Monetization" title="Monetization">monetizes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commodification" title="Commodification">commodifies</a> the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, when the <a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_south_america" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonization of south america">Colonization of south america</a> occurred over 500 years ago, European settlers brought with them their <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">Eurocentric</a> values, seeing themselves as better than and therefore entitled to the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Knowledge">Indigenous people's knowledge</a> and the land they lived on. In a perceived <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonial world</a>, large corporations and Western governments tend to present solutions to global warming by <a href="/wiki/Commodification_of_nature" title="Commodification of nature">commodifying nature</a> and hoping to make a profit out of it.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This better-than-thou attitude has created the conditions for <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> to occur, making the North's <a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">ecological footprint</a> soar,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while also constructing an ecological debt so large as to completely rid the entire Global South of their <a href="/wiki/Debt" title="Debt">financial debt</a>. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Earth_Summit" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio Earth Summit">Rio Earth Summit</a> in 1992, attending <a href="/wiki/NGOs" class="mw-redirect" title="NGOs">NGOs</a> created the Debt Treaty, a document gathering all information to better define the ecological debt concept. They demanded compensation for damages over 500 years (1992 is exactly 500 years after the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Columbus</a> in North America). The countries in question were given options from the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Money_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="International Money Fund">International Money Fund</a> a choice to defaulting on these debts or make structural adjustments to continue to receive further funding.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the first push back, reversing the stream, but it stayed as a draft paper not recognized by international institutions or lead countries at that time. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ActionAid1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/ActionAid1.jpg/220px-ActionAid1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/ActionAid1.jpg/330px-ActionAid1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/ActionAid1.jpg/440px-ActionAid1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>Copenhagen Climate Summit in 2009 – Action Aid demonstration</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Today">Today</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 2000s two networks were created and still exist today: the Southern Peoples Ecological Debt Creditors Alliance (SPEDCA) which is a network of <a href="/wiki/Creditor" title="Creditor">creditors</a> that launched a campaign for the recognition of ecological debt, and the European Network for the Recognition of Ecological Debt (ENRED) which is a network of <a href="/wiki/Debtor" title="Debtor">debtors</a>. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Conference_of_the_parties" title="Conference of the parties">COP</a> in Copenhagen in December 2009, some governments from developing countries or countries most <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">vulnerable to climate change</a> consequences (such as Bolivia, Mauritania, Chad, or island countries as Maldives or Haiti) have argued that the principle of shared responsibility demands that rich nations or <a href="/wiki/Developed_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed economies">developed economies</a> (such as the United States, some European countries, China) go beyond donations or adaptation <a href="/wiki/Debits_and_credits" title="Debits and credits">credits</a> and make reparations that recognize an ecological debt for excessive pollution over several decades. The top United States ambassador, <a href="/wiki/Todd_Stern" title="Todd Stern">Todd Stern</a>, flatly rejected arguments by diplomats from these countries that the United States owed such a debt.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/COP_21" class="mw-redirect" title="COP 21">COP 21</a> in Paris brought minor progress with an increase in financial aid for developing countries. Although the goal was to prepare future action to be undertaken for adapting to climate change and consider loss and damages (especially <a href="/wiki/Displaced_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Displaced people">displaced people</a>) of some countries, no real action was adopted. There were no recognition of responsibilities but recommendations only. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calculations">Calculations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Calculations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_debt">Climate debt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Climate debt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When discussing ecological debt, <a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">climate debt</a> appears to be the only example of a scientific attempt to quantify the debt. It incorporates two different elements: the <a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">adaptation debt</a> which is the cost to communities of adapting to <a href="/wiki/Climate_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate damage">climate damages</a> they are not responsible for, and the consumption debt or emission's debt which is compensation due for emitting carbon in the present time. Emission debts should hypothetically be paid for by those countries that have over-emitted their fair-share of emissions. To determine this debt, an emissions or <a href="/wiki/Emissions_budget" class="mw-redirect" title="Emissions budget">carbon budget</a> can and is calculated, and distributed among countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calculations_2">Calculations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Calculations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Academic work on calculations of the ecological debt came later. An article published in 2008 looked at the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issue" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental issue">ecological impacts</a> for various human activities.<sup id="cite_ref-srinivasan_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-srinivasan-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies were also produced at regional level within countries, for instance for Orissa in India.