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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jazz_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jazz_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Jazz music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jazz_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prohibition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prohibition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Prohibition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prohibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speakeasies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speakeasies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Speakeasies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speakeasies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rum_running/bootlegging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rum_running/bootlegging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Rum running/bootlegging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rum_running/bootlegging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Swing_in_the_1930s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swing_in_the_1930s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Swing in the 1930s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swing_in_the_1930s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Radio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elements_and_influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elements_and_influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Elements and influences</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Elements_and_influences-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Elements and influences subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Elements_and_influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Youth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Youth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Youth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Youth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Role of women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_of_middle-class_white_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_middle-class_white_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Influence of middle-class white Americans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_middle-class_white_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beginnings_of_European_jazz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginnings_of_European_jazz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Beginnings of European jazz</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginnings_of_European_jazz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_African_Jazz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_African_Jazz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>South African Jazz</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_African_Jazz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_the_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_the_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticism of the movement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism_of_the_movement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism of the movement subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_the_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Classical music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc 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mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">20 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="عصر الجاز – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عصر الجاز" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caz_D%C3%B6vr%C3%BC" title="Caz Dövrü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Caz Dövrü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Епоха на джаза – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Епоха на джаза" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazzov%C3%BD_v%C4%9Bk" title="Jazzový věk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jazzový věk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="عصر جاز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عصر جاز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88re_du_jazz" title="Ère du jazz – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ère du jazz" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%AC%EC%A6%88_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="재즈 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="재즈 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_Jazz" title="Era Jazz – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Era Jazz" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_del_jazz" title="Età del jazz – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Età del jazz" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%93%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%92%27%D7%90%D7%96" title="עידן הג'אז – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עידן הג'אז" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzsesszkorszak" title="Dzsesszkorszak – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Dzsesszkorszak" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_Age" title="Jazz Age – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Jazz Age" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%82%BA%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A8%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B8" title="ジャズ・エイジ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジャズ・エイジ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Век джаза – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Век джаза" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_Age" title="Jazz Age – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jazz Age" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doba_jazza" title="Doba jazza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Doba jazza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz-aika" title="Jazz-aika – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jazz-aika" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panahon_ng_Jazz" title="Panahon ng Jazz – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Panahon ng Jazz" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caz_%C3%87a%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Caz Çağı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Caz Çağı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%88%B5%E5%A3%AB%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="爵士時代 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="爵士時代" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q388483#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the 2012 album by Bryan Ferry, see <a href="/wiki/The_Jazz_Age_(The_Bryan_Ferry_Orchestra_album)" title="The Jazz Age (The Bryan Ferry Orchestra album)"><i>The Jazz Age</i> (The Bryan Ferry Orchestra album)</a>. For the 1998 album by Jack, see <a href="/wiki/The_Jazz_Age_(Jack_album)" title="The Jazz Age (Jack album)"><i>The Jazz Age</i> (Jack album)</a>. For the 1929 film, see <a href="/wiki/The_Jazz_Age_(film)" title="The Jazz Age (film)"><i>The Jazz Age</i> (film)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Jazz Age</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:CarterAndKingJazzingOrchestra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black-and-white photo of a jazz band – consisting of two trombonists, a drummer, a double bassist, and a violinist – dressed in suits and bowler hats." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/CarterAndKingJazzingOrchestra.jpg/240px-CarterAndKingJazzingOrchestra.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/CarterAndKingJazzingOrchestra.jpg/360px-CarterAndKingJazzingOrchestra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/CarterAndKingJazzingOrchestra.jpg/480px-CarterAndKingJazzingOrchestra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="739" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra in <a href="/wiki/Houston" title="Houston">Houston</a> in 1921</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">1920s–1930s</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location" style="text-align: left;">United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Participants</th><td class="infobox-data attendee" style="text-align: left;">Jazz musicians and fans</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data description" style="text-align: left;">Increased popularity of <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> music in the United States</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Jazz Age</b> was a period in the 1920s and 1930s in which <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> music and dance styles gained worldwide popularity. The Jazz Age's cultural repercussions were primarily felt in the United States, the birthplace of jazz. Originating in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> as mainly sourced from the culture of <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>, jazz played a significant part in wider cultural changes in this period, and its influence on <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a> continued long afterwards. </p><p>The Jazz Age is often referred to in conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a>, and overlapped in significant cross-cultural ways with the <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition Era">Prohibition Era</a>. The movement was largely affected by the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radios</a> nationwide. During this time, the Jazz Age was intertwined with the developing <a href="/wiki/Youth_culture" title="Youth culture">youth culture</a>. The movement would also help in introducing jazz culture to Europe. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>jazz age</i> was in popular usage prior to 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOxford_English_Dictionary2021_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxford_English_Dictionary2021-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoughton_Line19196,_9Literary_Digest191931_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoughton_Line19196,_9Literary_Digest191931-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1922, American writer <a href="/wiki/F._Scott_Fitzgerald" title="F. Scott Fitzgerald">F. Scott Fitzgerald</a> further popularized the term with the publication of his short story collection <i><a href="/wiki/Tales_of_the_Jazz_Age" title="Tales of the Jazz Age">Tales of the Jazz Age</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerg1978217Henderson2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerg1978217Henderson2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cooke_1998_on_the_Jazz_Age_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooke_1998_on_the_Jazz_Age-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jazz_music">Jazz music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Jazz music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">Jazz</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">Jazz</a> is a music genre that originated in the Black-American communities of <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans,_Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans, Louisiana">New Orleans, Louisiana</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth1952305,_312_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth1952305,_312-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENational_Park_Service2015_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Park_Service2015-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in <a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">blues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ragtime" title="Ragtime">ragtime</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth1952306_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth1952306-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGermuska1995_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGermuska1995-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New Orleans provided a cultural humus in which jazz could germinate because it was a port city with many cultures and beliefs intertwined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns20012–3_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns20012–3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In New Orleans, people of different cultures and races often lived close together which allowed for cultural interaction which facilitated the development of the active musical environment of the city<b>.</b><sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In New Orleans, the development of jazz was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Creole_music" title="Creole music">Creole music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ragtime" title="Ragtime">ragtime</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">blues</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiocca19901_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiocca19901-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jazz is seen by many as "America's classical music".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESales19843_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESales19843-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest Jazz styles, which emerged in New Orleans, Chicago, and New York in the early 1920s, are sometimes referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Dixieland" class="mw-redirect" title="Dixieland">dixieland</a> jazz."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199852Peretti199276_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199852Peretti199276-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1920s, jazz became recognized as a major form of musical expression. It then emerged in the form of independent <a href="/wiki/Traditional_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional music">traditional</a> and popular musical styles, all linked by the common bonds of Black-American and European-American musical parentage with a performance orientation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessey1973470–473_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessey1973470–473-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From African traditions, jazz derived its rhythm, "blues", and traditions of playing or singing in one's own expressive way. From European traditions, jazz derived its harmony and instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns200110Schuller19683_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns200110Schuller19683-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a> brought the improvisational solo to the forefront of a piece, replacing the original polyphonic ensemble style of New Orleans jazz.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiocca19901_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiocca19901-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jazz is generally characterized by <a href="/wiki/Swung_note" class="mw-redirect" title="Swung note">swing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blue_note" title="Blue note">blue notes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Call_and_response_(music)" title="Call and response (music)">call and response vocals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyrhythm" title="Polyrhythm">polyrhythms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Improvisation" title="Improvisation">improvisation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prohibition">Prohibition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Prohibition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition in the United States</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition in the United States</a> was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages from 1920 to 1933. In the 1920s, the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Well-organized criminal gangs took control of the beer and liquor supply for many cities, unleashing a crime wave that shocked the U.S. This prohibition was taken advantage of by gangsters such as <a href="/wiki/Al_Capone" title="Al Capone">Al Capone</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010321_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010321-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and approximately $60 million (equivalent to $1,271,666,667 in 2023) in illegal alcohol was smuggled across the borders of Canada and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010360_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010360-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resulting illicit <a href="/wiki/Speakeasy" title="Speakeasy">speakeasies</a> that grew from this era became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music that included current dance songs, novelty songs and show tunes. </p><p>By the late 1920s, a new opposition mobilized across the U.S. Anti-prohibitionists, or "wets", attacked prohibition as causing crime, lowering local revenues, and imposing rural Protestant religious values on urban America.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrchowski201532_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrchowski201532-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prohibition ended with the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-first Amendment</a>, which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 5, 1933. Some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the latter stages of the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speakeasies">Speakeasies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Speakeasies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Speakeasy" title="Speakeasy">Speakeasy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_and_tan_clubs" title="Black and tan clubs">Black and tan clubs</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 302px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="width: 300px; height: 200px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -125px; left: -90px; width: 500px"><div class="noresize"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Krazy_Kat_LOC_npcc.04658.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Several patrons and a flapper await the opening of the Krazy Kat Klub in 1921, a speakeasy located in Washington, D.C." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Krazy_Kat_LOC_npcc.04658.jpg/500px-Krazy_Kat_LOC_npcc.04658.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="405" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Krazy_Kat_LOC_npcc.04658.jpg/750px-Krazy_Kat_LOC_npcc.04658.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Krazy_Kat_LOC_npcc.04658.jpg/1000px-Krazy_Kat_LOC_npcc.04658.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5328" data-file-height="4315" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Krazy_Kat_LOC_npcc.04658.jpg" title="File:Krazy Kat LOC npcc.04658.jpg"> </a></div>Several patrons and a <a href="/wiki/Flapper" title="Flapper">flapper</a> await the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Krazy_Kat_Klub" title="Krazy Kat Klub">Krazy Kat Klub</a> in 1921, a <a href="/wiki/Speakeasy" title="Speakeasy">speakeasy</a> located in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> </div> </div> </div> <p>Formed as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">eighteenth amendment</a>, speakeasies were places (often owned by organized criminals) where customers could drink alcohol and relax or speakeasy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010207–210_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010207–210-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jazz was played in these speakeasies as a countercultural type of music to fit in with the illicit environment and events going on.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jazz artists were therefore hired to play at speakeasies. <a href="/wiki/Al_Capone" title="Al Capone">Al Capone</a>, the famous organized crime leader, gave jazz musicians previously living in poverty a steady and professional income. Thaddeus Russell, in <i>A Renegade History of the United States</i>, states: "The singer Ethel Waters fondly recalled that Capone treated her 'with respect, applause, deference, and paid in full.'"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2010230_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2010230-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also from A Renegade History of the United States, "The pianist <a href="/wiki/Earl_Hines" title="Earl Hines">Earl Hines</a> remembered that 'Scarface [Al Capone] got along well with musicians. He liked to come into a club with his henchmen and have the band play his requests. He was very free with $100 tips."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2010230_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2010230-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The illegal culture of speakeasies led to what was known as "black and tan" clubs which had multiracial crowds.