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id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc 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class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 110 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-110" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">110 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewolusie" title="Rewolusie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rewolusie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Revolution" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="ثورة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثورة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n" title="Revolución – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Revolución" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nqilab" title="İnqilab – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnqilab" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC" title="বিপ্লব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিপ্লব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kek-b%C4%93ng" title="Kek-bēng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kek-bēng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Рэвалюцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рэвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Рэвалюцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рэвалюцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Революция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Революция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucija" title="Revolucija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Revolucija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Хубисхал – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хубисхал" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3" title="Revolució – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Revolució" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Революци – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Революци" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluce" title="Revoluce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Revoluce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chwyldro" title="Chwyldro – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Chwyldro" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution_(politik)" title="Revolution (politik) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Revolution (politik)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Revolution" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutsioon" title="Revolutsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Revolutsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Επανάσταση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επανάσταση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n" title="Revolución – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Revolución" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucio" title="Revolucio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Revolucio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraultza" title="Iraultza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Iraultza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="انقلاب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انقلاب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution" title="Révolution – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Révolution" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revol%C3%BAsje" title="Revolúsje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Revolúsje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9abhl%C3%B3id" title="Réabhlóid – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Réabhlóid" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A8abhlaid" title="Rèabhlaid – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Rèabhlaid" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n" title="Revolución – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Revolución" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF" title="ક્રાંતિ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ક્રાંતિ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85" title="혁명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="혁명" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juyin_Juya_Hali" title="Juyin Juya Hali – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Juyin Juya Hali" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հեղափոխություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հեղափոխություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="क्रान्ति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="क्रान्ति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucija" title="Revolucija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Revolucija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi" title="Revolusi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Revolusi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bylting" title="Bylting – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Bylting" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzione" title="Rivoluzione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rivoluzione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9B%D7%94" title="מהפכה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מהפכה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volusi" title="Révolusi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Révolusi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Революция – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Революция" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="რევოლუცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%A9%D2%A3%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81_(%D2%9B%D0%BE%D2%93%D0%B0%D0%BC)" title="Төңкеріс (қоғам) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Төңкеріс (қоғам)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapinduzi" title="Mapinduzi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mapinduzi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%A9%D2%A3%D0%BA%D3%A9%D1%80%D2%AF%D1%88" title="Төңкөрүш – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Төңкөрүш" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Res_novae" title="Res novae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Res novae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revol%C5%ABcija" title="Revolūcija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Revolūcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politesch_Revolutioun" title="Politesch Revolutioun – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Politesch Revolutioun" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoliucija" title="Revoliucija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Revoliucija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mb%C3%B3ngw%C3%A1n%C3%A1" title="Mbóngwáná – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mbóngwáná" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/sutra_binxo" title="sutra binxo – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="sutra binxo" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forradalom" title="Forradalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Forradalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Револуција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Револуција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82" title="വിപ്ലവം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വിപ്ലവം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="რევოლუცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="ثوره – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ثوره" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi" title="Revolusi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Revolusi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Хувьсгал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хувьсгал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BE%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8" title="တော်လှန်ရေး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တော်လှန်ရေး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutie" title="Revolutie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Revolutie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="क्रान्ति – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="क्रान्ति" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="革命 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="革命" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewolutsion" title="Rewolutsion – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Rewolutsion" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusjon" title="Revolusjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Revolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusjon" title="Revolusjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Revolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucion" title="Revolucion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Revolucion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Революций – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Революций" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inqilob" title="Inqilob – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Inqilob" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AC" title="ਇਨਕਲਾਬ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਨਕਲਾਬ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="انقلاب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انقلاب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%9A%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="اوښتون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اوښتون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewolucja" title="Rewolucja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rewolucja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Revolução – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Revolução" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Bie" title="Revoluție – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Revoluție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachakutiy" title="Pachakutiy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Pachakutiy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Револуция – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Револуция" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Революция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Революция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D1%80%D3%A9%D0%B1%D3%A9%D0%BB%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%81%D1%81%D2%AF%D0%B9%D1%8D" title="Өрөбөлүүссүйэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Өрөбөлүүссүйэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivolutzione" title="Rivolutzione – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Rivolutzione" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Revolution" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucioni" title="Revolucioni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Revolucioni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Revolution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="انقلاب – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="انقلاب" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revol%C3%BAcia" title="Revolúcia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Revolúcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucija" title="Revolucija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Revolucija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%86%DA%95%D8%B4" title="شۆڕش – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شۆڕش" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Револуција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Револуција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucija" title="Revolucija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Revolucija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallankumous" title="Vallankumous – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vallankumous" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Revolution" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himagsikan" title="Himagsikan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Himagsikan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="புரட்சி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புரட்சி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagrawla" title="Tagrawla – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tagrawla" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1" title="Инкыйлаб – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Инкыйлаб" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%82" title="విప్లవం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="విప్లవం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4" title="ปฏิวัติ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปฏิวัติ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devrim" title="Devrim – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Devrim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Революция – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Революция" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Революція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Революція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="انقلاب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="انقلاب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivo%C5%82usion" title="Rivołusion – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Rivołusion" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1ch_m%E1%BA%A1ng" title="Cách mạng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cách mạng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Rapid and fundamental political change</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Political revolution" redirects here. For Trotskyist concept, see <a href="/wiki/Political_revolution_(Trotskyism)" title="Political revolution (Trotskyism)">Political revolution (Trotskyism)</a>. 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Revolutions" title="Category:Revolutions">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political revolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="French Revolution"><img alt="French Revolution" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg/200px-La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg/300px-La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg/400px-La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10128" data-file-height="8103" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By class</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_revolution" title="Bourgeois revolution">Bourgeois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_revolution" title="Communist revolution">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">Counter-revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_revolution" title="Democratic revolution">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">Proletarian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By other characteristic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_from_above" title="Revolution from above">From above</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_revolution" title="Nonviolent revolution">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_revolution" title="Passive revolution">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_revolution" title="Permanent revolution">Permanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_wave" title="Revolutionary wave">Wave</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disorder" title="Civil disorder">Civil disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">Civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contentious_politics" title="Contentious politics">Contentious politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">Coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Demonstration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">Human chain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency" title="Insurgency">Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mobilization" title="Mass mobilization">Mass mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">Resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Disobedience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">Tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_terror" title="Revolutionary terror">Terror</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Examples</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Revolution" title="English Revolution">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabant_Revolution" title="Brabant Revolution">Brabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge_Revolution" title="Liège Revolution">Liège</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Revolution" title="Serbian Revolution">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1820" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1820">1820</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">1830</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">1848</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Italian states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">February</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1848 in Germany">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eureka_Rebellion" title="Eureka Rebellion">Eureka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_unification" title="Bulgarian unification">Bulgarian unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippine</a></li> <li>Iranian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican</a></li> <li>Chinese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Xinhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923" title="Revolutions of 1917–1923">1917–1923</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamese_Revolution_of_1932" class="mw-redirect" title="Siamese Revolution of 1932">Siamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Revolution_of_1936" title="Spanish Revolution of 1936">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">August</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Revolution" title="Guatemalan Revolution">Guatemalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian (1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">1989</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-bureaucratic_revolution" title="Anti-bureaucratic revolution">Yogurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Revolution" title="Bolivarian Revolution">Bolivarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević">Bulldozer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Revolution" title="Rose Revolution">Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_Revolution" title="Tulip Revolution">Tulip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Revolution_of_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrgyz Revolution of 2010">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_revolution" title="Tunisian revolution">Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_revolution_of_2011" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian revolution of 2011">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_revolution" title="Yemeni revolution">Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Arab_Spring" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Arab Spring">Second Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_revolution" title="Sudanese revolution">Sudanese</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/20px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/40px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Revolution_sidebar" title="Template:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Revolution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Revolution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, a <b>revolution</b> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">revolutio</i>, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures.<sup id="cite_ref-Skocpol_ssr_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skocpol_ssr-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Jack_Goldstone" title="Jack Goldstone">Jack Goldstone</a>, all revolutions contain "a common set of elements at their core: (a) efforts to change the political <a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">regime</a> that draw on a competing vision (or visions) of a just order, (b) a notable degree of informal or formal <a href="/wiki/Mass_mobilization" title="Mass mobilization">mass mobilization</a>, and (c) efforts to force change through noninstitutionalized actions such as <a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">mass demonstrations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">protests</a>, strikes, or <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Revolutions have occurred throughout human history and varied in their methods, durations and outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some revolutions started with <a href="/wiki/List_of_peasant_revolts" title="List of peasant revolts">peasant uprisings</a> or <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a> on the periphery of a country; others started with urban insurrection aimed at seizing the country's capital city.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Revolutions can be inspired by the rising popularity of certain political <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideologies</a>, moral principles, or models of governance such as <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A regime may become vulnerable to revolution due to a recent military defeat, or economic chaos, or an affront to national pride and identity, or persistent repression and <a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">corruption</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Revolutions typically trigger <a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-revolutions">counter-revolutions</a> which seek to halt revolutionary momentum, or to reverse the course of an ongoing revolutionary transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notable revolutions in recent centuries include the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> (1765–1783), <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> (1789–1799), <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a> (1791–1804), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a> (1808–1826), <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a> in Europe, <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a> (1910–1920), <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> in China in 1911, <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923" title="Revolutions of 1917–1923">Revolutions of 1917–1923</a> in Europe (including the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" title="German revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution</a>), <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a> (1927–1949), <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonization of Africa">decolonization of Africa</a> (mid-1950s to 1975), <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian War of Independence">Algerian War of Independence</a> (1954-1962), <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> in 1959, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a> in 1979, worldwide <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> in the early 2010s. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> noun <i>revolucion</i> traces back to the 13th century, and the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> equivalent "revolution" to the late 14th century. The word was limited then to mean the revolving motion of celestial bodies. "Revolution" in the sense of abrupt change in a <a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a> was first recorded in the mid-15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1688, the political meaning of the word was familiar enough that the replacement of <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II</a> with <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_Orange" class="mw-redirect" title="William III of Orange">William III</a> was termed the "<a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Revolution" is now employed most often to denote a change in social and political institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Forantorr_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forantorr-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kroeber_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kroeber-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Goodwin" title="Jeff Goodwin">Jeff Goodwin</a> offers two definitions. First, a broad one, including "any and all instances in which a state or a political regime is overthrown and thereby transformed by a popular movement in an irregular, extraconstitutional or violent fashion". Second, a narrow one, in which "revolutions entail not only <a href="/wiki/Mass_mobilization" title="Mass mobilization">mass mobilization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regime_change" title="Regime change">regime change</a>, but also more or less rapid and fundamental social, economic or cultural change, during or soon after the struggle for state power".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodwin20019_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodwin20019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jack Goldstone defines a revolution thusly: </p> <blockquote><p>"[Revolution is] an effort to transform the political institutions and the justifications for political authority in society, accompanied by formal or informal mass mobilization and noninstitutionalized actions that undermine authorities. This definition is broad enough to encompass events ranging from the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">relatively peaceful revolutions that toppled communist regimes</a> to the <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Afghanistan (1978–present)">violent Islamic revolution in Afghanistan</a>. At the same time, this definition is strong enough to exclude coups, revolts, civil wars, and rebellions that make no effort to transform institutions or the justification for authority."<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Goldstone's definition excludes peaceful transitions to <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> through <a href="/wiki/Plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebiscite">plebiscite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Election#Difficulties_with_elections" title="Election">free elections</a>, as occurred in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> after the death of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>, or in <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> after the demise of their <a href="/wiki/Military_junta" title="Military junta">military juntas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early scholars often debated the distinction between revolution and civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also questioned whether a revolution is purely political (i.e., concerned with the restructuring of government) or whether "it is an extensive and inclusive social change affecting all the various aspects of the life of a society, including the economic, religious, industrial, and familial as well as the political".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are numerous typologies of revolution in the social science literature.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a> differentiated between: </p> <ul><li>sudden and violent revolutions that seek not only to establish a new political system but to overhaul an entire society, and;</li> <li>slow and relentless revolutions that involve sweeping transformations of the entire society and may take several generations to bring about (such as changes in religion).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_1848_map_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Europe_1848_map_en.png/220px-Europe_1848_map_en.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Europe_1848_map_en.png/330px-Europe_1848_map_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Europe_1848_map_en.png/440px-Europe_1848_map_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2284" data-file-height="1503" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a> were essentially <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_revolution" title="Bourgeois revolution">bourgeois revolutions</a> and democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchical</a> structures and creating independent <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation-states</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> typologies divides revolutions into: </p> <ul><li>pre-capitalist</li> <li>early <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a></li> <li>bourgeois</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_revolution" title="Bourgeois revolution">bourgeois-democratic</a></li> <li>early <a href="/wiki/Proletarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proletarian">proletarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">socialist</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Tilly" title="Charles Tilly">Charles Tilly</a>, a modern scholar of revolutions, differentiated between: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a> (a top-down seizure of power), e.g., <a href="/wiki/May_Coup_(Poland)" title="May Coup (Poland)">Poland, 1926</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolt">revolt</a>, and</li> <li>"great revolution" (a revolution that transforms economic and social structures as well as political institutions, such as the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of 1789, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution</a> of 1917, or <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Revolution_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Revolution of Iran">Islamic Revolution of Iran</a> in 1979).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Mark_N._Katz" title="Mark N. Katz">Mark Katz</a> identified six forms of revolution: </p> <ul><li>rural revolution</li> <li>urban revolution</li> <li>coup d'état, e.g., <a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">Egypt, 1952</a></li> <li>revolution from above, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> of 1958</li> <li>revolution from without, e.g., the Allied invasions of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a> in 1943 and of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> in 1945</li> <li>revolution by osmosis, e.g., the gradual <a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a> of several countries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatz19974_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatz19974-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/250px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/330px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/500px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>. The development of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> propelled the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in Britain and the world. The steam engine was created to pump water from <a href="/wiki/Coal_mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal mine">coal mines</a>, enabling them to be deepened beyond <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> levels.</figcaption></figure> <p>These categories are not mutually exclusive; the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution of 1917</a> began with an urban revolution to depose the Czar, followed by a rural revolution, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> coup in November. Katz also cross-classified revolutions as follows: </p> <ul><li>Central: countries, usually <a href="/wiki/Great_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Powers">Great Powers</a>, which play a leading role in a <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_wave" title="Revolutionary wave">revolutionary wave</a>; e.g., the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> since 1979<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatz199713_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatz199713-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Aspiring revolutions, which follow the Central revolution</li> <li>subordinate or puppet revolutions</li> <li>rival revolutions, in which a former alliance is broken, such as <a href="/wiki/Tito-Stalin_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Tito-Stalin split">Yugoslavia after 1948</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">China after 1960</a>.</li></ul> <p>A further dimension to Katz's typology is that revolutions are either against (anti-monarchy, anti-dictatorial, anti-communist, anti-democratic) or for (pro-fascism, pro-communism, pro-nationalism, etc.). In the latter cases, a transition period is generally necessary to decide which direction to take to achieve the desired form of government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatz199712_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatz199712-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other types of revolution, created for other typologies, include <a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">proletarian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Communist_revolutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist revolutions">communist revolutions</a> (inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aim to replace <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> with <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>); failed or abortive revolutions (that are not able to secure power after winning temporary victories or amassing large-scale mobilizations); or violent vs. <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_revolution" title="Nonviolent revolution">nonviolent revolutions</a>. The term <i>revolution</i> has also been used to denote great changes outside the political sphere. Such revolutions, often labeled <a href="/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">social revolutions</a>, are recognized as major transformations in a society's culture, philosophy, or technology, rather than in its <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some social revolutions are global in scope, while others are limited to single countries. Commonly cited examples of social revolution are the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Revolution">Commercial Revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</a>. These revolutions also fit the "slow revolution" type identified by Tocqueville.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Studies_of_revolution">Studies of revolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Studies of revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Revolution_-_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Revolution_-_2014.jpg/220px-Revolution_-_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Revolution_-_2014.jpg/330px-Revolution_-_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Revolution_-_2014.jpg/440px-Revolution_-_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>R E V O L U T I O N, <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a> with <a href="/wiki/Political" class="mw-redirect" title="Political">political</a> message on a house wall. Four letters have been written backwards and with a different color so that they also form the word <a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a>.</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">Social revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg/250px-Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg/330px-Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg/500px-Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8133" data-file-height="6181" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">storming of the Bastille</a>, 14 July 1789 during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington_(cropped)(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg/170px-Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg/255px-Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg/340px-Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4168" data-file-height="5088" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenin.WWI.