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As seen previously, calculation of the ecological debt implies various aspects related to <a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">political ecology</a>. While calculating the amount of emissions, some scholars have disregard inequalities of emissions from the past whereas others have considered historical accountability. In addition, there is a connection between ecological issues and the economy due to the value natural resources have and the important role they play in benefiting our economy.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2000 Neumayer calculated what he named the 'historical emissions debt', consisting on the difference in emissions of actual historical emissions (from a specific date in the past) and equal per-capita emissions (current emissions).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theoretically it may be possible to put a money value on ecological debt by calculating the value of the environmental and social <a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">externalities</a> associated with historic resource extraction and adding an estimated value for the share of global pollution problems borne by poor countries as the result of higher consumption levels in rich ones.<sup id="cite_ref-srinivasan_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-srinivasan-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes efforts to value the <a href="/wiki/External_costs" class="mw-redirect" title="External costs">external costs</a> associated with climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015 Matthews proposed a method to calculate the ecological debt, by looking at the accumulated `carbon debts' for each country.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The model uses historical estimates of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuel emissions">national fossil fuel CO<sub>2</sub> emissions</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and population and this since 1960. Furthermore, it runs a comparison between temperature changes each year by each country's emissions compared to a proportional temperature change of each country's share of the world population (this same year). This gives the accumulated credits and debts related to a larger range of emissions and the 'climate debts' obtained would be the difference between the actual temperature change (caused by each country) and their <a href="/wiki/Per_capita" title="Per capita">per-capita</a> share of global temperature change.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other scholars have proposed a different approach, a `modified equal shares' approach, that would consider each country's basic needs and would weight each ones' share of emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this approach brings potential ethical and political difficulties to quantitatively defining what would thus be the equal shares. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_debates">Key debates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Key debates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although some recent emerging countries have participated in the increase of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions">carbon emissions</a>, the situation tend to stay uneven in-between developing and developed countries<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regarding who is affected the most versus who pollutes the most. </p><p>Recent studies on ecological debt focus more on sub-topics as the notion of historical responsibility<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (whether or not a country is considered ethically responsible or accountable for carbon emissions prior 1990, i.e. when global warming was universally recognized), the components of <a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">climate debt</a> (see above sections), the difficulties in deciding when to start counting past emissions<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and if this debate is slowing the implementation of programs or the legal and political consecration of the debt through treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Present key debates focus on how is the debt going to be paid back. First, some academia have pushed for financial <a href="/wiki/Debt_cancellation" class="mw-redirect" title="Debt cancellation">debt cancellation</a> rather than being paid for ecological damages and then paying back the country's national financial debt. However, financial debts were not even agree by people (in developing countries especially) in the first place, calling it the unfair "<a href="/wiki/Volcker_Rule" title="Volcker Rule">Volcker</a> debt". Accepting this option could hold the risk of giving legitimize credits to these financial debts.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second solution proposed is the <a href="/wiki/Basic_income_guarantee" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic income guarantee">Basic income guarantee</a> (BIG) or the universal basic income. It consists on regular cash payments to everyone in a community (or country) and has proven a certain efficacy in some places around the world (like Namibia).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another debate addresses the fact that the ecological debt risks "commodifying nature" is exhausting ecosystem services. Researchers have tackled this risk by showing how it will expand the inclination of objectifying, monetizing and ultimately commodifying nature.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the language of debt, repayments, credits and so forth is understood in Northern countries mostly, and is mostly focused on recognition of wrongdoing but not payment for loss of services for instance.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resources">Resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/0745324045">Ecological debt: the health of the planet and the wealth of nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Simms" title="Andrew Simms">Andrew Simms</a>, Pluto books, 2005</li> <li>Larkin, Amy (2013). <i>Environmental Debt: The Hidden Costs of a Changing Global Economy </i> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137278555" title="Special:BookSources/9781137278555">9781137278555</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reports">Reports</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Reports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/10316481/Ecological_debt._History_meaning_and_relevance_for_environmental_justice">Ecological debt. History, meaning and relevance for environmental justice, Warlenius, R. et al., 2015</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Timmons_Roberts_and_Bradley_C._Parks2009" class="citation journal cs1">J. Timmons Roberts and Bradley C. Parks (2009). "Ecologically Unequal Exchange, Ecological Debt, and Climate Justice: The History and Implications of Three Related Ideas for a New Social Movement". <i>International Journal of Comparative Sociology</i>. <b>50</b> (3–4): 381–408. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0020715209105147">10.1177/0020715209105147</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143911217">143911217</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Comparative+Sociology&rft.atitle=Ecologically+Unequal+Exchange%2C+Ecological+Debt%2C+and+Climate+Justice%3A+The+History+and+Implications+of+Three+Related+Ideas+for+a+New+Social+Movement&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=381-408&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0020715209105147&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143911217%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=J.