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href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Technology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Radio communication </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Radio_communication-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Radio communication subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Radio_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bandwidth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bandwidth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Bandwidth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bandwidth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ITU_frequency_bands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ITU_frequency_bands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 ITU frequency bands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ITU_frequency_bands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Regulation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Broadcasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broadcasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Broadcasting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broadcasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Audio:_Radio_broadcasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Audio:_Radio_broadcasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Audio: Radio broadcasting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Audio:_Radio_broadcasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Audio/video:_Television_broadcasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Audio/video:_Television_broadcasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Audio/video: Television broadcasting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Audio/video:_Television_broadcasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Time_and_frequency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time_and_frequency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.3 Time and frequency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time_and_frequency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voice_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voice_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Voice communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voice_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Two-way_voice_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two-way_voice_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Two-way voice communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two-way_voice_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-One-way_voice_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#One-way_voice_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 One-way voice communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-One-way_voice_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Data communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Space communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Other applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.1 Radar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiolocation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiolocation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.2 Radiolocation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiolocation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remote_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remote_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.3 Remote control </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remote_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.4 Scientific research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jamming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jamming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.5 Jamming </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jamming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 General references </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Radio</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 154 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-154" aria-hidden="true" > 154 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B6rfunk" title="Hörfunk – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Hörfunk" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%AB%E1%8B%B2%E1%8B%AE" title="ራዲዮ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ራዲዮ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B" title="रेडियो – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="रेडियो" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%AAtweorp" title="Ūtweorp – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Ūtweorp" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A" title="اتصال راديوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اتصال راديوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_(medio_de_comunicaci%C3%B3n)" title="Radio (medio de comunicación) – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Radio (medio de comunicación)" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A6%DC%AA%DC%A3_%DC%A9%DC%A0%DC%90" title="ܦܪܣ ܩܠܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܦܪܣ ܩܠܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%81%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="অনাতাঁৰ প্ৰযুক্তি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="অনাতাঁৰ প্ৰযুক্তি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_(mediu_de_comunicaci%C3%B3n)" title="Radio (mediu de comunicación) – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Radio (mediu de comunicación)" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B" title="रेडियो – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="रेडियो" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91e%27%E1%BA%BDas%C3%A3i" title="Ñe'ẽasãi – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñe'ẽasãi" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88" title="رادیو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رادیو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="বেতার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বেতার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/La-j%C3%AD-oh_h%C3%B2ng-s%C3%A0ng" title="La-jí-oh hòng-sàng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="La-jí-oh hòng-sàng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE" title="Радио – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Радио" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%91" title="Радыё – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Радыё" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%91" title="Радыё – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Радыё" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radyo" title="Radyo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Radyo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE" title="Радио – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Радио" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skingomz" title="Skingomz – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Skingomz" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A0dio" title="Ràdio – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ràdio" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE" title="Радио – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Радио" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiokomunikace" title="Radiokomunikace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Radiokomunikace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AA_%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%88" title="بت د الراديو – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="بت د الراديو" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reedio" title="Reedio – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Reedio" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raadio" title="Raadio – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Raadio" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%B9%CF%8C%CF%86%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%BF" title="Ραδιόφωνο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ραδιόφωνο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A2dio" title="Râdio – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Râdio" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocomunicaci%C3%B3n" title="Radiocomunicación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Radiocomunicación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofonio" title="Radiofonio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Radiofonio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrati-komunikazio" title="Irrati-komunikazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Irrati-komunikazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88" title="رادیو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رادیو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Atvarp" title="Útvarp – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Útvarp" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocommunication" title="Radiocommunication – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Radiocommunication" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raidi%C3%B3" title="Raidió – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Raidió" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A8idio" title="Rèidio – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Rèidio" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_(medio_de_comunicaci%C3%B3n)" title="Radio (medio de comunicación) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Radio (medio de comunicación)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E7%B7%9A%E9%9B%BB" title="無線電 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="無線電" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/La-chi-yok" title="La-chi-yok – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="La-chi-yok" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE" title="Радио – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Радио" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9D%BC%EB%94%94%EC%98%A4" title="라디오 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="라디오" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rediyo" title="Rediyo – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Rediyo" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%B8" title="Ռադիո – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռադիո" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B" title="रेडियो – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रेडियो" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umsakazo" title="Umsakazo – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umsakazo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Atvarp" title="Útvarp – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Útvarp" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_(elettronica)" title="Radio (elettronica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Radio (elettronica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95" title="רדיו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רדיו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhio" title="Radhio – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Radhio" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimasi_f%C9%9By%C9%A9_ka%C5%8Bgalafu_heyinau" title="Nimasi fɛyɩ kaŋgalafu heyinau – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Nimasi fɛyɩ kaŋgalafu heyinau" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8B" title="ರೇಡಿಯೋ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರೇಡಿಯೋ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D" title="რადიო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რადიო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE" title="Радио – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Радио" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redio" title="Redio – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Redio" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radyo" title="Radyo – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Radyo" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiophonia" title="Radiophonia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Radiophonia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radijas" title="Radijas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Radijas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C9%9B%CC%81ni_ya_lad%C3%AD%C3%B3" title="Sɛ́ni ya ladíó – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Sɛ́ni ya ladíó" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A1di%C3%B3z%C3%A1s" title="Rádiózás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rádiózás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE" title="Радио – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Радио" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onjam-peo" title="Onjam-peo – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Onjam-peo" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B" title="റേഡിയോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റേഡിയോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%93" title="रेडिओ – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रेडिओ" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D" title="რადიო – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რადიო" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A1dio_(quemunica%C3%A7on)" title="Rádio (quemunicaçon) – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Rádio (quemunicaçon)" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE" title="Радио – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Радио" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF" title="ရေဒီယို – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရေဒီယို" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B" title="रेडियो – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रेडियो" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B" title="रेदियो – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="रेदियो" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B8%E3%82%AA" title="ラジオ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ラジオ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A0dio" title="Ràdio – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ràdio" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raadiyoo" title="Raadiyoo – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Raadiyoo" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A1%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%93" title="ਰੇਡੀਓ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰੇਡੀਓ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangasinan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%88%DB%8C%D9%88" title="ریڈیو – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ریڈیو" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%89%D9%8A%D9%88" title="راډيو – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="راډيو" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riedio" title="Riedio – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Riedio" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%BB" title="វិទ្យុ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="វិទ្យុ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A1dio" title="Rádio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rádio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankichina" title="Ankichina – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ankichina" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BE" title="Радіо – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Радіо" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE" title="Радио – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Радио" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8C%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%B0" title="Араадьыйа – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Араадьыйа" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leti%C5%8D" title="Letiō – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Letiō" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B" title="रेडियो – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="रेडियो" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B2%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A2_(%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B0%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%B3)" title="ᱨᱚᱲᱭᱚᱢ (ᱨᱮᱰᱤᱭᱳ) – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱨᱚᱲᱭᱚᱢ (ᱨᱮᱰᱤᱭᱳ)" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="ගුවන්විදුලිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ගුවන්විදුලිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozhlas_(zvuk)" title="Rozhlas (zvuk) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rozhlas (zvuk)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%DB%86" title="ڕادیۆ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕادیۆ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE" title="Радио – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Радио" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radyo" title="Radyo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Radyo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF" title="வானொலி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வானொலி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tarandíne</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE" title="Радио – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Радио" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%8B" title="రేడియో – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="రేడియో" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8" title="การกระจายเสียงวิทยุ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การกระจายเสียงวิทยุ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE" title="Радио – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Радио" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8B" title="ರೇಡಿಯೋ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ರೇಡಿಯೋ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radyo" title="Radyo – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Radyo" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BE" title="Радіо – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Радіо" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%88%DB%8C%D9%88_%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ریڈیو نشریات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ریڈیو نشریات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Radio" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truy%E1%BB%81n_thanh_radio" title="Truyền thanh radio – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Truyền thanh radio" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raadio" title="Raadio – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Raadio" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radyo" title="Radyo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Radyo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ce%C3%B1%C3%B1eer-mbej" title="Ceññeer-mbej – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Ceññeer-mbej" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E7%B7%9A%E9%9B%BB" title="無線電 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="無線電" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%93%D7%99%D7%90" title="ראדיא – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ראדיא" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E7%B7%9A%E9%9B%BB" title="無線電 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="無線電" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rad%C4%97js" title="Radėjs – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Radėjs" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E7%BA%BF%E7%94%B5" title="无线电 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="无线电" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C9%99dio" title="Rədio – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Rədio" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" 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information</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the technology. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Radio_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Radio (disambiguation)">Radio (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radio_towers_on_Sandia_Peak_-_closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Radio_towers_on_Sandia_Peak_-_closeup.jpg/330px-Radio_towers_on_Sandia_Peak_-_closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Radio_towers_on_Sandia_Peak_-_closeup.jpg/500px-Radio_towers_on_Sandia_Peak_-_closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Radio_towers_on_Sandia_Peak_-_closeup.jpg/960px-Radio_towers_on_Sandia_Peak_-_closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1347" data-file-height="1528" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Antenna_farm" title="Antenna farm">antenna farm</a> hosting various <a href="/wiki/Radio_antennas" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio antennas">radio antennas</a> on <a href="/wiki/Sandia_Mountains" title="Sandia Mountains">Sandia Peak</a> near <a href="/wiki/Albuquerque,_New_Mexico" title="Albuquerque, New Mexico">Albuquerque, New Mexico</a>, United States</figcaption></figure> Radio is the technology of <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">communicating</a> using <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OED-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-PCMag-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ellingson-2016-3">[3]</a> Radio waves are <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">electromagnetic waves</a> of <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequency</a> between 3 <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a> (Hz) and 300 <a href="/wiki/Gigahertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigahertz">gigahertz</a> (GHz). They are generated by an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic device">electronic device</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitter</a> connected to an <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">antenna</a> which radiates the waves. They can be received by other antennas connected to a <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">radio receiver</a>; this is the fundamental principle of radio communication. In addition to communication, radio is used for <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">radio navigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio_control" title="Radio control">remote control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a>, and other applications. In radio communication, used in radio and <a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">television broadcasting</a>, cell phones, <a href="/wiki/Two-way_radio" title="Two-way radio">two-way radios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">wireless networking</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Satellite_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite communication">satellite communication</a>, among numerous other uses, radio waves are used to carry information across space from a transmitter to a receiver, by <a href="/wiki/Modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulation">modulating</a> the radio signal (impressing an information signal on the radio wave by varying some aspect of the wave) in the transmitter. In radar, used to locate and track objects like aircraft, ships, spacecraft and missiles, a beam of radio waves emitted by a radar transmitter reflects off the target object, and the reflected waves reveal the object's location to a receiver that is typically colocated with the transmitter. In radio navigation systems such as <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> and <a href="/wiki/VHF_omnidirectional_range" title="VHF omnidirectional range">VOR</a>, a mobile navigation instrument receives radio signals from multiple <a href="/wiki/Radio_beacon" title="Radio beacon">navigational radio beacons</a> whose position is known, and by precisely measuring the arrival time of the radio waves the receiver can calculate its position on Earth. In wireless <a href="/wiki/Radio_control" title="Radio control">radio remote control</a> devices like <a href="/wiki/Drone_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Drone (aircraft)">drones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garage_door_opener" title="Garage door opener">garage door openers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Keyless_entry_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Keyless entry system">keyless entry systems</a>, radio signals transmitted from a controller device control the actions of a remote device. The existence of radio waves was first proven by German physicist <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> on 11 November 1886.<a href="#cite_note-KIT-4">[4]</a> In the mid-1890s, building on techniques physicists were using to study electromagnetic waves, Italian physicist <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> developed the first apparatus for long-distance radio communication,<a href="#cite_note-ieeexplore.ieee.org-5">[5]</a> sending a wireless <a href="/wiki/Morse_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Morse Code">Morse Code</a> message to a recipient over a kilometer away in 1895,<a href="#cite_note-1890s_–_1930s:_Radio-6">[6]</a> and the first transatlantic signal on 12 December 1901.<a href="#cite_note-IEEEatlantic-7">[7]</a> The first commercial radio broadcast was transmitted on 2 November 1920, when the live returns of the <a href="/wiki/Harding-Cox_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Harding-Cox presidential election">Harding-Cox presidential election</a> were broadcast by Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company in Pittsburgh, under the call sign <a href="/wiki/KDKA_(AM)" title="KDKA (AM)">KDKA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-History_of_Commercial_Radio-8">[8]</a> The emission of radio waves is regulated by law, coordinated by the <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</a> (ITU), which allocates frequency bands in the <a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">radio spectrum</a> for various uses. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The word radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning "spoke of a wheel, beam of light, ray." It was first applied to communications in 1881 when, at the suggestion of French scientist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Mercadier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ernest Mercadier (page does not exist)">Ernest Mercadier</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Mercadier" class="extiw" title="fr:Ernest Mercadier">fr</a>], <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a> adopted radiophone (meaning "radiated sound") as an alternate name for his <a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">photophone</a> optical transmission system.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Following Hertz's discovery of the existence of <a href="/wiki/Radio_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio waves">radio waves</a> in 1886, the term Hertzian waves was initially used for this radiation.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The first practical radio communication systems, developed by <a href="/wiki/Marconi" class="mw-redirect" title="Marconi">Marconi</a> in 1894–1895, transmitted <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> signals by radio waves,<a href="#cite_note-KIT-4">[4]</a> so radio communication was first called <a href="/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy" title="Wireless telegraphy">wireless telegraphy</a>. Up until about 1910 the term wireless telegraphy also included a variety of other experimental systems for transmitting telegraph signals without wires, including <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_induction" title="Electrostatic induction">electrostatic induction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">electromagnetic induction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">aquatic and earth conduction</a>, so there was a need for a more precise term referring exclusively to electromagnetic radiation.<a href="#cite_note-Maver-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Steuart-13">[13]</a> The French physicist <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Branly" title="Édouard Branly">Édouard Branly</a>, who in 1890 developed the radio wave detecting <a href="/wiki/Coherer" title="Coherer">coherer</a>, called it in French a <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/radioconducteur" class="extiw" title="fr:radioconducteur">radio-conducteur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-earlyradiohistory.us-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The radio- prefix was later used to form additional descriptive compound and hyphenated words, especially in Europe. For example, in early 1898 the British publication The Practical Engineer included a reference to the radiotelegraph and radiotelegraphy.<a href="#cite_note-earlyradiohistory.us-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The use of radio as a standalone word dates back to at least 30 December 1904, when instructions issued by the British Post Office for transmitting telegrams specified that "The word 'Radio'... is sent in the Service Instructions."<a href="#cite_note-earlyradiohistory.us-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> This practice was universally adopted, and the word "radio" introduced internationally, by the 1906 Berlin Radiotelegraphic Convention, which included a Service Regulation specifying that "Radiotelegrams shall show in the preamble that the service is 'Radio'".<a href="#cite_note-earlyradiohistory.us-14">[14]</a> The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world. <a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a> helped popularize the new word in the United States—in early 1907, he founded the DeForest Radio Telephone Company, and his letter in the 22 June 1907 Electrical World about the need for legal restrictions warned that "Radio chaos will certainly be the result until such stringent regulation is enforced."<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, by 1912 it began to promote the use of radio instead. The term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">History of radio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_radio" title="Invention of radio">Invention of radio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_radio" title="Timeline of radio">Timeline of radio</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">History of broadcasting</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">Electromagnetic waves</a> were predicted by <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> in his 1873 theory of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, now called <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a>, who proposed that a coupled oscillating <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> could travel through space as a wave, and proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of short <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a>. On 11 November 1886, German physicist <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a>, attempting to confirm Maxwell's theory, first observed radio waves he generated using a primitive <a href="/wiki/Spark-gap_transmitter" title="Spark-gap transmitter">spark-gap transmitter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KIT-4">[4]</a> Experiments by Hertz and physicists <a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Rayleigh" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Righi" title="Augusto Righi">Augusto Righi</a>, among others, showed that radio waves like light demonstrated reflection, <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standing_wave" title="Standing wave">standing waves</a>, and traveled at the same speed as light, confirming that both light and radio waves were electromagnetic waves, differing only in frequency.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In 1895, <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> developed the first radio communication system, using a spark-gap transmitter to send <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> over long distances. By December 1901, he had transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-KIT-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ieeexplore.ieee.org-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-1890s_–_1930s:_Radio-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-IEEEatlantic-7">[7]</a> Marconi and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Karl Ferdinand Braun</a> shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy".<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> During radio's first two decades, called the <a href="/wiki/Radiotelegraphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotelegraphy">radiotelegraphy</a> era, the primitive radio transmitters could only transmit pulses of radio waves, not the continuous waves which were needed for audio <a href="/wiki/Modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulation">modulation</a>, so radio was used for person-to-person commercial, diplomatic and military text messaging. Starting around 1908 industrial countries built worldwide networks of powerful transoceanic transmitters to exchange <a href="/wiki/Telegram" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegram">telegram</a> traffic between continents and communicate with their colonies and naval fleets. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> the development of <a href="/wiki/Continuous_wave" title="Continuous wave">continuous wave</a> radio transmitters, <a href="/wiki/Rectifying" class="mw-redirect" title="Rectifying">rectifying</a> electrolytic, and crystal <a href="/wiki/Detector_(radio)" title="Detector (radio)">radio receiver detectors</a> enabled <a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">amplitude modulation</a> (AM) <a href="/wiki/Radiotelephony" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotelephony">radiotelephony</a> to be achieved by <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a> and others, allowing <a href="/wiki/Audio_signal" title="Audio signal">audio</a> to be transmitted. On 2 November 1920, the first commercial radio broadcast was transmitted by Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company in Pittsburgh, under the call sign <a href="/wiki/KDKA_(AM)" title="KDKA (AM)">KDKA</a> featuring live coverage of the <a href="/wiki/Harding-Cox_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Harding-Cox presidential election">Harding-Cox presidential election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-History_of_Commercial_Radio-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Technology">edit</a>]</div> Radio waves are radiated by <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charges</a> undergoing <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">acceleration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kraus-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Serway-22">[22]</a> They are generated artificially by time-varying <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric currents</a>, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> flowing back and forth in a metal conductor called an <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">antenna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Balanis-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ellingson-2016a-24">[24]</a> As they travel farther from the transmitting antenna, radio waves spread out so their <a href="/wiki/Signal_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal strength">signal strength</a> (<a href="/wiki/Intensity_(physics)" title="Intensity (physics)">intensity</a> in watts per square meter) decreases (see <a href="/wiki/Inverse-square_law" title="Inverse-square law">Inverse-square law</a>), so radio transmissions can only be received within a limited range of the transmitter, the distance depending on the transmitter power, the antenna <a href="/wiki/Radiation_pattern" title="Radiation pattern">radiation pattern</a>, receiver sensitivity, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference" title="Electromagnetic interference">background noise</a> level, and presence of <a href="/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">obstructions between transmitter and receiver</a>. An <a href="/wiki/Omnidirectional_antenna" title="Omnidirectional antenna">omnidirectional antenna</a> transmits or receives radio waves in all directions, while a <a href="/wiki/Directional_antenna" title="Directional antenna">directional antenna</a> transmits radio waves in a beam in a particular direction, or receives waves from only one direction.<a href="#cite_note-Visser-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Radio waves travel at the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> in vacuum<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> and at slightly lower velocity in air.<a href="#cite_note-Podesta-30">[30]</a> The other types of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">electromagnetic waves</a> besides radio waves, <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>, <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma rays">gamma rays</a>, can also carry information and be used for communication. The wide use of radio waves for telecommunication is mainly due to their desirable <a href="/wiki/Radio_propagation" title="Radio propagation">propagation</a> properties stemming from their longer wavelength.<a href="#cite_note-Ellingson-2016a-24">[24]</a> Radio waves have the ability to pass through the atmosphere in any weather, foliage, and at longer wavelengths through most building materials. By <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>, longer wavelengths can bend around obstructions, and unlike other electromagnetic waves they tend to be scattered rather than absorbed by objects larger than their wavelength. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radio_communication">Radio communication</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Radio communication">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signal_processing_system.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Signal_processing_system.png/310px-Signal_processing_system.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Signal_processing_system.png/465px-Signal_processing_system.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Signal_processing_system.png/620px-Signal_processing_system.png 2x" data-file-width="1204" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption>Radio communication. Information such as sound is converted by a transducer such as a <a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">microphone</a> to an electrical signal, which modulates a <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio wave</a> produced by the <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitter</a>. A receiver intercepts the radio wave and extracts the information-bearing modulation signal, which is converted back to a human usable form with another transducer such as a <a href="/wiki/Loudspeaker" title="Loudspeaker">loudspeaker</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amfm3-en-de.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Amfm3-en-de.gif/220px-Amfm3-en-de.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Amfm3-en-de.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of AM and FM modulated radio waves</figcaption></figure> In radio communication systems, information is carried across space using radio waves. At the sending end, the information to be sent is converted by some type of <a href="/wiki/Transducer" title="Transducer">transducer</a> to a time-varying <a href="/wiki/Electrical_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical signal">electrical signal</a> called the modulation signal.<a href="#cite_note-Ellingson-2016a-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-HowStuffWorks-31">[31]</a> The modulation signal may be an <a href="/wiki/Audio_signal" title="Audio signal">audio signal</a> representing sound from a <a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">microphone</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Video_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Video signal">video signal</a> representing moving images from a <a href="/wiki/Video_camera" title="Video camera">video camera</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal" title="Digital signal">digital signal</a> consisting of a sequence of <a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bits</a> representing binary data from a computer. The modulation signal is applied to a <a href="/wiki/Radio_transmitter" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio transmitter">radio transmitter</a>. In the transmitter, an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_oscillator" title="Electronic oscillator">electronic oscillator</a> generates an <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> oscillating at a <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">radio frequency</a>, called the <a href="/wiki/Carrier_wave" title="Carrier wave">carrier wave</a> because it serves to generate the radio waves that carry the information through the air. The modulation signal is used to <a href="/wiki/Modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulation">modulate</a> the carrier, varying some aspect of the carrier wave, impressing the information in the modulation signal onto the carrier. Different radio systems use different modulation methods:<a href="#cite_note-Faruque-2016-32">[32]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">Amplitude modulation</a> (AM) – in an AM transmitter, the <a href="/wiki/Amplitude" title="Amplitude">amplitude</a> (strength) of the radio carrier wave is varied by the modulation signal;<a href="#cite_note-Faruque-2016-32">[32]</a>: 3 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">Frequency modulation</a> (FM) – in an FM transmitter, the <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequency</a> of the radio carrier wave is varied by the modulation signal;<a href="#cite_note-Faruque-2016-32">[32]</a>: 33 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-shift_keying" title="Frequency-shift keying">Frequency-shift keying</a> (FSK) – used in wireless digital devices to transmit <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal" title="Digital signal">digital signals</a>, the frequency of the carrier wave is shifted between frequencies.