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Lenin.WWI.JPG/250px-Lenin.WWI.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Lenin.WWI.JPG/330px-Lenin.WWI.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Lenin.WWI.JPG/500px-Lenin.WWI.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1255" data-file-height="1286" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Revolution of 1917">Bolshevik Revolution of 1917</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunyatsen1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sunyatsen1.jpg/250px-Sunyatsen1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sunyatsen1.jpg/330px-Sunyatsen1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sunyatsen1.jpg/500px-Sunyatsen1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1059" data-file-height="1462" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>, leader of the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> in 1911.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B8%9E.%E0%B8%A8._2475_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B8%9E.%E0%B8%A8._2475_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2_01.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B8%9E.%E0%B8%A8._2475_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2_01.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B8%9E.%E0%B8%A8._2475_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2_01.jpg/500px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="389" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Khana_Ratsadon" title="Khana Ratsadon">Khana Ratsadon</a>, a group of military officers and civil officials, who staged the <a href="/wiki/Siamese_Revolution_of_1932" class="mw-redirect" title="Siamese Revolution of 1932">Siamese Revolution of 1932</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Political and socioeconomic revolutions have been studied in many <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a> and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NOWO:5_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOWO:5-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars of revolution differentiate four generations of theoretical research on the subject of revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Theorists of the first generation, including <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Gustave Le Bon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Ellwood" title="Charles A. Ellwood">Charles A. Ellwood</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pitirim_Sorokin" title="Pitirim Sorokin">Pitirim Sorokin</a>, were mainly descriptive in their approach, and their explanations of the phenomena of revolutions were usually related to <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>, such as Le Bon's <a href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">crowd psychology</a> theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second generation sought to develop detailed frameworks, grounded in <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a> theory, to explain why and when revolutions arise. Their work can be divided into three categories: psychological, sociological and political.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The writings of <a href="/wiki/Ted_Robert_Gurr" title="Ted Robert Gurr">Ted Robert Gurr</a>, Ivo K. Feierbrand, Rosalind L. Feierbrand, James A. Geschwender, <a href="/wiki/David_C._Schwartz" title="David C. Schwartz">David C. Schwartz</a>, and Denton E. Morrison fall into the first category. They utilized theories of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frustration-aggression_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Frustration-aggression theory">frustration-aggression theory</a> to link the cause of revolution to the state of mind of the masses. While these theorists varied in their approach as to what exactly incited the people to revolt (e.g., modernization, recession, or discrimination), they agreed that the primary cause for revolution was a widespread frustration with the socio-political situation.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second group, composed of academics such as <a href="/wiki/Chalmers_Johnson" title="Chalmers Johnson">Chalmers Johnson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neil_Smelser" title="Neil Smelser">Neil Smelser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bob_Jessop" title="Bob Jessop">Bob Jessop</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Hart" title="Mark Hart">Mark Hart</a>, Edward A. Tiryakian, and Mark Hagopian, drew on the work of <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Structural-functionalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural-functionalist">structural-functionalist</a> theory in sociology. They saw society as a system in equilibrium between various resources, demands, and subsystems (political, cultural, etc.). As in the psychological school, they differed in their definitions of what causes disequilibrium, but agreed that it is a state of severe disequilibrium that is responsible for revolutions.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third group, including writers such as <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tilly" title="Charles Tilly">Charles Tilly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Samuel P. Huntington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ammann" title="Peter Ammann">Peter Ammann</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_L._Stinchcombe" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur L. Stinchcombe">Arthur L. Stinchcombe</a>, followed a <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a> path and looked at <a href="/wiki/Pluralist_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluralist theory">pluralist theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">interest group conflict theory</a>. Those theories view events as outcomes of a <a href="/wiki/Power_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Power struggle">power struggle</a> between competing <a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy group">interest groups</a>. In such a model, revolutions happen when two or more groups cannot come to terms within the current <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political system</a>'s normal <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> process, and when they possess the required resources to employ force in pursuit of their goals.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second-generation theorists regarded the development of revolutionary situations as a two-step process: "First, a pattern of events arises that somehow marks a break or change from previous patterns. This change then affects some critical variable—the cognitive state of the masses, the equilibrium of the system, or the magnitude of conflict and resource control of competing interest groups. If the effect on the critical variable is of sufficient magnitude, a potentially revolutionary situation occurs."<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once this point is reached, a negative incident (a war, a riot, a bad harvest) that in the past might not have been enough to trigger a revolt, will now be enough. However, if authorities are cognizant of the danger, they can still prevent revolution through reform or repression.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his influential 1938 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Revolution" title="The Anatomy of Revolution">The Anatomy of Revolution</a></i>, historian <a href="/wiki/Crane_Brinton" title="Crane Brinton">Crane Brinton</a> established a convention by choosing four major political revolutions—<a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">England (1642)</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">Thirteen Colonies of America (1775)</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">France (1789)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russia (1917)</a>—for comparative study.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He outlined what he called their "uniformities", although the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> deviated somewhat from the pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, most later comparative studies of revolution substituted <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">China (1949)</a> in their lists, but they continued Brinton's practice of focusing on four.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In subsequent decades, scholars began to classify hundreds of other events as revolutions (see <a href="/wiki/List_of_revolutions_and_rebellions" title="List of revolutions and rebellions">List of revolutions and rebellions</a>). Their expanded notion of revolution engendered new approaches and explanations. The theories of the second generation came under criticism for being too limited in geographical scope, and for lacking a means of empirical verification. Also, while second-generation theories may have been capable of explaining a specific revolution, they could not adequately explain why revolutions failed to occur in other societies experiencing very similar circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The criticism of the second generation led to the rise of a third generation of theories, put forth by writers such as <a href="/wiki/Theda_Skocpol" title="Theda Skocpol">Theda Skocpol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barrington_Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="Barrington Moore">Barrington Moore</a>, Jeffrey Paige, and others expanding on the old <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class-conflict</a> approach. They turned their attention to "rural agrarian-state conflicts, state conflicts with autonomous elites, and the impact of interstate economic and military competition on domestic political change."<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, Skocpol's <i><a href="/wiki/States_and_Social_Revolutions" title="States and Social Revolutions">States and Social Revolutions</a></i> (1979) was a landmark book of the third generation. Skocpol defined revolution as "rapid, basic transformations of society's state and class structures ... accompanied and in part carried through by class-based revolts from below", and she attributed revolutions to "a conjunction of multiple conflicts involving state, elites and the lower classes".<sup id="cite_ref-Skocpol_ssr_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skocpol_ssr-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg/250px-West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg/330px-West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg/500px-West_and_East_Germans_at_the_Brandenburg_Gate_in_1989.jpg 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>The fall of the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> and most of the events of the <a href="/wiki/Autumn_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Autumn of Nations">Autumn of Nations</a> in Europe, 1989, were sudden and peaceful.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the late 1980s, a new body of academic work started questioning the dominance of the third generation's theories. The old theories were also dealt a significant blow by a series of revolutionary events that they could not readily explain. The <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolutions</a> of 1979, the 1986 <a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, and the 1989 <a href="/wiki/Autumn_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Autumn of Nations">Autumn of Nations</a> in Europe, Asia and Africa saw diverse opposition movements topple seemingly powerful regimes amidst popular demonstrations and <a href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">mass strikes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_revolution" title="Nonviolent revolution">nonviolent revolutions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Forantorr_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forantorr-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For some historians, the traditional paradigm of revolutions as <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggle</a>-driven conflicts centered in Europe, and involving a violent state versus its discontented people, was no longer sufficient to account for the multi-class coalitions toppling dictators around the world. Consequently, the study of revolutions began to evolve in three directions. As Goldstone describes it, scholars of revolution: </p> <ol><li>Extended the third generation's structural theories to a more heterogeneous set of cases, "well beyond the small number of 'great' social revolutions".