+Timmons+Roberts+and+Bradley+C.+Parks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+debt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Rice2009" class="citation journal cs1">James Rice (2009). "North-South Relations and the Ecological Debt: Asserting a Counter-Hegemonic Discourse". <i>Critical Sociology</i>. <b>35</b> (2): 225–252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0896920508099193">10.1177/0896920508099193</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145372698">145372698</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Sociology&rft.atitle=North-South+Relations+and+the+Ecological+Debt%3A+Asserting+a+Counter-Hegemonic+Discourse&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=225-252&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0896920508099193&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145372698%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=James+Rice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+debt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ohlj.ca/english/specissues_4312.htmLeading">Towards a Level Playing Field, Repaying Ecological Debt, or Making Environmental Space: Three Stories about International Environmental Cooperation, Osgoode Hall Law Journal, 2005, VOL 43; NUMB 1/2, pages 137–170</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120425075237/http://www.cdo.ugent.be/publicaties/005.ecodebt_report_presentation.pdf">Elaboration of the concept of ecological debt, Centre for Sustainable Development, Ghent University, 2004</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060713033126/http://www.foe-scotland.org.uk/pubs/pubs_index.html">Credit Where it's Due: The Ecological Debt Education Project, Friends of the Earth Scotland, 2003</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050120144011/http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC7216.htm">Who owes who?: Climate change, debt, equity and survival, Christian Aid, 1999</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_imperialism" title="Green imperialism">Green imperialism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_debt&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarleniusPierceRamasar2015" class="citation journal cs1">Warlenius, Rikard; Pierce, Gregory; Ramasar, Vasna (1 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378014001812">"Reversing the arrow of arrears: The concept of "ecological debt" and its value for environmental justice"</a>. <i>Global Environmental Change</i>. <b>30</b>: 21–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gloenvcha.2014.10.014">10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.10.014</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0959-3780">0959-3780</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Environmental+Change&rft.atitle=Reversing+the+arrow+of+arrears%3A+The+concept+of+%22ecological+debt%22+and+its+value+for+environmental+justice&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=21-30&rft.date=2015-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.gloenvcha.2014.10.014&rft.issn=0959-3780&rft.aulast=Warlenius&rft.aufirst=Rikard&rft.au=Pierce%2C+Gregory&rft.au=Ramasar%2C+Vasna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0959378014001812&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+debt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonoso2015" class="citation journal cs1">Donoso, A. (2015). "We are not debtors, we are creditors. In: Bravo, E., & Yánez, I. (Eds.), No more looting and destruction! We the peoples of the south are ecological creditors". <i>Southern Peoples Ecological Debt Creditors Alliance (SPEDCA)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+Peoples+Ecological+Debt+Creditors+Alliance+%28SPEDCA%29&rft.atitle=We+are+not+debtors%2C+we+are+creditors.+In%3A+Bravo%2C+E.%2C+%26+Y%C3%A1nez%2C+I.+%28Eds.%29%2C+No+more+looting+and+destruction%21+We+the+peoples+of+the+south+are+ecological+creditors&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Donoso&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+debt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParedis2009" class="citation book cs1">Paredis, Erik (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X01-m72T6XcC&dq=ecological+debt&pg=PR9"><i>The Concept of Ecological Debt: Its Meaning and Applicability in International Policy</i></a>. Academia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-382-1341-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-382-1341-5"><bdi>978-90-382-1341-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Ecological+Debt%3A+Its+Meaning+and+Applicability+in+International+Policy&rft.pub=Academia+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-382-1341-5&rft.aulast=Paredis&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX01-m72T6XcC%26dq%3Decological%2Bdebt%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+debt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejolt.org/2013/05/ecological-debt/">"Ecological debt"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ecological+debt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ejolt.org%2F2013%2F05%2Fecological-debt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+debt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarlenius,_R.,_Pierce,_G.,_Ramasar,_V.,_Quistorp,_E.,_Martínez-Alier,_J.,_Rijnhout,_L.,_Yanez,_I.2015" class="citation journal cs1">Warlenius, R., Pierce, G., Ramasar, V., Quistorp, E., Martínez-Alier, J., Rijnhout, L., Yanez, I. 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History, meaning and relevance for environmental justice". <i>EJOLT Report</i>. <b>18</b>: 48.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EJOLT+Report&rft.atitle=Ecological+debt.+History%2C+meaning+and+relevance+for+environmental+justice&rft.volume=18&rft.pages=48&rft.date=2015&rft.au=Warlenius%2C+R.%2C+Pierce%2C+G.%2C+Ramasar%2C+V.%2C+Quistorp%2C+E.%2C+Mart%C3%ADnez-Alier%2C+J.%2C+Rijnhout%2C+L.%2C+Yanez%2C+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+debt" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobleto_M.L.,_Marcelo_W.1992" class="citation book cs1">Robleto M.L., Marcelo W. 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217234021/http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=overshoot">Global Footprint Network – Ecological Debt Day</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neweconomics.org/gen/ecologicaldebt091006.aspx">New Economics Foundation – Ecological Debt Day</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071227101642/http://www.enredeurope.org/principal.htm">European Network for the recognition of the Ecological Debt</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081010001434/http://www.worldsummit2002.org/index.htm?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldsummit2002.org%2Fissues%2Fecodebt.htm">World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 – Ecological Debt</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" 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