<a href="#cite_note-Faruque-2016-32">[32]</a>: 58 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing">orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing</a> (OFDM) – a family of <a href="/wiki/Digital_modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital modulation">digital modulation</a> methods widely used in high-bandwidth systems such as <a href="/wiki/Wi-Fi" title="Wi-Fi">Wi-Fi</a> networks, cellphones, <a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital television</a> broadcasting, and <a href="/wiki/Digital_audio_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital audio broadcasting">digital audio broadcasting</a> (DAB) to transmit digital data using a minimum of <a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">radio spectrum</a> bandwidth. It has higher <a href="/wiki/Spectral_efficiency" title="Spectral efficiency">spectral efficiency</a> and more resistance to <a href="/wiki/Fading" title="Fading">fading</a> than AM or FM. In OFDM, multiple radio carrier waves closely spaced in frequency are transmitted within the radio channel, with each carrier modulated with bits from the incoming <a href="/wiki/Bitstream" title="Bitstream">bitstream</a> so multiple bits are being sent simultaneously, in parallel. At the receiver, the carriers are demodulated and the bits are combined in the proper order into one bitstream.<a href="#cite_note-Ergen-2009-33">[33]</a></li></ul> Many other types of modulation are also used. In some types, the carrier wave is suppressed, and only one or both modulation <a href="/wiki/Sideband" title="Sideband">sidebands</a> are transmitted.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The modulated carrier is <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplified</a> in the transmitter and applied to a transmitting <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">antenna</a> which radiates the energy as radio waves. The radio waves carry the information to the receiver location.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> At the receiver, the radio wave induces a tiny oscillating <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> in the receiving antenna – a weaker replica of the current in the transmitting antenna.<a href="#cite_note-Ellingson-2016a-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-HowStuffWorks-31">[31]</a> This voltage is applied to the <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">radio receiver</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplifies</a> the weak radio signal so it is stronger, then <a href="/wiki/Demodulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Demodulate">demodulates</a> it, extracting the original modulation signal from the modulated carrier wave. The modulation signal is converted by a <a href="/wiki/Transducer" title="Transducer">transducer</a> back to a human-usable form: an audio signal is converted to <a href="/wiki/Sound_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound wave">sound waves</a> by a loudspeaker or earphones, a <a href="/wiki/Video_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Video signal">video signal</a> is converted to images by a <a href="/wiki/Display_device" title="Display device">display</a>, while a digital signal is applied to a computer or microprocessor, which interacts with human users.<a href="#cite_note-Faruque-2016-32">[32]</a> The radio waves from many transmitters pass through the air simultaneously without interfering with each other because each transmitter's radio waves oscillate at a different <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequency</a>, measured in <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a> (Hz), <a href="/wiki/Kilohertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilohertz">kilohertz</a> (kHz), <a href="/wiki/Megahertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Megahertz">megahertz</a> (MHz) or <a href="/wiki/Gigahertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigahertz">gigahertz</a> (GHz). The receiving antenna typically picks up the radio signals of many transmitters. The receiver uses <a href="/wiki/Tuned_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuned circuit">tuned circuits</a> to select the radio signal desired out of all the signals picked up by the antenna and reject the others. A tuned circuit acts like a <a href="/wiki/Resonator" title="Resonator">resonator</a>, similar to a <a href="/wiki/Tuning_fork" title="Tuning fork">tuning fork</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HowStuffWorks-31">[31]</a> It has a natural <a href="/wiki/Resonant_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Resonant frequency">resonant frequency</a> at which it oscillates. The resonant frequency of the receiver's tuned circuit is adjusted by the user to the frequency of the desired radio station; this is called tuning. The oscillating radio signal from the desired station causes the tuned circuit to oscillate in sympathy, and it passes the signal on to the rest of the receiver. Radio signals at other frequencies are blocked by the tuned circuit and not passed on.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bandwidth">Bandwidth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Bandwidth">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Modulated_radio_signal_frequency_spectrum.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Modulated_radio_signal_frequency_spectrum.svg/220px-Modulated_radio_signal_frequency_spectrum.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Modulated_radio_signal_frequency_spectrum.svg/330px-Modulated_radio_signal_frequency_spectrum.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Modulated_radio_signal_frequency_spectrum.svg/440px-Modulated_radio_signal_frequency_spectrum.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="284" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frequency_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency spectrum">Frequency spectrum</a> of a typical modulated AM or FM radio signal. It consists of a component C at the <a href="/wiki/Carrier_wave" title="Carrier wave">carrier wave</a> frequency <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{c}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{c}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d2b64a46c31800830b9fecc59b22812390e18c05" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.083ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{c}}" /> with the <a href="/wiki/Modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulation">modulated</a> information contained in two narrow bands of frequencies called <a href="/wiki/Sideband" title="Sideband">sidebands</a> (SB) just above and below the carrier frequency. The bandwidth (BW) is the amount of spectrum occupied by the sidebands.</figcaption></figure> A modulated radio wave, carrying an information signal, occupies a range of <a href="/wiki/Frequencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequencies">frequencies</a>. The information (<a href="/wiki/Modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulation">modulation</a>) in a radio signal is usually concentrated in narrow frequency bands called <a href="/wiki/Sideband" title="Sideband">sidebands</a> (SB) just above and below the <a href="/wiki/Carrier_wave" title="Carrier wave">carrier</a> frequency. The width in <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a> of the frequency range that the radio signal occupies, the highest frequency minus the lowest frequency, is called its <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a> (BW).<a href="#cite_note-Faruque-2016-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spectrum101-37">[37]</a> For any given <a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">signal-to-noise ratio</a>, an amount of bandwidth can carry the same amount of information (<a href="/wiki/Data_signaling_rate" title="Data signaling rate">data rate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Binary_digit" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary digit">bits</a> per second) regardless of where in the radio frequency spectrum it is located, so bandwidth is a measure of <a href="/wiki/Channel_capacity" title="Channel capacity">information-carrying capacity</a>. The bandwidth required by a radio transmission depends on the data rate of the information (modulation signal) being sent, and the <a href="/wiki/Spectral_efficiency" title="Spectral efficiency">spectral efficiency</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulation">modulation</a> method used; how much data it can transmit in each kilohertz of bandwidth. Different types of information signals carried by radio have different data rates. For example, a television (video) signal has a greater data rate than an <a href="/wiki/Audio_signal" title="Audio signal">audio signal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Faruque-2016-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pogorel-Girard-38">[38]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">radio spectrum</a>, the total range of radio frequencies that can be used for communication in a given area, is a limited resource.<a href="#cite_note-Spectrum101-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ellingson-2016-3">[3]</a> Each radio transmission occupies a portion of the total bandwidth available. Radio bandwidth is regarded as an <a href="/wiki/Economic_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic good">economic good</a> which has a monetary cost and is in increasing demand. In some parts of the radio spectrum, the right to use a frequency band or even a single radio channel is bought and sold for millions of dollars. So there is an incentive to employ technology to minimize the bandwidth used by radio services.<a href="#cite_note-Pogorel-Girard-38">[38]</a> A slow transition from <a href="/wiki/Analog_signal" title="Analog signal">analog</a> to <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal" title="Digital signal">digital</a> radio transmission technologies began in the late 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Part of the reason for this is that <a href="/wiki/Digital_modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital modulation">digital modulation</a> can often transmit more information (a greater data rate) in a given bandwidth than <a href="/wiki/Analog_modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog modulation">analog modulation</a>, by using <a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">data compression</a> algorithms, which reduce redundancy in the data to be sent, and more efficient modulation. Other reasons for the transition is that digital modulation has greater <a href="/wiki/Noise_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Noise immunity">noise immunity</a> than analog, <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processing" title="Digital signal processing">digital signal processing</a> chips have more power and flexibility than analog circuits, and a wide variety of types of information can be transmitted using the same digital modulation.<a href="#cite_note-Faruque-2016-32">[32]</a> Because it is a fixed resource which is in demand by an increasing number of users, the <a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">radio spectrum</a> has become increasingly congested in recent decades, and the need to use it more effectively is driving many additional radio innovations such as <a href="/wiki/Trunked_radio_system" title="Trunked radio system">trunked radio systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spread_spectrum" title="Spread spectrum">spread spectrum</a> (ultra-wideband) transmission, <a href="/wiki/Frequency_reuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency reuse">frequency reuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_spectrum_management" title="Dynamic spectrum management">dynamic spectrum management</a>, frequency pooling, and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_radio" title="Cognitive radio">cognitive radio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pogorel-Girard-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ITU_frequency_bands">ITU frequency bands</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: ITU frequency bands">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/ITU" class="mw-redirect" title="ITU">ITU</a> arbitrarily divides the <a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">radio spectrum</a> into 12 bands, each beginning at a wavelength which is a power of ten (10n) metres, with corresponding frequency of 3 times a power of ten, and each covering a decade of frequency or wavelength.<a href="#cite_note-Ellingson-2016-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-ITU2016-41">[41]</a> Each of these bands has a traditional name:<a href="#cite_note-Nomenclature-42">[42]</a> <div style="display:inline-table"> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:left;"> <th>Band name</th> <th>Abbreviation</th> <th>Frequency</th> <th>Wavelength </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Extremely_low_frequency" title="Extremely low frequency">Extremely low frequency</a></td> <td>ELF</td> <td>3–30 Hz</td> <td>100,000– 10,000 km </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Super_low_frequency" title="Super low frequency">Super low frequency</a></td> <td>SLF</td> <td>30–300 Hz</td> <td>10,000 – 1,000 km </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Ultra_low_frequency" title="Ultra low frequency">Ultra low frequency</a></td> <td>ULF</td> <td>300– 3,000 Hz</td> <td>1,000– 100 km </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Very_low_frequency" title="Very low frequency">Very low frequency</a></td> <td>VLF</td> <td>3–30 kHz</td> <td>100–10 km </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">Low frequency</a></td> <td>LF</td> <td>30–300 kHz</td> <td>10–1 km </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">Medium frequency</a></td> <td>MF</td> <td>300– 3,000 kHz</td> <td>1,000– 100 m </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> </div> <div style="display:inline-table"> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:left;"> <th>Band name</th> <th>Abbreviation</th> <th>Frequency</th> <th>Wavelength </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">High frequency</a></td> <td>HF</td> <td>3–30 MHz</td> <td>100–10 m </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">Very high frequency</a></td> <td>VHF</td> <td>30–300 MHz</td> <td>10–1 m </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">Ultra high frequency</a></td> <td>UHF</td> <td>300– 3,000 MHz</td> <td>100–10 cm </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Super_high_frequency" title="Super high frequency">Super high frequency</a></td> <td>SHF</td> <td>3–30 GHz</td> <td>10–1 cm </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Extremely_high_frequency" title="Extremely high frequency">Extremely high frequency</a></td> <td>EHF</td> <td>30–300 GHz</td> <td>10–1 mm </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Tremendously_high_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Tremendously high frequency">Tremendously high frequency</a></td> <td>THF</td> <td>300–3,000 GHz (0.3–3.0 THz)</td> <td>1.0–0.1 mm </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl></div> It can be seen that the <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a>, the range of frequencies, contained in each band is not equal but increases exponentially as the frequency increases; each band contains ten times the bandwidth of the preceding band.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The term "tremendously low frequency" (TLF) has been used for wavelengths from 1–3 Hz (300,000–100,000 km),<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> though the term has not been defined by the ITU.<a href="#cite_note-Nomenclature-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulation">Regulation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Regulation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Radio_regulation" title="Radio regulation">Radio regulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radio_communication_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio communication service">Radio communication service</a></div> The airwaves are a resource shared by many users. Two radio transmitters in the same area that attempt to transmit on the same frequency will interfere with each other, causing garbled reception, so neither transmission may be received clearly.<a href="#cite_note-Spectrum101-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio frequency interference">Interference</a> with radio transmissions can not only have a large economic cost, but it can also be life-threatening (for example, in the case of interference with emergency communications or <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic control</a>).<a href="#cite_note-CISA-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mazar-46">[46]</a> To prevent interference between different users, the emission of radio waves is strictly regulated by national laws, coordinated by an international body, the <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</a> (ITU), which allocates bands in the <a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">radio spectrum</a> for different uses.<a href="#cite_note-Spectrum101-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ellingson-2016-3">[3]</a> Radio transmitters must be licensed by governments, under a variety of license classes depending on use, and are restricted to certain frequencies and power levels. In some classes, such as radio and television broadcasting stations, the transmitter is given a unique identifier consisting of a string of letters and numbers called a <a href="/wiki/Call_sign" title="Call sign">call sign</a>, which must be used in all transmissions.<a href="#cite_note-ITU1-47">[47]</a> In order to adjust, maintain, or internally repair radiotelephone transmitters, individuals must hold a government license, such as the <a href="/wiki/General_radiotelephone_operator_license" title="General radiotelephone operator license">general radiotelephone operator license</a> in the US, obtained by taking a test demonstrating adequate technical and legal knowledge of safe radio operation.<a href="#cite_note-FCC2-48">[48]</a> Exceptions to the above rules allow the unlicensed operation by the public of low power short-range transmitters in consumer products such as cell phones, <a href="/wiki/Cordless_phone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cordless phone">cordless phones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wireless_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless device">wireless devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walkie-talkie" title="Walkie-talkie">walkie-talkies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Citizens_band_radio" title="Citizens band radio">citizens band radios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wireless_microphone" title="Wireless microphone">wireless microphones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garage_door_opener" title="Garage door opener">garage door openers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baby_monitor" title="Baby monitor">baby monitors</a>. In the US, these fall under <a href="/wiki/Part_15" class="mw-redirect" title="Part 15">Part 15</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) regulations. Many of these devices use the <a href="/wiki/ISM_band" class="mw-redirect" title="ISM band">ISM bands</a>, a series of frequency bands throughout the radio spectrum reserved for unlicensed use. Although they can be operated without a license, like all radio equipment these devices generally must be <a href="/wiki/Type_approval" title="Type approval">type-approved</a> before the sale.<a href="#cite_note-FCC4-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum#Applications" title="Radio spectrum">Radio spectrum § Applications</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver#Applications" title="Radio receiver">Radio receiver § Applications</a></div> Below are some of the most important uses of radio, organized by function. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Broadcasting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></div> Broadcasting is the one-way transmission of information from a transmitter to receivers belonging to a public audience.<a href="#cite_note-Pizzi-50">[50]</a> Since the radio waves become weaker with distance, a <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadcasting station">broadcasting station</a> can only be received within a limited distance of its transmitter.<a href="#cite_note-Witten-51">[51]</a> Systems that broadcast from <a href="/wiki/Communication_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication satellite">satellites</a> can generally be received over an entire country or continent. Older terrestrial radio and television are paid for by <a href="/wiki/Commercial_advertising" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial advertising">commercial advertising</a> or governments. In subscription systems like satellite television and <a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">satellite radio</a> the customer pays a monthly fee. In these systems, the radio signal is <a href="/wiki/Encrypted" class="mw-redirect" title="Encrypted">encrypted</a> and can only be decrypted by the receiver, which is controlled by the company and can be deactivated if the customer does not pay.<a href="#cite_note-Bonsor-2001-52">[52]</a> Broadcasting uses several parts of the radio spectrum, depending on the type of signals transmitted and the desired target audience. <a href="/wiki/Longwave" title="Longwave">Longwave</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">medium wave</a> signals can give reliable coverage of areas several hundred kilometers across, but have a more limited information-carrying capacity and so work best with audio signals (speech and music), and the sound quality can be degraded by <a href="/wiki/Radio_noise" title="Radio noise">radio noise</a> from natural and artificial sources. The <a href="/wiki/Shortwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Shortwave">shortwave</a> bands have a greater potential range but are more subject to interference by distant stations and varying atmospheric conditions that affect reception.<a href="#cite_note-Gosling2-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Griffin-54">[54]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">very high frequency</a> band, greater than 30 megahertz, the Earth's atmosphere has less of an effect on the range of signals, and <a href="/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">line-of-sight propagation</a> becomes the principal mode. These higher frequencies permit the great bandwidth required for television broadcasting. Since natural and artificial noise sources are less present at these frequencies, high-quality audio transmission is possible, using <a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pizzi-Jones-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Perez-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Audio:_Radio_broadcasting">Audio: Radio broadcasting</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Audio: Radio broadcasting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radio_broadcasting" title="Radio broadcasting">Radio broadcasting</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Radio_broadcasting" title="Radio broadcasting">Radio broadcasting</a> means transmission of <a href="/wiki/Audio_signal" title="Audio signal">audio</a> (sound) to <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">radio receivers</a> belonging to a public audience. Analog audio is the earliest form of radio broadcast. <a href="/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">AM broadcasting</a> began around 1920. <a href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting" title="FM broadcasting">FM broadcasting</a> was introduced in the late 1930s with improved <a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">fidelity</a>. A broadcast radio receiver is called a radio. Most radios can receive both AM and FM.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:529px;max-width:529px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:135px;max-width:135px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Transmisor_de_bulbos_AM_Elcom_Bauer_701_B_XEQK.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Transmisor_de_bulbos_AM_Elcom_Bauer_701_B_XEQK.jpg/133px-Transmisor_de_bulbos_AM_Elcom_Bauer_701_B_XEQK.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Transmisor_de_bulbos_AM_Elcom_Bauer_701_B_XEQK.jpg/200px-Transmisor_de_bulbos_AM_Elcom_Bauer_701_B_XEQK.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Transmisor_de_bulbos_AM_Elcom_Bauer_701_B_XEQK.jpg/266px-Transmisor_de_bulbos_AM_Elcom_Bauer_701_B_XEQK.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3120" data-file-height="4160" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">1100 W AM broadcasting transmitter</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:120px;max-width:120px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:2008-07-28_Mast_radiator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/2008-07-28_Mast_radiator.jpg/120px-2008-07-28_Mast_radiator.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/2008-07-28_Mast_radiator.jpg/250px-2008-07-28_Mast_radiator.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2553" data-file-height="3830" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Mast_radiator" title="Mast radiator">Mast radiator</a> antenna of AM radio station</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:268px;max-width:268px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Vintage_Panasonic_Table_Top_Transistor_Radio,_Model_R-8,_AM_Band,_6_Transistors,_Made_In_Japan,_Circa_1964_(49305570428).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Vintage_Panasonic_Table_Top_Transistor_Radio%2C_Model_R-8%2C_AM_Band%2C_6_Transistors%2C_Made_In_Japan%2C_Circa_1964_%2849305570428%29.jpg/266px-Vintage_Panasonic_Table_Top_Transistor_Radio%2C_Model_R-8%2C_AM_Band%2C_6_Transistors%2C_Made_In_Japan%2C_Circa_1964_%2849305570428%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="266" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Vintage_Panasonic_Table_Top_Transistor_Radio%2C_Model_R-8%2C_AM_Band%2C_6_Transistors%2C_Made_In_Japan%2C_Circa_1964_%2849305570428%29.jpg/399px-Vintage_Panasonic_Table_Top_Transistor_Radio%2C_Model_R-8%2C_AM_Band%2C_6_Transistors%2C_Made_In_Japan%2C_Circa_1964_%2849305570428%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Vintage_Panasonic_Table_Top_Transistor_Radio%2C_Model_R-8%2C_AM_Band%2C_6_Transistors%2C_Made_In_Japan%2C_Circa_1964_%2849305570428%29.jpg/532px-Vintage_Panasonic_Table_Top_Transistor_Radio%2C_Model_R-8%2C_AM_Band%2C_6_Transistors%2C_Made_In_Japan%2C_Circa_1964_%2849305570428%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4490" data-file-height="2994" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Panasonic" title="Panasonic">Panasonic</a> AM radio from 1964</div></div></div></div></div> <ul><li>AM (<a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">amplitude modulation</a>) – in AM, the <a href="/wiki/Amplitude" title="Amplitude">amplitude</a> (strength) of the radio carrier wave is varied by the audio signal. <a href="/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">AM broadcasting</a>, the oldest broadcasting technology, is allowed in the <a href="/wiki/AM_broadcast_band" class="mw-redirect" title="AM broadcast band">AM broadcast bands</a>, between 148 and 283 kHz in the <a href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">low frequency</a> (LF) band for longwave broadcasts and between 526 and 1706 kHz in the <a href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">medium frequency</a> (MF) band for medium-wave broadcasts.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Because waves in these bands travel as <a href="/wiki/Ground_wave" title="Ground wave">ground waves</a> following the terrain, <a href="/wiki/AM_station" class="mw-redirect" title="AM station">AM radio stations</a> can be received beyond the horizon at hundreds of miles distance, but AM has lower fidelity than FM. Radiated power (<a href="/wiki/Effective_radiated_power" title="Effective radiated power">ERP</a>) of AM stations in the US is usually limited to a maximum of 10 kW, although a few (<a href="/wiki/Clear-channel_stations" class="mw-redirect" title="Clear-channel stations">clear-channel stations</a>) are allowed to transmit at 50 kW. AM stations broadcast in monaural audio; <a href="/wiki/AM_stereo" title="AM stereo">AM stereo</a> broadcast standards exist in most countries, but the radio industry has failed to upgrade to them, due to lack of demand.<a href="#cite_note-Gupta-2021-59">[59]</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shortwave_listening" title="Shortwave listening">Shortwave broadcasting</a> – AM broadcasting is also allowed in the <a href="/wiki/Shortwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Shortwave">shortwave</a> bands by legacy radio stations. Since radio waves in these bands can travel intercontinental distances by reflecting off the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a> using <a href="/wiki/Skywave" title="Skywave">skywave</a> or "skip" propagation, shortwave is used by international stations, broadcasting to other countries.<a href="#cite_note-Gupta-2021-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berg-2008-60">[60]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:724px;max-width:724px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:KWNR_Continental_816R-5B_SN_247.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/KWNR_Continental_816R-5B_SN_247.jpg/250px-KWNR_Continental_816R-5B_SN_247.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/KWNR_Continental_816R-5B_SN_247.jpg/330px-KWNR_Continental_816R-5B_SN_247.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/KWNR_Continental_816R-5B_SN_247.jpg/500px-KWNR_Continental_816R-5B_SN_247.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">FM broadcast transmitter of radio station <a href="/wiki/KWNR" title="KWNR">KWNR</a>, Las Vegas, with a power of 35 kW on 95.5 MHz</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:84px;max-width:84px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:FM_broadcasting_antenna_Willans_Hill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/FM_broadcasting_antenna_Willans_Hill.jpg/82px-FM_broadcasting_antenna_Willans_Hill.jpg" decoding="async" width="82" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/FM_broadcasting_antenna_Willans_Hill.jpg/123px-FM_broadcasting_antenna_Willans_Hill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/FM_broadcasting_antenna_Willans_Hill.jpg/164px-FM_broadcasting_antenna_Willans_Hill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="590" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">FM broadcasting antenna</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:174px;max-width:174px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Klaudia_801.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Klaudia_801.JPG/250px-Klaudia_801.JPG" decoding="async" width="172" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Klaudia_801.JPG/330px-Klaudia_801.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Klaudia_801.JPG/500px-Klaudia_801.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">AM/FM boombox radio with FM whip antenna</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:266px;max-width:266px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:BP74-Servicemenu-2008-05-31-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/BP74-Servicemenu-2008-05-31-03.jpg/264px-BP74-Servicemenu-2008-05-31-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="264" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/BP74-Servicemenu-2008-05-31-03.jpg/396px-BP74-Servicemenu-2008-05-31-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/BP74-Servicemenu-2008-05-31-03.jpg/528px-BP74-Servicemenu-2008-05-31-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1242" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">FM <a href="/wiki/Car_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Car radio">car radio</a>'s interface display</div></div></div></div></div> <ul><li>FM (<a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</a>) – in FM the <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequency</a> of the radio carrier signal is varied slightly by the audio signal. <a href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting" title="FM broadcasting">FM broadcasting</a> is permitted in the <a href="/wiki/FM_broadcast_band" title="FM broadcast band">FM broadcast bands</a> between about 65 and 108 MHz in the <a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">very high frequency</a> (VHF) range. Radio waves in this band travel by <a href="/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">line-of-sight</a> so FM reception is limited by the visual <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon</a> to about 30–40 miles (48–64 km), and can be blocked by hills. However it is less susceptible to interference from <a href="/wiki/Radio_noise" title="Radio noise">radio noise</a> (<a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio frequency interference">RFI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sferics" class="mw-redirect" title="Sferics">sferics</a>, static), and has higher <a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">fidelity</a>, better <a href="/wiki/Frequency_response" title="Frequency response">frequency response</a>, and less <a href="/wiki/Audio_distortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio distortion">audio distortion</a> than AM. In the US, radiated power (<a href="/wiki/Effective_radiated_power" title="Effective radiated power">ERP</a>) of FM stations varies from 6–100 kW.<a href="#cite_note-Sterling-Kieth-61">[61]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">Digital radio</a> involves a variety of standards and technologies for broadcasting digital radio signals over the air. Some systems, such as <a href="/wiki/HD_Radio" title="HD Radio">HD Radio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_Radio_Mondiale" title="Digital Radio Mondiale">DRM</a>, operate in the same wavebands as analog broadcasts, either as a replacement for analog stations or as a complementary service. Others, such as <a href="/wiki/Digital_Audio_Broadcasting" title="Digital Audio Broadcasting">DAB/DAB+</a> and <a href="/wiki/ISDB" title="ISDB">ISDB</a>_Tsb, operate in wavebands traditionally used for television or satellite services.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portable_radio_receiving_DAB%2B_transmission_in_UK.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Portable_radio_receiving_DAB%2B_transmission_in_UK.jpg/150px-Portable_radio_receiving_DAB%2B_transmission_in_UK.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Portable_radio_receiving_DAB%2B_transmission_in_UK.jpg/225px-Portable_radio_receiving_DAB%2B_transmission_in_UK.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Portable_radio_receiving_DAB%2B_transmission_in_UK.jpg/300px-Portable_radio_receiving_DAB%2B_transmission_in_UK.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1088" data-file-height="1643" /></a><figcaption>"Roberts" radio for DAB</figcaption></figure> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Audio_Broadcasting" title="Digital Audio Broadcasting">Digital Audio Broadcasting</a> (DAB) debuted in some countries in 1998. It transmits audio as a <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal" title="Digital signal">digital signal</a> rather than an <a href="/wiki/Analog_signal" title="Analog signal">analog signal</a> as AM and FM do.<a href="#cite_note-Baker-63">[63]</a> DAB has the potential to provide higher quality sound than FM (although many stations do not choose to transmit at such high quality), has greater immunity to <a href="/wiki/Radio_noise" title="Radio noise">radio noise</a> and interference, makes better use of scarce <a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">radio spectrum</a> bandwidth and provides advanced user features such as <a href="/wiki/Electronic_program_guide" title="Electronic program guide">electronic program guides</a>. Its disadvantage is that it is incompatible with previous radios so that a new DAB receiver must be purchased.<a href="#cite_note-Hoeg-Lauterbach-64">[64]</a> Several nations have set dates to switch off analog FM networks in favor of DAB / DAB+, notably Norway in 2017<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> and Switzerland in 2024.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>A single DAB station transmits a 1,500 kHz bandwidth signal that carries from 9–12 channels of digital audio modulated by <a href="/wiki/OFDM" class="mw-redirect" title="OFDM">OFDM</a> from which the listener can choose. Broadcasters can transmit a channel at a range of different <a href="/wiki/Bit_rate" title="Bit rate">bit rates</a>, so different channels can have different audio quality. In different countries DAB stations broadcast in either <a href="/wiki/Band_III" title="Band III">Band III</a> (174–240 MHz) or <a href="/wiki/L_band" title="L band">L band</a> (1.452–1.492 GHz) in the UHF range, so like FM reception is limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles (64 km).<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hoeg-Lauterbach-64">[64]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/HD_Radio" title="HD Radio">HD Radio</a> is an alternative digital radio standard widely implemented in North America.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> An <a href="/wiki/In-band_on-channel" title="In-band on-channel">in-band on-channel</a> technology, HD Radio broadcasts a digital signal in a subcarrier of a station's analog FM or AM signal. Stations are able to <a href="/wiki/Multicast" title="Multicast">multicast</a> more than one audio signal in the subcarrier, supporting the transmission of multiple audio services at varying bitrates.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The digital signal is transmitted using <a href="/wiki/OFDM" class="mw-redirect" title="OFDM">OFDM</a> with the HDC (<a href="/wiki/High-Definition_Coding" title="High-Definition Coding">High-Definition Coding</a>) proprietary <a href="/wiki/Audio_compression_format" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio compression format">audio compression format</a>. HDC is based on, but not compatible with, the <a href="/wiki/MPEG-4" title="MPEG-4">MPEG-4</a> standard <a href="/wiki/HE-AAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HE-AAC">HE-AAC</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> It uses a <a href="/wiki/Modified_discrete_cosine_transform" title="Modified discrete cosine transform">modified discrete cosine transform</a> (MDCT) <a href="/wiki/Audio_data_compression" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio data compression">audio data compression</a> algorithm.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Radio_Mondiale" title="Digital Radio Mondiale">Digital Radio Mondiale</a> (DRM) is a competing digital terrestrial radio standard developed mainly by broadcasters as a higher <a href="/wiki/Spectral_efficiency" title="Spectral efficiency">spectral efficiency</a> replacement for legacy AM and FM broadcasting. Mondiale means "worldwide" in French and Italian; DRM was developed in 2001, and is currently supported by 23 countries, and adopted by some European and Eastern broadcasters beginning in 2003. The DRM30 mode uses the commercial broadcast bands below 30 MHz, and is intended as a replacement for standard AM broadcast on the <a href="/wiki/Longwave#longwave_broadcasting_anchor" title="Longwave">longwave</a>, <a href="/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">mediumwave</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shortwave_radio#shortwave_broadcasting_anchor" title="Shortwave radio">shortwave</a> bands. The DRM+ mode uses <a href="/wiki/VHF" class="mw-redirect" title="VHF">VHF</a> frequencies centered around the FM broadcast band, and is intended as a replacement for FM broadcasting. It is incompatible with existing radio receivers, so it requires listeners to purchase a new DRM receiver. The modulation used is a form of <a href="/wiki/OFDM" class="mw-redirect" title="OFDM">OFDM</a> called <a href="/wiki/COFDM" class="mw-redirect" title="COFDM">COFDM</a> in which, up to 4 carriers are transmitted on a channel formerly occupied by a single AM or FM signal, modulated by <a href="/wiki/Quadrature_amplitude_modulation" title="Quadrature amplitude modulation">quadrature amplitude modulation</a> (QAM).<a href="#cite_note-ETSI-201-980-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berg-2008-60">[60]</a></li></ul> <dl><dd>The DRM system is designed to be as compatible as possible with existing AM and FM radio transmitters, so that much of the equipment in existing radio stations can continue in use, augmented with DRM modulation equipment.<a href="#cite_note-ETSI-201-980-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berg-2008-60">[60]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SiriusXM_Display_on_Volkswagen%27s_RNS-510_Receiver.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/SiriusXM_Display_on_Volkswagen%27s_RNS-510_Receiver.png/250px-SiriusXM_Display_on_Volkswagen%27s_RNS-510_Receiver.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/SiriusXM_Display_on_Volkswagen%27s_RNS-510_Receiver.png/330px-SiriusXM_Display_on_Volkswagen%27s_RNS-510_Receiver.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/SiriusXM_Display_on_Volkswagen%27s_RNS-510_Receiver.png/500px-SiriusXM_Display_on_Volkswagen%27s_RNS-510_Receiver.png 2x" data-file-width="633" data-file-height="633" /></a><figcaption>Volkswagen's RNS-510 receiver supports <a href="/wiki/Sirius_Satellite_Radio" title="Sirius Satellite Radio">Sirius Satellite Radio</a>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Satellite radio</a> is a subscription radio service that broadcasts CD quality <a href="/wiki/Digital_audio" title="Digital audio">digital audio</a> direct to subscribers' receivers using a <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> <a href="/wiki/Downlink" class="mw-redirect" title="Downlink">downlink</a> signal from a <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">direct broadcast communication satellite</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geostationary" class="mw-redirect" title="Geostationary">geostationary</a> orbit 22,000 miles (35,000 km) above the Earth. It is mostly intended for <a href="/wiki/Car_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Car radio">radios in vehicles</a>. Satellite radio uses the 2.3 GHz <a href="/wiki/S_band" title="S band">S band</a> in North America, in other parts of the world, it uses the 1.4 GHz <a href="/wiki/L_band" title="L band">L band</a> allocated for DAB.