<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Called for greater attention to conscious <a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">agency</a> and contingency in understanding the course and outcome of revolutions.</li> <li>Observed how studies of social movements—for women's rights, labor rights, and U.S. civil rights—had much in common with studies of revolution and could enrich the latter. Thus, "a new literature on 'contentious politics' has developed that attempts to combine insights from the literature on social movements and revolutions to better understand both phenomena."<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The fourth generation increasingly turned to quantitative techniques when formulating its theories. Political science research moved beyond individual or comparative case studies towards large-N statistical analysis assessing the causes and implications of revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The initial fourth-generation books and journal articles generally relied on the <a href="/wiki/Polity_data_series" title="Polity data series">Polity data series</a> on <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such analyses, like those by A. J. Enterline,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zeev_Maoz" title="Zeev Maoz">Zeev Maoz</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Edward D. Mansfield and Jack Snyder,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> identified a revolution by a significant change in the country's score on Polity's autocracy-to-democracy scale. </p><p>Since the 2010s, scholars like Jeff Colgan have argued that the Polity data series—which evaluates the degree of democratic or autocratic authority in a state's governing institutions based on the openness of executive recruitment, constraints on executive authority, and political competition—is inadequate because it measures democratization, not revolution, and doesn't account for regimes which come to power by revolution but fail to change the structure of the state and society sufficiently to yield a notable difference in the Polity score.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, Colgan offered a new data set to single out governments that "transform the existing social, political, and economic relationships of the state by overthrowing or rejecting the principal existing institutions of society."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This data set has been employed to make empirically based contributions to the literature on revolution by finding links between revolution and the likelihood of international disputes. </p><p>Revolutions have been further examined from an anthropological perspective. Drawing on Victor Turner's writings on ritual and performance, <a href="/wiki/Bjorn_Thomassen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bjorn Thomassen">Bjorn Thomassen</a> suggested that revolutions can be understood as "liminal" moments: modern political revolutions very much resemble rituals and can therefore be studied within a process approach.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomassen_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomassen-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This would imply not only a focus on political behavior "from below", but also a recognition of moments where "high and low" are relativized, subverted, or made irrelevant, and where the micro and macro levels fuse together in critical conjunctions. Economist <a href="/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North">Douglass North</a> raised a note of caution about revolutionary change, how it "is never as revolutionary as its rhetoric would have us believe".<sup id="cite_ref-North_book_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-North_book-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the "formal rules" of laws and constitutions can be changed virtually overnight, the "informal constraints" such as institutional inertia and cultural inheritance do not change quickly and thereby slow down the societal transformation. According to North, the tension between formal rules and informal constraints is "typically resolved by some restructuring of the overall constraints—in both directions—to produce a new equilibrium that is far less revolutionary than the rhetoric."<sup id="cite_ref-North_book_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-North_book-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterrevolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterrevolution">Counterrevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_revolutions_and_rebellions" title="List of revolutions and rebellions">List of revolutions and rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_revolution" title="Passive revolution">Passive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">Political warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_falsification" title="Preference falsification">Preference falsification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_wave" title="Revolutionary wave">Revolutionary wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_revolution" title="Right of revolution">Right of revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">Social movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subversion" title="Subversion">Subversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_revolt" title="User revolt">User revolt</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Skocpol_ssr-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Skocpol_ssr_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skocpol_ssr_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSkocpol1979" class="citation book cs1">Skocpol, Theda (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/states-and-social-revolutions/9481262B2BDA1BFFB3C9218DBD447190"><i>States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511815805">10.1017/cbo9780511815805</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22439-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22439-0"><bdi>978-0-521-22439-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=States+and+Social+Revolutions%3A+A+Comparative+Analysis+of+France%2C+Russia+and+China&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511815805&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22439-0&rft.aulast=Skocpol&rft.aufirst=Theda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fstates-and-social-revolutions%2F9481262B2BDA1BFFB3C9218DBD447190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goldstonet4-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Towards+a+Fourth+Generation+of+Revolutionary+Theory&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E139-%3C%2Fspan%3E187&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.polisci.4.1.139&rft.aulast=Goldstone&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%252Fannurev.polisci.4.1.139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStone1966" class="citation journal cs1">Stone, Lawrence (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/theories-of-revolution/66CDA67FF55E08E0620257F0FDE14876">"Theories of Revolution"</a>. <i>World Politics</i>. <b>18</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">159–</span>176. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2009694">10.2307/2009694</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-3338">1086-3338</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2009694">2009694</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154757362">154757362</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Politics&rft.atitle=Theories+of+Revolution&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E159-%3C%2Fspan%3E176&rft.date=1966&rft.issn=1086-3338&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154757362%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2009694%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2009694&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fworld-politics%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Ftheories-of-revolution%2F66CDA67FF55E08E0620257F0FDE14876&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGunitsky2018">Gunitsky 2018</a>; <a href="#CITEREFGunitsky2017">Gunitsky 2017</a>; <a href="#CITEREFGunitsky2021">Gunitsky 2021</a>; <a href="#CITEREFReus-Smit2013">Reus-Smit 2013</a>; <a href="#CITEREFFukuyama1992">Fukuyama 1992</a>; <a href="#CITEREFGetachew2019">Getachew 2019</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFClarke2023" class="citation journal cs1">Clarke, Killian (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055422001174">"Revolutionary Violence and Counterrevolution"</a>. <i>American Political Science Review</i>. <b>117</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">1344–</span>1360. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055422001174">10.1017/S0003055422001174</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0554">0003-0554</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254907991">254907991</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=Revolutionary+Violence+and+Counterrevolution&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1344-%3C%2Fspan%3E1360&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A254907991%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0003-0554&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003055422001174&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Killian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0003055422001174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">OED</a> vol Q-R p. 617 1979 Sense III states a usage, "Alteration, change, mutation", from 1400 but lists it as "rare". "c. 1450, Lydg 1196 <i>Secrees</i> of Elementys the Revoluciuons, Chaung of tymes and Complexiouns". The etymology shows the political meaning of "revolution" had been established by the early 15th century but did not come into common use until the 17th century.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=revolution">"Revolution"</a>. <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Revolution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Drevolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPipes" class="citation web cs1">Pipes, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511130014/http://chagala.com/russia/pipes.htm">"A Concise History of the Russian Revolution"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chagala.com/russia/pipes.htm">the original</a> on 11 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.aulast=Pipes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchagala.com%2Frussia%2Fpipes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goldstonet3-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_9-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGoldstone1980" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Goldstone" title="Jack Goldstone">Goldstone, Jack</a> (1980). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnabm255.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 1 February 2016 – via U.S. Agency for International Development.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transaction+Costs%2C+Institutions%2C+and+Economic+Performance&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=ICS+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1-558-15211-3&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Douglass+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdf.usaid.gov%2Fpdf_docs%2Fpnabm255.