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeretti199231WardBurns2001_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeretti199231WardBurns2001-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were many speakeasies, especially in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. New York City had, at the height of Prohibition, 32,000 speakeasies.<sup id="cite_ref-Cops_and_Speakeasies_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cops_and_Speakeasies-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At speakeasies, both payoffs and mechanisms for hiding alcohol were used. Charlie Burns, in recalling his ownership of several speakeasies employed these strategies as a way to preserve his and Jack Kriendler's illegal clubs. This includes forming relationships with local police.<sup id="cite_ref-Cops_and_Speakeasies_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cops_and_Speakeasies-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mechanisms that a trusted engineer created include one that when a button was pushed, tongue blocks under shelves of liquor would drop, making the shelves drop back and liquor bottles fall down a chute, break, and drain the alcohol through rocks and sand. An alarm also went off if the button was pushed to alert customers of a raid. Another mechanism used by Burns was a wine cellar with a thick door flush with the wall. It had a small, almost unnoticeable hole for a rod to be pushed in to activate a lock and open the door.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2004153,_155,_156_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2004153,_155,_156-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rum_running/bootlegging"><span id="Rum_running.2Fbootlegging"></span>Rum running/bootlegging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Rum running/bootlegging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As to where speakeasies obtained alcohol, there were rum runners and bootleggers. Rum running, in this case, was the organized smuggling of liquor by land or sea into the U.S. Decent foreign liquor was high-end alcohol during prohibition, and <a href="/wiki/William_McCoy_(bootlegger)" class="mw-redirect" title="William McCoy (bootlegger)">William McCoy</a> had some of the best of it. Bill McCoy was in the rum-running business, and at certain points of time was ranked among the best. To avoid being caught, he sold liquor just outside the territorial waters of the United States. Buyers would come to him to pick up his booze as a precaution for McCoy. McCoy's liquor specialty was selling high-quality whiskey without diluting the alcohol.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2004120,_121_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2004120,_121-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bootlegging was making and or smuggling alcohol around the U.S. As selling the alcohol could make plenty of money, there are several major ways this was done. One strategy used by <a href="/wiki/Frankie_Yale" title="Frankie Yale">Frankie Yale</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Genna_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Genna Brothers">Genna brothers gang</a> (both involved in organized crime) was to give poor Italian Americans alcohol stills to make alcohol for them at $15 per day's work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers1997_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers1997-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another strategy was to buy liquor from rumrunners. Racketeers would also buy closed breweries and distilleries and hire former employees to make alcohol. Another person famous for organized crime named <a href="/wiki/Johnny_Torrio" title="Johnny Torrio">Johnny Torrio</a> partnered with two other mobsters and legitimate brewer Joseph Stenson to make illegal beer in a total of nine breweries. Finally, some <a href="/wiki/Racketeering" title="Racketeering">racketeers</a> stole industrial grain alcohol and redistilled it to sell in speakeasies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010201_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010201-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 1919, <a href="/wiki/Kid_Ory" title="Kid Ory">Kid Ory</a>'s Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199854_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199854-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The year also saw the first recording by <a href="/wiki/Bessie_Smith" title="Bessie Smith">Bessie Smith</a>, the most famous of the 1920s blues singers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199820–21_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199820–21-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantelli2001423_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESantelli2001423-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chicago, meanwhile, was the main center developing the new "<a href="/wiki/Hot_Jazz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot Jazz">Hot Jazz</a>", where <a href="/wiki/Joe_%22King%22_Oliver" class="mw-redirect" title="Joe "King" Oliver">King Oliver</a> joined <a href="/wiki/Bill_Johnson_(double-bassist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill Johnson (double-bassist)">Bill Johnson</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bix_Beiderbecke" title="Bix Beiderbecke">Bix Beiderbecke</a> formed The Wolverines in 1924.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001101_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001101-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199879_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199879-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mandy_(louis_armstrong).tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mandy_%28louis_armstrong%29.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-Mandy_%28louis_armstrong%29.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mandy_%28louis_armstrong%29.tiff/lossy-page1-495px-Mandy_%28louis_armstrong%29.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mandy_%28louis_armstrong%29.tiff/lossy-page1-660px-Mandy_%28louis_armstrong%29.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1049" data-file-height="287" /></a><figcaption>Top: excerpt from the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by George W. Meyer & Arthur Johnston. Bottom: corresponding solo excerpt by Louis Armstrong (1924).</figcaption></figure> <p>The same year, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a> joined the <a href="/wiki/Fletcher_Henderson" title="Fletcher Henderson">Fletcher Henderson</a> dance band as featured soloist, leaving in 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2007_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2007-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young <a href="/wiki/Coleman_Hawkins" title="Coleman Hawkins">Coleman Hawkins</a>), sounded "stiff, stodgy," with "jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuller196891_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuller196891-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by <a href="/wiki/George_W._Meyer" title="George W. Meyer">George W. Meyer</a> and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuller196893_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuller196893-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The example approximates Armstrong's solo, as it does not convey his use of swing.) </p><p>Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic <a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_and_his_Hot_Five" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five">Hot Five</a> band, which included instrumentalist's Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), and wife Lil on piano, where he popularized <a href="/wiki/Scat_singing" title="Scat singing">scat singing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199856–59,_66–70,_78–79_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199856–59,_66–70,_78–79-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Marine_Band_Rhapsody_in_Blue.oga" title="File:US Marine Band Rhapsody in Blue.oga">"Rhapsody in Blue"</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="1090" data-mwtitle="US_Marine_Band_Rhapsody_in_Blue.oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cd/US_Marine_Band_Rhapsody_in_Blue.oga/US_Marine_Band_Rhapsody_in_Blue.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/US_Marine_Band_Rhapsody_in_Blue.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Band" title="United States Marine Band">United States Marine Band</a>'s 2018 performance of <a href="/wiki/George_Gershwin" title="George Gershwin">George Gershwin</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Rhapsody_in_Blue" title="Rhapsody in Blue">Rhapsody in Blue</a>". F. Scott Fitzgerald asserted that the song idealized the youthful zeitgeist of the Jazz Age.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jelly_Roll_Morton" title="Jelly Roll Morton">Jelly Roll Morton</a> recorded with the <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Rhythm_Kings" title="New Orleans Rhythm Kings">New Orleans Rhythm Kings</a> in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his <a href="/wiki/Red_Hot_Peppers" title="Red Hot Peppers">Red Hot Peppers</a>. There was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras, such as <a href="/wiki/Jean_Goldkette" title="Jean Goldkette">Jean Goldkette</a>'s orchestra and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Whiteman" title="Paul Whiteman">Paul Whiteman</a>'s orchestra. In 1924, Whiteman commissioned <a href="/wiki/George_Gershwin" title="George Gershwin">Gershwin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Rhapsody_in_Blue" title="Rhapsody in Blue">Rhapsody in Blue</a></i>, premiered by Whiteman's Orchestra. Writer <a href="/wiki/F._Scott_Fitzgerald" title="F. Scott Fitzgerald">F. Scott Fitzgerald</a> opined that <i>Rhapsody in Blue</i> idealized the youthful zeitgeist of the Jazz Age.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzgerald200493_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzgerald200493-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the mid-1920s, Whiteman was the most popular bandleader in the U.S. His success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable a previously inchoate kind of music.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunkel2015123_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunkel2015123-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other influential large ensembles included Fletcher Henderson's band, Duke Ellington's band (which opened an influential residency at the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_Club" title="Cotton Club">Cotton Club</a> in 1927) in New York, and <a href="/wiki/Earl_Hines" title="Earl Hines">Earl Hines</a>' Band in Chicago (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe there in 1928). All significantly influenced the development of big band-style swing jazz.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199882–83,_100–103_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199882–83,_100–103-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1930, the New Orleans-style ensemble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuller196888_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuller196888-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several musicians grew up in musical families, where a family member would often teach how to read and play music. Included in this group was the bandleader <a href="/wiki/Guy_Lombardo" title="Guy Lombardo">Guy Lombardo</a>, who collaborated with his brothers Carmen and Lebert in Canada to form the Royal Canadians Orchestra in the early 1920s. By 1929 their "sweet" <a href="/wiki/Big_band" title="Big band">big band</a> appeared regularly at the landmark <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Hotel_(New_York)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roosevelt Hotel (New York)">Roosevelt Hotel</a> in New York City and later in 1959 at the <a href="/wiki/Waldorf-Astoria_Hotel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldorf-Astoria Hotel">Waldorf-Astoria Hotel</a>, where they entertained audiences nationwide for decades with a velvety-smooth interpretation of the "sweetest music this side of heaven".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite <a href="/wiki/Benny_Goodman" title="Benny Goodman">Benny Goodman</a>'s claim that "sweet" music was a "weak sister" as compared to the "real music" of America, Lombardo's band enjoyed widespread popularity which crossed racial divides and was even praised by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a> as one of his favorites.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some musicians, like <a href="/wiki/Pops_Foster" title="Pops Foster">Pops Foster</a>, learned on homemade instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChevan2002201_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChevan2002201-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urban radio stations played African-American jazz more frequently than suburban stations, due to the concentration of African Americans in urban areas such as New York and Chicago. Younger demographics popularized the black-originated dances such as the Charleston as part of the immense cultural shift the popularity of jazz music generated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeretti199250Cooke199840_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeretti199250Cooke199840-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001107_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001107-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cooke_1998_on_the_Jazz_Age_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooke_1998_on_the_Jazz_Age-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jazz aimed to cultivate empathy by initially challenging established norms and those who adhered to them, before captivating them with its ethereal and enchanting allure. It sought to blur the societal divides of race, class, and political allegiance, as illustrated in James Baldwin's renowned short story, "Sonny's Blues," where the transformative power of jazz unites two estranged brothers through the deeply emotive melodies played by Sonny. In Fitzgerald's works and beyond, jazz acted as a leveling influence, fostering a degree of equality within both literature and society.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1925, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Gatsby" title="The Great Gatsby">The Great Gatsby</a></i> epitomized this phase of Fitzgerald's career, capturing the romanticism and superficial charm of the "Jazz Age." This era started with the conclusion of World War I, the onset of women's suffrage, and Prohibition, and ultimately crumbled with the Great Crash of 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swing_in_the_1930s">Swing in the 1930s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Swing in the 1930s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Swing_music" title="Swing music">Swing music</a> and <a href="/wiki/1930s_in_jazz" title="1930s in jazz">1930s in jazz</a></div> <p>The 1930s belonged to popular <a href="/wiki/Swing_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Swing (music)">swing</a> big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers <a href="/wiki/Count_Basie" title="Count Basie">Count Basie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cab_Calloway" title="Cab Calloway">Cab Calloway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Dorsey" title="Jimmy Dorsey">Jimmy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tommy_Dorsey" title="Tommy Dorsey">Tommy Dorsey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_Ellington" title="Duke Ellington">Duke Ellington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benny_Goodman" title="Benny Goodman">Benny Goodman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fletcher_Henderson" title="Fletcher Henderson">Fletcher Henderson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earl_Hines" title="Earl Hines">Earl Hines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harry_James" title="Harry James">Harry James</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jimmie_Lunceford" title="Jimmie Lunceford">Jimmie Lunceford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Miller" title="Glenn Miller">Glenn Miller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artie_Shaw" title="Artie Shaw">Artie Shaw</a>. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be complex "important" music. </p><p>Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders recruit white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist <a href="/wiki/Teddy_Wilson" title="Teddy Wilson">Teddy Wilson</a>, vibraphonist <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Hampton" title="Lionel Hampton">Lionel Hampton</a> and guitarist <a href="/wiki/Charlie_Christian" title="Charlie Christian">Charlie Christian</a> to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist <a href="/wiki/Lester_Young" title="Lester Young">Lester Young</a> marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or <a href="/wiki/Jump_blues" title="Jump blues">jump blues</a> used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on <a href="/wiki/Boogie_woogie_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Boogie woogie (music)">boogie-woogie</a> from the 1930s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radio">Radio</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Radio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The introduction of large-scale radio broadcasts enabled the rapid national spread of jazz in 1932. The radio was described as the "sound factory." Radio made it possible for millions to hear music for free — especially people who never attended expensive, distant big city clubs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiocca19903_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiocca19903-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These broadcasts originated from clubs in leading centers such as New York, Chicago, Kansas City, and Los Angeles. There were two categories of live music on the radio: concert music and big band dance music. The concert music was known as "potter palm" and was concert music by amateurs, usually volunteers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Roche201518_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Roche201518-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Big band dance music is played by professionals and was featured in <a href="/wiki/Big_band_remote" title="Big band remote">remote</a><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> broadcasts from nightclubs, dance halls, and ballrooms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995327_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995327-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Musicologist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hamm" title="Charles Hamm">Charles Hamm</a> described three types of jazz music at the time: black music for black audiences, black music for white audiences, and white music for white audiences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavran2006461_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavran2006461-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jazz artists like Louis Armstrong originally received very little airtime because most stations preferred to play the music of white American jazz singers. Other jazz vocalists include Bessie Smith and <a href="/wiki/Florence_Mills" title="Florence Mills">Florence Mills</a>. In urban areas, such as Chicago and New York, African-American jazz was played on the radio more often than in the suburbs. Big-band jazz, like that of <a href="/wiki/James_Reese_Europe" title="James Reese Europe">James Reese Europe</a> and Fletcher Henderson in New York, attracted large radio audiences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995326–327_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995326–327-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several "sweet jazz" dance orchestras also achieved national recognition in big band remote broadcasts including: <a href="/wiki/Guy_Lombardo" title="Guy Lombardo">Guy Lombardo</a>'s Royal Canadian Orchestra, at New York City's <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Hotel_(New_York)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roosevelt Hotel (New York)">Roosevelt Hotel</a> (1929) and at the <a href="/wiki/Waldorf-Astoria_Hotel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldorf-Astoria Hotel">Waldorf-Astoria Hotel</a> (1959),<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Shep_Fields" title="Shep Fields">Shep Fields</a>'s Rippling Rhythm Orchestra<sup id="cite_ref-nyt1_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at Chicago's landmark <a href="/wiki/Palmer_House_Hotel" class="mw-redirect" title="Palmer House Hotel">Palmer House Hotel</a> (1936),<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New York City's "Star-light Roof" in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel (1937),<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Copacabana_(nightclub)" title="Copacabana (nightclub)">Copacabana</a> nightclub.