<a href="#cite_note-Satellite_S-2011-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-kbonsor-74">[74]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Audio/video:_Television_broadcasting">Audio/video: Television broadcasting</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Audio/video: Television broadcasting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television broadcasting</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television broadcasting</a> is the transmission of moving images along with a synchronized audio (sound) channel by radio. The sequence of still images is displayed on a screen on a <a href="/wiki/Television_receiver" class="mw-redirect" title="Television receiver">television receiver</a> (a "television" or TV), which includes a <a href="/wiki/Loudspeaker" title="Loudspeaker">loudspeaker</a>. Television (<a href="/wiki/Video" title="Video">video</a>) signals occupy a wider <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a> than broadcast radio (<a href="/wiki/Audio_signal" title="Audio signal">audio</a>) signals. <a href="/wiki/Analog_television" title="Analog television">Analog television</a>, the original television technology, required 6 MHz, so the television frequency bands are divided into 6 MHz channels, now called "RF channels".<a href="#cite_note-Enticknap-75">[75]</a> The current television standard, introduced beginning in 2006, is a digital format called <a href="/wiki/High-definition_television" title="High-definition television">high-definition television</a> (HDTV), which transmits pictures at higher resolution, typically 1080 <a href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">pixels</a> high by 1920 pixels wide, at a rate of 25 or 30 frames per second. <a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">Digital television</a> (DTV) transmission systems, which replaced older analog television in a <a href="/wiki/Digital_television_transition" title="Digital television transition">transition</a> beginning in 2006, use <a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image compression</a> and high-efficiency digital modulation such as <a href="/wiki/OFDM" class="mw-redirect" title="OFDM">OFDM</a> and <a href="/wiki/8VSB" title="8VSB">8VSB</a> to transmit HDTV video within a smaller bandwidth than the old analog channels, saving scarce <a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">radio spectrum</a> space. Therefore, each of the 6 MHz analog RF channels now carries up to 7 DTV channels – these are called "virtual channels". Digital television receivers have different behavior in the presence of poor reception or noise than analog television, called the "<a href="/wiki/Digital_cliff" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital cliff">digital cliff</a>" effect. Unlike analog television, in which increasingly poor reception causes the picture quality to gradually degrade, in digital television picture quality is not affected by poor reception until, at a certain point, the receiver stops working and the screen goes black.<a href="#cite_note-Starks-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brice-77">[77]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:514px;max-width:514px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Celebro_Studios_Gallery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Celebro_Studios_Gallery.jpg/250px-Celebro_Studios_Gallery.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Celebro_Studios_Gallery.jpg/330px-Celebro_Studios_Gallery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Celebro_Studios_Gallery.jpg/500px-Celebro_Studios_Gallery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3927" data-file-height="2310" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Television studio control room, Celebro Studios, London</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:84px;max-width:84px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Superturnstile_Tx_Muehlacker.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Superturnstile_Tx_Muehlacker.JPG/82px-Superturnstile_Tx_Muehlacker.JPG" decoding="async" width="82" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Superturnstile_Tx_Muehlacker.JPG/123px-Superturnstile_Tx_Muehlacker.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Superturnstile_Tx_Muehlacker.JPG/164px-Superturnstile_Tx_Muehlacker.JPG 2x" data-file-width="641" data-file-height="1023" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">A television broadcasting antenna</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Sony_KDL-40V2500_20061107.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Sony_KDL-40V2500_20061107.jpg/200px-Sony_KDL-40V2500_20061107.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Sony_KDL-40V2500_20061107.jpg/300px-Sony_KDL-40V2500_20061107.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Sony_KDL-40V2500_20061107.jpg/400px-Sony_KDL-40V2500_20061107.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1353" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">A modern flatscreen television receiver</div></div></div></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_television" title="Terrestrial television">Terrestrial television</a>, over-the-air (OTA) television, or broadcast television – the oldest television technology, is the transmission of television signals from land-based television stations to <a href="/wiki/Television_receiver" class="mw-redirect" title="Television receiver">television receivers</a> (called televisions or TVs) in viewer's homes. Terrestrial television broadcasting uses the bands 41 – 88 MHz (<a href="/wiki/VHF" class="mw-redirect" title="VHF">VHF</a> low band or <a href="/wiki/Band_I" title="Band I">Band I</a>, carrying RF channels 1–6), 174 – 240 MHz, (VHF high band or <a href="/wiki/Band_III" title="Band III">Band III</a>; carrying RF channels 7–13), and 470 – 614 MHz (<a href="/wiki/UHF" class="mw-redirect" title="UHF">UHF</a> <a href="/wiki/Band_IV" title="Band IV">Band IV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Band_V" title="Band V">Band V</a>; carrying RF channels 14 and up).<a href="#cite_note-NAB1-78">[78]</a> The exact frequency boundaries vary in different countries.<a href="#cite_note-Lundstrom-79">[79]</a> Propagation is by <a href="/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">line-of-sight</a>, so reception is limited by the visual horizon.<a href="#cite_note-Ingram-80">[80]</a> In the US, the <a href="/wiki/Effective_radiated_power" title="Effective radiated power">effective radiated power</a> (ERP) of television transmitters is regulated according to <a href="/wiki/Height_above_average_terrain" title="Height above average terrain">height above average terrain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ProStar-81">[81]</a> Viewers closer to the television transmitter can use a simple "rabbit ears" <a href="/wiki/Dipole_antenna" title="Dipole antenna">dipole antenna</a> on top of the TV, but viewers in <a href="/wiki/Fringe_reception" class="mw-redirect" title="Fringe reception">fringe reception</a> areas typically require an outdoor antenna mounted on the roof to get adequate reception.<a href="#cite_note-Ingram-80">[80]</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:540px;max-width:540px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Satellite_TV_diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Satellite_TV_diagram.png/170px-Satellite_TV_diagram.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Satellite_TV_diagram.png/255px-Satellite_TV_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Satellite_TV_diagram.png/340px-Satellite_TV_diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="588" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:SuperDISH121.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/SuperDISH121.jpg/140px-SuperDISH121.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/SuperDISH121.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="208" data-file-height="243" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin-neukoelln_satellite-dishes_20050314_p1010596.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Berlin-neukoelln_satellite-dishes_20050314_p1010596.jpg/218px-Berlin-neukoelln_satellite-dishes_20050314_p1010596.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Berlin-neukoelln_satellite-dishes_20050314_p1010596.jpg/327px-Berlin-neukoelln_satellite-dishes_20050314_p1010596.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Berlin-neukoelln_satellite-dishes_20050314_p1010596.jpg/436px-Berlin-neukoelln_satellite-dishes_20050314_p1010596.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">(left) Diagram showing how a satellite television network works. (center) DISH Network's <a href="/wiki/SuperDish" title="SuperDish">Super Dish</a> 121 mounted on a rooftop. (right) A residential <a href="/wiki/Tower_block" title="Tower block">tower block</a> with TV satellite dishes</div></div></div></div> <ul><li>Satellite television – a <a href="/wiki/Set-top_box" title="Set-top box">set-top box</a> which receives subscription <a href="/wiki/Direct-broadcast_satellite_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct-broadcast satellite television">direct-broadcast satellite television</a>, and displays it on an ordinary television. A <a href="/wiki/Direct_broadcast_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct broadcast satellite">direct broadcast satellite</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geostationary" class="mw-redirect" title="Geostationary">geostationary</a> orbit 22,200 miles (35,700 km) above the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> transmits many channels (up to 900) modulated on a 12.2 to 12.7 GHz <a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">Ku band</a> <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> downlink signal to a rooftop <a href="/wiki/Satellite_dish" title="Satellite dish">satellite dish</a> antenna on the subscriber's residence. The microwave signal is converted to a lower <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_frequency" title="Intermediate frequency">intermediate frequency</a> at the dish and conducted into the building by a coaxial cable to a <a href="/wiki/Set-top_box" title="Set-top box">set-top box</a> connected to the subscriber's TV, where it is demodulated and displayed. The subscriber pays a monthly fee.<a href="#cite_note-Benoit-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Long-83">[83]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Time_and_frequency">Time and frequency</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Time and frequency">edit</a>]</div> Government <a href="/wiki/Standard_frequency_and_time_signal_service" title="Standard frequency and time signal service">standard frequency and time signal services</a> operate time radio stations which continuously broadcast extremely accurate time signals produced by <a href="/wiki/Atomic_clock" title="Atomic clock">atomic clocks</a>, as a reference to synchronize other clocks.<a href="#cite_note-Weik-84">[84]</a> Examples are <a href="/wiki/BPC_(time_signal)" title="BPC (time signal)">BPC</a>, <a href="/wiki/DCF77" title="DCF77">DCF77</a>, <a href="/wiki/JJY" title="JJY">JJY</a>, <a href="/wiki/Time_from_NPL_(MSF)" title="Time from NPL (MSF)">MSF</a>, <a href="/wiki/RTZ_(radio_station)" title="RTZ (radio station)">RTZ</a>, <a href="/wiki/TDF_time_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="TDF time signal">TDF</a>, <a href="/wiki/WWV_(radio_station)" title="WWV (radio station)">WWV</a>, and <a href="/wiki/YVTO" title="YVTO">YVTO</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RadioNavAids-85">[85]</a> One use is in <a href="/wiki/Radio_clock" title="Radio clock">radio clocks</a> and watches, which include an automated receiver that periodically (usually weekly) receives and decodes the time signal and resets the watch's internal <a href="/wiki/Quartz_clock" title="Quartz clock">quartz clock</a> to the correct time, thus allowing a small watch or desk clock to have the same accuracy as an atomic clock. Government time stations are declining in number because <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> satellites and the Internet <a href="/wiki/Network_Time_Protocol" title="Network Time Protocol">Network Time Protocol</a> (NTP) provide equally accurate time standards.<a href="#cite_note-NPR-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voice_communication">Voice communication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Voice communication">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Two-way_voice_communication">Two-way voice communication</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Two-way voice communication">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Two-way_radio" title="Two-way radio">Two-way radio</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:330px;max-width:330px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:213px;max-width:213px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobile_phone_evolution_Japan1997-2004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Mobile_phone_evolution_Japan1997-2004.jpg/211px-Mobile_phone_evolution_Japan1997-2004.jpg" decoding="async" width="211" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Mobile_phone_evolution_Japan1997-2004.jpg/317px-Mobile_phone_evolution_Japan1997-2004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Mobile_phone_evolution_Japan1997-2004.jpg/422px-Mobile_phone_evolution_Japan1997-2004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Cellphones typical of Japan in the early 21st century.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:113px;max-width:113px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Cell-Tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Cell-Tower.jpg/120px-Cell-Tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Cell-Tower.jpg/250px-Cell-Tower.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="2980" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Cellular phone tower shared by antennas belonging to 3 different networks.</div></div></div></div></div> A <a href="/wiki/Two-way_radio" title="Two-way radio">two-way radio</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Audio_signal" title="Audio signal">audio</a> <a href="/wiki/Transceiver" title="Transceiver">transceiver</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">receiver</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitter</a> in the same device, used for bidirectional person-to-person voice communication with other users with similar radios. An older term for this mode of communication is <a href="/wiki/Radiotelephony" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotelephony">radiotelephony</a>. The radio link may be <a href="/wiki/Half-duplex" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-duplex">half-duplex</a>, as in a <a href="/wiki/Walkie-talkie" title="Walkie-talkie">walkie-talkie</a>, using a single radio channel in which only one radio can transmit at a time, so different users take turns talking, pressing a "<a href="/wiki/Push_to_talk" class="mw-redirect" title="Push to talk">push to talk</a>" button on their radio which switches off the receiver and switches on the transmitter. Or the radio link may be <a href="/wiki/Full_duplex" class="mw-redirect" title="Full duplex">full duplex</a>, a bidirectional link using two radio channels so both people can talk at the same time, as in a cell phone.<a href="#cite_note-Frenzel-87">[87]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_phone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell phone">Cell phone</a> – a portable wireless telephone that is connected to the <a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">telephone network</a> by radio signals exchanged with a local antenna at a <a href="/wiki/Cellular_base_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular base station">cellular base station</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cell_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell tower">cell tower</a>).<a href="#cite_note-HowCellPhonesWork-88">[88]</a> The service area covered by the provider is divided into small geographical areas called "cells", each served by a separate base station antenna and multichannel <a href="/wiki/Transceiver" title="Transceiver">transceiver</a>. All the cell phones in a cell communicate with this antenna on separate frequency channels, assigned from a common pool of frequencies. The purpose of cellular organization is to conserve radio bandwidth by <a href="/wiki/Frequency_reuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency reuse">frequency reuse</a>. Low power transmitters are used so the radio waves used in a cell do not travel far beyond the cell, allowing the same frequencies to be reused in geographically separated cells. When a user carrying a cellphone crosses from one cell to another, his phone is automatically "handed off" seamlessly to the new antenna and assigned new frequencies. Cellphones have a highly automated <a href="/wiki/Full_duplex" class="mw-redirect" title="Full duplex">full duplex</a> digital <a href="/wiki/Transceiver" title="Transceiver">transceiver</a> using <a href="/wiki/OFDM" class="mw-redirect" title="OFDM">OFDM</a> modulation using two digital radio channels, each carrying one direction of the bidirectional conversation, as well as a control channel that handles dialing calls and "handing off" the phone to another cell tower. Older <a href="/wiki/2G" title="2G">2G</a>, <a href="/wiki/3G" title="3G">3G</a>, and <a href="/wiki/4G" title="4G">4G</a> networks use frequencies in the <a href="/wiki/UHF" class="mw-redirect" title="UHF">UHF</a> and low microwave range, between 700 MHz and 3 GHz. The cell phone transmitter adjusts its power output to use the minimum power necessary to communicate with the cell tower; 0.6 W when near the tower, up to 3 W when farther away. Cell tower channel transmitter power is 50 W. Current generation phones, called <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>, have many functions besides making telephone calls, and therefore have several other radio transmitters and receivers that connect them with other networks: usually a <a href="/wiki/Wireless_modem" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless modem">Wi-Fi modem</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a> modem, and a <a href="/wiki/GPS_receiver" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS receiver">GPS receiver</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lawson-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zander-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:268px;max-width:268px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:2019-07-21_-_Vodafone_5G_Standort_Hattstedt_-_Detailfoto1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/2019-07-21_-_Vodafone_5G_Standort_Hattstedt_-_Detailfoto1.jpg/130px-2019-07-21_-_Vodafone_5G_Standort_Hattstedt_-_Detailfoto1.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/2019-07-21_-_Vodafone_5G_Standort_Hattstedt_-_Detailfoto1.jpg/195px-2019-07-21_-_Vodafone_5G_Standort_Hattstedt_-_Detailfoto1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/2019-07-21_-_Vodafone_5G_Standort_Hattstedt_-_Detailfoto1.jpg/260px-2019-07-21_-_Vodafone_5G_Standort_Hattstedt_-_Detailfoto1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_and_T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_Pro_from_Polish_distribution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_and_T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_Pro_from_Polish_distribution.jpg/130px-T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_and_T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_Pro_from_Polish_distribution.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_and_T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_Pro_from_Polish_distribution.jpg/195px-T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_and_T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_Pro_from_Polish_distribution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_and_T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_Pro_from_Polish_distribution.jpg/260px-T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_and_T%E2%80%93Phone_5G_Pro_from_Polish_distribution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1932" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">(left) 5G millimeter wave antenna, Germany (right) Polish 5G smartphones</div></div></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5G" title="5G">5G cellular network</a> – next-generation cellular networks which began deployment in 2019. Their major advantage is much higher <a href="/wiki/Data_rates" class="mw-redirect" title="Data rates">data rates</a> than previous cellular networks, up to 10 <a href="/wiki/Bits_per_second" class="mw-redirect" title="Bits per second">Gbps</a>; 100 times faster than the previous cellular technology, <a href="/wiki/4G_LTE" class="mw-redirect" title="4G LTE">4G LTE</a>. The higher data rates are achieved partly by using higher frequency radio waves, in the higher microwave band 3–6 GHz, and <a href="/wiki/Millimeter_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Millimeter wave">millimeter wave</a> band, around 28 and 39 GHz. Since these frequencies have a shorter range than previous cellphone bands, the cells will be smaller than the cells in previous cellular networks which could be many miles across. Millimeter-wave cells will only be a few blocks long, and instead of a <a href="/wiki/Cell_site" title="Cell site">cell base station</a> and antenna tower, they will have many small antennas attached to utility poles and buildings.<a href="#cite_note-S.Brown-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Osseiran-Monserrat-Marsch-93">[93]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zivile_Satellitentelefone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Zivile_Satellitentelefone.jpg/250px-Zivile_Satellitentelefone.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Zivile_Satellitentelefone.jpg/330px-Zivile_Satellitentelefone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="855" /></a><figcaption>Satellite phones, showing the large antennas needed to communicate with the satellite</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Satellite phone</a> (satphone) – a portable wireless telephone similar to a cell phone, connected to the <a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">telephone network</a> through a radio link to an orbiting <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">communications satellite</a> instead of through <a href="/wiki/Cell_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell tower">cell towers</a>. They are more expensive than cell phones; but their advantage is that, unlike a cell phone which is limited to areas covered by cell towers, satphones can be used over most or all of the geographical area of the Earth. In order for the phone to communicate with a satellite using a small <a href="/wiki/Omnidirectional_antenna" title="Omnidirectional antenna">omnidirectional antenna</a>, first-generation systems use satellites in <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a>, about 400–700 miles (640–1,100 km) above the surface. With an orbital period of about 100 minutes, a satellite can only be in view of a phone for about 4 – 15 minutes, so the call is "handed off" to another satellite when one passes beyond the local horizon. Therefore, large numbers of satellites, about 40 to 70, are required to ensure that at least one satellite is in view continuously from each point on Earth. Other satphone systems use satellites in <a href="/wiki/Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">geostationary orbit</a> in which only a few satellites are needed, but these cannot be used at high latitudes because of terrestrial interference.<a href="#cite_note-Chandler-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-TW-95">[95]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordless_phone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cordless phone">Cordless phone</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Landline_telephone" class="mw-redirect" title="Landline telephone">landline telephone</a> in which the <a href="/wiki/Handset" title="Handset">handset</a> is portable and communicates with the rest of the phone by a short-range <a href="/wiki/Duplex_(telecommunications)" title="Duplex (telecommunications)">full duplex</a> radio link, instead of being attached by a cord. Both the handset and the base station have low-power radio transceivers that handle the short-range bidirectional radio link.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> As of 2022<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit">[update]</a>, cordless phones in most nations use the <a href="/wiki/DECT" title="DECT">DECT</a> transmission standard.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portable_radio_SCR536.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Portable_radio_SCR536.png/130px-Portable_radio_SCR536.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Portable_radio_SCR536.png/195px-Portable_radio_SCR536.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Portable_radio_SCR536.png/260px-Portable_radio_SCR536.png 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption>Motorola SCR-536 from WW2, the first walkie-talkie</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_mobile_radio_system" title="Land mobile radio system">Land mobile radio system</a> – short-range mobile or portable <a href="/wiki/Half-duplex" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-duplex">half-duplex</a> radio transceivers operating in the VHF or UHF band that can be used without a license. They are often installed in vehicles, with the mobile units communicating with a dispatcher at a fixed <a href="/wiki/Base_station" title="Base station">base station</a>. Special systems with reserved frequencies are used by <a href="/wiki/First_responder" title="First responder">first responder</a> services; police, fire, ambulance, and emergency services, and other government services. Other systems are made for use by commercial firms such as taxi and delivery services. VHF systems use channels in the range 30–50 MHz and 150–172 MHz. UHF systems use the 450–470 MHz band and in some areas the 470–512 MHz range. In general, VHF systems have a longer range than UHF but require longer antennas. AM or FM modulation is mainly used, but digital systems such as <a href="/wiki/Digital_mobile_radio" title="Digital mobile radio">DMR</a> are being introduced. The radiated power is typically limited to 4 watts.<a href="#cite_note-HowCellPhonesWork-88">[88]</a> These systems have a fairly limited range, usually 3 to 20 miles (4.8 to 32 km) depending on terrain. <a href="/wiki/Repeater" title="Repeater">Repeaters</a> installed on tall buildings, hills, or mountain peaks are often used to increase the range when it is desired to cover a larger area than line-of-sight. Examples of land mobile systems are <a href="/wiki/Citizens_Band" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens Band">CB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_Radio_Service" title="Family Radio Service">FRS</a>, <a href="/wiki/GMRS" class="mw-redirect" title="GMRS">GMRS</a>, and <a href="/wiki/MURS" class="mw-redirect" title="MURS">MURS</a>. Modern digital systems, called <a href="/wiki/Trunked_radio_system" title="Trunked radio system">trunked radio systems</a>, have a digital channel management system using a control channel that automatically assigns frequency channels to user groups.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Miramar_Fire_Department_Firefighters_Conduct_Prescribed_Burns_140612-M-RB277-066.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Miramar_Fire_Department_Firefighters_Conduct_Prescribed_Burns_140612-M-RB277-066.jpg/250px-Miramar_Fire_Department_Firefighters_Conduct_Prescribed_Burns_140612-M-RB277-066.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Miramar_Fire_Department_Firefighters_Conduct_Prescribed_Burns_140612-M-RB277-066.jpg/330px-Miramar_Fire_Department_Firefighters_Conduct_Prescribed_Burns_140612-M-RB277-066.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Miramar_Fire_Department_Firefighters_Conduct_Prescribed_Burns_140612-M-RB277-066.jpg/500px-Miramar_Fire_Department_Firefighters_Conduct_Prescribed_Burns_140612-M-RB277-066.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3840" /></a><figcaption>Firefighter using modern walkie-talkie</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walkie-talkie" title="Walkie-talkie">Walkie-talkie</a> – a battery-powered portable handheld half-duplex two-way radio, used in land mobile radio systems.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airband" title="Airband">Airband</a> – Half-duplex radio system used by aircraft pilots to talk to other aircraft and ground-based <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_controller" title="Air traffic controller">air traffic controllers</a>. This vital system is the main communication channel for <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic control</a>. For most communication in overland flights in <a href="/wiki/Air_corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="Air corridor">air corridors</a> a VHF-AM system using channels between 108 and 137 MHz in the <a href="/wiki/VHF" class="mw-redirect" title="VHF">VHF</a> band is used. This system has a typical transmission range of 200 miles (320 km) for aircraft flying at cruising altitude.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-Smeter_network_2011-101">[101]</a> For flights in more remote areas, such as transoceanic airline flights, aircraft use the <a href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">HF</a> band or channels on the <a href="/wiki/Inmarsat" title="Inmarsat">Inmarsat</a> or <a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Iridium</a> satphone satellites.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Military aircraft also use a dedicated UHF-AM band from 225.0 to 399.95 MHz.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maritime_VHF_Sailor_type.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Maritime_VHF_Sailor_type.jpg/250px-Maritime_VHF_Sailor_type.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Maritime_VHF_Sailor_type.jpg/330px-Maritime_VHF_Sailor_type.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Maritime_VHF_Sailor_type.jpg/500px-Maritime_VHF_Sailor_type.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>VHF marine radio on a ship</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine radio">Marine radio</a> – medium-range transceivers on ships, used for ship-to-ship, ship-to-air, and ship-to-shore communication with <a href="/wiki/Harbormaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Harbormaster">harbormasters</a> They use FM channels between 156 and 174 MHz in the <a href="/wiki/VHF" class="mw-redirect" title="VHF">VHF</a> band with up to 25 watts power, giving them a range of about 60 miles (97 km). Some channels are <a href="/wiki/Half-duplex" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-duplex">half-duplex</a> and some are <a href="/wiki/Full-duplex" class="mw-redirect" title="Full-duplex">full-duplex</a>, to be compatible with the telephone network, to allow users to make telephone calls through a marine operator.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">Amateur radio</a> – long-range half-duplex two-way radio used by hobbyists for non-commercial purposes: recreational radio contacts with other amateurs, volunteer emergency communication during disasters, contests, and experimentation. <a href="/wiki/Radio_amateur" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio amateur">Radio amateurs</a> must hold an <a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio_license" class="mw-redirect" title="Amateur radio license">amateur radio license</a> and are given a unique <a href="/wiki/Callsign" class="mw-redirect" title="Callsign">callsign</a> that must be used as an identifier in transmissions. Amateur radio is restricted to small frequency bands, the <a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Amateur radio band">amateur radio bands</a>, spaced throughout the radio spectrum starting at 136 kHz. Within these bands, amateurs are allowed the freedom to transmit on any frequency using a wide variety of voice modulation methods, along with other forms of communication, such as <a href="/wiki/Slow-scan_television" title="Slow-scan television">slow-scan television</a> (SSTV), and <a href="/wiki/Radioteletype" title="Radioteletype">radioteletype</a> (RTTY). Additionally, amateurs are among the only radio operators still using <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> <a href="/wiki/Radiotelegraphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotelegraphy">radiotelegraphy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="One-way_voice_communication">One-way voice communication</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: One-way voice communication">edit</a>]</div> One way, unidirectional radio transmission is called <a href="/wiki/Simplex_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplex communication">simplex</a>. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby_monitor" title="Baby monitor">Baby monitor</a> – a crib-side appliance for parents of infants that transmits the baby's sounds to a receiver carried by the parent, so they can monitor the baby while they are in other parts of the house.<a href="#cite_note-HSW1-106">[106]</a> The wavebands used vary by region, but analog baby monitors generally transmit with low power in the 16, 9.3–49.9 or 900 MHz wavebands, and digital systems in the 2.4 GHz waveband.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Many baby monitors have duplex channels so the parent can talk to the baby, and cameras to show video of the baby.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_microphone" title="Wireless microphone">Wireless microphone</a> – a battery-powered microphone with a short-range transmitter that is handheld or worn on a person's body which transmits its sound by radio to a nearby receiver unit connected to a sound system. Wireless microphones are used by public speakers, performers, and television personalities so they can move freely without trailing a microphone cord. Traditionally, analog models transmit in FM on unused portions of the television broadcast frequencies in the VHF and UHF bands. Some models transmit on two frequency channels for <a href="/wiki/Diversity_reception" class="mw-redirect" title="Diversity reception">diversity reception</a> to prevent <a href="/wiki/Null_(radio)" title="Null (radio)">nulls</a> from interrupting transmission as the performer moves around.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Some models use digital modulation to prevent unauthorized reception by scanner radio receivers; these operate in the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz or 6 GHz <a href="/wiki/ISM_bands" class="mw-redirect" title="ISM bands">ISM bands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> European standards also support wireless multichannel audio systems (WMAS) that can better support the use of large numbers of wireless microphones at a single event or venue. As of 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit">[update]</a>, U.S. regulators were considering adopting rules for WMAS.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_communication">Data communication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Data communication">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Data_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Data transmission">Data transmission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telemetry" title="Telemetry">Telemetry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">Wireless</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless networking">Wireless networking</a> – automated radio links which transmit digital data between computers and other wireless devices using radio waves, linking the devices together transparently in a <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer network</a>. Computer networks can transmit any form of data: in addition to email and web pages, they also carry <a href="/wiki/Phone_call" class="mw-redirect" title="Phone call">phone calls</a> (<a href="/wiki/VoIP" class="mw-redirect" title="VoIP">VoIP</a>), audio, and video content (called <a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming media</a>). Security is more of an issue for wireless networks than for wired networks since anyone nearby with a wireless modem can access the signal and attempt to log in. The radio signals of wireless networks are <a href="/wiki/Encrypted" class="mw-redirect" title="Encrypted">encrypted</a> using <a href="/wiki/Wi-Fi_Protected_Access" title="Wi-Fi Protected Access">WPA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis-Davis-112">[112]</a> <ul><li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wireless_network.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Wireless_network.jpg/180px-Wireless_network.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Wireless_network.jpg/270px-Wireless_network.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Wireless_network.jpg/360px-Wireless_network.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>A laptop (with <a href="/wiki/Wi-Fi" title="Wi-Fi">Wi-Fi</a> module) and a typical home <a href="/wiki/Wireless_router" title="Wireless router">wireless router</a> (on the right) connecting it to the Internet. The laptop <a href="/wiki/Droste_effect" title="Droste effect">shows its own photo</a></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Wireless_LAN" title="Wireless LAN">Wireless LAN</a> (wireless local area network or <a href="/wiki/Wi-Fi" title="Wi-Fi">Wi-Fi</a>) – based on the <a href="/wiki/IEEE_802.11" title="IEEE 802.11">IEEE 802.11</a> standards, these are the most widely used computer networks, used to implement <a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area networks</a> without cables, linking computers, laptops, cell phones, <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">video game consoles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smart_TV" title="Smart TV">smart TVs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer printer">printers</a> in a home or office together, and to a <a href="/wiki/Wireless_router" title="Wireless router">wireless router</a> connecting them to the Internet with a wire or cable connection. Wireless routers in public places like libraries, hotels and coffee shops create <a href="/wiki/Wireless_access_points" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless access points">wireless access points</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(Wi-Fi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotspot (Wi-Fi)">hotspots</a>) to allow the public to access the Internet with portable devices like <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">tablets</a> or <a href="/wiki/Laptops" class="mw-redirect" title="Laptops">laptops</a>. Each device exchanges data using a <a href="/wiki/Wireless_network_interface_controller" title="Wireless network interface controller">wireless modem</a> (wireless network interface controller), an automated <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> transmitter and receiver with an omnidirectional antenna that works in the background, exchanging <a href="/wiki/Data_packet" class="mw-redirect" title="Data packet">data packets</a> with the router. Wi-Fi uses channels in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz <a href="/wiki/ISM_band" class="mw-redirect" title="ISM band">ISM bands</a> with OFDM (<a href="/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing">orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing</a>) modulation to transmit data at high rates. The transmitters in Wi-Fi modems are limited to a radiated power of 200 mW to 1 watt, depending on country. They have a maximum indoor range of about 150 ft (50 m) on 2.4 GHz and 50 ft (20 m) on 5 GHz.<a href="#cite_note-Lowe-113">[113]</a></li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USI_router.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/USI_router.jpg/250px-USI_router.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/USI_router.jpg/330px-USI_router.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/USI_router.jpg/500px-USI_router.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2191" data-file-height="1959" /></a><figcaption>Neighborhood wireless WAN router on telephone pole</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Wireless_WAN" title="Wireless WAN">Wireless WAN</a> (wireless wide area network, WWAN) – a variety of technologies that provide wireless internet access over a wider area than Wi-Fi networks do – from an office building to a campus to a neighborhood, or to an entire city. The most common technologies used are: <a href="/wiki/Cellular_modem" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular modem">cellular modems</a>, that exchange computer data by radio with <a href="/wiki/Cell_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell tower">cell towers</a>; satellite internet access; and lower frequencies in the UHF band, which have a longer range than Wi-Fi frequencies. Since WWAN networks are much more expensive and complicated to administer than Wi-Fi networks, their use so far has generally been limited to private networks operated by large corporations.<a href="#cite_note-Lowe-113">[113]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a> – a very short-range wireless interface on a portable wireless device used as a substitute for a wire or cable connection, mainly to exchange files between portable devices and connect cellphones and music players with wireless <a href="/wiki/Headphone" class="mw-redirect" title="Headphone">headphones</a>. In the most widely used mode, transmission power is limited to 1 milliwatt, giving it a very short range of up to 10 m (30 feet). The system uses <a href="/wiki/Frequency-hopping_spread_spectrum" title="Frequency-hopping spread spectrum">frequency-hopping spread spectrum</a> transmission, in which successive <a href="/wiki/Data_packet" class="mw-redirect" title="Data packet">data packets</a> are transmitted in a pseudorandom order on one of 79 1 MHz Bluetooth channels between 2.4 and 2.83 GHz in the <a href="/wiki/ISM_band" class="mw-redirect" title="ISM band">ISM band</a>. This allows Bluetooth networks to operate in the presence of <a href="/wiki/Radio_noise" title="Radio noise">noise</a>, other wireless devices and other Bluetooth networks using the same frequencies, since the chance of another device attempting to transmit on the same frequency at the same time as the Bluetooth modem is low. In the case of such a "collision", the Bluetooth modem just retransmits the data packet on another frequency.