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFukuyama1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama, Francis</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=azRfjououTAC"><i>The End of History and the Last Man</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-140-13455-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-140-13455-1"><bdi>978-0-140-13455-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+History+and+the+Last+Man&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-140-13455-1&rft.aulast=Fukuyama&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DazRfjououTAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGetachew2019" class="citation book cs1">Getachew, Adom (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J3OYDwAAQBAJ"><i>Worldmaking After Empire: The Rise and Fall of Self-Determination</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17915-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17915-5"><bdi>978-0-691-17915-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worldmaking+After+Empire%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Self-Determination&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-691-17915-5&rft.aulast=Getachew&rft.aufirst=Adom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ3OYDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGunitsky2017" class="citation book cs1">Gunitsky, Seva (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691172330/aftershocks"><i>Aftershocks</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17233-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17233-0"><bdi>978-0-691-17233-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aftershocks&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-691-17233-0&rft.aulast=Gunitsky&rft.aufirst=Seva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Fbooks%2Fhardcover%2F9780691172330%2Faftershocks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGunitsky2018" class="citation journal cs1">Gunitsky, Seva (2018). "Democratic Waves in Historical Perspective". <i><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_Politics" title="Perspectives on Politics">Perspectives on Politics</a></i>. <b>16</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">634–</span>651. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1537592718001044">10.1017/S1537592718001044</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1537-5927">1537-5927</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149523316">149523316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Politics&rft.atitle=Democratic+Waves+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E634-%3C%2Fspan%3E651&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149523316%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1537-5927&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1537592718001044&rft.aulast=Gunitsky&rft.aufirst=Seva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGunitsky2021" class="citation cs2">Gunitsky, Seva (2021), Bartel, Fritz; Monteiro, Nuno P. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/before-and-after-the-fall/great-powers-and-the-spread-of-autocracy-since-the-cold-war/D7F3EC6F0C4B41F5742693AB13DE28AD">"Great Powers and the Spread of Autocracy Since the Cold War"</a>, <i>Before and After the Fall: World Politics and the End of the Cold War</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, pp. <span class="nowrap">225–</span>243, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108910194.014">10.1017/9781108910194.014</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-84334-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-84334-8"><bdi>978-1-108-84334-8</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244851964">244851964</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Before+and+After+the+Fall%3A+World+Politics+and+the+End+of+the+Cold+War&rft.atitle=Great+Powers+and+the+Spread+of+Autocracy+Since+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E225-%3C%2Fspan%3E243&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244851964%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108910194.014&rft.isbn=978-1-108-84334-8&rft.aulast=Gunitsky&rft.aufirst=Seva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fbefore-and-after-the-fall%2Fgreat-powers-and-the-spread-of-autocracy-since-the-cold-war%2FD7F3EC6F0C4B41F5742693AB13DE28AD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKatz1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_N._Katz" title="Mark N. Katz">Katz, Mark N.</a> (1997). <i>Revolutions and Revolutionary Waves</i>. <a href="/wiki/St_Martin%27s_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="St Martin's Press">St Martin's Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-17322-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-17322-7"><bdi>978-0-312-17322-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutions+and+Revolutionary+Waves&rft.pub=St+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-312-17322-7&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Mark+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a> (1906), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73882">Memoirs of a Revolutionist</a></i>. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Ltd.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReus-Smit2013" class="citation book cs1">Reus-Smit, Christian (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/individual-rights-and-the-making-of-the-international-system/A915E13F20DDBD0F5FEE91A59D7C827A"><i>Individual Rights and the Making of the International System</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781139046527">10.1017/cbo9781139046527</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85777-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85777-2"><bdi>978-0-521-85777-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Individual+Rights+and+the+Making+of+the+International+System&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781139046527&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85777-2&rft.aulast=Reus-Smit&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Findividual-rights-and-the-making-of-the-international-system%2FA915E13F20DDBD0F5FEE91A59D7C827A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Beissinger, Mark R. 2022. <i>The Revolutionary City: Urbanization and the Global Transformation of Rebellion</i>. Princeton University Press</li> <li>Beissinger, Mark R. (2024). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/920225/pdf">The Evolving Study of Revolution</a>". <i>World Politics.</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBeck2018" class="citation journal cs1">Beck, Colin J. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0735275118777004?journalCode=stxa">"The Structure of Comparison in the Study of Revolution"</a>. <i>Sociological Theory</i>. <b>36</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">134–</span>161. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0735275118777004">10.1177/0735275118777004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53669466">53669466</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Theory&rft.atitle=The+Structure+of+Comparison+in+the+Study+of+Revolution&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E134-%3C%2Fspan%3E161&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0735275118777004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53669466%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Colin+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1177%2F0735275118777004%3FjournalCode%3Dstxa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Goldstone, Jack A. (1982). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2945993">The Comparative and Historical Study of Revolutions</a>". <i>Annual Review of Sociology</i>. <b>8</b>: 187–207</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNess2009" class="citation book cs1">Ness, Immanuel, ed. (2009). <i>The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest: 1500 to the Present</i>. Malden, MA: <a href="/wiki/Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiley & Sons">Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-405-18464-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-405-18464-9"><bdi>978-1-405-18464-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Revolution+and+Protest%3A+1500+to+the+Present&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-405-18464-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStrang1991" class="citation journal cs1">Strang, David (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600949">"Global Patterns of Decolonization, 1500-1987"</a>. <i>International Studies Quarterly</i>. <b>35</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">429–</span>454. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2600949">10.2307/2600949</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-8833">0020-8833</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600949">2600949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Global+Patterns+of+Decolonization%2C+1500-1987&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E429-%3C%2Fspan%3E454&rft.date=1991&rft.issn=0020-8833&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2600949%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2600949&rft.aulast=Strang&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2600949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolution" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/120px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Revolution" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Revolution">Revolution</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Revolution" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Revolution">Revolution</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt, Hannah</a> (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/arendt.htm#H5">IEP.UTM.edu</a>. <i>On Revolution</i>. Penguin Classics. New Ed edition: February 8, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-018421-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-018421-X">0-14-018421-X</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anarchism" title="Template:Anarchism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anarchism" title="Template talk:Anarchism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anarchism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anarchism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anarchism662" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_theory" title="Category:Anarchist theory">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_Black_Cross" title="Anarchist Black Cross">Anarchist Black Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anationalism">Anationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimilitarism" title="Antimilitarism">Anti-militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_group" title="Affinity group">Affinity group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_social_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous social center">Autonomous social center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_bloc" title="Black bloc">Black bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">Consensus decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_love" title="Free love">Free love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">Freethought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontalidad" title="Horizontalidad">Horizontalidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_aid_(organization_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutual aid (organization theory)">Mutual aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Participatory politics">Participatory politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_autonomous_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Permanent autonomous zone">Permanent autonomous zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefigurative_politics" title="Prefigurative politics">Prefigurative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_internationalism" title="Proletarian internationalism">Proletarian internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_of_the_deed" title="Propaganda of the deed">Propaganda of the deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li>Revolution</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rewilding_(anarchism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rewilding (anarchism)">Rewilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">Sabotage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_culture" title="Security culture">Security culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self-ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (Bookchin)">Social ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocracy" title="Sociocracy">Sociocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatherapy">Somatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Autonomous_Zone" title="Temporary Autonomous Zone">Temporary autonomous zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_egoists" title="Union of egoists">Union of egoists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_association" title="Voluntary association">Voluntary association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_council" title="Workers' council">Workers' council</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Issues_in_anarchism" title="Category:Issues in anarchism">Issues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_animal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchism and animal rights">Animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_capitalism" title="Anarchism and capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_education" title="Anarchism and education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_issues_related_to_love_and_sex" title="Anarchism and issues related to love and sex">Love and sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_nationalism" title="Anarchism and nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_religion" title="Anarchism and religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_violence" title="Anarchism and violence">Violence</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_schools_of_thought" title="Category:Anarchist schools of thought">Schools of thought</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical anarchism">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egoist_anarchism" title="Egoist anarchism">Egoist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegalism" title="Illegalism">Illegalist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-naturism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-naturism">Naturist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anarchism" title="Philosophical anarchism">Philosophical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">Collectivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">Communist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magonism" title="Magonism">Magonist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-classical anarchism">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Primitivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (Bookchin)">Social ecology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence anarchism">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrectionary_anarchism" title="Insurrectionary anarchism">Insurrectionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-pacifism" title="Anarcho-pacifism">Pacifist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_religion#Religious_anarchism_and_anarchist_themes_in_religions" title="Anarchism and religion">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_religion#Buddhism" title="Anarchism and religion">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish anarchism">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_without_adjectives" title="Anarchism without adjectives">Without adjectives</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_anarchism" title="Contemporary anarchism">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Postcolonial anarchism">Postcolonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-anarchism">Post-anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-left_anarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-left anarchy">Post-left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_anarchism" title="Queer anarchism">Queer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of federation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_group" title="Affinity group">Affinity group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platformism" title="Platformism">Platformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthesis_anarchism" title="Synthesis anarchism">Synthesis anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_egoists" title="Union of egoists">Union of egoists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_economics" title="Category:Anarchist economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communization" title="Communization">Communization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_the_limit_of_price" title="Cost the limit of price">Cost the limit of price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_economy#Decentralized_planning" title="Planned economy">Decentralized planned economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_association_of_producers" title="Free association of producers">Free association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">General strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Give-away_shop" title="Give-away shop">Give-away shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_voucher" title="Labour voucher">Labour voucher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_bank" title="Mutual bank">Mutual bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_credit" title="Mutual credit">Mutual credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_self-management" title="Workers' self-management">Workers' self-management</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_culture" title="Category:Anarchist culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_las_Barricadas" title="A las Barricadas">A las Barricadas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_bookfair" title="Anarchist bookfair">Anarchist bookfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-punk" title="Anarcho-punk">Anarcho-punk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_in_the_U.K." title="Anarchy in the U.K.">Anarchy in the U.K.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_the_arts" title="Anarchism and the arts">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIY_ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="DIY ethic">DIY ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escuela_Moderna" class="mw-redirect" title="Escuela Moderna">Escuela Moderna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_dealing_with_anarchism" title="List of films dealing with anarchism">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeganism" title="Freeganism">Freeganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infoshop" title="Infoshop">Infoshop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Media_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Media Center">Independent Media Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Internationale" title="The Internationale">The Internationale</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish anarchism">Jewish anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle anarchism">Lifestylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day" title="International Workers' Day">May Day</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/No_gods,_no_masters" class="mw-redirect" title="No gods, no masters">No gods, no masters</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_education" title="Popular education">Popular education</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">Property is theft!</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_cheerleading" title="Radical cheerleading">Radical cheerleading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_environmentalism" title="Radical environmentalism">Radical environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-managed_social_center" title="Self-managed social center">Self-managed social center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_symbolism" title="Anarchist symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Anarchism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Regional_Federation_of_the_IWA" title="Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA">Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Congress_(1872)" title="Hague Congress (1872)">Hague Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonal_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonal rebellion">Cantonal rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_of_Rome_for_the_Social_Defense_Against_Anarchists" title="International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists">International Conference of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_the_Thirty" title="Trial of the Thirty">Trial of the Thirty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_of_Rome_for_the_Social_Defense_Against_Anarchists" title="International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists">International Conference of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrer_movement" title="Ferrer movement">Ferrer movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strandzha_Commune" title="Strandzha Commune">Strandzha Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Anarchist_Congress_of_Amsterdam" title="International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam">Congress of Amsterdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragic_Week_(Spain)" title="Tragic Week (Spain)">Tragic Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Treason_Incident" title="High Treason Incident">High Treason Incident</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_Sixteen" title="Manifesto of the Sixteen">Manifesto of the Sixteen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Bavarian Soviet Republic">Bavarian Soviet Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_United_States_anarchist_bombings" title="1919 United States anarchist bombings">1919 United States bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biennio_Rosso" title="Biennio Rosso">Biennio Rosso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronstadt_rebellion" title="Kronstadt rebellion">Kronstadt rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amakasu_Incident" title="Amakasu Incident">Amakasu Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alt_Llobregat_insurrection" title="Alt Llobregat insurrection">Alt Llobregat insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_insurrection_of_January_1933" title="Anarchist insurrection of January 1933">Anarchist insurrection of January 1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_insurrection_of_December_1933" title="Anarchist insurrection of December 1933">Anarchist insurrection of December 1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Revolution_of_1936" title="Spanish Revolution of 1936">Spanish Revolution of 1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_May_Days" class="mw-redirect" title="Barcelona May Days">Barcelona May Days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_inverted_triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Red inverted triangle">Red inverted triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labadie_Collection" title="Labadie Collection">Labadie Collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provo_(movement)" title="Provo (movement)">Provo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Sharpley_Library" title="Kate Sharpley Library">Kate Sharpley Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnival_Against_Capital" title="Carnival Against Capital">Carnival Against Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_Seattle_WTO_protests" title="1999 Seattle WTO protests">1999 Seattle WTO protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Really_Really_Free_Market" title="Really Really