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elements_and_influences">Elements and influences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Elements and influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Youth">Youth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Youth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Young people in the 1920s used the influence of jazz to rebel against the traditional culture of previous generations. This youth rebellion of the 1920s included such things as <a href="/wiki/Flapper" title="Flapper">flapper</a> fashions, women who smoked cigarettes in public, a willingness to talk about sex freely, and radio concerts. Dances like the <a href="/wiki/Charleston_(dance)" title="Charleston (dance)">Charleston</a>, developed by African Americans, suddenly became popular among the youth. Traditionalists were aghast at what they considered the breakdown of morality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFass197722_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFass197722-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some urban middle-class African Americans perceived jazz as "devil's music", and believed the improvised rhythms and sounds were promoting promiscuity.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jazz served as a platform for rebellion on multiple fronts. In dance halls, jazz clubs, and speakeasies, women found refuge from societal norms that confined them to conventional roles. These spaces offered them more freedom in their speech, attire, and behavior. Reflecting the prevalent Freudian psychology of the 1920s, jazz promoted "childlike" behavior, with frequenters known as Flappers often called "Jazz Babies." The uninhibited and spontaneous nature of jazz encouraged primal and sensual expression. As the older generation dismissed jazz, it became a vehicle for young women (and men) to challenge the values of their parents and grandparents.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_women">Role of women</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Role of women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_jazz" title="Women in jazz">Women in jazz</a></div> <p>With women's <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">suffrage</a>—the right for women to vote—at its peak with the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment</a> on August 18, 1920, and the entrance of the free-spirited flapper, women began to take on a larger role in society and culture. With women now taking part in the work force after the end of the First World War there were now many more possibilities for women in terms of social life and entertainment. Ideas such as equality and open sexuality were very popular during the time and women seemed to capitalize on these ideas during this period. The 1920s saw the emergence of many famous women musicians, including Bessie Smith. Bessie Smith gained attention because she was not only a great singer but also an African-American woman as well as an icon in the LGBTQ+ community. Throughout her musical career she was unapologetically herself, expressing the struggles of the Black working class, addressing issues such as poverty, racism, and sexism alongside themes of love and female sexuality in her lyrics.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She has grown through the ages to be one of the most well respected singers of all time and inspired later performers such as <a href="/wiki/Billie_Holiday" title="Billie Holiday">Billie Holiday</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2004458–460_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2004458–460-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lovie_Austin" title="Lovie Austin">Lovie Austin</a> (1887–1972) was a Chicago-based bandleader, session musician (piano), composer, singer, and arranger during the 1920s <a href="/wiki/Classic_female_blues" title="Classic female blues">classic blues</a> era. She and <a href="/wiki/Lil_Hardin_Armstrong" title="Lil Hardin Armstrong">Lil Hardin Armstrong</a> often are ranked as two of the best female <a href="/wiki/Jazz_blues" class="mw-redirect" title="Jazz blues">jazz blues</a> piano players of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantelli200120_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESantelli200120-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Piano player Lil Hardin Armstrong was originally a member of King Oliver's band with Louis, and went on to play piano in her husband's band the <a href="/wiki/Hot_Five" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot Five">Hot Five</a> and then his next group called the <a href="/wiki/Hot_Seven" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot Seven">Hot Seven</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorzillo19961,_94–96_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorzillo19961,_94–96-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until the 1930s and 1940s that many women jazz singers, such as Bessie Smith and Billie Holiday, were recognized as successful artists in the music world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorzillo19961,_94–96_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorzillo19961,_94–96-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another famous female vocalist who attained stardom at the tail-end of the Jazz Age was Ella Fitzgerald, one of the more popular female jazz singers in the United States for more than half a century and later dubbed "The First Lady of Song".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She worked with all the jazz greats of the era, including <a href="/wiki/Chick_Webb" title="Chick Webb">Chick Webb</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001270,_272_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001270,_272-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Duke Ellington,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrow1990251_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrow1990251-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Count Basie, and Benny Goodman.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001272_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001272-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These women were persistent in striving to make their names known in the music industry and to lead the way for many more women artists to come.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorzillo19961,_94–96_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorzillo19961,_94–96-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_of_middle-class_white_Americans">Influence of middle-class white Americans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Influence of middle-class white Americans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The birth of jazz is credited to African Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCann20083_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCann20083-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But it was modified to become socially acceptable to middle-class white Americans. Those critical of jazz saw it as music from people with no training or skill.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White performers were used as a vehicle for the popularization of jazz music in America. Although jazz was taken over by the white middle-class population, it facilitated the mesh of African American traditions and ideals with white middle-class society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995325_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995325-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginnings_of_European_jazz">Beginnings of European jazz</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Beginnings of European jazz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the 1920s jazz had spread around the world. According to <i>The New York Times</i> in 1922:<sup id="cite_ref-hershey19220625_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hershey19220625-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Jazz latitude is marked as indelibly on the globe as the heavy line of the equator. It runs from Broadway along Main Street to San Francisco: to the Hawaiian Islands, which it has lyricized to fame; to Japan, where it is hurriedly adopted as some new Western culture; to the Philippines, where it is royally welcomed back as its own; to China where the mandarins and even the coolies look upon it as a helpful sign that the Occident at last knows what is music; to Siam, where the barbaric tunes strike a kindred note and come home to roost; to India, where the natives receive it dubiously, while the colonists seize upon it avidly; to the East Indies, where it holds sway in its elementary form — ragtime; to Egypt, where it sounds so curiously familiar and where it has set Cairo dance mad; to Palestine, where it is looked upon as an inevitable and necessary evil along with liberation; across the Mediterranean, where all ships and all shores have been inoculated with the germ; to Monte Carlo and the Riviera, where the jazz idea has been adopted as its own enfant-chéri; to Paris, which has its special versions of jazz; to London, which long has sworn to shake off the fever, but still is jazzing; and back again to Tinpan Alley, where each day, nay, each hour, adds some new inspiration that will slowly but surely meander along jazz latitude.</p></blockquote> <p>As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, <a href="/wiki/Mike_Danzi" title="Mike Danzi">Mike Danzi</a><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Lonnie_Johnson_(musician)" title="Lonnie Johnson (musician)">Lonnie Johnson</a>, who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynn200767_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynn200767-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period. </p><p>British jazz began with a <a href="/wiki/Original_Dixieland_Jass_Band#London_tour" title="Original Dixieland Jass Band">tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGodbolt20058–11_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodbolt20058–11-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1926, <a href="/wiki/Fred_Elizalde" title="Fred Elizalde">Fred Elizalde</a> and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGodbolt200529,_46,_67_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodbolt200529,_46,_67-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous. Very soon, the resulting music craze in the United Kingdom led to a <a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">moral panic</a> in which the threat of jazz to society was exemplified by Scottish artist <a href="/wiki/John_Bulloch_Souter" title="John Bulloch Souter">John Bulloch Souter</a>'s controversial 1926 painting <i><a href="/wiki/The_Breakdown" title="The Breakdown">The Breakdown</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGodbolt200529–31_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodbolt200529–31-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The painting has been described as embodying the fears of Western civilization towards <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> music,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlake199989_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake199989-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the painting was later destroyed by its author to placate critics who insisted the work should be burned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKay2005121–122Shearer2018_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKay2005121–122Shearer2018-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The European style of jazz entered full swing in France with the <a href="/wiki/Quintette_du_Hot_Club_de_France" title="Quintette du Hot Club de France">Quintette du Hot Club de France</a>, which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2002149–170_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2002149–170-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belgian guitarist <a href="/wiki/Django_Reinhardt" title="Django Reinhardt">Django Reinhardt</a> popularized <a href="/wiki/Gypsy_jazz" title="Gypsy jazz">gypsy jazz</a>, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "<a href="/wiki/Bal-musette" title="Bal-musette">musette</a>", and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments were steel-stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as guitar and bass form the rhythm section. Some researchers believe <a href="/wiki/Eddie_Lang" title="Eddie Lang">Eddie Lang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joe_Venuti" title="Joe Venuti">Joe Venuti</a> pioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on <a href="/wiki/Okeh_Records" title="Okeh Records">Okeh Records</a> in the late 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001299Peretti1992201_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001299Peretti1992201-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_African_Jazz">South African Jazz</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: South African Jazz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marabi" title="Marabi">Marabi</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Music_of_South_Africa" title="Music of South Africa">Music of South Africa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kwela" title="Kwela">Kwela</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/South_African_jazz" title="South African jazz">South African jazz</a></div> <p>After the discovery of natural resources which boosted the country's economy during the late 19th century and early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> became urbanised rapidly after its formation in 1910 with Black people leaving their native rural villages to go and work in the city/town in order to earn an income. </p><p>Due to discriminative laws that forbade black people from living in the suburbs and owning property, most of them ended up living in slums which became townships. In these slums, <a href="/wiki/Shebeens" class="mw-redirect" title="Shebeens">shebeens</a> were opened by black women with the purpose of selling home-made, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Traditional_African_beer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Traditional African beer (page does not exist)">Traditional African beer</a> (locally known as '<a href="/wiki/Umqombothi" title="Umqombothi">Umqombothi</a>') in order to earn an income. </p><p>Eventually, these shebeens would provide a nightlife for black people who were living in these slums. During this period in the early 20th century, American jazz was introduced on <a href="/w/index.php?title=South_African_radios&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="South African radios (page does not exist)">South African radios</a>, and it became the most popular style of music in the urban areas of South Africa. The biggest consumer of jazz music was the newly black urban class in these shebeens based on the slums of South Africa. Therefore, jazz got fused with <a href="/w/index.php?title=African_Traditional_Music&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="African Traditional Music (page does not exist)">African Traditional Music</a> and a new style/genre was formed called <a href="/wiki/Marabi" title="Marabi">Marabi</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the 1940s, the genre had taken the country by storm, and by the 1950s, another style of South African jazz was formed called <a href="/wiki/Kwela" title="Kwela">Kwela</a> with an addition of the modern or traditional <a href="/wiki/Pennywhistle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennywhistle">pennywhistle</a>. South African jazz has created many stars of which some became famous worldwide e.g. <a href="/wiki/Miriam_Makeba" title="Miriam Makeba">Miriam Makeba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Masekela" title="Hugh Masekela">Hugh Masekela</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_the_movement">Criticism of the movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Criticism of the movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During this period, jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent values of the <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a>. Professor Henry van Dyke of <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> wrote: "[I]t is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns200178_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns200178-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The media also spoke ill of it. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> in the 1920s intimated that jazz was responsible for the decline of Western civilization and of the quality of Italian tenors, a poor trade balance with Hungary, a classical musician's fatal heart attack, and frightening bears in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuhor200118_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuhor200118-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_music">Classical music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Classical music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As jazz flourished, American elites who preferred classical music sought to expand the listenership of their favored genre, hoping that jazz would not become mainstream.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiocca19909_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiocca19909-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, jazz became an influence on composers as diverse as <a href="/wiki/George_Gershwin" title="George Gershwin">George Gershwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Howells" title="Herbert Howells">Herbert Howells</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxford_English_Dictionary2021-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOxford_English_Dictionary2021_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOxford_English_Dictionary2021">Oxford English Dictionary 2021</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoughton_Line19196,_9Literary_Digest191931-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoughton_Line19196,_9Literary_Digest191931_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoughton_Line1919">Houghton Line 1919</a>, pp. 6, 9; <a href="#CITEREFLiterary_Digest1919">Literary Digest 1919</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerg1978217Henderson2013-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerg1978217Henderson2013_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBerg1978">Berg 1978</a>, p. 217; <a href="#CITEREFHenderson2013">Henderson 2013</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cooke_1998_on_the_Jazz_Age-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke_1998_on_the_Jazz_Age_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke_1998_on_the_Jazz_Age_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooke1998">Cooke 1998</a>, p. 52: "The popularity of new dance styles helped jazz to develop from the march-like tread of its early days into the snappy, syncopated music so characteristic of what F. Scott Fitzgerald dubbed 'The Jazz Age'."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth1952305,_312-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth1952305,_312_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoth1952">Roth 1952</a>, pp. 305, 312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Park_Service2015-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENational_Park_Service2015_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNational_Park_Service2015">National Park Service 2015</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth1952306-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth1952306_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoth1952">Roth 1952</a>, p. 306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGermuska1995-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGermuska1995_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGermuska1995">Germuska 1995</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns20012–3-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns20012–3_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWardBurns2001">Ward & Burns 2001</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFOrleans" class="citation web cs1">Orleans. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm">"Jazz Origins in New Orleans - New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)"</a>. <i>www.nps.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nps.gov&rft.atitle=Jazz+Origins+in+New+Orleans+-+New+Orleans+Jazz+National+Historical+Park+%28U.S.+National+Park+Service%29&rft.au=Orleans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fjazz%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fhistory_early.