<a href="#cite_note-Muller-114">[114]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packet_radio" title="Packet radio">Packet radio</a> – a long-distance <a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">peer-to-peer</a> <a href="/wiki/Wireless_ad-hoc_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless ad-hoc network">wireless ad-hoc network</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Data_packet" class="mw-redirect" title="Data packet">data packets</a> are exchanged between computer-controlled <a href="/wiki/Radio_modem" title="Radio modem">radio modems</a> (transmitter/receivers) called nodes, which may be separated by miles, and maybe mobile. Each node only communicates with neighboring nodes, so packets of data are passed from node to node until they reach their destination using the <a href="/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> network protocol. Packet radio systems are used to a limited degree by commercial telecommunications companies and by the <a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">amateur radio</a> community.<a href="#cite_note-Silver-115">[115]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Text messaging (texting) – this is a service on cell phones, allowing a user to type a short alphanumeric message and send it to another phone number, and the text is displayed on the recipient's phone screen. It is based on the <a href="/wiki/Short_Message_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Short Message Service">Short Message Service</a> (SMS) which transmits using spare bandwidth on the control radio channel used by cell phones to handle background functions like dialing and cell handoffs. Due to technical limitations of the channel, text messages are limited to 160 alphanumeric characters.<a href="#cite_note-Hillebrand-116">[116]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parabolic_antennas.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Parabolic_antennas.JPG/250px-Parabolic_antennas.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Parabolic_antennas.JPG/330px-Parabolic_antennas.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Parabolic_antennas.JPG/500px-Parabolic_antennas.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Parabolic_antenna" title="Parabolic antenna">Parabolic antennas</a> of microwave relay links on tower in Australia</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_relay" class="mw-redirect" title="Microwave relay">Microwave relay</a> – a long-distance high bandwidth point-to-point digital data transmission link consisting of a microwave transmitter connected to a <a href="/wiki/Dish_antenna" class="mw-redirect" title="Dish antenna">dish antenna</a> that transmits a beam of <a href="/wiki/Microwaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Microwaves">microwaves</a> to another dish antenna and receiver. Since the antennas must be in line-of-sight, distances are limited by the visual horizon to 30–40 miles (48–64 km). Microwave links are used for private business data, wide area computer networks (WANs), and by telephone companies to transmit long-distance phone calls and television signals between cities.<a href="#cite_note-McGregor-Driscoll-Mcdowell-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-EIA-118">[118]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telemetry" title="Telemetry">Telemetry</a> – automated one-way (simplex) transmission of measurements and operation data from a remote process or device to a receiver for monitoring. Telemetry is used for in-flight monitoring of missiles, drones, satellites, and <a href="/wiki/Weather_balloon" title="Weather balloon">weather balloon</a> <a href="/wiki/Radiosonde" title="Radiosonde">radiosondes</a>, sending scientific data back to Earth from interplanetary spacecraft, communicating with electronic biomedical sensors implanted in the human body, and <a href="/wiki/Well_logging" title="Well logging">well logging</a>. Multiple channels of data are often transmitted using <a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">frequency-division multiplexing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">time-division multiplexing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bailey-119">[119]</a> Telemetry is starting to be used in consumer applications such as: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automated_meter_reading" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated meter reading">Automated meter reading</a> – <a href="/wiki/Electricity_meter" title="Electricity meter">electric power meters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Water meter">water meters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gas_meter" title="Gas meter">gas meters</a> that, when triggered by an interrogation signal, transmit their readings by radio to a utility reader vehicle at the curb, to eliminate the need for an employee to go on the customer's property to manually read the meter.<a href="#cite_note-Arafath-Mazumder-Hassan-120">[120]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_toll_collection" title="Electronic toll collection">Electronic toll collection</a> – on <a href="/wiki/Toll_road" title="Toll road">toll roads</a>, an alternative to manual collection of tolls at a toll booth, in which a <a href="/wiki/Transponder" title="Transponder">transponder</a> in a vehicle, when triggered by a roadside transmitter, transmits a signal to a roadside receiver to register the vehicle's use of the road, enabling the owner to be billed for the toll.<a href="#cite_note-Bonsor-2001a-121">[121]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RFID_Chip_001.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/RFID_Chip_001.JPG/130px-RFID_Chip_001.JPG" decoding="async" width="130" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/RFID_Chip_001.JPG/195px-RFID_Chip_001.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/RFID_Chip_001.JPG/260px-RFID_Chip_001.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>RFID tag from a DVD</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Frequency_Identification" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio Frequency Identification">Radio Frequency Identification</a> (RFID) – identification tags containing a tiny radio transponder (<a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">receiver</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitter</a>) which are attached to merchandise. When it receives an interrogation pulse of radio waves from a nearby reader unit, the tag transmits back an ID number, which can be used to inventory goods. Passive tags, the most common type, have a chip powered by the radio energy received from the reader, rectified by a diode, and can be as small as a grain of rice. They are incorporated in products, clothes, railroad cars, library books, airline baggage tags and are implanted under the skin in pets and livestock (<a href="/wiki/Microchip_implant_(animal)" title="Microchip implant (animal)">microchip implant</a>) and even people. Privacy concerns have been addressed with tags that use <a href="/wiki/Encrypted" class="mw-redirect" title="Encrypted">encrypted</a> signals and <a href="/wiki/Authenticate" class="mw-redirect" title="Authenticate">authenticate</a> the reader before responding. Passive tags use 125–134 kHz, 13, 900 MHz and 2.4 and 5 GHz <a href="/wiki/ISM_band" class="mw-redirect" title="ISM band">ISM bands</a> and have a short range. Active tags, powered by a battery, are larger but can transmit a stronger signal, giving them a range of hundreds of meters.<a href="#cite_note-Hunt-Puglia-Puglia-122">[122]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_with_submarines" title="Communication with submarines">Submarine communication</a> – When submerged, <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a> are cut off from all ordinary radio communication with their military command authorities by the conductive seawater. However radio waves of low enough frequencies, in the <a href="/wiki/VLF" class="mw-redirect" title="VLF">VLF</a> (30 to 3 kHz) and <a href="/wiki/Extremely_low_frequency" title="Extremely low frequency">ELF</a> (below 3 kHz) bands are able to penetrate seawater. Navies operate large shore transmitting stations with power output in the megawatt range to transmit <a href="/wiki/Encrypted" class="mw-redirect" title="Encrypted">encrypted</a> messages to their submarines in the world's oceans. Due to the small bandwidth, these systems cannot transmit voice, only text messages at a slow data rate. The communication channel is one-way, since the long antennas needed to transmit VLF or ELF waves cannot fit on a submarine. <a href="/wiki/VLF" class="mw-redirect" title="VLF">VLF</a> transmitters use miles long wire antennas like <a href="/wiki/Umbrella_antenna" title="Umbrella antenna">umbrella antennas</a>. A few nations use ELF transmitters operating around 80 Hz, which can communicate with submarines at lower depths. These use even larger antennas called <a href="/wiki/Ground_dipole" title="Ground dipole">ground dipoles</a>, consisting of two <a href="/wiki/Ground_(electricity)" title="Ground (electricity)">ground</a> (Earth) connections 23–60 km (14–37 miles) apart, linked by overhead transmission lines to a power plant transmitter.<a href="#cite_note-White-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRR-124">[124]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_communication">Space communication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Space communication">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A6%D0%9A%D0%A1_%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%9F%D0%9A%D0%A1_-6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%D0%A6%D0%9A%D0%A1_%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%9F%D0%9A%D0%A1_-6.jpg/250px-%D0%A6%D0%9A%D0%A1_%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%9F%D0%9A%D0%A1_-6.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%D0%A6%D0%9A%D0%A1_%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%9F%D0%9A%D0%A1_-6.jpg/330px-%D0%A6%D0%9A%D0%A1_%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%9F%D0%9A%D0%A1_-6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%D0%A6%D0%9A%D0%A1_%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%9F%D0%9A%D0%A1_-6.jpg/500px-%D0%A6%D0%9A%D0%A1_%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%9F%D0%9A%D0%A1_-6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1597" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Earth_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth station">Satellite Communications Center</a> <a href="/wiki/Dubna" title="Dubna">Dubna</a> in Russia<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></figcaption></figure> This is radio communication between a <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> and an Earth-based ground station, or another spacecraft. Communication with spacecraft involves the longest transmission distances of any radio links, up to billions of kilometers for <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary spacecraft">interplanetary spacecraft</a>. In order to receive the weak signals from distant spacecraft, <a href="/wiki/Satellite_ground_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite ground station">satellite ground stations</a> use large <a href="/wiki/Parabolic_antenna" title="Parabolic antenna">parabolic "dish" antennas</a> up to 25 metres (82 ft) in diameter and extremely sensitive receivers. High frequencies in the <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> band are used, since microwaves pass through the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a> without <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a>, and at microwave frequencies the <a href="/wiki/High-gain_antenna" class="mw-redirect" title="High-gain antenna">high-gain antennas</a> needed to focus the radio energy into a narrow beam pointed at the receiver are small and take up a minimum of space in a satellite. Portions of the <a href="/wiki/UHF" class="mw-redirect" title="UHF">UHF</a>, <a href="/wiki/L_band" title="L band">L</a>, <a href="/wiki/C_band_(IEEE)" title="C band (IEEE)">C</a>, <a href="/wiki/S_band" title="S band">S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">ku</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ka_band" title="Ka band">ka band</a> are allocated for space communication. A radio link that transmits data from the Earth's surface to a spacecraft is called an <a href="/wiki/Uplink" class="mw-redirect" title="Uplink">uplink</a>, while a link that transmits data from the spacecraft to the ground is called a downlink.<a href="#cite_note-NASA3-126">[126]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Az%C9%99rbaycan_peyki_-_VOA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Az%C9%99rbaycan_peyki_-_VOA.jpg/180px-Az%C9%99rbaycan_peyki_-_VOA.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Az%C9%99rbaycan_peyki_-_VOA.jpg/270px-Az%C9%99rbaycan_peyki_-_VOA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Az%C9%99rbaycan_peyki_-_VOA.jpg/360px-Az%C9%99rbaycan_peyki_-_VOA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="533" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Communications satellite belonging to <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> </figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication satellite">Communication satellite</a> – an <a href="/wiki/Artificial_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial satellite">artificial satellite</a> used as a telecommunications relay to transmit data between widely separated points on Earth. These are used because the <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a> used for telecommunications travel by <a href="/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">line of sight</a> and so cannot propagate around the curve of the Earth. As of 1 January 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit">[update]</a>, there were 2,224 communications satellites in Earth orbit.<a href="#cite_note-UCSdatabase-127">[127]</a> Most are in <a href="/wiki/Geostationary" class="mw-redirect" title="Geostationary">geostationary</a> orbit 22,200 miles (35,700 km) above the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky, so the satellite dish antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track it. In a <a href="/wiki/Satellite_ground_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite ground station">satellite ground station</a> a microwave transmitter and large satellite dish antenna transmit a microwave uplink beam to the satellite. The uplink signal carries many channels of telecommunications traffic, such as long-distance telephone calls, television programs, and internet signals, using a technique called <a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">frequency-division multiplexing</a> (FDM). On the satellite, a <a href="/wiki/Transponder_(satellite_communications)" title="Transponder (satellite communications)">transponder</a> receives the signal, translates it to a different downlink frequency to avoid interfering with the uplink signal, and retransmits it down to another ground station, which may be widely separated from the first. There the downlink signal is demodulated and the telecommunications traffic it carries is sent to its local destinations through landlines. Communication satellites typically have several dozen transponders on different frequencies, which are leased by different users.<a href="#cite_note-Marsten-128">[128]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_broadcast_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct broadcast satellite">Direct broadcast satellite</a> – a geostationary communication satellite that transmits retail programming directly to receivers in subscriber's homes and vehicles on Earth, in <a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">satellite radio</a> and TV systems. It uses a higher transmitter power than other communication satellites, to allow the signal to be received by consumers with a small unobtrusive antenna. For example, satellite television uses downlink frequencies from 12.2 to 12.7 GHz in the <a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">ku band</a> transmitted at 100 to 250 watts, which can be received by relatively small 43–80 cm (17–31 in) <a href="/wiki/Satellite_dish" title="Satellite dish">satellite dishes</a> mounted on the outside of buildings.<a href="#cite_note-rfwirelessworld-129">[129]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_applications">Other applications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other applications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radar">Radar</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Radar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Navy_120208-N-TU894-022_Air-Traffic_Controller_2nd_Class_Gregory_Clemmons_stands_the_departure_position_watch_as_Air-Traffic_Controller_3rd_Clas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/US_Navy_120208-N-TU894-022_Air-Traffic_Controller_2nd_Class_Gregory_Clemmons_stands_the_departure_position_watch_as_Air-Traffic_Controller_3rd_Clas.jpg/180px-US_Navy_120208-N-TU894-022_Air-Traffic_Controller_2nd_Class_Gregory_Clemmons_stands_the_departure_position_watch_as_Air-Traffic_Controller_3rd_Clas.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/US_Navy_120208-N-TU894-022_Air-Traffic_Controller_2nd_Class_Gregory_Clemmons_stands_the_departure_position_watch_as_Air-Traffic_Controller_3rd_Clas.jpg/270px-US_Navy_120208-N-TU894-022_Air-Traffic_Controller_2nd_Class_Gregory_Clemmons_stands_the_departure_position_watch_as_Air-Traffic_Controller_3rd_Clas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/US_Navy_120208-N-TU894-022_Air-Traffic_Controller_2nd_Class_Gregory_Clemmons_stands_the_departure_position_watch_as_Air-Traffic_Controller_3rd_Clas.jpg/360px-US_Navy_120208-N-TU894-022_Air-Traffic_Controller_2nd_Class_Gregory_Clemmons_stands_the_departure_position_watch_as_Air-Traffic_Controller_3rd_Clas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Military <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_controller" title="Air traffic controller">air traffic controller</a> on US Navy aircraft carrier monitors aircraft on radar screen</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Radiolocation" title="Radiolocation">radiolocation</a> method used to locate and track aircraft, spacecraft, missiles, ships, vehicles, and also to map weather patterns and terrain. A radar set consists of a transmitter and receiver.<a href="#cite_note-HowRadarWorks-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skolnik-131">[131]</a> The transmitter emits a narrow beam of radio waves which is swept around the surrounding space. When the beam strikes a target object, radio waves are reflected back to the receiver. The direction of the beam reveals the object's location. Since radio waves travel at a constant speed close to the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, by measuring the brief time delay between the outgoing pulse and the received "echo", the range to the target can be calculated. The targets are often displayed graphically on a map display called a radar screen. <a href="/wiki/Doppler_radar" title="Doppler radar">Doppler radar</a> can measure a moving object's velocity, by measuring the change in frequency of the return radio waves due to the <a href="/wiki/Doppler_effect" title="Doppler effect">Doppler effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Radar sets mainly use high frequencies in the <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> bands, because these frequencies create strong reflections from objects the size of vehicles and can be focused into narrow beams with compact antennas.<a href="#cite_note-Skolnik-131">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/Parabolic_antenna" title="Parabolic antenna">Parabolic (dish) antennas</a> are widely used. In most radars the transmitting antenna also serves as the receiving antenna; this is called a <a href="/wiki/Monostatic_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Monostatic radar">monostatic radar</a>. A radar which uses separate transmitting and receiving antennas is called a <a href="/wiki/Bistatic_radar" title="Bistatic radar">bistatic radar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chernyak-133">[133]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ASR-9_Radar_Antenna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/ASR-9_Radar_Antenna.jpg/250px-ASR-9_Radar_Antenna.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/ASR-9_Radar_Antenna.jpg/330px-ASR-9_Radar_Antenna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/ASR-9_Radar_Antenna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="349" data-file-height="275" /></a><figcaption>ASR-8 airport surveillance radar antenna. It rotates once every 4.8 seconds. The rectangular antenna on top is the secondary radar.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airport_surveillance_radar" title="Airport surveillance radar">Airport surveillance radar</a> – In aviation, radar is the main tool of <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic control</a>. A rotating dish antenna sweeps a vertical fan-shaped beam of microwaves around the airspace and the radar set shows the location of aircraft as "blips" of light on a display called a radar screen. Airport radar operates at 2.7 – 2.9 GHz in the microwave <a href="/wiki/S_band" title="S band">S band</a>. In large airports the radar image is displayed on multiple screens in an operations room called the TRACON (<a href="/wiki/Terminal_Radar_Approach_Control" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal Radar Approach Control">Terminal Radar Approach Control</a>), where <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_controller" title="Air traffic controller">air traffic controllers</a> direct the aircraft by radio to maintain safe aircraft separation.<a href="#cite_note-FAA_Radar-134">[134]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_surveillance_radar" title="Secondary surveillance radar">Secondary surveillance radar</a> – Aircraft carry <a href="/wiki/Transponder_(aeronautics)" title="Transponder (aeronautics)">radar transponders</a>, transceivers which when triggered by the incoming radar signal transmit a return microwave signal. This causes the aircraft to show up more strongly on the radar screen. The radar which triggers the transponder and receives the return beam, usually mounted on top of the primary radar dish, is called the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_surveillance_radar" title="Secondary surveillance radar">secondary surveillance radar</a>. Since radar cannot measure an aircraft's altitude with any accuracy, the transponder also transmits back the aircraft's altitude measured by its <a href="/wiki/Altimeter" title="Altimeter">altimeter</a>, and an ID number identifying the aircraft, which is displayed on the radar screen.<a href="#cite_note-Binns-135">[135]</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_countermeasures" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic countermeasures">Electronic countermeasures</a> (ECM) – Military defensive electronic systems designed to degrade enemy radar effectiveness, or deceive it with false information, to prevent enemies from locating local forces. It often consists of powerful microwave transmitters that can mimic enemy radar signals to create false target indications on the enemy radar screens.<a href="#cite_note-Artech-Horizon_House-136">[136]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotating_marine_radar_-_rotating_waveguide_antenna.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Rotating_marine_radar_-_rotating_waveguide_antenna.gif/150px-Rotating_marine_radar_-_rotating_waveguide_antenna.gif" decoding="async" width="150" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Rotating_marine_radar_-_rotating_waveguide_antenna.gif/225px-Rotating_marine_radar_-_rotating_waveguide_antenna.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Rotating_marine_radar_-_rotating_waveguide_antenna.gif/300px-Rotating_marine_radar_-_rotating_waveguide_antenna.gif 2x" data-file-width="845" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>Rotating marine radar antenna on a ship</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_radar" title="Marine radar">Marine radar</a> – an <a href="/wiki/S_band" title="S band">S</a> or <a href="/wiki/X_band" title="X band">X band</a> radar on ships used to detect nearby ships and obstructions like bridges.<a href="#cite_note-Bhattacharjee-2021-137">[137]</a> A rotating antenna sweeps a vertical fan-shaped beam of microwaves around the water surface surrounding the craft out to the horizon.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">Weather radar</a> – A <a href="/wiki/Doppler_radar" title="Doppler radar">Doppler radar</a> which maps weather precipitation intensities and wind speeds with the echoes returned from raindrops and their <a href="/wiki/Radial_velocity" title="Radial velocity">radial velocity</a> by their <a href="/wiki/Doppler_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Doppler shift">Doppler shift</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NWS-138">[138]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phased-array_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Phased-array radar">Phased-array radar</a> – a radar set that uses a <a href="/wiki/Phased_array" title="Phased array">phased array</a>, a computer-controlled antenna that can steer the radar beam quickly to point in different directions without moving the antenna. Phased-array radars were developed by the military to track fast-moving missiles and aircraft. They are widely used in military equipment and are now spreading to civilian applications.<a href="#cite_note-Fenn-139">[139]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_aperture_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic aperture radar">Synthetic aperture radar</a> (SAR) – a specialized airborne radar set that produces a high-resolution map of ground terrain. The radar is mounted on an aircraft or spacecraft and the radar antenna radiates a beam of radio waves sideways at right angles to the direction of motion, toward the ground. In processing the return radar signal, the motion of the vehicle is used to simulate a large antenna, giving the radar a higher resolution.<a href="#cite_note-Teeuw-140">[140]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground-penetrating_radar" title="Ground-penetrating radar">Ground-penetrating radar</a> – a specialized radar instrument that is rolled along the ground surface in a cart and transmits a beam of radio waves into the ground, producing an image of subsurface objects. Frequencies from 100 MHz to a few GHz are used. Since radio waves cannot penetrate very far into earth, the depth of GPR is limited to about 50 feet.<a href="#cite_note-Jol-141">[141]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collision_avoidance_system" title="Collision avoidance system">Collision avoidance system</a> – a short range radar or <a href="/wiki/LIDAR" class="mw-redirect" title="LIDAR">LIDAR</a> system on an automobile or vehicle that detects if the vehicle is about to collide with an object and applies the brakes to prevent the collision.<a href="#cite_note-Grosch-142">[142]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuze#Proximity_fuze" title="Fuze">Radar fuze</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Detonator" title="Detonator">detonator</a> for an <a href="/wiki/Aerial_bomb" title="Aerial bomb">aerial bomb</a> which uses a radar altimeter to measure the height of the bomb above the ground as it falls and detonates it at a certain altitude.<a href="#cite_note-Brodie-Brodie-143">[143]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radiolocation">Radiolocation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Radiolocation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radiolocation" title="Radiolocation">Radiolocation</a></div> Radiolocation is a generic term covering a variety of techniques that use radio waves to find the location of objects, or for navigation.<a href="#cite_note-Sharp-Yu-144">[144]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HA0478-006_(6011470974).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/HA0478-006_%286011470974%29.jpg/250px-HA0478-006_%286011470974%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/HA0478-006_%286011470974%29.jpg/330px-HA0478-006_%286011470974%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/HA0478-006_%286011470974%29.jpg/500px-HA0478-006_%286011470974%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4014" data-file-height="4354" /></a><figcaption>An early <a href="/wiki/IPhone" title="IPhone">iPhone</a> with its GPS navigation app in use.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Navigation_Satellite_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Navigation Satellite System">Global Navigation Satellite System</a> (GNSS) or satnav system – A system of satellites which allows geographical location on Earth (<a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>, and altitude/elevation) to be determined to high precision (within a few metres) by small portable navigation instruments, by timing the arrival of radio signals from the satellites. These are the most widely used navigation systems today. The main satellite navigation systems are the US <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> (GPS), Russia's <a href="/wiki/GLONASS" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</a>, China's <a href="/wiki/BeiDou_Navigation_Satellite_System" class="mw-redirect" title="BeiDou Navigation Satellite System">BeiDou Navigation Satellite System</a> (BDS) and the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Galileo_(satellite_navigation)" title="Galileo (satellite navigation)">Galileo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Teunissen-Montenbruck-145">[145]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paris-PorteMolitor-GPS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Paris-PorteMolitor-GPS.jpg/250px-Paris-PorteMolitor-GPS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Paris-PorteMolitor-GPS.jpg/330px-Paris-PorteMolitor-GPS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Paris-PorteMolitor-GPS.jpg/500px-Paris-PorteMolitor-GPS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Personal_navigation_assistant" title="Personal navigation assistant">personal navigation assistant</a> by <a href="/wiki/Garmin" title="Garmin">Garmin</a>, which uses GPS to give driving directions to a destination.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> (GPS) – The most widely used satellite navigation system, maintained by the US Air Force, which uses a constellation of 31 satellites in <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a>. The orbits of the satellites are distributed so at any time at least four satellites are above the horizon over each point on Earth. Each satellite has an onboard <a href="/wiki/Atomic_clock" title="Atomic clock">atomic clock</a> and transmits a continuous radio signal containing a precise time signal as well as its current position. Two frequencies are used, 1.2276 and 1.57542 GHz. Since the velocity of radio waves is virtually constant, the delay of the radio signal from a satellite is proportional to the distance of the receiver from the satellite. By receiving the signals from at least four satellites a <a href="/wiki/GPS_receiver" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS receiver">GPS receiver</a> can calculate its position on Earth by comparing the arrival time of the radio signals. Since each satellite's position is known precisely at any given time, from the delay the position of the receiver can be calculated by a microprocessor in the receiver. The position can be displayed as latitude and longitude, or as a marker on an electronic map. GPS receivers are incorporated in almost all cellphones and in vehicles such as automobiles, aircraft, and ships, and are used to guide <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">drones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">missiles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cruise_missile" title="Cruise missile">cruise missiles</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Artillery_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Artillery shell">artillery shells</a> to their target, and handheld GPS receivers are produced for hikers and the military.<a href="#cite_note-El-Rabbany-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kiland-Silverstein_Gray-147">[147]</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_beacon" title="Radio beacon">Radio beacon</a> – a fixed location terrestrial radio transmitter which transmits a continuous radio signal used by aircraft and ships for <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a>. The locations of beacons are plotted on navigational maps used by aircraft and ships.<a href="#cite_note-Deltour-148">[148]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D-VOR_PEK.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/D-VOR_PEK.JPG/220px-D-VOR_PEK.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/D-VOR_PEK.JPG/330px-D-VOR_PEK.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/D-VOR_PEK.JPG/440px-D-VOR_PEK.JPG 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>VOR antenna, Beijing</figcaption></figure> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/VHF_omnidirectional_range" title="VHF omnidirectional range">VHF omnidirectional range</a> (VOR) – a worldwide aircraft <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">radio navigation</a> system consisting of fixed ground <a href="/wiki/Radio_beacon" title="Radio beacon">radio beacons</a> transmitting between 108.00 and 117.95 MHz in the <a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">very high frequency</a> (VHF) band.<a href="#cite_note-FAA2-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Helfrick2-150">[150]</a> An automated navigational instrument on the aircraft displays a <a href="/wiki/Bearing_(navigation)" title="Bearing (navigation)">bearing</a> to a nearby VOR transmitter. A VOR beacon transmits two signals simultaneously on different frequencies. A <a href="/wiki/Directional_antenna" title="Directional antenna">directional antenna</a> transmits a beam of radio waves that rotates like a lighthouse at a fixed rate, 30 times per second. When the directional beam is facing north, an <a href="/wiki/Omnidirectional_antenna" title="Omnidirectional antenna">omnidirectional antenna</a> transmits a pulse. By measuring the difference in <a href="/wiki/Phase_(waves)" title="Phase (waves)">phase</a> of these two signals, an aircraft can determine its <a href="/wiki/Bearing_(navigation)" title="Bearing (navigation)">bearing</a> (or "radial") from the station accurately. By taking a bearing on two VOR beacons an aircraft can determine its position (called a "fix") to an accuracy of about 90 metres (300 ft). Most VOR beacons also have a distance measuring capability, called <a href="/wiki/Distance_measuring_equipment" title="Distance measuring equipment">distance measuring equipment</a> (DME); these are called VOR/DME's. The aircraft transmits a radio signal to the VOR/DME beacon and a <a href="/wiki/Transponder" title="Transponder">transponder</a> transmits a return signal. From the <a href="/wiki/Propagation_delay" title="Propagation delay">propagation delay</a> between the transmitted and received signal the aircraft can calculate its distance from the beacon. This allows an aircraft to determine its location "fix" from only one VOR beacon. Since line-of-sight VHF frequencies are used VOR beacons have a range of about 200 miles for aircraft at cruising altitude. <a href="/wiki/TACAN" class="mw-redirect" title="TACAN">TACAN</a> is a similar military radio beacon system which transmits in 962–1213 MHz, and a combined VOR and TACAN beacon is called a <a href="/wiki/VORTAC" class="mw-redirect" title="VORTAC">VORTAC</a>. The number of VOR beacons is declining as aviation switches to the <a href="/wiki/RNAV" class="mw-redirect" title="RNAV">RNAV</a> system that relies on <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> satellite navigation.<a href="#cite_note-USDOD-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martin-152">[152]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:London_Heathrow_Instrument_Landing_System_(ILS),_October_2023_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/London_Heathrow_Instrument_Landing_System_%28ILS%29%2C_October_2023_03.jpg/250px-London_Heathrow_Instrument_Landing_System_%28ILS%29%2C_October_2023_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/London_Heathrow_Instrument_Landing_System_%28ILS%29%2C_October_2023_03.jpg/330px-London_Heathrow_Instrument_Landing_System_%28ILS%29%2C_October_2023_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/London_Heathrow_Instrument_Landing_System_%28ILS%29%2C_October_2023_03.jpg/500px-London_Heathrow_Instrument_Landing_System_%28ILS%29%2C_October_2023_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Localizer antenna array at Heathrow Airport, London</figcaption></figure> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrument_Landing_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrument Landing System">Instrument Landing System</a> (ILS) - A short range radio navigation aid at <a href="/wiki/Airport" title="Airport">airports</a> which guides aircraft landing in low visibility conditions. It consists of multiple antennas at the end of each <a href="/wiki/Runway" title="Runway">runway</a> that radiate two beams of radio waves along the approach to the runway: the <a href="/wiki/Localizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Localizer">localizer</a> (108 to 111.95 MHz frequency), which provides horizontal guidance, a heading line to keep the aircraft centered on the runway, and the <a href="/wiki/Glideslope" class="mw-redirect" title="Glideslope">glideslope</a> (329.15 to 335 MHz) for vertical guidance, to keep the aircraft descending at the proper rate for a smooth touchdown at the correct point on the runway. Each aircraft has a receiver instrument and antenna which receives the beams, with an indicator to tell the pilot whether he is on the correct horizontal and vertical approach. The ILS beams are receivable for at least 15 miles, and have a radiated power of 25 watts. ILS systems at airports are being replaced by systems that use satellite navigation.<a href="#cite_note-FAA_Airports-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Helfrick-154">[154]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-directional_beacon" title="Non-directional beacon">Non-directional beacon</a> (NDB) – Legacy fixed radio beacons used before the VOR system that transmit a simple signal in all directions for aircraft or ships to use for <a href="/wiki/Radio_direction_finding" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio direction finding">radio direction finding</a>. Aircraft use <a href="/wiki/Automatic_direction_finder" title="Automatic direction finder">automatic direction finder</a> (ADF) receivers which use a <a href="/wiki/Directional_antenna" title="Directional antenna">directional antenna</a> to determine the <a href="/wiki/Bearing_(navigation)" title="Bearing (navigation)">bearing</a> to the beacon. By taking bearings on two beacons they can determine their position. NDBs use frequencies between 190 and 1750 kHz in the <a href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">LF</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">MF</a> bands which propagate beyond the horizon as <a href="/wiki/Ground_wave" title="Ground wave">ground waves</a> or <a href="/wiki/Skywave" title="Skywave">skywaves</a> much farther than VOR beacons. They transmit a <a href="/wiki/Callsign" class="mw-redirect" title="Callsign">callsign</a> consisting of one to 3 <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> letters as an identifier.<a href="#cite_note-SI-155">[155]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EPIRB_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/EPIRB_%281%29.jpg/250px-EPIRB_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/EPIRB_%281%29.jpg/330px-EPIRB_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3550" data-file-height="3041" /></a><figcaption>EPIRB emergency locator beacon on a ship</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_locator_beacon" title="Emergency locator beacon">Emergency locator beacon</a> – a portable battery powered <a href="/wiki/Radio_transmitter" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio transmitter">radio transmitter</a> used in emergencies to locate airplanes, vessels, and persons in distress and in need of immediate rescue. Various types of emergency locator beacons are carried by aircraft, ships, vehicles, hikers and cross-country skiers. In the event of an emergency, such as the aircraft crashing, the ship sinking, or a hiker becoming lost, the transmitter is deployed and begins to transmit a continuous radio signal, which is used by <a href="/wiki/Search_and_rescue" title="Search and rescue">search and rescue</a> teams to quickly find the emergency and render aid. The latest generation <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Position_Indicating_Rescue_Beacon" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency Position Indicating Rescue Beacon">Emergency Position Indicating Rescue Beacons</a> (EPIRBs) contain a <a href="/wiki/GPS_receiver" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS receiver">GPS receiver</a>, and broadcast to rescue teams their exact location within 20 meters.<a href="#cite_note-CBC-156">[156]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cospas-Sarsat" class="mw-redirect" title="Cospas-Sarsat">Cospas-Sarsat</a> – an international humanitarian consortium of governmental and private agencies which acts as a dispatcher for <a href="/wiki/Search_and_rescue" title="Search and rescue">search and rescue</a> operations. It operates a network of about 47 <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a> carrying radio receivers, which detect distress signals from <a href="/wiki/Emergency_locator_beacon" title="Emergency locator beacon">emergency locator beacons</a> anywhere on Earth transmitting on the international Cospas distress frequency of 406 MHz. The satellites calculate the geographic location of the beacon within 2 km by measuring the <a href="/wiki/Doppler_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Doppler shift">Doppler frequency shift</a> of the radio waves due to the relative motion of the transmitter and the satellite, and quickly transmit the information to the appropriate local <a href="/wiki/First_responder" title="First responder">first responder</a> organizations, which perform the <a href="/wiki/Search_and_rescue" title="Search and rescue">search and rescue</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cospas-sarsat-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA1985-158">[158]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tracking_Mountain_Lions.