Free Market">Really Really Free Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_movement" title="Occupy movement">Occupy movement</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchists" title="Category:Anarchists">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Alston" title="Ashanti Alston">Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Armand" title="Émile Armand">Armand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba_Jin" title="Ba Jin">Ba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Berkman" title="Alexander Berkman">Berkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Bonanno" title="Alfredo Bonanno">Bonanno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_Bourdin" title="Martial Bourdin">Bourdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltairine_de_Cleyre" title="Voltairine de Cleyre">Cleyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Day" title="Dorothy Day">Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buenaventura_Durruti" title="Buenaventura Durruti">Durruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ellul" title="Jacques Ellul">Ellul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Kom%27boa_Ervin" title="Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin">Ervin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Faure" title="Sébastien Faure">Faure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fauset_MacDonald" title="Thomas Fauset MacDonald">Fauset MacDonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Ferrer" title="Francisco Ferrer">Ferrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severino_Di_Giovanni" title="Severino Di Giovanni">Giovanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Prada" title="Manuel González Prada">González Prada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Guillaume" title="James Guillaume">Guillaume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Zhen_(anarchist)" title="He Zhen (anarchist)">He-Yin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanno_Sugako" title="Kanno Sugako">Kanno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dtoku_Sh%C5%ABsui" title="Kōtoku Shūsui">Kōtoku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Landauer" title="Gustav Landauer">Landauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Shifu" title="Liu Shifu">Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Flores_Mag%C3%B3n" title="Ricardo Flores Magón">Magón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestor_Makhno" title="Nestor Makhno">Makhno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigorii_Maksimov" title="Grigorii Maksimov">Maksimov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Errico_Malatesta" title="Errico Malatesta">Malatesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_Mett" title="Ida Mett">Mett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Michel" title="Louise Michel">Michel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Most" title="Johann Most">Most</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Parsons" title="Lucy Parsons">Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesc_Pi_i_Margall" title="Francesc Pi i Margall">Pi i Margall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Pouget" title="Émile Pouget">Pouget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Proudhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiratsuka_Raich%C5%8D" title="Hiratsuka Raichō">Raichō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lis%C3%A9e_Reclus" title="Élisée Reclus">Reclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Rocker" title="Rudolf Rocker">Rocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Abad_de_Santill%C3%A1n" title="Diego Abad de Santillán">Santillán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volin" title="Volin">Volin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Ward" title="Colin Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Warren" title="Josiah Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efim_Yarchuk" title="Efim Yarchuk">Yarchuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zerzan" title="John Zerzan">Zerzan</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anarchism" title="Outline of anarchism">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarcho-punk_bands" title="List of anarcho-punk bands">Anarcho-punk bands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_anarchism" title="List of books about anarchism">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_anarchists" title="List of fictional anarchists">Fictional characters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_dealing_with_anarchism" title="List of films dealing with anarchism">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_anarchists" title="List of Jewish anarchists">Jewish anarchists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarchist_musicians" title="List of anarchist musicians">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarchist_periodicals" title="List of anarchist periodicals">Periodicals</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchism_by_region" title="Category:Anarchism by region">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Africa" title="Anarchism in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Albania" title="Anarchism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Algeria" title="Anarchism in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Andorra" title="Anarchism in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Argentina" title="Anarchism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Armenia" title="Anarchism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Australia" title="Anarchism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Austria" title="Anarchism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Azerbaijan" title="Anarchism in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bangladesh" title="Anarchism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Belarus" title="Anarchism in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Belgium" title="Anarchism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bolivia" title="Anarchism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Anarchism in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Brazil" title="Anarchism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bulgaria" title="Anarchism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Canada" title="Anarchism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Chile" title="Anarchism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Colombia" title="Anarchism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Anarchism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Croatia" title="Anarchism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Cuba" title="Anarchism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Cyprus" title="Anarchism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Anarchism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Denmark" title="Anarchism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Anarchism in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ecuador" title="Anarchism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Egypt" title="Anarchism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_El_Salvador" title="Anarchism in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Estonia" title="Anarchism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Finland" title="Anarchism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_France" title="Anarchism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_French_Guiana" title="Anarchism in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Georgia" title="Anarchism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Germany" title="Anarchism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Greece" title="Anarchism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Guatemala" title="Anarchism in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Anarchism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Hungary" title="Anarchism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Iceland" title="Anarchism in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_India" title="Anarchism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Indonesia" title="Anarchism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Iran" title="Anarchism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ireland" title="Anarchism in Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Israel" title="Anarchism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Italy" title="Anarchism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Japan" title="Anarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Korea" title="Anarchism in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Latvia" title="Anarchism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Malaysia" title="Anarchism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Mexico" title="Anarchism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Monaco" title="Anarchism in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Mongolia" title="Anarchism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Morocco" title="Anarchism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Anarchism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_New_Zealand" title="Anarchism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Nicaragua" title="Anarchism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Nigeria" title="Anarchism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Norway" title="Anarchism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Panama" title="Anarchism in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Paraguay" title="Anarchism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Peru" title="Anarchism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_Philippines" title="Anarchism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Poland" title="Anarchism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Portugal" title="Anarchism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Anarchism in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Romania" title="Anarchism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Russia" title="Anarchism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Serbia" title="Anarchism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Singapore" title="Anarchism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_South_Africa" title="Anarchism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Spain" title="Anarchism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Sweden" title="Anarchism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Switzerland" title="Anarchism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Syria" title="Anarchism in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Taiwan" title="Anarchism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Timor-Leste" title="Anarchism in Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Tunisia" title="Anarchism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Turkey" title="Anarchism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ukraine" title="Anarchism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Anarchism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Anarchism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Uruguay" title="Anarchism in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Venezuela" title="Anarchism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Vietnam" title="Anarchism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anarchism" title="Outline of anarchism">Related topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corporate_activism" title="Anti-corporate activism">Anti-corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fascism" title="Anti-fascism">Anti-fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">Anti-globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-statism" title="Anti-statism">Anti-statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autarchism" title="Autarchism">Autarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a 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