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiocca19901-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiocca19901_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiocca19901_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBiocca1990">Biocca 1990</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESales19843-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESales19843_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSales1984">Sales 1984</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199852Peretti199276-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199852Peretti199276_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooke1998">Cooke 1998</a>, p. 52; <a href="#CITEREFPeretti1992">Peretti 1992</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessey1973470–473-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessey1973470–473_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHennessey1973">Hennessey 1973</a>, pp. 470–473.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns200110Schuller19683-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns200110Schuller19683_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWardBurns2001">Ward & Burns 2001</a>, p. 10; <a href="#CITEREFSchuller1968">Schuller 1968</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoth1952">Roth 1952</a>, p. 312: "It is here that we find one of the white, or European, influences upon American Negro music; it is the central one, I think, and the one which has the most to do with the birth of jazz. We may call it⁠—as I have called it heretofore⁠—the instrumentalizing of the human voice."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010321-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010321_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOkrent2010">Okrent 2010</a>, p. 321.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010360-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010360_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOkrent2010">Okrent 2010</a>, p. 360.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrchowski201532-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrchowski201532_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOrchowski2015">Orchowski 2015</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010207–210-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010207–210_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOkrent2010">Okrent 2010</a>, pp. 207–210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWardBurns2001">Ward & Burns 2001</a>, p. 76: "Theirs would become the music of choice in cabarets and speakeasies and roadhouses, George Washington was a large supporter of jazz in the 20th century and would provide the accompaniment for the period F. Scott Fitzgerald would soon call the Jazz Age."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2010230-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2010230_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2010230_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell2010">Russell 2010</a>, p. 230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOkrent2010">Okrent 2010</a>, p. 212: "Another barrier fell with the arrival of the 'black and tans,' integrated cabarets and nightclubs, usually in black neighborhoods and usually featuring leading African-American jazz musicians."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeretti199231WardBurns2001-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeretti199231WardBurns2001_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeretti1992">Peretti 1992</a>, p. 31; <a href="#CITEREFWardBurns2001">Ward & Burns 2001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cops_and_Speakeasies-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cops_and_Speakeasies_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cops_and_Speakeasies_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOkrent2010">Okrent 2010</a>, p. 264: "Each of the thirty-two thousand speakeasies in New York probably paid a beat cop five dollars a day to keep the taps and the cash register open."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2004153,_155,_156-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2004153,_155,_156_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2004">Hill 2004</a>, pp. 153, 155, 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2004120,_121-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2004120,_121_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2004">Hill 2004</a>, pp. 120, 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers1997-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers1997_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodgers1997">Rodgers 1997</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010201-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOkrent2010201_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOkrent2010">Okrent 2010</a>, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199854-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199854_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooke1998">Cooke 1998</a>, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199820–21-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199820–21_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooke1998">Cooke 1998</a>, pp. 20–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESantelli2001423-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantelli2001423_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSantelli2001">Santelli 2001</a>, p. 423.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001101-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001101_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWardBurns2001">Ward & Burns 2001</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199879-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199879_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooke1998">Cooke 1998</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2007-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2007_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2007">Wilson 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuller196891-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuller196891_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuller1968">Schuller 1968</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuller196893-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuller196893_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuller1968">Schuller 1968</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199856–59,_66–70,_78–79-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199856–59,_66–70,_78–79_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooke1998">Cooke 1998</a>, pp. 56–59, 66–70, 78–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzgerald200493-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzgerald200493_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzgerald2004">Fitzgerald 2004</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunkel2015123-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunkel2015123_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDunkel2015">Dunkel 2015</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke199882–83,_100–103-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke199882–83,_100–103_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooke1998">Cooke 1998</a>, pp. 82–83, 100–103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuller196888-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuller196888_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuller1968">Schuller 1968</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrump2008" class="citation book cs1">Crump, William D. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ujTfCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101"><i>Encyclopedia of New Year's Holidays Worldwide</i></a>. London: McFarland & Co. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-3393-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-3393-3"><bdi>978-0-7864-3393-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+New+Year%27s+Holidays+Worldwide&rft.place=London&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Co.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-3393-3&rft.aulast=Crump&rft.aufirst=William+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DujTfCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Obituary: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DYBIAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA14">"Famed Orchestra Leader Guy Lombardo, 75, Dies</a> Pittsubrg Post Gazette 7 Nov. 1977, p.26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehrnes2011" class="citation book cs1">Behrnes, Jack (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GKgJNIaWn1IC&pg=PA95"><i>America's Music Makers Big bands and Ballrooms 1912-2011 - Shep Fields society band broadcasting on radio from the Palmer House</i></a>. Bloomington, Il.: AuthorHouse. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4567-2952-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4567-2952-3"><bdi>978-1-4567-2952-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Music+Makers+Big+bands+and+Ballrooms+1912-2011+-+Shep+Fields+society+band+broadcasting+on+radio+from+the+Palmer+House&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Il.&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4567-2952-3&rft.aulast=Behrnes&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGKgJNIaWn1IC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaceyHenderson2014" class="citation book cs1">Stacey, Lee; Henderson, Lol, eds. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m8W2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA379"><i>Encyclopedia of music in the 20th Century</i></a>. London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. p. 379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-92946-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-92946-6"><bdi>978-1-135-92946-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+music+in+the+20th+Century&rft.place=London&rft.pages=379&rft.pub=Routledge+Taylor+and+Francis+Group&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-135-92946-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm8W2AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornShephard2012" class="citation book cs1">Horn, David; Shephard, John, eds. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=__DTvryrBZkC&pg=PA472"><i>Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World: Genres North America</i></a>. Vol. 8. Bloomsbury. p. 472. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4874-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4874-2"><bdi>978-1-4411-4874-2</bdi></a>. <q>Armstrong and Lombardo did not view their worlds as diametrically opposed, nor did many other contemporary musicians of the 1930s. ...Lombardo himself always took great pride in the number of black orchestras that imitated his style.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Continuum+Encyclopedia+of+Popular+Music+of+the+World%3A+Genres+North+America&rft.pages=472&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-4874-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D__DTvryrBZkC%26pg%3DPA472&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerish2012" class="citation book cs1">Berish, Andrew S. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ml4OLDYcJs0C&pg=PA42">"The Casino Ballroom: White and Sweet"</a>. <i>Lonesome Roads and Streets of Dreams: Place Mobility and Race in Jazz of the 1930s and '40s</i>. University of Chicago Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-04494-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-04494-1"><bdi>978-0-226-04494-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Casino+Ballroom%3A+White+and+Sweet&rft.btitle=Lonesome+Roads+and+Streets+of+Dreams%3A+Place+Mobility+and+Race+in+Jazz+of+the+1930s+and+%2740s&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-226-04494-1&rft.aulast=Berish&rft.aufirst=Andrew+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMl4OLDYcJs0C%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChevan2002201-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChevan2002201_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChevan2002">Chevan 2002</a>, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeretti199250Cooke199840-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeretti199250Cooke199840_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeretti1992">Peretti 1992</a>, p. 50; <a href="#CITEREFCooke1998">Cooke 1998</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001107-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001107_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWardBurns2001">Ward & Burns 2001</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiocca19903-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiocca19903_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBiocca1990">Biocca 1990</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Roche201518-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Roche201518_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Roche2015">De Roche 2015</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/BigBandRemotes">"Big Band Remotes"</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Big+Band+Remotes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FBigBandRemotes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995327-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995327_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarlow1995">Barlow 1995</a>, p. 327.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavran2006461-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavran2006461_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavran2006">Savran 2006</a>, p. 461.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995326–327-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995326–327_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarlow1995">Barlow 1995</a>, pp. 326–327.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrump2008" class="citation book cs1">Crump, William D. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ujTfCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101"><i>Encyclopedia of New Year's Holidays Worldwide</i></a>. London: McFarland & Co. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-3393-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-3393-3"><bdi>978-0-7864-3393-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+New+Year%27s+Holidays+Worldwide&rft.place=London&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Co.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-3393-3&rft.aulast=Crump&rft.aufirst=William+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DujTfCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt1-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nyt1_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/02/24/obituaries/shep-fields-leader-of-big-band-knowen-for-rippling-rythem.html">"SHEP FIELDS, LEADER OF BIG BAND KNOWEN FOR RIPPLING RYTHEM (Published 1981)"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. February 24, 1981<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=SHEP+FIELDS%2C+LEADER+OF+BIG+BAND+KNOWEN+FOR+RIPPLING+RYTHEM+%28Published+1981%29&rft.date=1981-02-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1981%2F02%2F24%2Fobituaries%2Fshep-fields-leader-of-big-band-knowen-for-rippling-rythem.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5qM7AQAAIAAJ&q=Shep+Fields+Biltmore+Hotel">Who Is Who In Music. Berghan Publishing Co. 1941 p. 93 Biography of Shep Fields on Google Books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehrens2011" class="citation web cs1">Behrens, John (March 4, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GKgJNIaWn1IC&q=Shep+Fields+society+band&pg=PA95">"America's Music Makers: Big Bands & Ballrooms 1912-2011"</a>. AuthorHouse – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=America%27s+Music+Makers%3A+Big+Bands+%26+Ballrooms+1912-2011&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2011-03-04&rft.aulast=Behrens&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGKgJNIaWn1IC%26q%3DShep%2BFields%2Bsociety%2Bband%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=oaYrAAAAIBAJ&sjid=5fwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6717,4906729&dq=broadcast+hotel+shep+fields&hl=en">"Obituaries: Shep Fields Dies -noted bandleader"</a>. <i>The Telegraph</i>. February 24, 1981.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Obituaries%3A+Shep+Fields+Dies+-noted+bandleader&rft.date=1981-02-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3DoaYrAAAAIBAJ%26sjid%3D5fwFAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D6717%2C4906729%26dq%3Dbroadcast%2Bhotel%2Bshep%2Bfields%26hl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaggelaar2006" class="citation book cs1">Baggelaar, Kristin (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KUz_qcJQmnUC&pg=PA61"><i>The Copacabana</i></a>. Arcadia Publishing. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-4919-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-4919-4"><bdi>978-0-7385-4919-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Copacabana&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Arcadia+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7385-4919-4&rft.aulast=Baggelaar&rft.aufirst=Kristin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKUz_qcJQmnUC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nxEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT33">"New Band for Kelly-Wood"</a>. <i>The Billboard</i>. February 24, 1945. p. 34. <q>Shep Fields is set for the Copacabana</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Billboard&rft.atitle=New+Band+for+Kelly-Wood&rft.pages=34&rft.date=1945-02-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnxEEAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPT33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFass197722-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFass197722_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFass1977">Fass 1977</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBerger1947">Berger 1947</a>, p. 463: "Calling jazz an 'agency of the devil,' the pastor of the Calvary Baptist Church in New York said in 1926: 'Jazz, with its . . . appeal to the sensuous, should be stamped out.' The rector of the Episcopal Church of the Ascension in New York said in 1922: 'Jazz is retrogression. It is going to the African jungle for our music.'"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/tbacig/studproj/is3099/jazzcult/20sjazz/jazzlib.html#:~:text=Jazz%20provided%20an%20outlet%20for,language,%20clothing,%20and%20behavior">"jazzlib"</a>. <i>www.d.umn.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.d.umn.edu&rft.atitle=jazzlib&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.d.umn.edu%2Fcla%2Ffaculty%2Ftbacig%2Fstudproj%2Fis3099%2Fjazzcult%2F20sjazz%2Fjazzlib.html%23%3A~%3Atext%3DJazz%2520provided%2520an%2520outlet%2520for%2Clanguage%2C%2520clothing%2C%2520and%2520behavior&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/lgbtq/bessie-smith">"Bessie Smith"</a>. <i>National Museum of African American History and Culture</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+African+American+History+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Bessie+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnmaahc.si.edu%2Flgbtq%2Fbessie-smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2004458–460-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2004458–460_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWard2004">Ward 2004</a>, pp. 458–460.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESantelli200120-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantelli200120_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSantelli2001">Santelli 2001</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorzillo19961,_94–96-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorzillo19961,_94–96_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorzillo19961,_94–96_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorzillo19961,_94–96_71-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBorzillo1996">Borzillo 1996</a>, pp. 1, 94–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooke1998">Cooke 1998</a>, p. 129: "Holiday (1919–59) is widely recognized as the greatest jazz vocalist of all time, a performer who revolutionized the art of jazz singing in the 1930s and exerted a powerful influence on subsequent vocalists."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooke1998">Cooke 1998</a>, p. 128: "Ella Fitzgerald's extensive 'songbook' recordings made between 1956 and 1964 remain among the best-selling vocal albums in jazz."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001270,_272-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001270,_272_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWardBurns2001">Ward & Burns 2001</a>, pp. 270, 272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrow1990251-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrow1990251_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrow1990">Crow 1990</a>, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001272-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001272_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWardBurns2001">Ward & Burns 2001</a>, p. 272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCann20083-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCann20083_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCann2008">McCann 2008</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBerger1947">Berger 1947</a>, p. 463: "Those who opposed jazz with no qualification whatever saw in it an appeal to sensuousness, a return to primitive forms, and described it as the music of persons without any training."