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Tracking_Mountain_Lions.jpg/250px-Tracking_Mountain_Lions.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Tracking_Mountain_Lions.jpg/330px-Tracking_Mountain_Lions.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Wildlife officer tracking radio-tagged mountain lion</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio_direction_finding" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio direction finding">Radio direction finding</a> (RDF) – this is a general technique, used since the early 1900s, of using specialized radio receivers with <a href="/wiki/Directional_antenna" title="Directional antenna">directional antennas</a> (RDF receivers) to determine the exact <a href="/wiki/Bearing_(navigation)" title="Bearing (navigation)">bearing</a> of a radio signal, to determine the location of the transmitter. The location of a terrestrial transmitter can be determined by simple <a href="/wiki/Triangulation" title="Triangulation">triangulation</a> from bearings taken by two RDF stations separated geographically, as the point where the two bearing lines cross, this is called a "fix". Military forces use RDF to locate enemy forces by their tactical radio transmissions, <a href="/wiki/Counterintelligence" title="Counterintelligence">counterintelligence</a> services use it to locate clandestine transmitters used by <a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">espionage agents</a>, and governments use it to locate unlicensed transmitters or interference sources. Older RDF receivers used rotatable <a href="/wiki/Loop_antenna" title="Loop antenna">loop antennas</a>, the antenna is rotated until the radio signal strength is weakest, indicating the transmitter is in one of the antenna's two <a href="/wiki/Null_(radio)" title="Null (radio)">nulls</a>. The nulls are used since they are sharper than the antenna's <a href="/wiki/Main_lobe" title="Main lobe">lobes</a> (maxima). More modern receivers use <a href="/wiki/Phased_array" title="Phased array">phased array</a> antennas which have a much greater angular resolution.<a href="#cite_note-defenceweb-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-Moell-Curlee-160">[160]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_migration_tracking" title="Animal migration tracking">Animal migration tracking</a> – a widely used technique in <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildlife biology">wildlife biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">wildlife management</a> in which small battery-powered radio transmitters are attached to <a href="/wiki/Wild_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Wild animal">wild animals</a> so their movements can be tracked with a directional <a href="/wiki/Radio_direction_finding" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio direction finding">RDF</a> receiver. Sometimes the transmitter is implanted in the animal. The VHF band is typically used since antennas in this band are fairly compact. The receiver has a <a href="/wiki/Directional_antenna" title="Directional antenna">directional antenna</a> (typically a small <a href="/wiki/Yagi_antenna" class="mw-redirect" title="Yagi antenna">Yagi</a>) which is rotated until the received signal is strongest; at this point the antenna is pointing in the direction of the animal. Sophisticated systems used in recent years use satellites to track the animal, or <a href="/wiki/Geolocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Geolocation">geolocation</a> tags with <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> receivers which record and transmit a log of the animal's location.<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-161">[161]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Remote_control">Remote control</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Remote control">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radio_control" title="Radio control">Radio control</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MQ-1_Predator_unmanned_aircraft.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/MQ-1_Predator_unmanned_aircraft.jpg/250px-MQ-1_Predator_unmanned_aircraft.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/MQ-1_Predator_unmanned_aircraft.jpg/330px-MQ-1_Predator_unmanned_aircraft.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/MQ-1_Predator_unmanned_aircraft.jpg/500px-MQ-1_Predator_unmanned_aircraft.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1993" /></a><figcaption>US Air Force <a href="/wiki/MQ-1_Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="MQ-1 Predator">MQ-1 Predator</a> drone flown remotely by a pilot on the ground</figcaption></figure> Radio remote control is the use of electronic <a href="/wiki/Control_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Control signal">control signals</a> sent by radio waves from a transmitter to control the actions of a device at a remote location. Remote control systems may also include telemetry channels in the other direction, used to transmit real-time information on the state of the device back to the control station. Uncrewed <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> are an example of remote-controlled machines, controlled by commands transmitted by <a href="/wiki/Satellite_ground_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite ground station">satellite ground stations</a>. Most handheld <a href="/wiki/Remote_control" title="Remote control">remote controls</a> used to control <a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronics" title="Consumer electronics">consumer electronics</a> products like televisions or DVD players actually operate by <a href="/wiki/Infrared_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrared light">infrared light</a> rather than radio waves, so are not examples of radio remote control. A security concern with remote control systems is <a href="/wiki/Spoofing_attack" title="Spoofing attack">spoofing</a>, in which an unauthorized person transmits an imitation of the control signal to take control of the device.<a href="#cite_note-Layton-162">[162]</a> Examples of radio remote control: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">Unmanned aerial vehicle</a> (UAV, drone) – A drone is an aircraft without an onboard pilot, flown by remote control by a pilot in another location, usually in a piloting station on the ground. They are used by the military for reconnaissance and ground attack, and more recently by the civilian world for news reporting and <a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">aerial photography</a>. The pilot uses aircraft controls like a joystick or steering wheel, which create control signals which are transmitted to the drone by radio to control the flight surfaces and engine. A telemetry system transmits back a video image from a camera in the drone to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going, and data from a <a href="/wiki/GPS_receiver" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS receiver">GPS receiver</a> giving the real-time position of the aircraft. UAVs have sophisticated onboard <a href="/wiki/Automatic_pilot" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic pilot">automatic pilot</a> systems that maintain stable flight and only require manual control to change directions.<a href="#cite_note-Sadraey-163">[163]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Automobile_remote_keyless_entry_transmitter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Automobile_remote_keyless_entry_transmitter.jpg/110px-Automobile_remote_keyless_entry_transmitter.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Automobile_remote_keyless_entry_transmitter.jpg/165px-Automobile_remote_keyless_entry_transmitter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Automobile_remote_keyless_entry_transmitter.jpg/220px-Automobile_remote_keyless_entry_transmitter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="884" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption>Remote keyless entry fob for a car</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keyless_entry_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Keyless entry system">Keyless entry system</a> – a short-range handheld battery powered <a href="/wiki/Key_fob" class="mw-redirect" title="Key fob">key fob</a> transmitter, included with most modern cars, which can lock and unlock the doors of a vehicle from outside, eliminating the need to use a key. When a button is pressed, the transmitter sends a coded radio signal to a receiver in the vehicle, operating the locks. The fob must be close to the vehicle, typically within 5 to 20 meters. North America and Japan use a frequency of 315 MHz, while Europe uses 433.92 and 868 MHz. Some models can also remotely start the engine, to warm up the car. A security concern with all keyless entry systems is a <a href="/wiki/Replay_attack" title="Replay attack">replay attack</a>, in which a thief uses a special receiver ("code grabber") to record the radio signal during opening, which can later be replayed to open the door. To prevent this, keyless systems use a <a href="/wiki/Rolling_code" title="Rolling code">rolling code</a> system in which a <a href="/wiki/Pseudorandom_number_generator" title="Pseudorandom number generator">pseudorandom number generator</a> in the remote control generates a different random key each time it is used. To prevent thieves from simulating the pseudorandom generator to calculate the next key, the radio signal is also <a href="/wiki/Encrypted" class="mw-redirect" title="Encrypted">encrypted</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-164">[164]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garage_door_opener" title="Garage door opener">Garage door opener</a> – a short-range handheld transmitter which can open or close a building's electrically operated <a href="/wiki/Garage_door" title="Garage door">garage door</a> from outside, so the owner can open the door upon arrival, and close it after departure. When a button is pressed the control transmits a coded <a href="/wiki/Frequency-shift_keying" title="Frequency-shift keying">FSK</a> radio signal to a receiver in the opener, raising or lowering the door. Modern openers use 310, 315 or 390 MHz. To prevent a thief using a <a href="/wiki/Replay_attack" title="Replay attack">replay attack</a>, modern openers use a <a href="/wiki/Rolling_code" title="Rolling code">rolling code</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-Pinkerton-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-Biffl-Eckhart-Luder-Weippl-166">[166]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Md4-200.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Md4-200.jpg/250px-Md4-200.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Md4-200.jpg/330px-Md4-200.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Quadcopter" title="Quadcopter">Quadcopter</a>, a popular remote-controlled toy</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio-controlled_model" title="Radio-controlled model">Radio-controlled models</a> – a popular hobby is playing with radio-controlled model boats, cars, airplanes, and helicopters (<a href="/wiki/Quadcopter" title="Quadcopter">quadcopters</a>) which are controlled by radio signals from a handheld console with a <a href="/wiki/Joystick" title="Joystick">joystick</a>. Most recent transmitters use the 2.4 GHz <a href="/wiki/ISM_band" class="mw-redirect" title="ISM band">ISM band</a> with multiple control channels modulated with <a href="/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation" title="Pulse-width modulation">PWM</a>, <a href="/wiki/PCM" class="mw-redirect" title="PCM">PCM</a> or FSK.<a href="#cite_note-Boukerche-167">[167]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doorbell" title="Doorbell">Wireless doorbell</a> – A residential <a href="/wiki/Doorbell" title="Doorbell">doorbell</a> that uses wireless technology to eliminate the need to run wires through the building walls. It consists of a doorbell button beside the door containing a small battery powered transmitter. When the doorbell is pressed it sends a signal to a receiver inside the house with a speaker that sounds chimes to indicate someone is at the door. They usually use the 2.4 GHz ISM band. The frequency channel used can usually be changed by the owner in case another nearby doorbell is using the same channel.<a href="#cite_note-Wonning-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chatterjee-Kumar-Jain-Rathore-169">[169]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scientific_research">Scientific research</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Scientific research">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio astronomy</a> is the scientific study of radio waves emitted by astronomical objects. Radio astronomers use <a href="/wiki/Radio_telescope" title="Radio telescope">radio telescopes</a>, large radio antennas and receivers, to receive and study the radio waves from <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_radio_source" title="Astronomical radio source">astronomical radio sources</a>. Since astronomical radio sources are so far away, the radio waves from them are extremely weak, requiring extremely sensitive receivers, and radio telescopes are the most sensitive radio receivers in existence. They use large <a href="/wiki/Parabolic_antenna" title="Parabolic antenna">parabolic (dish) antennas</a> up to 500 meters (2,000 ft) in diameter to collect enough radio wave energy to study. The <a href="/wiki/RF_front_end" title="RF front end">RF front end</a> electronics of the receiver is often cooled by <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a> to reduce <a href="/wiki/Thermal_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal noise">thermal noise</a>. Multiple antennas are often linked together in arrays which function as a single antenna, to increase collecting power. In <a href="/wiki/Very_Long_Baseline_Interferometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Very Long Baseline Interferometry">Very Long Baseline Interferometry</a> (VLBI) radio telescopes on different continents are linked, which can achieve the resolution of an antenna thousands of miles in diameter.<a href="#cite_note-Yeap-Hirisawa-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-Joardar-Clayomb-171">[171]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a> – in radio, remote sensing is the reception of electromagnetic waves radiated by natural objects or the atmosphere for scientific research. All warm objects emit <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a> and the spectrum emitted can be used to determine temperature. <a href="/wiki/Microwave_radiometer" title="Microwave radiometer">Microwave radiometers</a> are used in <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">earth sciences</a> to determine temperature of the atmosphere and earth surface, as well as chemical reactions in the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-Chapman-Gasparovic-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pampaloni-Paloscia-173">[173]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jamming">Jamming</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Jamming">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Radio_jamming" title="Radio jamming">Radio jamming</a> is the deliberate radiation of radio signals designed to interfere with the reception of other radio signals. Jamming devices are called "signal suppressors" or "interference generators" or just jammers.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> During wartime, militaries use jamming to interfere with enemies' tactical radio communication. Since radio waves can pass beyond national borders, some <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a> countries which practice censorship use jamming to prevent their citizens from listening to broadcasts from radio stations in other countries. Jamming is usually accomplished by a powerful transmitter which generates noise on the same frequency as the target transmitter.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> US Federal law prohibits the nonmilitary operation or sale of any type of jamming devices, including ones that interfere with GPS, cellular, Wi-Fi and police radars.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Radio_icon.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="22" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Radio" title="Portal:Radio">Radio portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_radio" title="Internet radio">Internet radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_radios" title="List of radios">List of radios</a> – List of specific models of radios</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_radio" title="Outline of radio">Outline of radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_quiet_zone" title="Radio quiet zone">Radio quiet zone</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-OED-1"><a href="#cite_ref-OED_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190324025858/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/radio">"Radio"</a>. Oxford Living Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. 2019. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/radio">the original</a> on 24 March 2019. Retrieved 26 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Living+Dictionaries&rft.atitle=Radio&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fradio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PCMag-2"><a href="#cite_ref-PCMag_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/50130/radio">"Definition of radio"</a>. Encyclopedia. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1316785164" title="Special:BookSources/978-1316785164"><bdi>978-1316785164</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radio+Systems+Engineering&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1316785164&rft.aulast=Ellingson&rft.aufirst=Steven+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQMKSDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-KIT-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KIT_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KIT_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KIT_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KIT_4-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kit.edu/kit/english/pi_2011_8434.php">"125 Years Discovery of Electromagnetic Waves"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe_Institute_of_Technology" title="Karlsruhe Institute of Technology">Karlsruhe Institute of Technology</a>. 16 May 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220714163329/https://www.kit.edu/kit/english/pi_2011_8434.php">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2022. 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(1995) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4137304/?tp=&arnumber=4137304">Guglielmo Marconi – The father of long distance radio communication – An engineer's tribute"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221014032424/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4137304?tp=&arnumber=4137304">Archived</a> 2022-10-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 25th European Microwave Conference: Volume 2, pp. 879–85 </li> <li id="cite_note-1890s_–_1930s:_Radio-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1890s_–_1930s:_Radio_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-1890s_–_1930s:_Radio_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elon.edu/u/imagining/time-capsule/150-years/back-1890-1930/">"1890s – 1930s: Radio"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Elon_University" title="Elon University">Elon University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220608035814/https://www.elon.edu/u/imagining/time-capsule/150-years/back-1890-1930/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2022. 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(5–7 September 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ewh.ieee.org/reg/7/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html">"Radio's First Message -- Fessenden and Marconi"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a>. Retrieved 6 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+of+Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineers&rft.atitle=Radio%27s+First+Message+--+Fessenden+and+Marconi&rft.date=1995-09-05%2F1995-09-07&rft.aulast=Belrose&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fewh.ieee.org%2Freg%2F7%2Fmillennium%2Fradio%2Fradio_differences.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-History_of_Commercial_Radio-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-History_of_Commercial_Radio_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-History_of_Commercial_Radio_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fcc.gov/media/radio/history-of-commercial-radio">"History of Commercial Radio"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a>. 23 October 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220101085855/https://www.fcc.gov/media/radio/history-of-commercial-radio">Archived</a> from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Commercial+Radio&rft.pub=Federal+Communications+Commission&rft.date=2020-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fcc.gov%2Fmedia%2Fradio%2Fhistory-of-commercial-radio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/radio">"radio (n.)"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 13 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=radio+%28n.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2Fradio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBell1881" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Bell, Alexander Graham</a> (July 1881). "Production of Sound by Radiant Energy". Popular Science Monthly. pp. 329–330. <q>[W]e have named the apparatus for the production and reproduction of sound in this way the "photophone", because an ordinary beam of light contains the rays which are operative. To avoid in future any misunderstandings upon this point, we have decided to adopt the term "radiophone", proposed by M. Mercadier, as a general term signifying the production of sound by any form of radiant energy...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science+Monthly&rft.atitle=Production+of+Sound+by+Radiant+Energy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E329-%3C%2Fspan%3E330&rft.date=1881-07&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFManning2009" class="citation book cs1">Manning, Trevor (2009). Microwave Radio Transmission Design Guide. Artech House. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microwave+Radio+Transmission+Design+Guide&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Artech+House&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maver-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Maver_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaver1903" class="citation book cs1">Maver, William Jr. (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americantelegra02mavegoog">American Telegraphy and Encyclopedia of the Telegraph: Systems, Apparatus, Operation</a>. New York: Maver Publishing Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americantelegra02mavegoog/page/n391">333</a>. <q>wireless telegraphy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Telegraphy+and+Encyclopedia+of+the+Telegraph%3A+Systems%2C+Apparatus%2C+Operation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=333&rft.pub=Maver+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Maver&rft.aufirst=William+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericantelegra02mavegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steuart-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Steuart_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSteuart1906" class="citation book cs1">Steuart, William Mott; et al. (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x-cpAAAAYAAJ&q=%22wireless+telegraphy&pg=PA118">Special Reports: Telephones and Telegraphs 1902</a>. Washington D.C.: U.S. Bureau of the Census. pp. 118–119.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Special+Reports%3A+Telephones+and+Telegraphs+1902&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E118-%3C%2Fspan%3E119&rft.pub=U.S.+Bureau+of+the+Census&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Steuart&rft.aufirst=William+Mott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx-cpAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522wireless%2Btelegraphy%26pg%3DPA118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-earlyradiohistory.us-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-earlyradiohistory.us_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-earlyradiohistory.us_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-earlyradiohistory.us_14-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-earlyradiohistory.us_14-3">d</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://earlyradiohistory.us/sec022.htm">https://earlyradiohistory.us/sec022.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191115034734/http://earlyradiohistory.us/sec022.htm">Archived</a> 2019-11-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Thomas H. White, United States Early Radio History, Section 22 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCollins1902" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Archie_Frederick_Collins" title="Archie Frederick Collins">Collins, A. Frederick</a> (10 May 1902). "The Genesis of Wireless Telegraphy". Electrical World and Engineer. p. 811.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electrical+World+and+Engineer&rft.atitle=The+Genesis+of+Wireless+Telegraphy&rft.pages=811&rft.date=1902-05-10&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=A.+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation magazine cs1">"Wireless Telegraphy". The Practical Engineer. 25 February 1898. p. 174. <q>Dr. O. J. Lodge, who preceded Marconi in making experiments in what may be called "ray" telegraphy or radiotelegraphy by a year or two, has devised a new method of sending and receiving the messages. The reader will understand that in the radiotelegraph electric waves forming the signals of the message starting from the sending instrument and travel in all directions like rays of light from a lamp, only they are invisible.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Practical+Engineer&rft.atitle=Wireless+Telegraphy&rft.pages=174&rft.date=1898-02-25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> "Wireless Telegraphy", The Electrical Review (London), 20 January 1905, page 108, quoting from the British Post Office's 30 December 1904 Post Office Circular. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> "Interference with Wireless Messages", Electrical World, 22 June 1907, page 1270. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Sungook Hong (2001), Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion, MIT Press, pp. 5–10 </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1909/summary/">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1909"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NobelPrize.org" class="mw-redirect" title="NobelPrize.org">NobelPrize.org</a>. 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20230731180825/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1909/summary/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2023. Retrieved 31 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1909&rft.pub=NobelPrize.org&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fphysics%2F1909%2Fsummary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kraus-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Kraus_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKraus1988" class="citation book cs1">Kraus, John D. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Antennas2ndbyjohnD.Kraus1988/page/n75">Antennas</a> (2nd ed.). Tata-McGraw Hill. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0074632191" title="Special:BookSources/0074632191"><bdi>0074632191</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antennas&rft.pages=50&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Tata-McGraw+Hill&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0074632191&rft.aulast=Kraus&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FAntennas2ndbyjohnD.Kraus1988%2Fpage%2Fn75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Serway-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Serway_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSerwayFaughnVuille2008" class="citation book cs1">Serway, Raymond; Faughn, Jerry; Vuille, Chris (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CX0u0mIOZ44C&q=%22electromagnetic+wave%22+charge+acceleration&pg=PA714">College Physics, 8th Ed</a>. Cengage Learning. p. 714. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0495386933" title="Special:BookSources/978-0495386933"><bdi>978-0495386933</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=College+Physics%2C+8th+Ed.&rft.pages=714&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0495386933&rft.aulast=Serway&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft.au=Faughn%2C+Jerry&rft.au=Vuille%2C+Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCX0u0mIOZ44C%26q%3D%2522electromagnetic%2Bwave%2522%2Bcharge%2Bacceleration%26pg%3DPA714&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Balanis-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Balanis_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBalanis2005" class="citation book cs1">Balanis, Constantine A. 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John Wiley and Sons. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Antenna.Theory.Analysis.and.Design3rd.Edition/page/n22">10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118585733" title="Special:BookSources/978-1118585733"><bdi>978-1118585733</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antenna+theory%3A+Analysis+and+Design%2C+3rd+Ed.&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1118585733&rft.aulast=Balanis&rft.aufirst=Constantine+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FAntenna.Theory.Analysis.and.Design3rd.Edition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellingson-2016a-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ellingson-2016a_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellingson-2016a_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellingson-2016a_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellingson-2016a_24-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEllingson2016" class="citation book cs1">Ellingson, Steven W. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1316785164" title="Special:BookSources/978-1316785164"><bdi>978-1316785164</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radio+Systems+Engineering&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E16-%3C%2Fspan%3E17&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1316785164&rft.aulast=Ellingson&rft.aufirst=Steven+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQMKSDQAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522radio%2Bwave%2522%2Btime%2Bvarying%2Belectric%2Bcurrent%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Visser-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Visser_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVisser2012" class="citation book cs1">Visser, Hubregt J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rEs5dz1Zu7AC&q=radio+antenna+theory">Antenna Theory and Applications</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119990253" title="Special:BookSources/978-1119990253"><bdi>978-1119990253</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antenna+Theory+and+Applications&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1119990253&rft.aulast=Visser&rft.aufirst=Hubregt+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrEs5dz1Zu7AC%26q%3Dradio%2Bantenna%2Btheory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZainah_Md_ZainHamzah_AhmadDwi_PebriantiMahfuzah_Mustafa2020" class="citation book cs1">Zainah Md Zain; Hamzah Ahmad; Dwi Pebrianti; Mahfuzah Mustafa; Nor Rul Hasma Abdullah; Rosdiyana Samad; Maziyah Mat Noh (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_LvDwAAQBAJ">Proceedings of the 11th National Technical Seminar on Unmanned System Technology 2019: NUSYS'19</a>. Springer Nature. p. 535. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9811552816" title="Special:BookSources/978-9811552816"><bdi>978-9811552816</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154123/https://books.google.com/books?id=t_LvDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2022-08-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+11th+National+Technical+Seminar+on+Unmanned+System+Technology+2019%3A+NUSYS%2719&rft.pages=535&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-9811552816&rft.au=Zainah+Md+Zain&rft.au=Hamzah+Ahmad&rft.au=Dwi+Pebrianti&rft.au=Mahfuzah+Mustafa&rft.au=Nor+Rul+Hasma+Abdullah&rft.au=Rosdiyana+Samad&rft.au=Maziyah+Mat+Noh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt_LvDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_LvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA535">Extract of pp. 535–536</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154112/https://books.google.com/books?id=t_LvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA535#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> 2024-10-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHurleyRogersThorntonConnelly2007" class="citation book cs1">Hurley, Chris; Rogers, Russ; Thornton, Frank; Connelly, Daniel; Baker, Brian (2007). "Understanding Antennas and Antenna Theory". WarDriving and Wireless Penetration Testing. pp. 31–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-159749111-2%2F50027-1">10.1016/B978-159749111-2/50027-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59749-111-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59749-111-2"><bdi>978-1-59749-111-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Understanding+Antennas+and+Antenna+Theory&rft.btitle=WarDriving+and+Wireless+Penetration+Testing&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E61&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-159749111-2%2F50027-1&rft.isbn=978-1-59749-111-2&rft.aulast=Hurley&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Rogers%2C+Russ&rft.au=Thornton%2C+Frank&rft.au=Connelly%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Baker%2C+Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNeelyHamerstoneSanyk2013" class="citation book cs1">Neely, Matthew; Hamerstone, Alex; Sanyk, Chris (2013). "Basic Radio Theory and Introduction to Radio Systems". Wireless Reconnaissance in Penetration Testing. pp. 7–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-1-59-749731-2.00002-8">10.1016/B978-1-59-749731-2.00002-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59749-731-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59749-731-2"><bdi>978-1-59749-731-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Basic+Radio+Theory+and+Introduction+to+Radio+Systems&rft.btitle=Wireless+Reconnaissance+in+Penetration+Testing&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-1-59-749731-2.00002-8&rft.isbn=978-1-59749-731-2&rft.aulast=Neely&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft.au=Hamerstone%2C+Alex&rft.au=Sanyk%2C+Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/suborbit/POLAR/cmb.physics.wisc.edu/tutorial/light.html#:~:text=Generally%20speaking%2C%20we%20say%20that,than%20the%20speed%20of%20light.">"Electromagnetic Radiation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160523101442/https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/suborbit/POLAR/cmb.physics.wisc.edu/tutorial/light.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2016. Retrieved 18 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electromagnetic+Radiation&rft.pub=NASA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flambda.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fproduct%2Fsuborbit%2FPOLAR%2Fcmb.physics.wisc.edu%2Ftutorial%2Flight.html%23%3A~%3Atext%3DGenerally%2520speaking%252C%2520we%2520say%2520that%2Cthan%2520the%2520speed%2520of%2520light.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Podesta-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Podesta_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFde_Podesta2002" class="citation book cs1">de Podesta, M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h8BNvnR050cC&pg=PA131">Understanding the Properties of Matter</a>. CRC Press. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25788-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25788-6"><bdi>978-0-415-25788-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154115/https://books.google.com/books?id=h8BNvnR050cC&pg=PA131">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2024-09-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+the+Properties+of+Matter&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25788-6&rft.aulast=de+Podesta&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh8BNvnR050cC%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HowStuffWorks-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HowStuffWorks_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HowStuffWorks_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HowStuffWorks_31-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrain2000" class="citation web cs1">Brain, Marshall (7 December 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/radio8.htm">"How Radio Works"</a>. HowStuffWorks.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091002050151/http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/radio8.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2009. Retrieved 11 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Radio+Works&rft.pub=HowStuffWorks.com&rft.date=2000-12-07&rft.aulast=Brain&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felectronics.howstuffworks.com%2Fradio8.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Faruque-2016-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Faruque-2016_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faruque-2016_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faruque-2016_32-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faruque-2016_32-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faruque-2016_32-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faruque-2016_32-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faruque-2016_32-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faruque-2016_32-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFaruque2016" class="citation book cs1">Faruque, Saleh (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AT3ADAAAQBAJ&q=radio+types+of+modulation">Radio Frequency Modulation Made Easy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319412023" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319412023"><bdi>978-3319412023</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154100/https://books.google.com/books?id=AT3ADAAAQBAJ&q=radio+types+of+modulation#v=snippet&q=radio%20types%20of%20modulation&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 29 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radio+Frequency+Modulation+Made+Easy&rft.pub=Springer+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3319412023&rft.aulast=Faruque&rft.aufirst=Saleh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAT3ADAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dradio%2Btypes%2Bof%2Bmodulation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ergen-2009-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Ergen-2009_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFErgen2009" class="citation book cs1">Ergen, Mustafa (2009). Mobile Broadband. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-68192-4">10.1007/978-0-387-68192-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-68189-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-68189-4"><bdi>978-0-387-68189-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mobile+Broadband&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-68192-4&rft.isbn=978-0-387-68189-4&rft.aulast=Ergen&rft.aufirst=Mustafa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Tony Dorbuck (ed.), The Radio Amateur's Handbook, Fifty-Fifth Edition, American Radio Relay League, 1977, p. 368 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> John Avison, The World of Physics, Nelson · 2014, page 367 </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> C-W and A-M Radio Transmitters and Receivers, United States. Department of the Army – 1952, pp. 167–168 </li> <li id="cite_note-Spectrum101-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spectrum101_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spectrum101_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spectrum101_37-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spectrum101_37-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/spectrum_101.pdf">"Spectrum 101"</a> (PDF). US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). February 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170211001857/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/spectrum_101.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spectrum+101&rft.pub=US+National+Aeronautics+and+Space+Administration+%28NASA%29&rft.date=2016-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fatoms%2Ffiles%2Fspectrum_101.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988">, p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-Pogorel-Girard-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pogorel-Girard_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pogorel-Girard_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pogorel-Girard_38-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPogorelChaduc2010" class="citation book cs1">Pogorel, Girard; Chaduc, Jean-Marc (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BGjfWBG33t4C&q=radio+spectrum+management">The Radio Spectrum: Managing a Strategic Resource</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley</a>). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470393529" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470393529"><bdi>978-0470393529</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154057/https://books.google.com/books?id=BGjfWBG33t4C&q=radio+spectrum+management#v=snippet&q=radio%20spectrum%20management&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 29 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Radio+Spectrum%3A+Managing+a+Strategic+Resource&rft.pub=Wiley%29&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0470393529&rft.aulast=Pogorel&rft.aufirst=Girard&rft.au=Chaduc%2C+Jean-Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBGjfWBG33t4C%26q%3Dradio%2Bspectrum%2Bmanagement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNorberg,_Bob2022" class="citation web cs1">Norberg, Bob (27 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theledger.com/story/news/2002/11/28/digital-radio-is-coming-but-analog-isnt-dead-yet/26029858007/">"Digital Radio Is Coming, But Analog Isn't Dead Yet"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Ledger" title="The Ledger">The Ledger</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220903133917/https://www.theledger.com/story/news/2002/11/28/digital-radio-is-coming-but-analog-isnt-dead-yet/26029858007/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2022. Retrieved 3 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Ledger&rft.atitle=Digital+Radio+Is+Coming%2C+But+Analog+Isn%27t+Dead+Yet&rft.date=2022-11-27&rft.au=Norberg%2C+Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theledger.com%2Fstory%2Fnews%2F2002%2F11%2F28%2Fdigital-radio-is-coming-but-analog-isnt-dead-yet%2F26029858007%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/analogue-to-digital-radio-slow-to-tune-into-transition/96138/">"Analogue To Digital: Radio Slow To Tune Into Transition"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Financial_Express_(India)" title="The Financial Express (India)">Financial Express</a>. 13 October 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220903133628/https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/analogue-to-digital-radio-slow-to-tune-into-transition/96138/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2022. Retrieved 3 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Financial+Express&rft.atitle=Analogue+To+Digital%3A+Radio+Slow+To+Tune+Into+Transition&rft.date=2005-10-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.financialexpress.com%2Farchive%2Fanalogue-to-digital-radio-slow-to-tune-into-transition%2F96138%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ITU2016-41"><a href="#cite_ref-ITU2016_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/opb/reg/R-REG-RR-2016-ZPF-E.zip">"Radio Regulations, 2016 Edition"</a> (PDF). International Telecommunication Union. 3 November 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211213121728/https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/opb/reg/R-REG-RR-2016-ZPF-E.zip">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radio+Regulations%2C+2016+Edition&rft.pub=International+Telecommunication+Union&rft.date=2016-11-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.int%2Fdms_pub%2Fitu-r%2Fopb%2Freg%2FR-REG-RR-2016-ZPF-E.zip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> Article 2, Section 1, p.27 </li> <li id="cite_note-Nomenclature-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nomenclature_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nomenclature_42-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itu.int/dms_pubrec/itu-r/rec/v/R-REC-V.431-8-201508-I!!PDF-E.pdf">Nomenclature of the frequency and wavelength bands used in telecommunications</a> (PDF) (Report). Geneva: International Telecommunications Union. 2015. ITU-R V.431-8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154101/https://www.itu.int/dms_pubrec/itu-r/rec/v/R-REC-V.431-8-201508-I!!PDF-E.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 6 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Nomenclature+of+the+frequency+and+wavelength+bands+used+in+telecommunications&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=International+Telecommunications+Union&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.int%2Fdms_pubrec%2Fitu-r%2Frec%2Fv%2FR-REC-V.431-8-201508-I%21%21PDF-E.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1">Communications-electronics Management of the Electromagnetic Spectrum (Report). Headquarters, Department of the Army. United States Department of the Army. 1973. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Communications-electronics+Management+of+the+Electromagnetic+Spectrum&rft.series=Headquarters%2C+Department+of+the+Army&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+the+Army&rft.date=1973&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDuncanGkountounaMahabir2021" class="citation book cs1">Duncan, Christopher; Gkountouna, Olga; Mahabir, Ron (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-71051-4_18">"Theoretical Applications of Magnetic Fields at Tremendously Low Frequency in Remote Sensing and Electronic Activity Classification"</a>. In Arabnia, Hamid R.; Deligiannidis, Leonidas; Shouno, Hayaru; Tinetti, Fernando G.; Tran, Quoc-Nam (eds.). Advances in Computer Vision and Computational Biology. Transactions on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 235–247. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-71051-4_18">10.1007/978-3-030-71051-4_18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3030710507" title="Special:BookSources/978-3030710507"><bdi>978-3030710507</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238934419">238934419</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154056/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-71051-4_18">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2023-04-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Theoretical+Applications+of+Magnetic+Fields+at+Tremendously+Low+Frequency+in+Remote+Sensing+and+Electronic+Activity+Classification&rft.btitle=Advances+in+Computer+Vision+and+Computational+Biology&rft.place=Cham&rft.series=Transactions+on+Computational+Science+and+Computational+Intelligence&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E235-%3C%2Fspan%3E247&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A238934419%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-71051-4_18&rft.isbn=978-3030710507&rft.aulast=Duncan&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Gkountouna%2C+Olga&rft.au=Mahabir%2C+Ron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-71051-4_18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CISA-45"><a href="#cite_ref-CISA_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/safecom-ncswic_rf_interference_best_practices_guidebook_2.7.20_-_final_508c.pdf">"Radio Frequency Interference Best Practices Guidebook - CISA - Feb. 2020"</a> (PDF). Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency SAFECOM/National Council of Statewide Interoperability Coordinators. USDepartment of Homeland Security. Retrieved 29 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cybersecurity+and+Infrastructure+Security+Agency+SAFECOM%2FNational+Council+of+Statewide+Interoperability+Coordinators&rft.atitle=Radio+Frequency+Interference+Best+Practices+Guidebook+-+CISA+-+Feb.+2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cisa.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fsafecom-ncswic_rf_interference_best_practices_guidebook_2.7.20_-_final_508c.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mazar-46"><a href="#cite_ref-Mazar_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMazar_(Madjar)2016" class="citation book cs1">Mazar (Madjar), Haim (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ysqOCQAAQBAJ&q=radio+spectrum+management">Radio Spectrum Management: Policies, Regulations and Techniques</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118511794" title="Special:BookSources/978-1118511794"><bdi>978-1118511794</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154124/https://books.google.com/books?id=ysqOCQAAQBAJ&q=radio+spectrum+management#v=snippet&q=radio%20spectrum%20management&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 29 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radio+Spectrum+Management%3A+Policies%2C+Regulations+and+Techniques&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1118511794&rft.aulast=Mazar+%28Madjar%29&rft.aufirst=Haim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DysqOCQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dradio%2Bspectrum%2Bmanagement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ITU1-47"><a href="#cite_ref-ITU1_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://life.itu.int/radioclub/rr/art19.pdf">"ARTICLE 19 Identification of stations"</a> (PDF). International Telecommunication Union. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154542/https://life.itu.int/radioclub/rr/art19.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 29 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ARTICLE+19+Identification+of+stations&rft.pub=International+Telecommunication+Union&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flife.itu.int%2Fradioclub%2Frr%2Fart19.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FCC2-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FCC2_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fcc.gov/wireless/bureau-divisions/mobility-division/commercial-radio-operator-license-program/commercial-0">"Commercial Radio Operator Types of Licenses"</a>. Federal Communications Commission. 6 May 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210808110250/https://www.fcc.gov/wireless/bureau-divisions/mobility-division/commercial-radio-operator-license-program/commercial-0">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+Communications+Commission&rft.atitle=Commercial+Radio+Operator+Types+of+Licenses&rft.date=2016-05-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fcc.gov%2Fwireless%2Fbureau-divisions%2Fmobility-division%2Fcommercial-radio-operator-license-program%2Fcommercial-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FCC4-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FCC4_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDichoso2007" class="citation web cs1">Dichoso, Joe (October 9, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://transition.fcc.gov/oet/ea/presentations/files/oct07/Oct_07-Basics_of_Unlicensed_Trans-JD.pdf">"FCC Basics of Unlicensed Transmitters"</a> (PDF). Federal Communications Commission. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220829182256/https://transition.fcc.gov/oet/ea/presentations/files/oct07/Oct_07-Basics_of_Unlicensed_Trans-JD.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2022. Retrieved 29 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+Communications+Commission&rft.atitle=FCC+Basics+of+Unlicensed+Transmitters&rft.date=2007-10-09&rft.aulast=Dichoso&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftransition.fcc.gov%2Foet%2Fea%2Fpresentations%2Ffiles%2Foct07%2FOct_07-Basics_of_Unlicensed_Trans-JD.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pizzi-50"><a href="#cite_ref-Pizzi_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPizziJones2014" class="citation book cs1">Pizzi, Skip; Jones, Graham (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DaVwAwAAQBAJ">A Broadcast Engineering Tutorial for Non-Engineers, 4th Ed</a>. National Association of Broadcasters, Taylor and Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415733397" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415733397"><bdi>978-0415733397</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154545/https://books.google.com/books?id=DaVwAwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2023-03-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Broadcast+Engineering+Tutorial+for+Non-Engineers%2C+4th+Ed.&rft.pub=National+Association+of+Broadcasters%2C+Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0415733397&rft.aulast=Pizzi&rft.aufirst=Skip&rft.au=Jones%2C+Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDaVwAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Witten-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Witten_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWitten2017" class="citation book cs1">Witten, Alan Joel (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VzQrDwAAQBAJ&dq=radio+waves+become+weaker+with+distance&pg=PA162">Handbook of Geophysics and Archaeology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1351564588" title="Special:BookSources/978-1351564588"><bdi>978-1351564588</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154550/https://books.google.com/books?id=VzQrDwAAQBAJ&dq=radio+waves+become+weaker+with+distance&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q=radio%20waves%20become%20weaker%20with%20distance&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Geophysics+and+Archaeology&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1351564588&rft.aulast=Witten&rft.aufirst=Alan+Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVzQrDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dradio%2Bwaves%2Bbecome%2Bweaker%2Bwith%2Bdistance%26pg%3DPA162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bonsor-2001-52"><a href="#cite_ref-Bonsor-2001_52-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBonsor2001" class="citation web cs1">Bonsor, Kevin (26 September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/satellite-radio.htm">"How Satellite Radio Works"</a>. howstuffworks.com. HowStuffWorks. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328004303/https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/satellite-radio.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=howstuffworks.com&rft.atitle=How+Satellite+Radio+Works&rft.date=2001-09-26&rft.aulast=Bonsor&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felectronics.howstuffworks.com%2Fsatellite-radio.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gosling2-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Gosling2_53-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGosling1998" class="citation book cs1">Gosling, William (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqj2k9EXgioC&q=longwave">Radio Antennas and Propagation: Radio Engineering Fundamentals</a>. Newnes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0750637411" title="Special:BookSources/978-0750637411"><bdi>978-0750637411</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154546/https://books.google.com/books?id=jqj2k9EXgioC&q=longwave#v=snippet&q=longwave&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radio+Antennas+and+Propagation%3A+Radio+Engineering+Fundamentals&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0750637411&rft.aulast=Gosling&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Djqj2k9EXgioC%26q%3Dlongwave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Griffin-54"><a href="#cite_ref-Griffin_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGriffin2000" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, B. Whitfield (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m5DIroWLw2EC&q=radio+fundamentals">Radio-electronic Transmission Fundamentals</a>. SciTech Publishing/Noble. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1884932137" title="Special:BookSources/978-1884932137"><bdi>978-1884932137</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154547/https://books.google.com/books?id=m5DIroWLw2EC&q=radio+fundamentals#v=snippet&q=radio%20fundamentals&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radio-electronic+Transmission+Fundamentals&rft.pub=SciTech+Publishing%2FNoble&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1884932137&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=B.+Whitfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm5DIroWLw2EC%26q%3Dradio%2Bfundamentals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pizzi-Jones-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Pizzi-Jones_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPizziJones2014" class="citation book cs1">Pizzi, Skip; Jones, Graham (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sQ1xAwAAQBAJ&dq=vhf+propagation+television&pg=PR9">A Broadcast Engineering Tutorial for Non-Engineers</a>. CRC Press/Focal Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317906834" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317906834"><bdi>978-1317906834</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154549/https://books.google.com/books?id=sQ1xAwAAQBAJ&dq=vhf+propagation+television&pg=PR9#v=onepage&q=vhf%20propagation%20television&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Broadcast+Engineering+Tutorial+for+Non-Engineers&rft.pub=CRC+Press%2FFocal+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1317906834&rft.aulast=Pizzi&rft.aufirst=Skip&rft.au=Jones%2C+Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsQ1xAwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dvhf%2Bpropagation%2Btelevision%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perez-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Perez_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPerez2013" class="citation book cs1">Perez, Reinaldo (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dPBGBQAAQBAJ&dq=vhf+uhf+noise&pg=PA756">Handbook of Electromagnetic Compatibility</a>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1483288970" title="Special:BookSources/978-1483288970"><bdi>978-1483288970</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154548/https://books.google.com/books?id=dPBGBQAAQBAJ&dq=vhf+uhf+noise&pg=PA756#v=onepage&q=vhf%20uhf%20noise&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. 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India: Friends Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9390649808" title="Special:BookSources/978-9390649808"><bdi>978-9390649808</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003154550/https://books.google.com/books?id=KjgvEAAAQBAJ&dq=am+mode+broadcasting&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q=am%20mode%20broadcasting&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. 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(2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ux9fZj6izuEC&dq=DRM+broadcasting&pg=PA51">Broadcasting on the Short Waves: 1945 to today</a>. McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786451982" title="Special:BookSources/978-0786451982"><bdi>978-0786451982</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155140/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ux9fZj6izuEC&dq=DRM+broadcasting&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q=DRM%20broadcasting&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. 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Switzerland: World Broadcasting Unions. 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406214022/https://tech.ebu.ch/docs/digitalradio/WBU%20Radio%20Techologies%20Guide.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2023-04-06. 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(2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K9N1TVhf82YC&pg=PA558">NAB Engineering Handbook</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Broadcasters" title="National Association of Broadcasters">National Association of Broadcasters</a> / <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. pp. 558–559. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136034107" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136034107"><bdi>978-1136034107</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=NAB+Engineering+Handbook&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E558-%3C%2Fspan%3E559&rft.pub=National+Association+of+Broadcasters+%2F+Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1136034107&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Graham+A.&rft.au=Layer%2C+David+H.&rft.au=Osenkowsky%2C+Thomas+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK9N1TVhf82YC%26pg%3DPA558&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ETSI-201-980-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ETSI-201-980_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ETSI-201-980_72-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_es/201900_201999/201980/04.02.01_60/es_201980v040201p.pdf">DRM System Specification</a> (PDF) (vers. 4.2.1). Geneva, CH: European Broadcasting Union. January 2021. p. 178. ETSI ES 201 980. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210118162612/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_es/201900_201999/201980/04.02.01_60/es_201980v040201p.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2018 – via ETSI.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=DRM+System+Specification&rft.place=Geneva%2C+CH&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=European+Broadcasting+Union&rft.date=2021-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etsi.org%2Fdeliver%2Fetsi_es%2F201900_201999%2F201980%2F04.02.01_60%2Fes_201980v040201p.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Satellite_S-2011-73"><a href="#cite_ref-Satellite_S-2011_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csgnetwork.com/satradiofreq.html">Satellite S‑band radio frequency table</a> (Report). 15 August 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225175235/http://www.csgnetwork.com/satradiofreq.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2013 – via CSG Network.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Satellite+S%E2%80%91band+radio+frequency+table&rft.date=2011-08-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csgnetwork.com%2Fsatradiofreq.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kbonsor-74"><a href="#cite_ref-kbonsor_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBonsor2001" class="citation web cs1">Bonsor, Kevin (26 September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/satellite-radio.htm">"How satellite radio works"</a>. <a href="/wiki/HowStuffWorks" title="HowStuffWorks">HowStuffWorks</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160126111436/http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/satellite-radio.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HowStuffWorks&rft.atitle=How+satellite+radio+works&rft.date=2001-09-26&rft.aulast=Bonsor&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felectronics.howstuffworks.com%2Fsatellite-radio.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Enticknap-75"><a href="#cite_ref-Enticknap_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEnticknap2005" class="citation book cs1">Enticknap, Leo Douglas Graham (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ghnGAwholkcC&dq=Television+broadcasting+is+the+transmission+of+moving+images+by+radio%2C&pg=PA163">Moving Image Technology: From Zoetrope to Digital</a>. Wallflower Press (<a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1904764069" title="Special:BookSources/978-1904764069"><bdi>978-1904764069</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155154/https://books.google.com/books?id=ghnGAwholkcC&dq=Television+broadcasting+is+the+transmission+of+moving+images+by+radio%2C&pg=PA163#v=onepage&q=Television%20broadcasting%20is%20the%20transmission%20of%20moving%20images%20by%20radio%2C&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 31 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moving+Image+Technology%3A+From+Zoetrope+to+Digital&rft.pub=Wallflower+Press+%28Columbia+University+Press%29&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1904764069&rft.aulast=Enticknap&rft.aufirst=Leo+Douglas+Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DghnGAwholkcC%26dq%3DTelevision%2Bbroadcasting%2Bis%2Bthe%2Btransmission%2Bof%2Bmoving%2Bimages%2Bby%2Bradio%252C%26pg%3DPA163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Starks-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Starks_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStarks2013" class="citation book cs1">Starks, M. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DLssmgEACAAJ">The Digital Television Revolution: Origins to Outcomes</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1137273345" title="Special:BookSources/978-1137273345"><bdi>978-1137273345</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155141/https://books.google.com/books?id=DLssmgEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 31 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Digital+Television+Revolution%3A+Origins+to+Outcomes&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1137273345&rft.aulast=Starks&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDLssmgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brice-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Brice_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrice2002" class="citation book cs1">Brice, Richard (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm_U-Qd58RgC&dq=digital+tv+digital+cliff&pg=PA81">Newnes Guide to Digital TV</a>. Newnes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0750657211" title="Special:BookSources/978-0750657211"><bdi>978-0750657211</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155142/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm_U-Qd58RgC&dq=digital+tv+digital+cliff&pg=PA81#v=onepage&q=digital%20tv%20digital%20cliff&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 31 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newnes+Guide+to+Digital+TV&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0750657211&rft.aulast=Brice&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTm_U-Qd58RgC%26dq%3Ddigital%2Btv%2Bdigital%2Bcliff%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NAB1-78"><a href="#cite_ref-NAB1_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBartlet1975" class="citation book cs1">Bartlet, George W. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eRquswEACAAJ">NAB Engineering Handbook, 6th Ed</a>. Washington, D.C.: National Association of Broadcasters. p. 21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155143/https://books.google.com/books?id=eRquswEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2023-03-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=NAB+Engineering+Handbook%2C+6th+Ed.&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=National+Association+of+Broadcasters&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Bartlet&rft.aufirst=George+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeRquswEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lundstrom-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Lundstrom_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLundstrom2012" class="citation book cs1">Lundstrom, Lars-Ingemar (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=upjcAwAAQBAJ&dq=television+channel+frequencies+europe&pg=PA290">Understanding Digital Television: An Introduction to DVB Systems with Satellite, Cable, Broadband and Terrestrial TV Distribution</a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136032820" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136032820"><bdi>978-1136032820</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155143/https://books.google.com/books?id=upjcAwAAQBAJ&dq=television+channel+frequencies+europe&pg=PA290#v=onepage&q=television%20channel%20frequencies%20europe&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2022-09-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Digital+Television%3A+An+Introduction+to+DVB+Systems+with+Satellite%2C+Cable%2C+Broadband+and+Terrestrial+TV+Distribution&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1136032820&rft.aulast=Lundstrom&rft.aufirst=Lars-Ingemar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DupjcAwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtelevision%2Bchannel%2Bfrequencies%2Beurope%26pg%3DPA290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ingram-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ingram_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ingram_80-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIngram1983" class="citation book cs1">Ingram, Dave (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QbcZTrYhheoC&q=television+propagation+line+of+sight+rabbit+ears">Video Electronics Technology</a>. TAB Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0830614745" title="Special:BookSources/978-0830614745"><bdi>978-0830614745</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155246/https://books.google.com/books?id=QbcZTrYhheoC&q=television+propagation+line+of+sight+rabbit+ears">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 1 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Video+Electronics+Technology&rft.pub=TAB+Books&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0830614745&rft.aulast=Ingram&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQbcZTrYhheoC%26q%3Dtelevision%2Bpropagation%2Bline%2Bof%2Bsight%2Brabbit%2Bears&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ProStar-81"><a href="#cite_ref-ProStar_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=25usF6PafMcC&dq=television+tramsitter+ERP+limits&pg=PA70">Federal Communications Commission (Parts 20 - 39)</a>. ProStar Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781577858461" title="Special:BookSources/9781577858461"><bdi>9781577858461</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155144/https://books.google.com/books?id=25usF6PafMcC&dq=television+tramsitter+ERP+limits&pg=PA70#v=onepage&q=television%20tramsitter%20ERP%20limits&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2022-09-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Federal+Communications+Commission+%28Parts+20+-+39%29&rft.pub=ProStar+Publications&rft.isbn=9781577858461&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D25usF6PafMcC%26dq%3Dtelevision%2Btramsitter%2BERP%2Blimits%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benoit-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Benoit_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBenoit1999" class="citation book cs1">Benoit, Herve (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4MLy2qXARXYC&q=Satellite+television">Satellite Television: Analogue and Digital Reception Techniques</a>. Butterworth-Heinemann/Arnold. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0340741085" title="Special:BookSources/978-0340741085"><bdi>978-0340741085</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Satellite+Television%3A+Analogue+and+Digital+Reception+Techniques&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann%2FArnold&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0340741085&rft.aulast=Benoit&rft.aufirst=Herve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4MLy2qXARXYC%26q%3DSatellite%2Btelevision&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Long-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Long_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLong1999" class="citation book cs1">Long, Mark (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L4yQ0iztvQEC&q=Satellite+television">The Digital Satellite TV Handbook</a>. Newnes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0750671712" title="Special:BookSources/978-0750671712"><bdi>978-0750671712</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Digital+Satellite+TV+Handbook&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0750671712&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL4yQ0iztvQEC%26q%3DSatellite%2Btelevision&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weik-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Weik_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeik2000" class="citation book cs1">Weik, Martin H. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/1-4020-0613-6_18062">"standard frequency and time signal"</a>. Computer Science and Communications Dictionary. Computer Science and Communications Dictionary. Springer. p. 1649. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-0613-6_18062">10.1007/1-4020-0613-6_18062</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0792384250" title="Special:BookSources/978-0792384250"><bdi>978-0792384250</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220901212811/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/1-4020-0613-6_18062">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=standard+frequency+and+time+signal&rft.btitle=Computer+Science+and+Communications+Dictionary&rft.pages=1649&rft.pub=Computer+Science+and+Communications+Dictionary.+Springer&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F1-4020-0613-6_18062&rft.isbn=978-0792384250&rft.aulast=Weik&rft.aufirst=Martin+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Freferenceworkentry%2F10.1007%2F1-4020-0613-6_18062&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RadioNavAids-85"><a href="#cite_ref-RadioNavAids_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cU9k_GDAzDAC&q=Radio+Aids+to+Navigation%2C+Publication+117">Radio Aids to Navigation, Publication 117, Chapter 2, Radio Time Signals</a>. Lighthouse Press. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1577855361" title="Special:BookSources/978-1577855361"><bdi>978-1577855361</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155702/https://books.google.com/books?id=cU9k_GDAzDAC&q=Radio+Aids+to+Navigation%2C+Publication+117#v=snippet&q=Radio%20Aids%20to%20Navigation%2C%20Publication%20117&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 1 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radio+Aids+to+Navigation%2C+Publication+117%2C+Chapter+2%2C+Radio+Time+Signals&rft.pub=Lighthouse+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1577855361&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcU9k_GDAzDAC%26q%3DRadio%2BAids%2Bto%2BNavigation%252C%2BPublication%2B117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NPR-86"><a href="#cite_ref-NPR_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2018/08/25/641835302/what-closing-a-government-radio-station-would-mean-for-your-clocks">"What Closing A Government Radio Station Would Mean For Your Clocks"</a>. NPR. National Public Radio, Weekend Edition. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201125161858/https://www.npr.org/2018/08/25/641835302/what-closing-a-government-radio-station-would-mean-for-your-clocks">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 1 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=What+Closing+A+Government+Radio+Station+Would+Mean+For+Your+Clocks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2018%2F08%2F25%2F641835302%2Fwhat-closing-a-government-radio-station-would-mean-for-your-clocks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frenzel-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Frenzel_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrenzel2017" class="citation book cs1">Frenzel, Louis (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uqjRDgAAQBAJ&dq=two+way+radio+duplex&pg=PA161">Electronics Explained: Fundamentals for Engineers, Technicians, and Makers</a>. Newnes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0128118795" title="Special:BookSources/978-0128118795"><bdi>978-0128118795</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155805/https://books.google.com/books?id=uqjRDgAAQBAJ&dq=two+way+radio+duplex&pg=PA161#v=onepage&q=two%20way%20radio%20duplex&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 2 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electronics+Explained%3A+Fundamentals+for+Engineers%2C+Technicians%2C+and+Makers&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0128118795&rft.aulast=Frenzel&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuqjRDgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtwo%2Bway%2Bradio%2Bduplex%26pg%3DPA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HowCellPhonesWork-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HowCellPhonesWork_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HowCellPhonesWork_88-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrainTysonLayton2018" class="citation web cs1">Brain, Marshall; Tyson, Jeff; Layton, Julia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/cell-phone.htm">"How Cell Phones Work"</a>. How Stuff Works. InfoSpace Holdings LLC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181231064102/https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/cell-phone.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 31 December 2018. Retrieved 31 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=How+Stuff+Works&rft.atitle=How+Cell+Phones+Work&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Brain&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft.au=Tyson%2C+Jeff&rft.au=Layton%2C+Julia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felectronics.howstuffworks.com%2Fcell-phone.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lawson-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Lawson_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLawson" class="citation web cs1">Lawson, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pcworld.com/article/469718/ten_ways_your_smartphone_knows_where_you_are.html">"Ten Ways Your Smartphone Knows Where You Are"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PCWorld" class="mw-redirect" title="PCWorld">PCWorld</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220902190138/https://www.pcworld.com/article/469718/ten_ways_your_smartphone_knows_where_you_are.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 September 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ten+Ways+Your+Smartphone+Knows+Where+You+Are&rft.pub=PCWorld&rft.aulast=Lawson&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcworld.com%2Farticle%2F469718%2Ften_ways_your_smartphone_knows_where_you_are.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zander-90"><a href="#cite_ref-Zander_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGuowang_MiaoJens_ZanderKi_Won_SungBen_Slimane2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Guowang_Miao" title="Guowang Miao">Guowang Miao</a>; Jens Zander; Ki Won Sung; Ben Slimane (2016). Fundamentals of Mobile Data Networks. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107143210" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107143210"><bdi>978-1107143210</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Mobile+Data+Networks&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1107143210&rft.au=Guowang+Miao&rft.au=Jens+Zander&rft.au=Ki+Won+Sung&rft.au=Ben+Slimane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120417220750/http://www.privateline.com/Cellbasics/Cellbasics02.html">"Cellular Telephone Basics"</a>. Privateline.com. 1 January 2006. p. 2. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.privateline.com/Cellbasics/Cellbasics02.html">the original</a> on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cellular+Telephone+Basics&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Privateline.com&rft.date=2006-01-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.privateline.com%2FCellbasics%2FCellbasics02.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-S.Brown-92"><a href="#cite_ref-S.Brown_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrown" class="citation web cs1">Brown, Sara. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-to-matter/5g-explained">"5G, explained"</a>. mitsloan.mit.edu. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107130098" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107130098"><bdi>978-1107130098</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155705/https://books.google.com/books?id=qnMjDAAAQBAJ&q=5G+explained#v=snippet&q=5G%20explained&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. 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Retrieved 2022-09-07 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science&rft.atitle=Never+Miss+a+Call%3A+PS+Buyer%27s+Guide+to+Cordless+Phones&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E84-%3C%2Fspan%3E85&rft.date=1982-10&rft.aulast=McComb&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dia91vNwYgLIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGuy2022" class="citation news cs1">Guy, Nick (13 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/reviews/best-cordless-phone/">"Wirecutter: The Best Cordless Phone"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220907195609/https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/reviews/best-cordless-phone/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2022. 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Washington, D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency. pp. 33–34. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220907201749/https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/publications/voice_radio_communications_guide_for_the_fire_service.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 7 September 2022. 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ICAO European and North Atlantic Office. 28 March 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220808121543/https://www.icao.int/WACAF/Documents/Meetings/2019/SAT24/SAT%2024%20WP%2017e%20_APP%20E_NAT%20Doc%20007%20%20(EN)%20-%20Edition%20V.2019-2_eff.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved 4 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=North+Atlantic+Operations+and+Airspace+Manual&rft.pub=ICAO+European+and+North+Atlantic+Office&rft.date=2019-03-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.icao.int%2FWACAF%2FDocuments%2FMeetings%2F2019%2FSAT24%2FSAT%252024%2520WP%252017e%2520_APP%2520E_NAT%2520Doc%2520007%2520%2520%28EN%29%2520-%2520Edition%2520V.2019-2_eff.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVan_Horn" class="citation magazine cs1">Van Horn, Larry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.monitoringtimes.com/html/mtMilVHF.html">"The Military VHF/UHF Spectrum"</a>. Monitoring Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155707/http://www.monitoringtimes.com/html/mtMilVHF.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2022-09-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monitoring+Times&rft.atitle=The+Military+VHF%2FUHF+Spectrum&rft.aulast=Van+Horn&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.monitoringtimes.com%2Fhtml%2FmtMilVHF.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFletcher2002" class="citation book cs1">Fletcher, Sue (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48674566">A Boater's Guide to VHF and GMDSS</a>. Camden, Maine: International Marine/McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0071388028" title="Special:BookSources/0071388028"><bdi>0071388028</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48674566">48674566</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155709/https://search.worldcat.org/title/48674566">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2022-09-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Boater%27s+Guide+to+VHF+and+GMDSS&rft.place=Camden%2C+Maine&rft.pub=International+Marine%2FMcGraw-Hill&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48674566&rft.isbn=0071388028&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=Sue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F48674566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/961215964">The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications 2017</a> (94th ed.). Newington, Connecticut: American Radio Relay League. 2016. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1625950628" title="Special:BookSources/978-1625950628"><bdi>978-1625950628</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/961215964">961215964</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003155710/https://search.worldcat.org/title/961215964">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2022-09-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+ARRL+Handbook+for+Radio+Communications+2017&rft.place=Newington%2C+Connecticut&rft.edition=94th&rft.pub=American+Radio+Relay+League&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F961215964&rft.isbn=978-1625950628&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F961215964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HSW1-106"><a href="#cite_ref-HSW1_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrain2021" class="citation web cs1">Brain, Marshall (11 February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/radio.htm#pt4">"Radio basics: Real life examples"</a>. How radio works. How Stuff Works website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160102215734/http://www.howstuffworks.com/radio.htm#pt4">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=How+radio+works&rft.atitle=Radio+basics%3A+Real+life+examples&rft.date=2021-02-11&rft.aulast=Brain&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felectronics.howstuffworks.com%2Fradio.htm%23pt4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bccdc.ca/resource-gallery/Documents/Educational%20Materials/EH/Radiofrequency-Toolkit.pdf">Radiofrequency Toolkit for Environmental Health Practitioners</a> (PDF) (Report). Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada: British Columbia Centre for Disease Control/National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1926933481" title="Special:BookSources/978-1926933481"><bdi>978-1926933481</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.bccdc.ca/resource-gallery/Documents/Educational%20Materials/EH/Radiofrequency-Toolkit.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2022-09-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Radiofrequency+Toolkit+for+Environmental+Health+Practitioners&rft.place=Vancouver%2C+British+Columbia%2C+Canada&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=British+Columbia+Centre+for+Disease+Control%2FNational+Collaborating+Centre+for+Environmental+Health&rft.isbn=978-1926933481&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bccdc.ca%2Fresource-gallery%2FDocuments%2FEducational%2520Materials%2FEH%2FRadiofrequency-Toolkit.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.consumerreports.org/babies-kids/baby-monitors/buying-guide/">"Best Baby Monitor Buying Guide"</a>. Consumer Reports. 24 April 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220909192535/https://www.consumerreports.org/babies-kids/baby-monitors/buying-guide/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Consumer+Reports&rft.atitle=Best+Baby+Monitor+Buying+Guide&rft.date=2016-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.consumerreports.org%2Fbabies-kids%2Fbaby-monitors%2Fbuying-guide%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEargle2005" class="citation book cs1">Eargle, John (2005). "Overview of Wireless Microphone Technology". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JnkqBgAAQBAJ">The Microphone Book</a> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Focal Press. pp. 142–151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136118067" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136118067"><bdi>978-1136118067</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160240/https://books.google.com/books?id=JnkqBgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2022-09-10 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Overview+of+Wireless+Microphone+Technology&rft.btitle=The+Microphone+Book&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E142-%3C%2Fspan%3E151&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1136118067&rft.aulast=Eargle&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJnkqBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBell2012" class="citation news cs1">Bell, Dee Ana (1 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tvtechnology.com/opinions/avoiding-audio-problems-with-wireless-microphone-systems">"Avoiding Audio Problems with Wireless Microphone Systems"</a>. TV Technology. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TV+Technology&rft.atitle=Avoiding+Audio+Problems+with+Wireless+Microphone+Systems&rft.date=2012-11-01&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Dee+Ana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tvtechnology.com%2Fopinions%2Favoiding-audio-problems-with-wireless-microphone-systems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVernon2021" class="citation news cs1">Vernon, Tom (28 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.radioworld.com/tech-and-gear/wireless-mic-industry-debates-wmas-technology">"Wireless Mic Industry Debates WMAS Technology"</a>. Radio World. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160214/https://www.radioworld.com/tech-and-gear/wireless-mic-industry-debates-wmas-technology">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radio+World&rft.atitle=Wireless+Mic+Industry+Debates+WMAS+Technology&rft.date=2021-08-28&rft.aulast=Vernon&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.radioworld.com%2Ftech-and-gear%2Fwireless-mic-industry-debates-wmas-technology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis-Davis-112"><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis-Davis_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLewisDavis2004" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Barry D.; Davis, Peter T. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a3_S-c8nfqsC&q=Wireless+networking+WPA">Wireless Networks For Dummies</a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0764579776" title="Special:BookSources/978-0764579776"><bdi>978-0764579776</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160214/https://books.google.com/books?id=a3_S-c8nfqsC&q=Wireless+networking+WPA#v=snippet&q=Wireless%20networking%20WPA&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wireless+Networks+For+Dummies&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0764579776&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Barry+D.&rft.au=Davis%2C+Peter+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da3_S-c8nfqsC%26q%3DWireless%2Bnetworking%2BWPA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lowe-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lowe_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lowe_113-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLowe2020" class="citation book cs1">Lowe, Doug (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LiHxDwAAQBAJ&q=Wireless+WAN+basics">Networking For Dummies</a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119748670" title="Special:BookSources/978-1119748670"><bdi>978-1119748670</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160215/https://books.google.com/books?id=LiHxDwAAQBAJ&q=Wireless+WAN+basics#v=snippet&q=Wireless%20WAN%20basics&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Networking+For+Dummies&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1119748670&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=Doug&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLiHxDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DWireless%2BWAN%2Bbasics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muller-114"><a href="#cite_ref-Muller_114-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMuller2002" class="citation book cs1">Muller, Nathan J. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0qv4KbasX7wC&q=bluetooth&pg=PA45">Networking A to Z</a>. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 45–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0071429139" title="Special:BookSources/978-0071429139"><bdi>978-0071429139</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624205933/https://books.google.com/books?id=0qv4KbasX7wC&q=bluetooth&pg=PA45">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Networking+A+to+Z&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E45-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0071429139&rft.aulast=Muller&rft.aufirst=Nathan+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0qv4KbasX7wC%26q%3Dbluetooth%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Silver-115"><a href="#cite_ref-Silver_115-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSilver2008" class="citation book cs1">Silver, H. Ward (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EcbjKvhgPLsC&dq=Packet+radio&pg=SA2-PA11">The ARRL Extra Class License Manual for Ham Radio</a>. American Radio Relay League. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0872591356" title="Special:BookSources/978-0872591356"><bdi>978-0872591356</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160216/https://books.google.com/books?id=EcbjKvhgPLsC&dq=Packet+radio&pg=SA2-PA11#v=onepage&q=Packet%20radio&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+ARRL+Extra+Class+License+Manual+for+Ham+Radio&rft.pub=American+Radio+Relay+League&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0872591356&rft.aulast=Silver&rft.aufirst=H.+Ward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEcbjKvhgPLsC%26dq%3DPacket%2Bradio%26pg%3DSA2-PA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hillebrand-116"><a href="#cite_ref-Hillebrand_116-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHillebrand2010" class="citation book cs1">Hillebrand, Friedhelm (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YPgfNaoYHUsC&q=Text+messaging++160+char">Short Message Service (SMS): The Creation of Personal Global Text Messaging</a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470689936" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470689936"><bdi>978-0470689936</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160218/https://books.google.com/books?id=YPgfNaoYHUsC&q=Text+messaging++160+char#v=snippet&q=Text%20messaging%20%20160%20char&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Short+Message+Service+%28SMS%29%3A+The+Creation+of+Personal+Global+Text+Messaging&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0470689936&rft.aulast=Hillebrand&rft.aufirst=Friedhelm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYPgfNaoYHUsC%26q%3DText%2Bmessaging%2B%2B160%2Bchar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McGregor-Driscoll-Mcdowell-117"><a href="#cite_ref-McGregor-Driscoll-Mcdowell_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcGregorDriscollMcdowell2016" class="citation book cs1">McGregor, Michael A.; Driscoll, Paul D.; Mcdowell, Walter (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m6dYCwAAQBAJ&dq=Microwave+relay+%E2%80%93&pg=PT224">Head's Broadcasting in America: A Survey of Electronic Media</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317347927" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317347927"><bdi>978-1317347927</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160218/https://books.google.com/books?id=m6dYCwAAQBAJ&dq=Microwave+relay+%E2%80%93&pg=PT224#v=onepage&q=Microwave%20relay%20%E2%80%93&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Head%27s+Broadcasting+in+America%3A+A+Survey+of+Electronic+Media&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1317347927&rft.aulast=McGregor&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft.au=Driscoll%2C+Paul+D.&rft.au=Mcdowell%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm6dYCwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DMicrowave%2Brelay%2B%25E2%2580%2593%26pg%3DPT224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EIA-118"><a href="#cite_ref-EIA_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRadio-Electronics-Television_Manufacturers_Association._Engineering_Department1955" class="citation web cs1">Radio-Electronics-Television Manufacturers Association. Engineering Department (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-OP2xwEACAAJ&q=Microwave+relay+%E2%80%93">"Microwave Relay Systems for Communications"</a>. Electronic Industries Association. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Microwave+Relay+Systems+for+Communications&rft.pub=Electronic+Industries+Association&rft.date=1955&rft.au=Radio-Electronics-Television+Manufacturers+Association.+Engineering+Department&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-OP2xwEACAAJ%26q%3DMicrowave%2Brelay%2B%25E2%2580%2593&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bailey-119"><a href="#cite_ref-Bailey_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBailey2003" class="citation book cs1">Bailey, David (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K-wxbN3rjMwC&dq=radio+telemetry+fundamentals&pg=PR4">Practical Radio Engineering and Telemetry for Industry</a>. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0080473895" title="Special:BookSources/978-0080473895"><bdi>978-0080473895</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Practical+Radio+Engineering+and+Telemetry+for+Industry&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0080473895&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK-wxbN3rjMwC%26dq%3Dradio%2Btelemetry%2Bfundamentals%26pg%3DPR4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arafath-Mazumder-Hassan-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Arafath-Mazumder-Hassan_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArafathMazumderHassan2012" class="citation book cs1">Arafath, Yeasin; Mazumder, Debabrata; Hassan, Rakib (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OuSNtgAACAAJ&q=RF+Automated+meter+reading">Automatic Meter Reading by Radio Frequency Technology</a>. Lap Lambert Academic Publishing GmbH KG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3847372219" title="Special:BookSources/978-3847372219"><bdi>978-3847372219</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160733/https://books.google.com/books?id=OuSNtgAACAAJ&q=RF+Automated+meter+reading">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Automatic+Meter+Reading+by+Radio+Frequency+Technology&rft.pub=Lap+Lambert+Academic+Publishing+GmbH+KG&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3847372219&rft.aulast=Arafath&rft.aufirst=Yeasin&rft.au=Mazumder%2C+Debabrata&rft.au=Hassan%2C+Rakib&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOuSNtgAACAAJ%26q%3DRF%2BAutomated%2Bmeter%2Breading&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bonsor-2001a-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Bonsor-2001a_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBonsor2001" class="citation web cs1">Bonsor, Kevin (28 August 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://auto.howstuffworks.com/e-zpass.htm">"How E-ZPass Works"</a>. howstuffworks.com. HowStuff Works. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220912151122/https://auto.howstuffworks.com/e-zpass.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=howstuffworks.com&rft.atitle=How+E-ZPass+Works&rft.date=2001-08-28&rft.aulast=Bonsor&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fauto.howstuffworks.com%2Fe-zpass.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hunt-Puglia-Puglia-122"><a href="#cite_ref-Hunt-Puglia-Puglia_122-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHuntPugliaPuglia2007" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, V. Daniel; Puglia, Albert; Puglia, Mike (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCHiHqL6QKkC&q=Radio+Frequency+Identification">RFID: A Guide to Radio Frequency Identification</a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470112243" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470112243"><bdi>978-0470112243</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160734/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCHiHqL6QKkC&q=Radio+Frequency+Identification#v=snippet&q=Radio%20Frequency%20Identification&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=RFID%3A+A+Guide+to+Radio+Frequency+Identification&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0470112243&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=V.+Daniel&rft.au=Puglia%2C+Albert&rft.au=Puglia%2C+Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZCHiHqL6QKkC%26q%3DRadio%2BFrequency%2BIdentification&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-White-123"><a href="#cite_ref-White_123-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhite2021" class="citation web cs1">White, Ryan (17 December 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://navalpost.com/how-do-submarines-communicate-with-the-outside-world/">"How do submarines communicate with the outside world?"</a>. navalpost.com. Naval Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160739/https://navalpost.com/how-do-submarines-communicate-with-the-outside-world/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=navalpost.com&rft.atitle=How+do+submarines+communicate+with+the+outside+world%3F&rft.date=2021-12-17&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnavalpost.com%2Fhow-do-submarines-communicate-with-the-outside-world%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NRR-124"><a href="#cite_ref-NRR_124-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QANVAAAAMAAJ&dq=Submarine+communication+grounded+dipole&pg=PA5">"Naval Research Reviews, Vol. 27"</a>. Superintendent of Government Documents. 1974. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160801/https://books.google.com/books?id=QANVAAAAMAAJ&dq=Submarine+communication+grounded+dipole&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q=Submarine%20communication%20grounded%20dipole&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Naval+Research+Reviews%2C+Vol.+27&rft.pub=Superintendent+of+Government+Documents&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQANVAAAAMAAJ%26dq%3DSubmarine%2Bcommunication%2Bgrounded%2Bdipole%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eng.rscc.ru/space/centry-kosmicheskoj-svyazi/cks-dubna/">"Ground infrastructure"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Russian_Satellite_Communications_Company" title="Russian Satellite Communications Company">Russian Satellite Communications Company</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Russian+Satellite+Communications+Company&rft.atitle=Ground+infrastructure&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feng.rscc.ru%2Fspace%2Fcentry-kosmicheskoj-svyazi%2Fcks-dubna%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA3-126"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA3_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/smallsat-institute/sst-soa/communications">"State-of-the-Art of Small Spacecraft Technology, 9.0 - Communications"</a>. nasa.gov. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 16 October 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160739/https://www.nasa.gov/smallsat-institute/sst-soa/soa-communications/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 11 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nasa.gov&rft.atitle=State-of-the-Art+of+Small+Spacecraft+Technology%2C+9.0+-+Communications&rft.date=2021-10-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fsmallsat-institute%2Fsst-soa%2Fcommunications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UCSdatabase-127"><a href="#cite_ref-UCSdatabase_127-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database#.W7WcwpMza9Y">"UCS Satellite Database"</a>. Union of Concerned Scientists. 1 January 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191220002901/https://ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database#.W7WcwpMza9Y">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UCS+Satellite+Database&rft.pub=Union+of+Concerned+Scientists&rft.date=2021-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucsusa.org%2Fresources%2Fsatellite-database%23.W7WcwpMza9Y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marsten-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Marsten_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarsten2014" class="citation book cs1">Marsten, Richard B. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NEWoBQAAQBAJ&q=Communication+satellite">Communication Satellite Systems Technology</a>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1483276816" title="Special:BookSources/978-1483276816"><bdi>978-1483276816</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160737/https://books.google.com/books?id=NEWoBQAAQBAJ&q=Communication+satellite#v=snippet&q=Communication%20satellite&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 11 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communication+Satellite+Systems+Technology&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1483276816&rft.aulast=Marsten&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNEWoBQAAQBAJ%26q%3DCommunication%2Bsatellite&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rfwirelessworld-129"><a href="#cite_ref-rfwirelessworld_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfwireless-world.com/Tutorials/satellite-TV-basics.html">"Satellite TV-Direct Broadcast Satellite System, DBS TV"</a>. rfwireless-world.com. 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Retrieved 11 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=rfwireless-world.com&rft.atitle=Satellite+TV-Direct+Broadcast+Satellite+System%2C+DBS+TV&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfwireless-world.com%2FTutorials%2Fsatellite-TV-basics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HowRadarWorks-130"><a href="#cite_ref-HowRadarWorks_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrain2020" class="citation web cs1">Brain, Marshall (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.howstuffworks.com/radar.htm?srch_tag=swsu5cd23kj6x6xnw4jfrts6awdrk5sg">"How radar works"</a>. How Stuff Works. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003160741/https://science.howstuffworks.com/radar.htm?srch_tag=swsu5cd23kj6x6xnw4jfrts6awdrk5sg">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 3 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+radar+works&rft.pub=How+Stuff+Works&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Brain&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.howstuffworks.com%2Fradar.htm%3Fsrch_tag%3Dswsu5cd23kj6x6xnw4jfrts6awdrk5sg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skolnik-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Skolnik_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skolnik_131-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSkolnik2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Skolnik, Merrill (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/radar">"Radar"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161248/https://www.britannica.com/technology/radar">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 3 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Radar&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+online&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Inc.&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Skolnik&rft.aufirst=Merrill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2Fradar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream">"JetStream"</a>. www.noaa.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161249/https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2023-06-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.noaa.gov&rft.atitle=JetStream&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.noaa.gov%2Fjetstream&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chernyak-133"><a href="#cite_ref-Chernyak_133-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChernyak1998" class="citation book cs1">Chernyak, Victor S. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0bEU2oBzMJEC&q=Bistatic+&pg=PA149">Fundamentals of multisite radar systems: multistatic radars and multiradar systems</a>. CRC Press. pp. 3, 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9056991655" title="Special:BookSources/9056991655"><bdi>9056991655</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161400/https://books.google.com/books?id=0bEU2oBzMJEC&q=Bistatic+&pg=PA149#v=snippet&q=Bistatic&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2022-09-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+multisite+radar+systems%3A+multistatic+radars+and+multiradar+systems&rft.pages=3%2C+149&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9056991655&rft.aulast=Chernyak&rft.aufirst=Victor+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0bEU2oBzMJEC%26q%3DBistatic%2B%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FAA_Radar-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FAA_Radar_134-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/technology/asr-11/">"Airport Surveillance Radar"</a>. Air traffic control, technology. US Federal Aviation Administration website. 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161417/https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/technology/asr-11">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 3 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Air+traffic+control%2C+technology&rft.atitle=Airport+Surveillance+Radar&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa.gov%2Fair_traffic%2Ftechnology%2Fasr-11%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Binns-135"><a href="#cite_ref-Binns_135-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBinns2018" class="citation book cs1">Binns, Chris (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N5lxDwAAQBAJ&q=Secondary+surveillance+radar">Aircraft Systems: Instruments, Communications, Navigation, and Control</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119259541" title="Special:BookSources/978-1119259541"><bdi>978-1119259541</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161258/https://books.google.com/books?id=N5lxDwAAQBAJ&q=Secondary+surveillance+radar#v=snippet&q=Secondary%20surveillance%20radar&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 11 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aircraft+Systems%3A+Instruments%2C+Communications%2C+Navigation%2C+and+Control&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1119259541&rft.aulast=Binns&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN5lxDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DSecondary%2Bsurveillance%2Bradar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Artech-Horizon_House-136"><a href="#cite_ref-Artech-Horizon_House_136-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8kePYFK1L8C&q=Electronic+countermeasures">International Electronic Countermeasures Handbook</a>. Artech/Horizon House. 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1580538985" title="Special:BookSources/978-1580538985"><bdi>978-1580538985</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161259/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8kePYFK1L8C&q=Electronic+countermeasures#v=snippet&q=Electronic%20countermeasures&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 11 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Electronic+Countermeasures+Handbook&rft.pub=Artech%2FHorizon+House&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1580538985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY8kePYFK1L8C%26q%3DElectronic%2Bcountermeasures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bhattacharjee-2021-137"><a href="#cite_ref-Bhattacharjee-2021_137-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBhattacharjee2021" class="citation web cs1">Bhattacharjee, Shilavadra (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marineinsight.com/marine-navigation/marine-radars-and-their-use-in-the-shipping-industry/">"Marine Radars and Their Use in the Shipping Industry"</a>. Marine Insight website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161408/https://www.marineinsight.com/marine-navigation/marine-radars-and-their-use-in-the-shipping-industry/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 3 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Marine+Radars+and+Their+Use+in+the+Shipping+Industry&rft.pub=Marine+Insight+website&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Bhattacharjee&rft.aufirst=Shilavadra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marineinsight.com%2Fmarine-navigation%2Fmarine-radars-and-their-use-in-the-shipping-industry%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NWS-138"><a href="#cite_ref-NWS_138-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weather.gov/mkx/using-radar">"Using and Understanding Doppler Radar"</a>. US National Weather Service website. US National Weather Service, NOAA. 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161300/https://www.weather.gov/mkx/using-radar">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 3 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=US+National+Weather+Service+website&rft.atitle=Using+and+Understanding+Doppler+Radar&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weather.gov%2Fmkx%2Fusing-radar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fenn-139"><a href="#cite_ref-Fenn_139-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFenn2007" class="citation book cs1">Fenn, Alan J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k1MmAgAAQBAJ&q=Phased-array+radar">Adaptive Antennas and Phased Arrays for Radar and Communications</a>. Artech House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1596932739" title="Special:BookSources/978-1596932739"><bdi>978-1596932739</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adaptive+Antennas+and+Phased+Arrays+for+Radar+and+Communications&rft.pub=Artech+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1596932739&rft.aulast=Fenn&rft.aufirst=Alan+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk1MmAgAAQBAJ%26q%3DPhased-array%2Bradar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Teeuw-140"><a href="#cite_ref-Teeuw_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTeeuw2007" class="citation book cs1">Teeuw, R.M. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zy-94WdP3dgC&dq=Synthetic+aperture+radar+ground+terrain&pg=PA45">Mapping Hazardous Terrain Using Remote Sensing</a>. Geological Society of London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1862392298" title="Special:BookSources/978-1862392298"><bdi>978-1862392298</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mapping+Hazardous+Terrain+Using+Remote+Sensing&rft.pub=Geological+Society+of+London&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1862392298&rft.aulast=Teeuw&rft.aufirst=R.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZy-94WdP3dgC%26dq%3DSynthetic%2Baperture%2Bradar%2Bground%2Bterrain%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jol-141"><a href="#cite_ref-Jol_141-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJol2008" class="citation book cs1">Jol, Harry M. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y__uIi-5RvgC&q=Ground+Penetrating+Radar+Theory+and+Applications">Ground Penetrating Radar Theory and Applications</a>. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0080951843" title="Special:BookSources/978-0080951843"><bdi>978-0080951843</bdi></a>. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ground+Penetrating+Radar+Theory+and+Applications&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0080951843&rft.aulast=Jol&rft.aufirst=Harry+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy__uIi-5RvgC%26q%3DGround%2BPenetrating%2BRadar%2BTheory%2Band%2BApplications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grosch-142"><a href="#cite_ref-Grosch_142-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrosch1995" class="citation journal cs1">Grosch, Theodore O. (30 June 1995). Verly, Jacques G. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/2463/0000/Radar-sensors-for-automotive-collision-warning-and-avoidance/10.1117/12.212749.short?SSO=1">"Radar sensors for automotive collision warning and avoidance"</a>. Synthetic Vision for Vehicle Guidance and Control. 2463. Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers: 239–247. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995SPIE.2463..239G">1995SPIE.2463..239G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.212749">10.1117/12.212749</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110665898">110665898</a>. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synthetic+Vision+for+Vehicle+Guidance+and+Control&rft.atitle=Radar+sensors+for+automotive+collision+warning+and+avoidance&rft.volume=2463&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E239-%3C%2Fspan%3E247&rft.date=1995-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A110665898%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.212749&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995SPIE.2463..239G&rft.aulast=Grosch&rft.aufirst=Theodore+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiedigitallibrary.org%2Fconference-proceedings-of-spie%2F2463%2F0000%2FRadar-sensors-for-automotive-collision-warning-and-avoidance%2F10.1117%2F12.212749.short%3FSSO%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brodie-Brodie-143"><a href="#cite_ref-Brodie-Brodie_143-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrodieBrodie1973" class="citation book cs1">Brodie, Bernard; Brodie, Fawn McKay (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mAsrwMrfaoQC&dq=radar+fuse+bomb&pg=PA213">From Crossbow to H-bomb</a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253201616" title="Special:BookSources/0253201616"><bdi>0253201616</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161829/https://books.google.com/books?id=mAsrwMrfaoQC&dq=radar+fuse+bomb&pg=PA213#v=onepage&q=radar%20fuse%20bomb&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Crossbow+to+H-bomb&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0253201616&rft.aulast=Brodie&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft.au=Brodie%2C+Fawn+McKay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmAsrwMrfaoQC%26dq%3Dradar%2Bfuse%2Bbomb%26pg%3DPA213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharp-Yu-144"><a href="#cite_ref-Sharp-Yu_144-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSharpYu2018" class="citation book cs1">Sharp, Ian; Yu, Kegen (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pHFdDwAAQBAJ&q=Wireless+Positioning%3A+Principles+and+Practice">Wireless Positioning: Principles and Practice, Navigation: Science and Technology</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9811087912" title="Special:BookSources/978-9811087912"><bdi>978-9811087912</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161829/https://books.google.com/books?id=pHFdDwAAQBAJ&q=Wireless+Positioning%3A+Principles+and+Practice#v=snippet&q=Wireless%20Positioning%3A%20Principles%20and%20Practice&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wireless+Positioning%3A+Principles+and+Practice%2C+Navigation%3A+Science+and+Technology&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-9811087912&rft.aulast=Sharp&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Yu%2C+Kegen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpHFdDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DWireless%2BPositioning%253A%2BPrinciples%2Band%2BPractice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Teunissen-Montenbruck-145"><a href="#cite_ref-Teunissen-Montenbruck_145-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTeunissenMontenbruck2017" class="citation book cs1">Teunissen, Peter; Montenbruck, Oliver (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=93goDwAAQBAJ&q=Global+Navigation+Satellite+System">Springer Handbook of Global Navigation Satellite Systems</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319429281" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319429281"><bdi>978-3319429281</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161934/https://books.google.com/books?id=93goDwAAQBAJ&q=Global+Navigation+Satellite+System#v=snippet&q=Global%20Navigation%20Satellite%20System&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Springer+Handbook+of+Global+Navigation+Satellite+Systems&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3319429281&rft.aulast=Teunissen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Montenbruck%2C+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D93goDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DGlobal%2BNavigation%2BSatellite%2BSystem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-El-Rabbany-146"><a href="#cite_ref-El-Rabbany_146-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEl-Rabbany2002" class="citation book cs1">El-Rabbany, Ahmed (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U2JmghrrB8cC&q=how+GPS+works">Introduction to GPS: The Global Positioning System</a>. Artech House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1580531832" title="Special:BookSources/978-1580531832"><bdi>978-1580531832</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161831/https://books.google.com/books?id=U2JmghrrB8cC&q=how+GPS+works#v=snippet&q=how%20GPS%20works&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+GPS%3A+The+Global+Positioning+System&rft.pub=Artech+House&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1580531832&rft.aulast=El-Rabbany&rft.aufirst=Ahmed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU2JmghrrB8cC%26q%3Dhow%2BGPS%2Bworks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kiland-Silverstein_Gray-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Kiland-Silverstein_Gray_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKilandSilverstein_Gray2016" class="citation book cs1">Kiland, Taylor Baldwin; Silverstein Gray, Judy (15 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uAhiDwAAQBAJ&q=how+GPS+works+military">The Military GPS: Cutting Edge Global Positioning System</a>. Enslow Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0766075184" title="Special:BookSources/978-0766075184"><bdi>978-0766075184</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161833/https://books.google.com/books?id=uAhiDwAAQBAJ&q=how+GPS+works+military#v=snippet&q=how%20GPS%20works%20military&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Military+GPS%3A+Cutting+Edge+Global+Positioning+System&rft.pub=Enslow+Publishing&rft.date=2016-07-15&rft.isbn=978-0766075184&rft.aulast=Kiland&rft.aufirst=Taylor+Baldwin&rft.au=Silverstein+Gray%2C+Judy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuAhiDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dhow%2BGPS%2Bworks%2Bmilitary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deltour-148"><a href="#cite_ref-Deltour_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeltour1960" class="citation web cs1">Deltour, B.V. (August 1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QETktYruMwsC&dq=radio+beacon+continuous+radio+signal&pg=PA44">"A Guide To Nav-Com Equipment"</a>. Flying Magazine Aug 1960. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161833/https://books.google.com/books?id=QETktYruMwsC&dq=radio+beacon+continuous+radio+signal&pg=PA44#v=onepage&q=radio%20beacon%20continuous%20radio%20signal&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Guide+To+Nav-Com+Equipment&rft.pub=Flying+Magazine+Aug+1960&rft.date=1960-08&rft.aulast=Deltour&rft.aufirst=B.V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQETktYruMwsC%26dq%3Dradio%2Bbeacon%2Bcontinuous%2Bradio%2Bsignal%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FAA2-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FAA2_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navservices/gbng/vor">"Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range"</a>. Navigation services. US Federal Aviation Administration website, US Dept. of Commerce. 4 December 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Navigation+services&rft.atitle=Very+High+Frequency+Omnidirectional+Range&rft.date=2023-12-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa.gov%2Fabout%2Foffice_org%2Fheadquarters_offices%2Fato%2Fservice_units%2Ftechops%2Fnavservices%2Fgbng%2Fvor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Helfrick2-150"><a href="#cite_ref-Helfrick2_150-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHelfrick2010" class="citation book cs1">Helfrick, Albert (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0BI6ioB8kM8C&pg=PA27">Principles of Avionics</a>. Avionics Communications. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885544-27-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-885544-27-8"><bdi>978-1-885544-27-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Avionics&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Avionics+Communications&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-885544-27-8&rft.aulast=Helfrick&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0BI6ioB8kM8C%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-USDOD-151"><a href="#cite_ref-USDOD_151-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x5sRi3P-B-EC&q=2008+Federal+Radionavigation+Plan">"2008 Federal Radionavigation Plan"</a>. U.S. Department of Defense. 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003161834/https://books.google.com/books?id=x5sRi3P-B-EC&q=2008+Federal+Radionavigation+Plan#v=snippet&q=2008%20Federal%20Radionavigation%20Plan&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2008+Federal+Radionavigation+Plan&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Defense&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx5sRi3P-B-EC%26q%3D2008%2BFederal%2BRadionavigation%2BPlan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Martin-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Martin_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMartin" class="citation web cs1">Martin, Swayne. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boldmethod.com/learn-to-fly/navigation/how-a-vor-works/">"How A VOR Works"</a>. boldmethod.com. 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Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=boldmethod.com&rft.atitle=How+A+VOR+Works&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Swayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boldmethod.com%2Flearn-to-fly%2Fnavigation%2Fhow-a-vor-works%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FAA_Airports-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FAA_Airports_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navservices/gbng/ils">"Instrument Landing System"</a>. Navigation services. US Federal Aviation Administration website, US Dept. of Commerce. 4 December 2023. 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Avionics Communications. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885544-27-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-885544-27-8"><bdi>978-1-885544-27-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Avionics&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Avionics+Communications&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-885544-27-8&rft.aulast=Helfrick&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0BI6ioB8kM8C%26dq%3Dinstrument%2Blanding%2Bsystem%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SI-155"><a href="#cite_ref-SI_155-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.systemsinterface.com/products/navaids/ndb/">"Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)"</a>. systemsinterface.com. Systems Interface. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162349/https://www.systemsinterface.com/solutions/navigation/ndb">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=systemsinterface.com&rft.atitle=Non-Directional+Beacon+%28NDB%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.systemsinterface.com%2Fproducts%2Fnavaids%2Fndb%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CBC-156"><a href="#cite_ref-CBC_156-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/how-does-an-emergency-beacon-work-1.1327070">"How does an emergency beacon work?"</a>. cbc.ca. CBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162348/https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/how-does-an-emergency-beacon-work-1.1327070">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cbc.ca&rft.atitle=How+does+an+emergency+beacon+work%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fscience%2Fhow-does-an-emergency-beacon-work-1.1327070&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cospas-sarsat-157"><a href="#cite_ref-cospas-sarsat_157-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cospas-sarsat.int/en/18-frontpage-articles/603-what-is-a-cospas-sarsat-beacon">"What is a Cospas-Sarsat Beacon?"</a>. cospas-sarsat.int. International Cospas-Sarsat Programme. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cospas-sarsat.int&rft.atitle=What+is+a+Cospas-Sarsat+Beacon%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cospas-sarsat.int%2Fen%2F18-frontpage-articles%2F603-what-is-a-cospas-sarsat-beacon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA1985-158"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA1985_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wg50RfqjLWMC&dq=cospas-sarsat.int+2km&pg=PA3400">"Scientific and Technical Aerospace Reports, Volume 23, Issue 20"</a>. NASA, Office of Scientific and Technical Information. 1985. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162347/https://books.google.com/books?id=wg50RfqjLWMC&dq=cospas-sarsat.int+2km&pg=PA3400#v=onepage&q=cospas-sarsat.int%202km&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scientific+and+Technical+Aerospace+Reports%2C+Volume+23%2C+Issue+20&rft.pub=NASA%2C+Office+of+Scientific+and+Technical+Information&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwg50RfqjLWMC%26dq%3Dcospas-sarsat.int%2B2km%26pg%3DPA3400&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-defenceweb-159"><a href="#cite_ref-defenceweb_159-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.defenceweb.co.za/virtual-press-offices/111485/">"An Introduction to Radio Direction Finding"</a>. defenceweb.co.za. defenceWeb. 8 January 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162351/https://www.defenceweb.co.za/virtual-press-offices/111485/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. 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McGraw Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0830627011" title="Special:BookSources/978-0830627011"><bdi>978-0830627011</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162348/https://books.google.com/books?id=RfzF2-fHJ6MC&q=Radio+direction+finding">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transmitter+Hunting%3A+Radio+Direction+Finding+Simplified&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+Professional&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0830627011&rft.aulast=Moell&rft.aufirst=Joseph+D.&rft.au=Curlee%2C+Thomas+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRfzF2-fHJ6MC%26q%3DRadio%2Bdirection%2Bfinding&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smithsonian-161"><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_161-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://migratoryconnectivityproject.org/vhf-radios/">"Radio telemetry"</a>. Migratory Connectivity Project, Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220910191603/http://migratoryconnectivityproject.org/vhf-radios/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radio+telemetry&rft.pub=Migratory+Connectivity+Project%2C+Smithsonian+Migratory+Bird+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmigratoryconnectivityproject.org%2Fvhf-radios%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Layton-162"><a href="#cite_ref-Layton_162-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLayton2005" class="citation web cs1">Layton, Julia (10 November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/remote-control3.htm">"How Remote Controls Work"</a>. HowStuff Works. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Remote+Controls+Work&rft.pub=HowStuff+Works&rft.date=2005-11-10&rft.aulast=Layton&rft.aufirst=Julia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felectronics.howstuffworks.com%2Fremote-control3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sadraey-163"><a href="#cite_ref-Sadraey_163-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSadraey2020" class="citation book cs1">Sadraey, Mohammad H. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zlbSDwAAQBAJ&dq=UAV+telemetry&pg=PA535">Design of Unmanned Aerial Systems</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119508694" title="Special:BookSources/978-1119508694"><bdi>978-1119508694</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162350/https://books.google.com/books?id=zlbSDwAAQBAJ&dq=UAV+telemetry&pg=PA535#v=onepage&q=UAV%20telemetry&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Design+of+Unmanned+Aerial+Systems&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1119508694&rft.aulast=Sadraey&rft.aufirst=Mohammad+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzlbSDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DUAV%2Btelemetry%26pg%3DPA535&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-164"><a href="#cite_ref-Smith_164-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith2016" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Craig (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vAYvDwAAQBAJ&dq=keyless+entry+system+315+MHz&pg=PA216">The Car Hacker's Handbook: A Guide for the Penetration Tester</a>. No Starch Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1593277703" title="Special:BookSources/978-1593277703"><bdi>978-1593277703</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162351/https://books.google.com/books?id=vAYvDwAAQBAJ&dq=keyless+entry+system+315+MHz&pg=PA216#v=onepage&q=keyless%20entry%20system%20315%20MHz&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Car+Hacker%27s+Handbook%3A+A+Guide+for+the+Penetration+Tester&rft.pub=No+Starch+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1593277703&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvAYvDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dkeyless%2Bentry%2Bsystem%2B315%2BMHz%26pg%3DPA216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pinkerton-165"><a href="#cite_ref-Pinkerton_165-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPinkerton2019" class="citation book cs1">Pinkerton, Alasdair (15 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cRieDwAAQBAJ&dq=Garage+door+opener++390+mhz&pg=PT24">Radio: Making Waves in Sound</a>. Reaktion Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1789140996" title="Special:BookSources/978-1789140996"><bdi>978-1789140996</bdi></a>. Retrieved 9 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radio%3A+Making+Waves+in+Sound&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2019-06-15&rft.isbn=978-1789140996&rft.aulast=Pinkerton&rft.aufirst=Alasdair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcRieDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DGarage%2Bdoor%2Bopener%2B%2B390%2Bmhz%26pg%3DPT24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biffl-Eckhart-Luder-Weippl-166"><a href="#cite_ref-Biffl-Eckhart-Luder-Weippl_166-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBifflEckhartLüderWeippl2019" class="citation book cs1">Biffl, Stefan; Eckhart, Matthias; Lüder, Arndt; Weippl, Edgar (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c1S9DwAAQBAJ&dq=Garage+door+opener++replay+attack&pg=PA435">Security and Quality in Cyber-Physical Systems Engineering</a>. Springer Nature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3030253127" title="Special:BookSources/978-3030253127"><bdi>978-3030253127</bdi></a>. Retrieved 9 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Security+and+Quality+in+Cyber-Physical+Systems+Engineering&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-3030253127&rft.aulast=Biffl&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Eckhart%2C+Matthias&rft.au=L%C3%BCder%2C+Arndt&rft.au=Weippl%2C+Edgar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc1S9DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DGarage%2Bdoor%2Bopener%2B%2Breplay%2Battack%26pg%3DPA435&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boukerche-167"><a href="#cite_ref-Boukerche_167-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBoukerche2008" class="citation book cs1">Boukerche, Azzedine (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bI05X9-4tw8C&dq=radio+controlled+models+2.4+ghz+ism&pg=PA46">Algorithms and Protocols for Wireless and Mobile Ad Hoc Networks</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470396377" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470396377"><bdi>978-0470396377</bdi></a>. Retrieved 9 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algorithms+and+Protocols+for+Wireless+and+Mobile+Ad+Hoc+Networks&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0470396377&rft.aulast=Boukerche&rft.aufirst=Azzedine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbI05X9-4tw8C%26dq%3Dradio%2Bcontrolled%2Bmodels%2B2.4%2Bghz%2Bism%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wonning-168"><a href="#cite_ref-Wonning_168-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWonning2021" class="citation web cs1">Wonning, Paul R. (12 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=INctEAAAQBAJ&dq=wireless+doorbell&pg=PT34">"A Guide to the Home Electric System"</a>. Mossy Feet Books. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162922/https://books.google.com/books?id=INctEAAAQBAJ&dq=wireless+doorbell&pg=PT34#v=onepage&q=wireless%20doorbell&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 9 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+the+Home+Electric+System&rft.pub=Mossy+Feet+Books&rft.date=2021-05-12&rft.aulast=Wonning&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DINctEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dwireless%2Bdoorbell%26pg%3DPT34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chatterjee-Kumar-Jain-Rathore-169"><a href="#cite_ref-Chatterjee-Kumar-Jain-Rathore_169-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChatterjeeKumarJainRathore2021" class="citation book cs1">Chatterjee, Jyotir Moy; Kumar, Abhishek; Jain, Vishal; Rathore, Pramod Singh (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-9MWEAAAQBAJ&dq=wireless+doorbells+2.4+ghz+ism&pg=PR7">Internet of Things and Machine Learning in Agriculture: Technological Impacts and Challenges</a>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3110691283" title="Special:BookSources/978-3110691283"><bdi>978-3110691283</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162920/https://books.google.com/books?id=-9MWEAAAQBAJ&dq=wireless+doorbells+2.4+ghz+ism&pg=PR7#v=onepage&q=wireless%20doorbells%202.4%20ghz%20ism&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 9 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things+and+Machine+Learning+in+Agriculture%3A+Technological+Impacts+and+Challenges&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-3110691283&rft.aulast=Chatterjee&rft.aufirst=Jyotir+Moy&rft.au=Kumar%2C+Abhishek&rft.au=Jain%2C+Vishal&rft.au=Rathore%2C+Pramod+Singh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-9MWEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dwireless%2Bdoorbells%2B2.4%2Bghz%2Bism%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yeap-Hirisawa-170"><a href="#cite_ref-Yeap-Hirisawa_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYeapHirasawa2020" class="citation book cs1">Yeap, Kim Ho; Hirasawa, Kazuhiro (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VwfYDwAAQBAJ&q=Analyzing+the+Physics+of+Radio+Telescopes+and+Radio+Astronomy">Analyzing the Physics of Radio Telescopes and Radio Astronomy</a>. IG Global. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1799823834" title="Special:BookSources/978-1799823834"><bdi>978-1799823834</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162923/https://books.google.com/books?id=VwfYDwAAQBAJ&q=Analyzing+the+Physics+of+Radio+Telescopes+and+Radio+Astronomy#v=snippet&q=Analyzing%20the%20Physics%20of%20Radio%20Telescopes%20and%20Radio%20Astronomy&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 9 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analyzing+the+Physics+of+Radio+Telescopes+and+Radio+Astronomy&rft.pub=IG+Global&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1799823834&rft.aulast=Yeap&rft.aufirst=Kim+Ho&rft.au=Hirasawa%2C+Kazuhiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVwfYDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DAnalyzing%2Bthe%2BPhysics%2Bof%2BRadio%2BTelescopes%2Band%2BRadio%2BAstronomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joardar-Clayomb-171"><a href="#cite_ref-Joardar-Clayomb_171-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJoardarClaycomb2015" class="citation book cs1">Joardar, Shubhendu; Claycomb, J. R. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cjW_DgAAQBAJ&q=Radio+Astronomy%3A+An+Introduction">Radio Astronomy: An Introduction</a>. Mercury Learning and Information. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1937585624" title="Special:BookSources/978-1937585624"><bdi>978-1937585624</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162927/https://books.google.com/books?id=cjW_DgAAQBAJ&q=Radio+Astronomy%3A+An+Introduction#v=snippet&q=Radio%20Astronomy%3A%20An%20Introduction&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2022-09-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radio+Astronomy%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Mercury+Learning+and+Information&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1937585624&rft.aulast=Joardar&rft.aufirst=Shubhendu&rft.au=Claycomb%2C+J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcjW_DgAAQBAJ%26q%3DRadio%2BAstronomy%253A%2BAn%2BIntroduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chapman-Gasparovic-172"><a href="#cite_ref-Chapman-Gasparovic_172-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChapmanGasparovic2022" class="citation book cs1">Chapman, Rick; Gasparovic, Richard (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B8Z6EAAAQBAJ&q=Remote+Sensing+Physics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Observing+Earth+from+Space">Remote Sensing Physics: An Introduction to Observing Earth from Space</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119669074" title="Special:BookSources/978-1119669074"><bdi>978-1119669074</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003162924/https://books.google.com/books?id=B8Z6EAAAQBAJ&q=Remote+Sensing+Physics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Observing+Earth+from+Space#v=snippet&q=Remote%20Sensing%20Physics%3A%20An%20Introduction%20to%20Observing%20Earth%20from%20Space&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 9 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Remote+Sensing+Physics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Observing+Earth+from+Space&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1119669074&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Rick&rft.au=Gasparovic%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB8Z6EAAAQBAJ%26q%3DRemote%2BSensing%2BPhysics%253A%2BAn%2BIntroduction%2Bto%2BObserving%2BEarth%2Bfrom%2BSpace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pampaloni-Paloscia-173"><a href="#cite_ref-Pampaloni-Paloscia_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPampaloniPaloscia2000" class="citation book cs1">Pampaloni, Paulo; Paloscia, S. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IwIIhhMxcJwC&q=Remote+Sensing+radiometer">Microwave Radiometry and Remote Sensing of the Earth's Surface and Atmosphere</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9067643181" title="Special:BookSources/9067643181"><bdi>9067643181</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003163037/https://books.google.com/books?id=IwIIhhMxcJwC&q=Remote+Sensing+radiometer#v=snippet&q=Remote%20Sensing%20radiometer&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 9 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microwave+Radiometry+and+Remote+Sensing+of+the+Earth%27s+Surface+and+Atmosphere&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9067643181&rft.aulast=Pampaloni&rft.aufirst=Paulo&rft.au=Paloscia%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIwIIhhMxcJwC%26q%3DRemote%2BSensing%2Bradiometer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ajax.systems/blog/what-is-jamming/">"What jamming of a wireless security system is and how to resist it | Ajax Systems Blog"</a>. Ajax Systems. April 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806181525/https://ajax.systems/blog/what-is-jamming/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 18 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ajax+Systems&rft.atitle=What+jamming+of+a+wireless+security+system+is+and+how+to+resist+it+%7C+Ajax+Systems+Blog&rft.date=2019-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fajax.systems%2Fblog%2Fwhat-is-jamming%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://irp.fas.org/doddir/army/fm24-33/fm243_4.htm#REF16h2">"Remedial Electronic Counter-Countermeasures Techniques"</a>. FM 24-33 — Communications Techniques: Electronic Counter-Countermeasures (Report). Department of the Army. July 1990. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003163038/https://irp.fas.org/doddir/army/fm24-33/fm243_4.htm#REF16h2">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2022-09-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=FM+24-33+%E2%80%94+Communications+Techniques%3A+Electronic+Counter-Countermeasures&rft.pub=Department+of+the+Army&rft.date=1990-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firp.fas.org%2Fdoddir%2Farmy%2Ffm24-33%2Ffm243_4.htm%23REF16h2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVaris1970" class="citation journal cs1">Varis, Tapio (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45083158">"The Control of Information by Jamming Radio Broadcasts"</a>. Cooperation and Conflict. 5 (3): 168–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001083677000500303">10.1177/001083677000500303</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-8367">0010-8367</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45083158">45083158</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145418504">145418504</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220627012650/https://www.jstor.org/stable/45083158">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-27. Retrieved 2022-09-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cooperation+and+Conflict&rft.atitle=The+Control+of+Information+by+Jamming+Radio+Broadcasts&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E168-%3C%2Fspan%3E184&rft.date=1970&rft.issn=0010-8367&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145418504%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45083158%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F001083677000500303&rft.aulast=Varis&rft.aufirst=Tapio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45083158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fcc.gov/general/jammer-enforcement">"Jammer Enforcement"</a>. Federal Communications Commission. 3 March 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241003163028/https://www.fcc.gov/general/jammer-enforcement">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+Communications+Commission&rft.atitle=Jammer+Enforcement&rft.date=2011-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fcc.gov%2Fgeneral%2Fjammer-enforcement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_references">General references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: General references">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vaUGlb_Gd18C&q=radio+basic+text">Basic Radio Principles and Technology – Elsevier Science</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=203BJeFu5qQC&q=cover+of+The+Electronics+of+Radio+The+Electronics+of+Radio+by+David+Rutledge">The Electronics of Radio – Cambridge University Press</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C8fxDAAAQBAJ&q=radio+textbook">Radio Systems Engineering – Cambridge University Press</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m5DIroWLw2EC&q=Radio-Electronic+Transmission+Fundamentals">Radio-Electronic Transmission Fundamentals – SciTech Publishing</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l-AgBQAAQBAJ&dq=radio++textbook+many+kinds+of+modulation&pg=PA183">Analog Electronics, Analog Circuitry Explained – Elsevier Science</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/60px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/120px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Radio" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Radio">Radio</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Radio">"Radio"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a>. 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aria-labelledby="International_Morse_code152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Morse_code" title="Template:Morse code"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Morse_code" title="Template talk:Morse code"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Morse_code" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Morse code"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_Morse_code152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">International Morse code</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;">Transmission methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On%E2%80%93off_keying" title="On–off keying">On–off keying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_wave" title="Continuous wave">Continuous wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulated_continuous_wave" title="Modulated continuous wave">Modulated continuous wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph" title="Heliograph">Heliograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_lamp" title="Signal lamp">Signal lamp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;">Notable signals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SOS" title="SOS">SOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CQD" title="CQD">CQD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_mnemonics" title="Morse code mnemonics">Morse code mnemonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosigns_for_Morse_code" title="Prosigns for Morse code">Prosigns for Morse code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_abbreviations" title="Morse code abbreviations">Morse code abbreviations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_code" title="Q code">Q code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z_code" title="Z code">Z code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_for_non-Latin_alphabets" title="Morse code for non-Latin alphabets">Other writing systems in Morse code</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Morse_code" title="American Morse code">American Morse code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_for_non-Latin_alphabets#Greek" title="Morse code for non-Latin alphabets">Greek alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_for_non-Latin_alphabets#Cyrillic" title="Morse code for non-Latin alphabets">Cyrillic script</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Morse_code" title="Russian Morse code">Russian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_for_non-Latin_alphabets#Hebrew" title="Morse code for non-Latin alphabets">Hebrew script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_for_non-Latin_alphabets#Arabic" title="Morse code for non-Latin alphabets">Arabic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabun_code" title="Wabun code">Wabun code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_telegraph_code" title="Chinese telegraph code">Chinese telegraph code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications802" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" 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system">Cable protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">DCT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Blake_(inventor)" title="Francis Blake (inventor)">Francis Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a> and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Africa" title="Category:Telecommunications in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Americas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_South_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in South America">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communications_in_Antarctica" title="Category:Communications in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Asia" title="Category:Telecommunications in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Category:Telecommunications in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Oceania" title="Category:Telecommunications in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/15px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/23px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/30px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" title="Category:Telecommunications">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of telecommunication">Outline</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Telecommunications">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Analog_and_digital_audio_broadcasting130" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Audio_broadcasting" title="Template:Audio broadcasting"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Audio_broadcasting" title="Template talk:Audio broadcasting"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Audio_broadcasting" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Audio broadcasting"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Analog_and_digital_audio_broadcasting130" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Analog_recording" title="Analog recording">Analog</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_audio" title="Digital audio">digital audio</a> <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasting</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radio</a> <a href="/wiki/Modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulation">modulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">AM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">FM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing">COFDM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frequency_allocation" title="Frequency allocation">Frequency allocations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longwave" title="Longwave">LW</a> (<a href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">LF</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">MW</a> (<a href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">MF</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortwave_radio" title="Shortwave radio">SW</a> (<a href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">HF</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</a> (<a href="/wiki/Band_I" title="Band I">low</a> / <a href="/wiki/Band_II" title="Band II">mid</a> / <a href="/wiki/Band_III" title="Band III">high</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L_band" title="L band">L band</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Digital systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CAM-D" title="CAM-D">CAM-D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Audio_Broadcasting" title="Digital Audio Broadcasting">DAB/DAB+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Radio_Mondiale" title="Digital Radio Mondiale">DRM/DRM+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISDB-T#ISDB-Tsb" class="mw-redirect" title="ISDB-T">ISDB-Tsb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FMeXtra" title="FMeXtra">FMeXtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HD_Radio" title="HD Radio">HD Radio</a></li> <li>CDR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVB-T2" title="DVB-T2">DVB-T2 Lite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellite</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frequency allocations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C_band_(IEEE)" title="C band (IEEE)">C band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">Ku band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L_band" title="L band">L band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_band" title="S band">S band</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Digital systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astra_Digital_Radio" title="Astra Digital Radio">ADR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_audio_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital audio broadcasting">DAB-S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVB-SH" title="DVB-SH">DVB-SH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-DMB" title="S-DMB">S-DMB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ETSI_Satellite_Digital_Radio" title="ETSI Satellite Digital Radio">SDR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_broadcasting" title="Commercial broadcasting">Commercial radio</a> providers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sirius_XM" title="Sirius XM">Sirius XM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sirius_XM_Canada" title="Sirius XM Canada">Canada</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Audio_codec" title="Audio codec">Codecs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="Advanced Audio Coding">AAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_Adaptive_Multi-Rate_%E2%80%93_Wideband" title="Extended Adaptive Multi-Rate – Wideband">AMR-WB+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-Definition_Coding" title="High-Definition Coding">HDC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-Efficiency_Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="High-Efficiency Advanced Audio Coding">HE-AAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-1_Audio_Layer_II" title="MPEG-1 Audio Layer II">MPEG-1 Audio Layer II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_Resolution_Adaptation" title="Dynamic Resolution Adaptation">DRA+</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subcarrier" title="Subcarrier">Subcarrier</a> signals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation_signalling_system" title="Amplitude modulation signalling system">AMSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DirectBand" title="DirectBand">DirectBand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Program-associated_data" title="Program-associated data">PAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Data_System" title="Radio Data System">RDS/RBDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiary_communications_authority" title="Subsidiary communications authority">SCA/SCMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_Radio_Channel" title="Data Radio Channel">DARC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related_topics252" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical (audio)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_data_compression" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio data compression">Audio data compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_signal_processing" title="Audio signal processing">Audio signal processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical (<a href="/wiki/AM_stereo" title="AM stereo">AM stereo</a> formats)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Belar_System" title="AM stereo">Belar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-QUAM" title="C-QUAM">C-QUAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Harris_System" title="AM stereo">Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Kahn-Hazeltine" title="AM stereo">Kahn-Hazeltine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Magnavox_System" title="AM stereo">Magnavox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical (emission)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">AM broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AM_expanded_band" title="AM expanded band">AM expanded band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_radio" title="Cable radio">Cable radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">Digital radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction" title="Error detection and correction">Error detection and correction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FM_broadcast_band" title="FM broadcast band">FM broadcast band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting" title="FM broadcasting">FM broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FM_extended_band_in_Brazil" title="FM extended band in Brazil">FM extended band in Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multipath_propagation" title="Multipath propagation">Multipath propagation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortwave_relay_station" title="Shortwave relay station">Shortwave relay station</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">History of radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_broadcasting" title="International broadcasting">International broadcasting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Radio_icon.png/21px-Radio_icon.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Radio_icon.png 1.5x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="22" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Radio" title="Portal:Radio">Radio portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_radio_systems" title="Comparison of radio systems">Comparison of radio systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radio_spectrum_(ITU)149" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radio_spectrum" title="Template:Radio spectrum"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radio_spectrum" title="Template talk:Radio spectrum"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radio_spectrum" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radio spectrum"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radio_spectrum_(ITU)149" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">Radio spectrum</a> (ITU)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Extremely_low_frequency" title="Extremely low frequency">ELF</a> 3 Hz/100 Mm 30 Hz/10 Mm </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Super_low_frequency" title="Super low frequency">SLF</a> 30 Hz/10 Mm 300 Hz/1 Mm </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Ultra_low_frequency" title="Ultra low frequency">ULF</a> 300 Hz/1 Mm 3 kHz/100 km </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Very_low_frequency" title="Very low frequency">VLF</a> 3 kHz/100 km 30 kHz/10 km </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">LF</a> 30 kHz/10 km 300 kHz/1 km </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">MF</a> 300 kHz/1 km 3 MHz/100 m </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">HF</a> 3 MHz/100 m 30 MHz/10 m </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</a> 30 MHz/10 m 300 MHz/1 m </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</a> 300 MHz/1 m 3 GHz/100 mm </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Super_high_frequency" title="Super high frequency">SHF</a> 3 GHz/100 mm 30 GHz/10 mm </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Extremely_high_frequency" title="Extremely high frequency">EHF</a> 30 GHz/10 mm 300 GHz/1 mm </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Tremendously_high_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Tremendously high frequency">THF</a> 300 GHz/1 mm 3 THz/0.1 mm </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Radio_icon.png/21px-Radio_icon.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Radio_icon.png 1.5x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="22" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Radio" title="Portal:Radio">Radio portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Media_culture104" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Media_culture" title="Template:Media culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Media_culture" title="Template talk:Media culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Media_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Media culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Media_culture104" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/24-hour_news_cycle" title="24-hour news cycle">24-hour news cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_media" title="Electronic media">Electronic media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_media" title="Independent media">Independent media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_media" title="Lost media">Lost media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_media" title="Mainstream media">Mainstream media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_media" title="Mobile media">Mobile media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">News broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_media" title="News media">News media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_media" title="Old media">Old media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_media" title="Physical media">Physical media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">Social media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Influencer" title="Influencer">Influencers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_media" title="State media">State media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">Streaming media</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_development" title="Media development">Media development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_policy" title="Media policy">Media policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Media independence">Media independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_pluralism" title="Media pluralism">Media pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_transparency" title="Media transparency">Media transparency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_capitalism" title="Advanced capitalism">Advanced capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipartisanship_as_an_ideology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipartisanship as an ideology">Bipartisanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pens%C3%A9e_unique" title="Pensée unique">Pensée unique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deception</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">Tabloid journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumbing_down" title="Dumbing down">Dumbing down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(social_sciences)" title="Framing (social sciences)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_circus" title="Media circus">Media circus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_event" title="Media event">Media event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotizing_dysfunction" title="Narcotizing dysfunction">Narcotizing dysfunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recuperation_(politics)" title="Recuperation (politics)">Recuperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">Sensationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phenomenon" title="Viral phenomenon">Viral phenomenon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catch_and_kill" title="Catch and kill">Catch and kill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_manipulation" title="Crowd manipulation">Crowd manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managing_the_news" title="Managing the news">Managing the news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bernays" title="Edward Bernays">Edward Bernays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Guy Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Walter Lippmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Jacques Rancière</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call-out_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Call-out culture">Call-out culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_jamming" title="Culture jamming">Culture jamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">Graffiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_(protest)" title="Occupation (protest)">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_satire" title="Political satire">Political satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punk_subculture" title="Punk subculture">Punk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Review_bomb" title="Review bomb">Review bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_mass_media" title="Influence of mass media">Influence of mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediatization_(media)" title="Mediatization (media)">Mediatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_democracy" title="Semiotic democracy">Semiotic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Lonely_Crowd" title="The Lonely Crowd">The Lonely Crowd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anonymity" title="Anonymity">Anonymity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_of_media_ownership" 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title="Advanced capitalism">Advanced capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_industry" title="Culture industry">Culture industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_society" title="Mass society">Mass society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_franchise" title="Media franchise">Media franchise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Fordism" title="Post-Fordism">Post-Fordism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacle_(critical_theory)" title="Spectacle (critical theory)">Society of the Spectacle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" 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