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995325-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1995325_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarlow1995">Barlow 1995</a>, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hershey19220625-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hershey19220625_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHershey1922" class="citation news cs1">Hershey, Burnet (June 25, 1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sundaymagazine.org/2022/06/26/jazz-latitutde/">"Jazz Latitude"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. pp. T5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220626162658/https://sundaymagazine.org/2022/06/26/jazz-latitutde/">Archived</a> from the original on June 26, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Jazz+Latitude&rft.pages=T5&rft.date=1922-06-25&rft.aulast=Hershey&rft.aufirst=Burnet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsundaymagazine.org%2F2022%2F06%2F26%2Fjazz-latitutde%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKater1988" class="citation journal cs1">Kater, Michael (April 1, 1988). "The Jazz Experience in Weimar Germany". <i>German History</i>. <b>6</b> (2). Oxford University Press: 145–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgh%2F6.2.145">10.1093/gh/6.2.145</a>. <q>American Jazz was imported into Germany in the early 1920s...some two to five years after it had entered Britain or France...genuine American Jazz musicians (such as)... Mike Danzi embarked on a German tour with American bandleader Alex Hyde before deciding to make Berlin his permanent European base....As the great majority of German musicians still found jazz very difficult to master, it was Americans and a few Englishmen who came to dominate the jazz scene of the Roaring Twenties...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=German+History&rft.atitle=The+Jazz+Experience+in+Weimar+Germany&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=145-158&rft.date=1988-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgh%2F6.2.145&rft.aulast=Kater&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeadows1995" class="citation book cs1">Meadows, Eddie S. (February 27, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dDIKSt7JR40C&pg=PA121"><i>Jazz Research and Performance Materials</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0373-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0373-2"><bdi>978-0-8153-0373-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jazz+Research+and+Performance+Materials&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1995-02-27&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-0373-2&rft.aulast=Meadows&rft.aufirst=Eddie+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdDIKSt7JR40C%26pg%3DPA121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynn200767-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynn200767_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWynn2007">Wynn 2007</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodbolt20058–11-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGodbolt20058–11_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGodbolt2005">Godbolt 2005</a>, pp. 8–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodbolt200529,_46,_67-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGodbolt200529,_46,_67_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGodbolt2005">Godbolt 2005</a>, pp. 29, 46, 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodbolt200529–31-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGodbolt200529–31_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGodbolt2005">Godbolt 2005</a>, pp. 29–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake199989-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlake199989_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlake1999">Blake 1999</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKay2005121–122Shearer2018-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKay2005121–122Shearer2018_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcKay2005">McKay 2005</a>, p. 121–122; <a href="#CITEREFShearer2018">Shearer 2018</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2002149–170-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2002149–170_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2002">Jackson 2002</a>, pp. 149–170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001299Peretti1992201-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2001299Peretti1992201_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWardBurns2001">Ward & Burns 2001</a>, p. 299; <a href="#CITEREFPeretti1992">Peretti 1992</a>, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns200178-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardBurns200178_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWardBurns2001">Ward & Burns 2001</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuhor200118-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuhor200118_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuhor2001">Suhor 2001</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiocca19909-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBiocca19909_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBiocca1990">Biocca 1990</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiterary_Digest1919" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dn1AAQAAMAAJ&q=%22jazz%20age%22">"A German Interpreter of Jazz"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Literary_Digest" title="The Literary Digest">The Literary Digest</a></i>. Vol. 62. New York: <a href="/wiki/Funk_%26_Wagnalls" title="Funk & Wagnalls">Funk & Wagnalls</a>. August 23, 1919 – via Google Books. <q>Some might, indeed, suppose that this muse had her jazz age behind her.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Literary+Digest&rft.atitle=A+German+Interpreter+of+Jazz&rft.volume=62&rft.date=1919-08-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDn1AAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522jazz%2520age%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarlow1995" class="citation journal cs1">Barlow, William (January 1, 1995). "Black Music on Radio During the Jazz Age". <i><a href="/wiki/African_American_Review" title="African American Review">African American Review</a></i>. <b>29</b> (2). St. Louis, Missouri: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Language_Association" title="Modern Language Association">Modern Language Association</a>: 325–328. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3042311">10.2307/3042311</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3042311">3042311</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+American+Review&rft.atitle=Black+Music+on+Radio+During+the+Jazz+Age&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=325-328&rft.date=1995-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3042311&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3042311%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Barlow&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerg1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._Scott_Berg" title="A. Scott Berg">Berg, A. Scott</a> (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/maxperkinsedito000berg"><i>Max Perkins: Editor of Genius</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-82719-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-82719-7"><bdi>0-671-82719-7</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Max+Perkins%3A+Editor+of+Genius&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-671-82719-7&rft.aulast=Berg&rft.aufirst=A.+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmaxperkinsedito000berg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger1947" class="citation journal cs1">Berger, Morroe (October 1947). "Jazz: Resistance to the Diffusion of a Culture-Pattern". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Negro_History" class="mw-redirect" title="The Journal of Negro History">The Journal of Negro History</a></i>. <b>32</b> (4). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History</a>: 461–494. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2714928">10.2307/2714928</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2714928">2714928</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149563657">149563657</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=Jazz%3A+Resistance+to+the+Diffusion+of+a+Culture-Pattern&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=461-494&rft.date=1947-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149563657%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2714928%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2714928&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Morroe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiocca1990" class="citation journal cs1">Biocca, Frank (1990). "Media and Perceptual Shifts: Early Radio and the Clash of Musical Cultures". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Popular_Culture" title="The Journal of Popular Culture">The Journal of Popular Culture</a></i>. <b>24</b> (2). Hoboken, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>: 1–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0022-3840.1990.2402_1.x">10.1111/j.0022-3840.1990.2402_1.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Popular+Culture&rft.atitle=Media+and+Perceptual+Shifts%3A+Early+Radio+and+the+Clash+of+Musical+Cultures&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-15&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0022-3840.1990.2402_1.x&rft.aulast=Biocca&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlake1999" class="citation book cs1">Blake, Jody (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=juY_sR7kudgC&pg=PA89"><i>Le Tumulte Noir: Modernist Art and Popular Entertainment in Jazz-Age Paris, 1900-1930</i></a>. University Park, Pennsylvania: <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania State University Press">Pennsylvania State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01753-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01753-2"><bdi>978-0-271-01753-2</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Tumulte+Noir%3A+Modernist+Art+and+Popular+Entertainment+in+Jazz-Age+Paris%2C+1900-1930&rft.place=University+Park%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-271-01753-2&rft.aulast=Blake&rft.aufirst=Jody&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjuY_sR7kudgC%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorzillo1996" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carrie_Borzillo" title="Carrie Borzillo">Borzillo, Carrie</a> (June 29, 1996). "Women in Jazz: Music on Their Terms". <i><a href="/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)" title="Billboard (magazine)">Billboard</a></i>. Vol. 108, no. 26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Billboard&rft.atitle=Women+in+Jazz%3A+Music+on+Their+Terms&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=26&rft.date=1996-06-29&rft.aulast=Borzillo&rft.aufirst=Carrie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChevan2002" class="citation magazine cs1">Chevan, David (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.volusiagig.com/music/ChevanLiteracy.pdf">"Musical Literacy and Jazz Musicians in the 1910s and 1920s"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Current Musicology</i>. No. 71–73. New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Libraries" title="Columbia University Libraries">Columbia University Libraries</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7916%2Fcm.v0i71-73.4825">10.7916/cm.v0i71-73.4825</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225032212/http://www.volusiagig.com/music/ChevanLiteracy.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on February 25, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Musicology&rft.atitle=Musical+Literacy+and+Jazz+Musicians+in+the+1910s+and+1920s&rft.issue=71%E2%80%9373&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7916%2Fcm.v0i71-73.4825&rft.aulast=Chevan&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.volusiagig.com%2Fmusic%2FChevanLiteracy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooke1998" class="citation book cs1">Cooke, Mervyn (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jazz00cook"><i>Jazz</i></a></span>. London: <a href="/wiki/Thames_and_Hudson" class="mw-redirect" title="Thames and Hudson">Thames and Hudson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20318-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20318-7"><bdi>978-0-500-20318-7</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jazz&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-500-20318-7&rft.aulast=Cooke&rft.aufirst=Mervyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjazz00cook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrow1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Crow" title="Bill Crow">Crow, Bill</a> (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jazzanecdotes0000crow"><i>Jazz Anecdotes</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505588-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505588-8"><bdi>0-19-505588-8</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jazz+Anecdotes&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-19-505588-8&rft.aulast=Crow&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjazzanecdotes0000crow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Roche2015" class="citation book cs1">De Roche, Linda (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cOGOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR18"><i>The Jazz Age: A Historical Exploration of Literature</i></a>. Santa Barbara, California: <a href="/wiki/ABC-Clio" title="ABC-Clio">ABC-Clio</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-668-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-668-5"><bdi>978-1-61069-668-5</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jazz+Age%3A+A+Historical+Exploration+of+Literature&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-668-5&rft.aulast=De+Roche&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcOGOCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunkel2015" class="citation journal cs1">Dunkel, Mario (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03007766.2014.994320">"W.C. Handy, Abbe Niles, and (Auto)biographical Positioning in the Whiteman Era"</a>. <i>Popular Music and Society</i>. <b>38</b> (2). United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Taylor_and_Francis" class="mw-redirect" title="Taylor and Francis">Taylor and Francis</a>: 122–139. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03007766.2014.994320">10.1080/03007766.2014.994320</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191480580">191480580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Music+and+Society&rft.atitle=W.C.+Handy%2C+Abbe+Niles%2C+and+%28Auto%29biographical+Positioning+in+the+Whiteman+Era&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=122-139&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03007766.2014.994320&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191480580%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dunkel&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F03007766.2014.994320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFass1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paula_S._Fass" title="Paula S. Fass">Fass, Paula S.</a> (1977). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/damnedbeautifula0000fass_c0h2"><i>The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502148-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502148-6"><bdi>978-0-19-502148-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/76-42644">76-42644</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Damned+and+the+Beautiful%3A+American+Youth+in+the+1920s&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F76-42644&rft.isbn=978-0-19-502148-6&rft.aulast=Fass&rft.aufirst=Paula+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdamnedbeautifula0000fass_c0h2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzgerald2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/F._Scott_Fitzgerald" title="F. Scott Fitzgerald">Fitzgerald, F. Scott</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M_BObJAl0lIC"><i>Conversations with F. Scott Fitzgerald</i></a>. Jackson, Mississippi: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Mississippi" title="University Press of Mississippi">University Press of Mississippi</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57806-605-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57806-605-6"><bdi>978-1-57806-605-6</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conversations+with+F.+Scott+Fitzgerald&rft.place=Jackson%2C+Mississippi&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-57806-605-6&rft.aulast=Fitzgerald&rft.aufirst=F.+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM_BObJAl0lIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGermuska1995" class="citation web cs1">Germuska, Joe (October 17, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19971210223539/http://www.acns.nwu.edu/jazz/styles/style-map.html">"The Map"</a>. Evanston, Illinois: <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acns.nwu.edu/jazz/styles/style-map.html">the original</a> on December 10, 1997.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Map&rft.place=Evanston%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=Northwestern+University&rft.date=1995-10-17&rft.aulast=Germuska&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acns.nwu.edu%2Fjazz%2Fstyles%2Fstyle-map.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span> Derived from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joachim-Ernst_Berendt" title="Joachim-Ernst Berendt">Berendt, Joachim-Ernst</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ViwYAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond</i></a>. Chicago, Illinois: <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Review_Press" title="Chicago Review Press">Lawrence Hill Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781556520990" title="Special:BookSources/9781556520990"><bdi>9781556520990</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220718001248/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Jazz_Book/ViwYAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on July 18, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 22,</span> 2021</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jazz+Book%3A+From+Ragtime+to+Fusion+and+Beyond&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=Lawrence+Hill+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9781556520990&rft.aulast=Berendt&rft.aufirst=Joachim-Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DViwYAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodbolt2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jim_Godbolt" title="Jim Godbolt">Godbolt, Jim</a> (2005) [1984]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjazzinb0000godb"><i>A History of Jazz in Britain 1919–1950</i></a></span>. London: <a href="/wiki/Northway_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Northway Publications">Northway Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9537040-5-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-9537040-5-X"><bdi>0-9537040-5-X</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Jazz+in+Britain+1919%E2%80%931950&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Northway+Publications&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-9537040-5-X&rft.aulast=Godbolt&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjazzinb0000godb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenderson2013" class="citation magazine cs1">Henderson, Amy (May 10, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/what-the-great-gatsby-got-right-about-the-jazz-age-57645443/">"What the Great Gatsby Got Right About the Jazz Age"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_(magazine)" title="Smithsonian (magazine)">Smithsonian Magazine</a></i>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200206101815/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/what-the-great-gatsby-got-right-about-the-jazz-age-57645443/">Archived</a> from the original on February 6, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=What+the+Great+Gatsby+Got+Right+About+the+Jazz+Age&rft.date=2013-05-10&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmithsonian-institution%2Fwhat-the-great-gatsby-got-right-about-the-jazz-age-57645443%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHennessey1973" class="citation book cs1">Hennessey, Thomas (1973). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromjazztoswingb00henn"><i>From Jazz to Swing: Black Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1917–1935</i></a></span> (Ph.D. dissertation). Ann Arbor, Michigan: <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Jazz+to+Swing%3A+Black+Jazz+Musicians+and+Their+Music%2C+1917%E2%80%931935&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=Northwestern+University&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Hennessey&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromjazztoswingb00henn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2004" class="citation book cs1">Hill, Jeff (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/prohibition0000hill"><i>Defining Moments: Prohibition</i></a></span>. Detroit, Michigan: <a href="/wiki/Omnigraphics" title="Omnigraphics">Omnigraphics</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7808-0768-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7808-0768-6"><bdi>978-0-7808-0768-6</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defining+Moments%3A+Prohibition&rft.place=Detroit%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=Omnigraphics&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7808-0768-6&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprohibition0000hill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2002" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, Jeffrey (2002). "Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927–1934". <i><a href="/wiki/French_Historical_Studies" title="French Historical Studies">French Historical Studies</a></i>. <b>25</b> (1). Durham, North Carolina: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>: 149–170. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00161071-25-1-149">10.1215/00161071-25-1-149</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161520728">161520728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=Making+Jazz+French%3A+The+Reception+of+Jazz+Music+in+Paris%2C+1927%E2%80%931934&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=149-170&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00161071-25-1-149&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161520728%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOxford_English_Dictionary2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/100938?redirectedFrom=jazz+age#eid40333412">"jazz age, n."</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>. Oxford, England: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. September 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211120025417/https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/100938?redirectedFrom=jazz+age#eid40333412">Archived</a> from the original on November 20, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=jazz+age%2C+n.&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F100938%3FredirectedFrom%3Djazz%2Bage%23eid40333412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Park_Service2015" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm">"Jazz Origins in New Orleans"</a>. New Orleans, Louisiana: <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>. 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200605230346/https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm">Archived</a> from the original on June 5, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jazz+Origins+in+New+Orleans&rft.place=New+Orleans%2C+Louisiana&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fjazz%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fhistory_early.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkrent2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Okrent" title="Daniel Okrent">Okrent, Daniel</a> (April 30, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MJbBqn3XWqAC"><i>Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Scribner</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-7702-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-7702-0"><bdi>978-0-7432-7702-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009051127">2009051127</a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Last+Call%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Prohibition&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=2010-04-30&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009051127&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-7702-0&rft.aulast=Okrent&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMJbBqn3XWqAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrchowski2015" class="citation book cs1">Orchowski, Margaret Sands (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K0hKCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA32"><i>The Law that Changed the Face of America: The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965</i></a>. Lanham, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-5137-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-5137-3"><bdi>978-1-4422-5137-3</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Law+that+Changed+the+Face+of+America%3A+The+Immigration+and+Nationality+Act+of+1965&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-5137-3&rft.aulast=Orchowski&rft.aufirst=Margaret+Sands&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK0hKCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCann2008" class="citation journal cs1">McCann, Paul (2008). "Performing Primitivism: Disarming the Social Threat of Jazz in Narrative Fiction of the Early Sixties". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Popular_Culture" title="The Journal of Popular Culture">The Journal of Popular Culture</a></i>. <b>41</b> (4). Hoboken, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2FJ.1540-5931.2008.00541.X">10.1111/J.1540-5931.2008.00541.X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Popular+Culture&rft.atitle=Performing+Primitivism%3A+Disarming+the+Social+Threat+of+Jazz+in+Narrative+Fiction+of+the+Early+Sixties&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2FJ.1540-5931.2008.00541.X&rft.aulast=McCann&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKay2005" class="citation book cs1">McKay, George (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ocHLuESAToC&pg=PT121"><i>Circular Breathing: The Cultural Politics of Jazz in Britain</i></a>. Durham, North Carolina: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-8728-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-8728-2"><bdi>978-0-8223-8728-2</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Circular+Breathing%3A+The+Cultural+Politics+of+Jazz+in+Britain&rft.place=Durham%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-8728-2&rft.aulast=McKay&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1ocHLuESAToC%26pg%3DPT121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeretti1992" class="citation book cs1">Peretti, Burton W. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creationofjazzmu0000pere"><i>The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America</i></a></span>. Urbana and Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-01708-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-01708-0"><bdi>0-252-01708-0</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creation+of+Jazz%3A+Music%2C+Race%2C+and+Culture+in+Urban+America&rft.place=Urbana+and+Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-252-01708-0&rft.aulast=Peretti&rft.aufirst=Burton+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcreationofjazzmu0000pere&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodgers1997" class="citation news cs1">Rodgers, Andrew (August 27, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1997-08-26-9801160503-story.html">"The Genna Brothers"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">Chicago Tribune</a></i>. Chicago, Illinois. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191213043711/https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1997-08-26-9801160503-story.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 13, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 13,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=The+Genna+Brothers&rft.date=1997-08-27&rft.aulast=Rodgers&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2Fnews%2Fct-xpm-1997-08-26-9801160503-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth1952" class="citation journal cs1">Roth, Russell (1952). "On the Instrumental Origins of Jazz". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Quarterly" title="American Quarterly">American Quarterly</a></i>. <b>4</b> (4). Baltimore, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>: 305–316. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3031415">10.2307/3031415</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0678">0003-0678</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3031415">3031415</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Quarterly&rft.atitle=On+the+Instrumental+Origins+of+Jazz&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=305-316&rft.date=1952&rft.issn=0003-0678&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3031415%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3031415&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2010" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Thaddeus (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4CrdAkQQ9P4C"><i>A Renegade History of the United States</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_and_Schuster" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon and Schuster">Simon and Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-7109-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-7109-4"><bdi>978-1-4165-7109-4</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Renegade+History+of+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-7109-4&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Thaddeus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4CrdAkQQ9P4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSales1984" class="citation book cs1">Sales, Grover (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0IPuAAAAMAAJ"><i>Jazz: America's Classical Music</i></a>. Ann Arbor, Michigan: <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Michigan_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Michigan Press">The University of Michigan Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-509126-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-509126-5"><bdi>978-0-13-509126-5</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jazz%3A+America%27s+Classical+Music&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=The+University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-13-509126-5&rft.aulast=Sales&rft.aufirst=Grover&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0IPuAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantelli2001" class="citation book cs1">Santelli, Robert (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bigbookofbluesbi00sant"><i>The Big Book of Blues: A Biographical Encyclopedia</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-100145-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-100145-3"><bdi>0-14-100145-3</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Big+Book+of+Blues%3A+A+Biographical+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-14-100145-3&rft.aulast=Santelli&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbigbookofbluesbi00sant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavran2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Savran" title="David Savran">Savran, David</a> (2006). "The Search for America's Soul: Theatre in the Jazz Age". <i><a href="/wiki/Theatre_Journal" title="Theatre Journal">Theatre Journal</a></i>. <b>58</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/Baltimore,_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltimore, Maryland">Baltimore, Maryland</a>: <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>: 459–476. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftj.2006.0171">10.1353/tj.2006.0171</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25069871">25069871</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:192117168">192117168</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theatre+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Search+for+America%27s+Soul%3A+Theatre+in+the+Jazz+Age&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=459-476&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A192117168%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25069871%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftj.2006.0171&rft.aulast=Savran&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuller1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gunther_Schuller" title="Gunther Schuller">Schuller, Gunther</a> (1968). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlyjazzitsroot00schu"><i>Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/68-17610">68-17610</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Jazz%3A+Its+Roots+and+Musical+Development&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F68-17610&rft.aulast=Schuller&rft.aufirst=Gunther&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlyjazzitsroot00schu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShearer2018" class="citation news cs1">Shearer, Carly (April 24, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lyonandturnbull.com/news/article/the-threat-of-jazz/">"The Threat of Jazz: John Bulloch Souter's 'The Breakdown'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Edinburgh, Scotland: <a href="/wiki/Lyon_%26_Turnbull" title="Lyon & Turnbull">Lyon & Turnbull</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211122194012/https://www.lyonandturnbull.com/news/article/the-threat-of-jazz/">Archived</a> from the original on November 22, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Threat+of+Jazz%3A+John+Bulloch+Souter%27s+%27The+Breakdown%27&rft.date=2018-04-24&rft.aulast=Shearer&rft.aufirst=Carly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lyonandturnbull.com%2Fnews%2Farticle%2Fthe-threat-of-jazz%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuhor2001" class="citation book cs1">Suhor, Charles (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y0TvKkkgkVgC&pg=PA18"><i>Jazz in New Orleans: The Postwar Years Through 1970</i></a>. Studies in Jazz. Vol. 38. Lanham, Maryland / London: <a href="/wiki/The_Scarecrow_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scarecrow Press">The Scarecrow Press</a>. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-3907-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-3907-6"><bdi>978-0-8108-3907-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jazz+in+New+Orleans%3A+The+Postwar+Years+Through+1970&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland+%2F+London&rft.series=Studies+in+Jazz&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=The+Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-3907-6&rft.aulast=Suhor&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy0TvKkkgkVgC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoughton_Line1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tpA7AQAAMAAJ"><i>The Houghton Line</i></a>. Vol. 24–25. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: E. F. Houghton & Co. 1919 – via Google Books. <q>I am not convinced, however, that the 'jazz age' is the cause of the church losing its influence.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Houghton+Line&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=E.+F.+Houghton+%26+Co&rft.date=1919&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtpA7AQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWardBurns2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_C._Ward" title="Geoffrey C. Ward">Ward, Geoffrey C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ken_Burns" title="Ken Burns">Burns, Ken</a> (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jazzhistoryofame0000ward"><i>Jazz: A History of America's Music</i></a></span> (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Pimlico" title="Pimlico">Pimlico</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76539-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76539-4"><bdi>978-0-679-76539-4</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jazz%3A+A+History+of+America%27s+Music&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-679-76539-4&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+C.&rft.au=Burns%2C+Ken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjazzhistoryofame0000ward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard2004" class="citation journal cs1">Ward, Larry F. (December 2004). "Bessie". <i><a href="/wiki/Notes_(journal)" title="Notes (journal)">Notes</a></i>. <b>61</b> (2). Middleton, Wisconsin: <a href="/wiki/Music_Library_Association" title="Music Library Association">Music Library Association</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fnot.2004.0171">10.1353/not.2004.0171</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4487383">4487383</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201766523">201766523</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notes&rft.atitle=Bessie&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2004-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201766523%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4487383%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fnot.2004.0171&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Larry+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2007" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Wilson_(jazz_singer)" title="Nancy Wilson (jazz singer)">Wilson, Nancy</a> (December 19, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2007/12/19/17370123/fletcher-henderson-architect-of-swing">"Fletcher Henderson: 'Architect of Swing'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>NPR's Jazz Profiles</i>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">National Public Radio (NPR)</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180421232839/https://www.npr.org/2007/12/19/17370123/fletcher-henderson-architect-of-swing">Archived</a> from the original on April 21, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR%27s+Jazz+Profiles&rft.atitle=Fletcher+Henderson%3A+%27Architect+of+Swing%27&rft.date=2007-12-19&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2007%2F12%2F19%2F17370123%2Ffletcher-henderson-architect-of-swing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWynn2007" class="citation book cs1">Wynn, Neil A., ed. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PMaszIALuVYC"><i>Cross the Water Blues: African American Music in Europe</i></a> (1st ed.). Jackson, Mississippi: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Mississippi" title="University Press of Mississippi">University Press of Mississippi</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60473-546-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60473-546-8"><bdi>978-1-60473-546-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220718001250/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cross_the_Water_Blues/PMaszIALuVYC">Archived</a> from the original on July 18, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 22,</span> 2021</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cross+the+Water+Blues%3A+African+American+Music+in+Europe&rft.place=Jackson%2C+Mississippi&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-60473-546-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPMaszIALuVYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lewis_Allen" title="Frederick Lewis Allen">Allen, Frederick Lewis</a> (1931). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onlyyesterdayinf00alle"><i>Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the Nineteen-Twenties</i></a></span> (1st ed.). New York and London: <a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper & Brothers">Harper & Brothers</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Only+Yesterday%3A+An+Informal+History+of+the+Nineteen-Twenties&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Frederick+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonlyyesterdayinf00alle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lewis_Allen" title="Frederick Lewis Allen">Allen, Frederick Lewis</a> (1939). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sinceyesterdayth001025mbp"><i>Since Yesterday: The 1930s in America</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Harper_and_Row" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper and Row">Harper and Row</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Since+Yesterday%3A+The+1930s+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Frederick+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsinceyesterdayth001025mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Dinerstein, Joel (2003). "Music, Memory, and Cultural Identity in the Jazz Age". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Quarterly" title="American Quarterly">American Quarterly</a></i>. <b>55</b> (2). Baltimore, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>: 303–313. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Faq.2003.0012">10.1353/aq.2003.0012</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30041974">30041974</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145194943">145194943</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Music%2C+Memory%2C+and+Cultural+Identity+in+the+Jazz+Age&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=303-313&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145194943%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30041974%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Faq.2003.0012&rft.aulast=Dinerstein&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Doerksen, Clifford J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qiAoQ1Z1iv0C"><i>American Babel: Rogue Radio Broadcasters of the Jazz Age</i></a>. Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0176-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0176-5"><bdi>978-0-8122-0176-5</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Babel%3A+Rogue+Radio+Broadcasters+of+the+Jazz+Age&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0176-5&rft.aulast=Doerksen&rft.aufirst=Clifford+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqiAoQ1Z1iv0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Dumenil" title="Lynn Dumenil">Dumenil, Lynn</a> (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moderntemperamer0000dume"><i>The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Hill_and_Wang" class="mw-redirect" title="Hill and Wang">Hill and Wang</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8090-1566-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8090-1566-8"><bdi>0-8090-1566-8</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+Temper%3A+American+Culture+and+Society+in+the+1920s&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-8090-1566-8&rft.aulast=Dumenil&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoderntemperamer0000dume&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/F._Scott_Fitzgerald" title="F. Scott Fitzgerald">Fitzgerald, F. Scott</a> (1945). "Echoes of the Jazz Age". In <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Wilson" title="Edmund Wilson">Wilson, Edmund</a> (ed.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cerackup0000fsco/"><i>The Crack-up</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/New_Directions_Publishing" title="New Directions Publishing">New Directions</a>. pp. 13–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8112-0051-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8112-0051-5"><bdi>0-8112-0051-5</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Echoes+of+the+Jazz+Age&rft.btitle=The+Crack-up&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=13-22&rft.pub=New+Directions&rft.date=1945&rft.isbn=0-8112-0051-5&rft.aulast=Fitzgerald&rft.aufirst=F.+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcerackup0000fsco%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span> See <a href="/wiki/The_Crack-Up" title="The Crack-Up">The Crack-Up</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_E._Kyvig" title="David E. Kyvig">Kyvig, David E.</a> (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinunite00kyvi"><i>Daily Life in the United States, 1920–1939: Decades of Promise and Pain</i></a></span>. Westport, Connecticut: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-29555-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-29555-7"><bdi>0-313-29555-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001023857">2001023857</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+in+the+United+States%2C+1920%E2%80%931939%3A+Decades+of+Promise+and+Pain&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001023857&rft.isbn=0-313-29555-7&rft.aulast=Kyvig&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeinunite00kyvi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Leuchtenburg" title="William Leuchtenburg">Leuchtenburg, William</a> (1958). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/perilsofprosperi00leuc"><i>The Perils of Prosperity, 1914–1932</i></a></span>. Chicago and London: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-47368-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-47368-6"><bdi>0-226-47368-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/58-5680">58-5680</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Perils+of+Prosperity%2C+1914%E2%80%931932&rft.place=Chicago+and+London&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F58-5680&rft.isbn=0-226-47368-6&rft.aulast=Leuchtenburg&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fperilsofprosperi00leuc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Staughton_Lynd" title="Robert Staughton Lynd">Lynd, Robert S.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Helen_Merrell_Lynd" class="mw-redirect" title="Helen Merrell Lynd">Lynd, Helen Merrell</a> (1929). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156473"><i>Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Harcourt,_Brace_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Harcourt, Brace and Company">Harcourt, Brace and Company</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middletown%3A+A+Study+in+Modern+American+Culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harcourt%2C+Brace+and+Company&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Lynd&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft.au=Lynd%2C+Helen+Merrell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.156473&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_E._Mowry" title="George E. Mowry">Mowry, George E.</a> (1963). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twentiesfordsfla00mowr"><i>The Twenties: Fords, Flappers, & Fanatics</i></a></span>. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Prentice-Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Prentice-Hall">Prentice-Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/63-19425">63-19425</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Twenties%3A+Fords%2C+Flappers%2C+%26+Fanatics&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F63-19425&rft.aulast=Mowry&rft.aufirst=George+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftwentiesfordsfla00mowr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Parrish, Michael E. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anxiousdecadesam0000parr_n1p1"><i>Anxious Decades: America in Prosperity and Depression, 1920–1941</i></a></span>. New York and London: <a href="/wiki/W.W._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="W.W. Norton">W.W. Norton</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-03394-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-03394-5"><bdi>0-393-03394-5</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anxious+Decades%3A+America+in+Prosperity+and+Depression%2C+1920%E2%80%931941&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-393-03394-5&rft.aulast=Parrish&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanxiousdecadesam0000parr_n1p1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Sullivan_(journalist)" title="Mark Sullivan (journalist)">Sullivan, Mark</a> (1936). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ourtimes190019250006sull_w0z1"><i>Our Times, 1900–1925: Volume IV – The Twenties</i></a></span> (1st ed.). New York and London: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Charles Scribner's Sons</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+Times%2C+1900%E2%80%931925%3A+Volume+IV+%E2%80%93+The+Twenties&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fourtimes190019250006sull_w0z1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeal2021" class="citation cs2">Teal, Kimberly Hannon (June 15, 2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520972841/html">"Jazz Places: How Performance Spaces Shape Jazz History"</a>, <i>Jazz Places</i>, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2F9780520972841">10.1525/9780520972841</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-97284-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-97284-1"><bdi>978-0-520-97284-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 25,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jazz+Places&rft.atitle=Jazz+Places%3A+How+Performance+Spaces+Shape+Jazz+History&rft.date=2021-06-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2F9780520972841&rft.isbn=978-0-520-97284-1&rft.aulast=Teal&rft.aufirst=Kimberly+Hannon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1525%2F9780520972841%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJazz+Age" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Age&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alcohol_prohibition" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prohibition" title="Template:Prohibition"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prohibition" title="Template talk:Prohibition"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prohibition" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prohibition"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alcohol_prohibition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prohibition" title="Prohibition">Alcohol prohibition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_with_alcohol_prohibition" title="List of countries with alcohol prohibition">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_Bangladesh" title="Alcohol in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_Canada" title="Prohibition in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition#Nordic_countries" title="Prohibition">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_Iceland" title="Prohibition in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_prohibition_in_India" title="Alcohol prohibition in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_Iran" title="Alcohol in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_Russian_Empire_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Prohibition in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union">Russia / Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18th Amendment (U.S. Constitution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21st Amendment (U.S. Constitution)</a></li> <li>Australian prohibition referendums <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1925_Western_Australian_prohibition_referendum" title="1925 Western Australian prohibition referendum">Western Australian, 1925</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1928_New_South_Wales_prohibition_referendum" title="1928 New South Wales prohibition referendum">New South Wales, 1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950_Western_Australian_prohibition_referendum" title="1950 Western Australian prohibition referendum">Western Australian, 1950</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Mafia" title="American Mafia">American Mafia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Temperance_Society" title="American Temperance Society">American Temperance Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Saloon_League" title="Anti-Saloon League">Anti-Saloon League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_Against_the_Prohibition_Amendment" title="Association Against the Prohibition Amendment">Association Against the Prohibition Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathtub_gin" title="Bathtub gin">Bathtub gin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Act" title="Blaine Act">Blaine Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Prohibition" title="Bureau of Prohibition">Bureau of Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cullen%E2%80%93Harrison_Act" title="Cullen–Harrison Act">Cullen–Harrison Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_county" title="Dry county">Dry county</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dry_state" title="Dry state">Dry state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dry_communities_by_U.S._state" title="List of dry communities by U.S. state">List of dry communities by U.S. state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws#Intoxicants" title="Islamic dietary laws">Islam</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jazz Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_option" title="Local option">Local option</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_Liquor_Prescriptions_Act_of_1933" title="Medicinal Liquor Prescriptions Act of 1933">Medicinal Liquor Prescriptions Act of 1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molly_Pitcher_Club" title="Molly Pitcher Club">Molly Pitcher Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonshine" title="Moonshine">Moonshine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-prohibitionism" title="Neo-prohibitionism">Neo-prohibitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nip_joint" title="Nip joint">Nip joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum-running" title="Rum-running">Rum-running</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum_Patrol" title="Rum Patrol">Rum Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum_row" title="Rum row">Rum row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sly-grog_shop" title="Sly-grog shop">Sly-grog shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speakeasy" title="Speakeasy">Speakeasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_prohibition_referendum,_1922" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish prohibition referendum, 1922">Swedish prohibition referendum, 1922</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teetotalism" title="Teetotalism">Teetotalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">Temperance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(Scotland)_Act_1913" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperance (Scotland) Act 1913">Temperance (Scotland) Act 1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Alliance" title="United Kingdom Alliance">United Kingdom Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volstead_Act" title="Volstead Act">Volstead Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Committee_of_Lawyers" title="Voluntary Committee of Lawyers">Voluntary Committee of Lawyers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webb%E2%80%93Kenyon_Act" title="Webb–Kenyon Act">Webb–Kenyon Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wickersham_Commission" title="Wickersham Commission">Wickersham Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis%E2%80%93Campbell_Act" title="Willis–Campbell Act">Willis–Campbell Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union" title="Woman's Christian Temperance Union">Woman's Christian Temperance Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Meir_Allen" title="Martha Meir Allen">Martha Meir Allen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_J._Anslinger" title="Harry J. Anslinger">Harry J. Anslinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Holliday_Barker" title="Thomas Holliday Barker">Thomas Holliday Barker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Beecher" title="Lyman Beecher">Lyman Beecher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Capone" title="Al Capone">Al Capone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mickey_Duffy" title="Mickey Duffy">Mickey Duffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxey_Gordon" title="Waxey Gordon">Waxey Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Guinan" title="Texas Guinan">Texas Guinan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Hamer" title="Frank Hamer">Frank Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Harvey_(Bible_Christian)" title="William Harvey (Bible Christian)">William Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_N._Howard" title="Clinton N. Howard">Clinton N. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumpy_Johnson" title="Bumpy Johnson">Bumpy Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoch_L._Johnson" title="Enoch L. Johnson">Enoch L. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Kerr" title="Norman Kerr">Norman Kerr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meyer_Lansky" title="Meyer Lansky">Meyer Lansky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Richard_Lees" title="Frederic Richard Lees">Frederic Richard Lees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucky_Luciano" title="Lucky Luciano">Lucky Luciano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Maceo" title="Sam Maceo">Sam Maceo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owney_Madden" title="Owney Madden">Owney Madden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Malins" title="Joseph Malins">Joseph Malins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McCoy_(bootlegger)" class="mw-redirect" title="William McCoy (bootlegger)">William McCoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_Moore" title="J. Howard Moore">J. Howard Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bugs_Moran" title="Bugs Moran">Bugs Moran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrie_Nation" title="Carrie Nation">Carrie Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliot_Ness" title="Eliot Ness">Eliot Ness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Olmstead" title="Roy Olmstead">Roy Olmstead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_LaMontages_brothers" title="The LaMontages brothers">The LaMontages brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Lanzetta_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="The Lanzetta Brothers">Lanzetta Brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Purple_Gang" title="The Purple Gang">The Purple Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Remus" title="George Remus">George Remus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Rothstein" title="Arnold Rothstein">Arnold Rothstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Hyde_Russell" title="Howard Hyde Russell">Howard Hyde Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Schultz" title="Dutch Schultz">Dutch Schultz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bywater_Smithies" title="Thomas Bywater Smithies">Thomas Bywater Smithies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliza_Thompson" title="Eliza Thompson">Eliza Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Harvey_Thompson" title="William Harvey Thompson">William Harvey Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Volstead" title="Andrew Volstead">Andrew Volstead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_Wheeler" title="Wayne Wheeler">Wayne Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Willard" title="Frances Willard">Frances Willard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzy_Einstein_and_Moe_Smith" title="Izzy Einstein and Moe Smith">Izzy Einstein and Moe Smith</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Prohibition_Party_(UK)" title="National Prohibition Party (UK)">National Prohibition Party (UK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_Party" title="Prohibition Party">Prohibition Party</a> (USA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Prohibition_Party" title="Scottish Prohibition Party">Scottish Prohibition Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_(miniseries)" title="Prohibition (miniseries)"><i>Prohibition</i> (2011 documentary miniseries)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jazz" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: Pink"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jazz" title="Template:Jazz"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jazz" title="Template talk:Jazz"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jazz" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jazz"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jazz" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">Jazz</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">General topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_jazz" title="Outline of jazz">Outline of jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_(word)" title="Jazz (word)">Jazz (word)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_band" title="Jazz band">Jazz band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_band" title="Big band">Big band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musical_improvisation" title="Musical improvisation">Improvisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_improvisation" title="Jazz improvisation">Jazz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jam_session" title="Jam session">Jam session</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scat_singing" title="Scat singing">Scat singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_(jazz_performance_style)" class="mw-redirect" title="Swing (jazz performance style)">Swing performance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_bass" title="Jazz bass">Jazz bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_drumming" title="Jazz drumming">Jazz drumming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_guitar" title="Jazz guitar">Jazz guitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_horn_in_jazz" title="French horn in jazz">French horn in jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_piano" title="Jazz piano">Jazz piano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_trombone" title="Jazz trombone">Jazz trombone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_violin" title="Jazz violin">Jazz violin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocal_jazz" title="Vocal jazz">Vocal jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_jazz" title="Women in jazz">Women in jazz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_genres" title="List of jazz genres">Genres</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde_jazz" title="Avant-garde jazz">Avant-garde jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bebop" title="Bebop">Bebop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_bop" title="Hard bop">Hard bop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-bop" title="Neo-bop">Neo-bop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-bop" title="Post-bop">Post-bop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_jazz" title="Cape jazz">Cape jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_jazz" title="Chamber jazz">Chamber jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cool_jazz" title="Cool jazz">Cool jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixieland" class="mw-redirect" title="Dixieland">Dixieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flamenco_jazz" title="Flamenco jazz">Flamenco jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_jazz" title="Folk jazz">Folk jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_jazz" title="Free jazz">Free jazz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_funk" title="Free funk">Free funk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_improvisation" title="Free improvisation">Free improvisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punk_jazz" title="Punk jazz">Punk jazz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypsy_jazz" title="Gypsy jazz">Gypsy jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz-funk" title="Jazz-funk">Jazz-funk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_fusion" title="Jazz fusion">Jazz fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_rap" title="Jazz rap">Jazz rap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_jazz" title="Latin jazz">Latin jazz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Cuban_jazz" title="Afro-Cuban jazz">Afro-Cuban jazz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M-Base" title="M-Base">M-Base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_jazz" title="Mainstream jazz">Mainstream jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marabi" title="Marabi">Marabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_jazz" title="Modal jazz">Modal jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nu_jazz" title="Nu jazz">Nu jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orchestral_jazz" title="Orchestral jazz">Orchestral jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_trio" title="Organ trio">Organ trio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_jazz" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive jazz">Progressive jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ska_jazz" title="Ska jazz">Ska jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smooth_jazz" title="Smooth jazz">Smooth jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_jazz" title="Soul jazz">Soul jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_jazz" title="Spiritual jazz">Spiritual jazz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_jazz" title="Sacred jazz">Sacred jazz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stride_(music)" title="Stride (music)">Stride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_music" title="Swing music">Swing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swing_revival" title="Swing revival">Swing revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_stream" title="Third stream">Third stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trad_jazz" title="Trad jazz">Trad jazz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_musicians" title="List of jazz musicians">Musicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_bassists" title="List of jazz bassists">Bassists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_musicians#Clarinet" title="List of jazz musicians">Clarinetists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_drummers" title="List of jazz drummers">Drummers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_guitarists" title="List of jazz guitarists">Guitarists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_organists" title="List of jazz organists">Organists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_percussionists" title="List of jazz percussionists">Percussionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_pianists" title="List of jazz pianists">Pianists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_saxophonists" title="List of jazz saxophonists">Saxophonists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_trombonists" title="List of jazz trombonists">Trombonists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_trumpeters" title="List of jazz trumpeters">Trumpeters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vibraphonists" title="List of vibraphonists">Vibraphonists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_violinists" title="List of jazz violinists">Violinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_vocalists" title="List of jazz vocalists">Vocalists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">Musicians by genre</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bebop_musicians" title="List of bebop musicians">Bebop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chamber_jazz_musicians" title="List of chamber jazz musicians">Chamber jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cool_jazz_and_West_Coast_jazz_musicians" title="List of cool jazz and West Coast jazz musicians">Cool jazz and West Coast jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hard_bop_musicians" title="List of hard bop musicians">Hard bop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_fusion_musicians" title="List of jazz fusion musicians">Jazz fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scat_singers" title="List of scat singers">Scat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_smooth_jazz_musicians" title="List of smooth jazz musicians">Smooth jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_soul_jazz_musicians" title="List of soul jazz musicians">Soul jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_swing_musicians" title="List of swing musicians">Swing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jazz_standard" title="Jazz standard">Standards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-1920_jazz_standards" title="List of pre-1920 jazz standards">Pre-1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_1920s_jazz_standards" title="List of 1920s jazz standards">1920s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_1930s_jazz_standards" title="List of 1930s jazz standards">1930s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_1940s_jazz_standards" title="List of 1940s jazz standards">1940s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_post-1950_jazz_standards" title="List of post-1950 jazz standards">post-1950</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">Discographies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bethlehem_Records" title="Bethlehem Records">Bethlehem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Note_Records_discography" title="Blue Note Records discography">Blue Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BYG_Records" title="BYG Records">BYG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobblestone_Records" title="Cobblestone Records">Cobblestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Records" title="Contemporary Records">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CTI_Records" title="CTI Records">CTI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ECM_Records" title="ECM Records">ECM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ESP-Disk" title="ESP-Disk">ESP-Disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Dutchman_Records" title="Flying Dutchman Records">Flying Dutchman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Records" title="Freedom Records">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groove_Merchant" title="Groove Merchant">Groove Merchant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impulse!_Records_discography" title="Impulse! Records discography">Impulse!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_Navigation" title="India Navigation">India Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JMT_Records" title="JMT Records">JMT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landmark_Records" title="Landmark Records">Landmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_Records" title="Mainstream Records">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milestone_Records_discography" title="Milestone Records discography">Milestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPS_Records" title="MPS Records">MPS Records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPS_Records_discography" title="MPS Records discography">MPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muse_Records" title="Muse Records">Muse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prestige_Records_discography" title="Prestige Records discography">Prestige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riverside_Records_discography" title="Riverside Records discography">Riverside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strata-East_Records" title="Strata-East Records">Strata-East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verve_Records_discography" title="Verve Records discography">Verve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_%26_Winter_Records" title="Winter & Winter Records">Winter & Winter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_festivals" title="List of jazz festivals">Festivals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaches_International_Jazz_Festival" title="Beaches International Jazz Festival">Beaches (Toronto)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_International_Jazz_Festival" title="Cape Town International Jazz Festival">Cape Town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Jazz_Festival" title="Chicago Jazz Festival">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Jazz_Festival" title="Copenhagen Jazz Festival">Copenhagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakarta_International_Java_Jazz_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakarta International Java Jazz Festival">Jakarta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monterey_Jazz_Festival" title="Monterey Jazz Festival">Monterey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_International_Jazz_Festival" title="Montreal International Jazz Festival">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreux_Jazz_Festival" title="Montreux Jazz Festival">Montreux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Jazz_%26_Heritage_Festival" title="New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newport_Jazz_Festival" title="Newport Jazz Festival">Newport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Jazz_Festival" title="North Sea Jazz Festival">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pori_Jazz" title="Pori Jazz">Pori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia_Jazz_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Lucia Jazz Festival">Saint Lucia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_contrafacts" title="List of jazz contrafacts">Contrafacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_institutions_and_organizations" title="List of jazz institutions and organizations">Institutions and organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_funeral" title="Jazz funeral">Jazz funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_poetry" title="Jazz poetry">Jazz poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_royalty" title="Jazz royalty">Jazz royalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_harmony" title="Jazz harmony">Jazz theory</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Template:Jazz_theory" title="Template:Jazz theory">See Template: Jazz theory</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rare_groove" title="Rare groove">Rare groove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_line_(parades)" title="Second line (parades)">Second line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jazz_venues" title="List of jazz venues">Venues</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">Regional scenes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethio-jazz" title="Ethio-jazz">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Malawi#Malawian_jazz" title="Music of Malawi">Malawian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_jazz" title="South African jazz">South African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cape_jazz" title="Cape jazz">Cape jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marabi" title="Marabi">Marabi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_jazz" title="Zimbabwean jazz">Zimbabwean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_jazz" title="Armenian jazz">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_jazz" title="Azerbaijani jazz">Azerbaijani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_mugham" title="Jazz mugham">Jazz mugham</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_in_India" title="Jazz in India">Indian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo_jazz" title="Indo jazz">Indo jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitar_in_jazz" title="Sitar in jazz">Sitar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_jazz" title="Iranian jazz">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_jazz" title="Japanese jazz">Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">European</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_jazz" title="Balkan jazz">Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_jazz" title="Bulgarian jazz">Bulgarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_jazz" title="Belgian jazz">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_jazz" title="British jazz">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_dance_band" title="British dance band">British dance band</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_jazz" title="Continental jazz">Continental European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_in_Czechoslovakia" title="Jazz in Czechoslovakia">Czech and Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_jazz" title="Danish jazz">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_jazz" title="Dutch jazz">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_free_jazz" title="European free jazz">European free jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_jazz" title="French jazz">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_jazz" title="German jazz">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_jazz" title="Italian jazz">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_jazz" title="Polish jazz">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yass_(music)" title="Yass (music)">Yass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_jazz" title="Spanish jazz">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flamenco_jazz" title="Flamenco jazz">Flamenco jazz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_jazz" title="Swedish jazz">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">North American</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_jazz" title="Canadian jazz">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini-jazz" title="Mini-jazz">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_jazz" title="Latin jazz">Latin American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Cuban_jazz" title="Afro-Cuban jazz">Cuban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="American" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">American</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Baltimore#Jazz" title="Music of Baltimore">Baltimore jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Chicago#Jazz" title="Music of Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_City_jazz" title="Kansas City jazz">Kansas City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_New_Orleans#Jazz" title="Music of New Orleans">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_New_York_City#Blues_and_jazz" title="Music of New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Washington,_D.C.#Jazz" title="Music of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_jazz" title="West Coast jazz">West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">Oceanian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_jazz" title="Australian jazz">Australian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">South American</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_jazz" title="Brazilian jazz">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_jazz" title="Latin jazz">Latin American</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">Worldwide</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethno_jazz" title="Ethno jazz">Ethno jazz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_jazz" title="Bibliography of jazz">Bibliography of jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">Blues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_dance_band" title="British dance band">British dance band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragtime" title="Ragtime">Ragtime</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jazz Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_jazz" title="Continental jazz">Continental jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight-ahead_jazz" title="Straight-ahead jazz">Straight-ahead jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-1920_jazz_standards" title="List of pre-1920 jazz standards">Pre-1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920s_in_jazz" title="1920s in jazz">1920s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1930s_in_jazz" title="1930s in jazz">1930s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940s_in_jazz" title="1940s in jazz">1940s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950s_in_jazz" title="1950s in jazz">1950s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960s_in_jazz" title="1960s in jazz">1960s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970s_in_jazz" title="1970s in jazz">1970s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980s_in_jazz" title="1980s in jazz">1980s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990s_in_jazz" title="1990s in jazz">1990s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_in_jazz" title="2000s in jazz">2000s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010s_in_jazz" title="2010s in jazz">2010s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_jazz" title="2020 in jazz">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_jazz" title="2021 in jazz">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_jazz" title="2022 in jazz">2022</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_jazz" title="Acid jazz">Acid jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrobeat" title="Afrobeat">Afrobeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contradanza" title="Contradanza">Contradanza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">Blues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jump_blues" title="Jump blues">Jump blues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_blues" title="New Orleans blues">New Orleans blues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_band" title="Brass band">Brass band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotica" title="Exotica">Exotica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plugg_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Plugg (music)">Plugg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiet_storm" title="Quiet storm">Quiet storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragtime" title="Ragtime">Ragtime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Novelty_piano" title="Novelty piano">Novelty ragtime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophisti-pop" title="Sophisti-pop">Sophisti-pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_West_Africa" title="Music of West Africa">West African music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_swing" title="Western swing">Western swing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: Pink;width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Album_covers_of_Blue_Note_Records" title="Album covers of Blue Note Records">Album covers of Blue Note Records</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bird_(1988_film)" title="Bird (1988 film)">Bird</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_(miniseries)" title="Jazz (miniseries)"><i>Jazz</i> (miniseries)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Jazz_Singer" title="The Jazz Singer">The Jazz Singer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Round_Midnight_(film)" title="Round Midnight (film)">Round Midnight</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thelonious_Monk:_Straight,_No_Chaser" title="Thelonious Monk: Straight, No Chaser">Straight, No Chaser</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: Pink"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saxo_Boca1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Saxo_Boca1.JPG/15px-Saxo_Boca1.JPG" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Saxo_Boca1.JPG/23px-Saxo_Boca1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Saxo_Boca1.JPG/30px-Saxo_Boca1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="230" /></a></span> </span><a 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