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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disputed_treaty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disputed_treaty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Disputed treaty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disputed_treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sauks_divided" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sauks_divided"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Sauks divided</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sauks_divided-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_Hawk's_return" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_Hawk's_return"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Black Hawk's return</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_Hawk's_return-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intertribal_war_and_American_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intertribal_war_and_American_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Intertribal war and American policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intertribal_war_and_American_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initial_diplomacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_diplomacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Initial diplomacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_diplomacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stillman's_Run" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stillman's_Run"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Stillman's Run</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stillman's_Run-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initial_raids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_raids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Initial raids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_raids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_reorganization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_reorganization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>American reorganization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_reorganization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-June_raids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#June_raids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>June raids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-June_raids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Final campaign</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Final_campaign-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Final campaign subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Final_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wisconsin_Heights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wisconsin_Heights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Wisconsin Heights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wisconsin_Heights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bad_Axe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bad_Axe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Bad Axe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bad_Axe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Black_Hawk's_imprisonment_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_Hawk's_imprisonment_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Black Hawk's imprisonment and legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_Hawk's_imprisonment_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaties_and_removals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaties_and_removals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Treaties and removals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaties_and_removals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Black Hawk War</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83_%D9%87%D9%88%D9%83" title="حرب بلاك هوك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب بلاك هوك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="قارا شاهین ساواشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قارا شاهین ساواشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Hawk_Chi%C3%A0n-cheng" title="Black Hawk Chiàn-cheng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Black Hawk Chiàn-cheng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Black_Hawk" title="Guerra de Black Hawk – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra de Black Hawk" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Hawk-krigen" title="Black Hawk-krigen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Black Hawk-krigen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-Hawk-Krieg" title="Black-Hawk-Krieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Black-Hawk-Krieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Halc%C3%B3n_Negro" title="Guerra de Halcón Negro – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra de Halcón Negro" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigrafalka_Milito" title="Nigrafalka Milito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nigrafalka Milito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87" title="جنگ شاهین سیاه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ شاهین سیاه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_de_Black_Hawk" title="Guerre de Black Hawk – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre de Black Hawk" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DA%A9_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF" title="سیا واشک جنگ – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="سیا واشک جنگ" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_di_Falco_Nero" title="Guerra di Falco Nero – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra di Falco Nero" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="შავი ქორის ომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შავი ქორის ომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%83%9B%E3%83%BC%E3%82%AF%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="ブラック・ホーク戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ブラック・ホーク戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Hawk-krigen" title="Black Hawk-krigen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Black Hawk-krigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Black_Hawk" title="Guerra de Black Hawk – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra de Black Hawk" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%AF%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Война Чёрного Ястреба – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Война Чёрного Ястреба" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Hawk_War" title="Black Hawk War – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Black Hawk War" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%A6%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3_%D0%88%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Рат Црног Јастреба – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рат Црног Јастреба" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Hawk-kriget" title="Black Hawk-kriget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Black Hawk-kriget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara_%C5%9Eahin_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Kara Şahin Savaşı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kara Şahin Savaşı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%AF%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Війна Чорного Яструба – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Війна Чорного Яструба" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E9%B7%B9%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD" title="黑鷹戰爭 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="黑鷹戰爭" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q879980#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1832 conflict between the United States and Native Americans</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Black Hawk War (disambiguation)">Black Hawk War (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Black Hawk War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Catlin_-_M%C3%BAk-a-tah-mish-o-k%C3%A1h-kaik,_Black_Hawk,_Prominent_Sac_Chief_-_1985.66.2_-_Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/George_Catlin_-_M%C3%BAk-a-tah-mish-o-k%C3%A1h-kaik%2C_Black_Hawk%2C_Prominent_Sac_Chief_-_1985.66.2_-_Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum.jpg/260px-George_Catlin_-_M%C3%BAk-a-tah-mish-o-k%C3%A1h-kaik%2C_Black_Hawk%2C_Prominent_Sac_Chief_-_1985.66.2_-_Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/George_Catlin_-_M%C3%BAk-a-tah-mish-o-k%C3%A1h-kaik%2C_Black_Hawk%2C_Prominent_Sac_Chief_-_1985.66.2_-_Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum.jpg/390px-George_Catlin_-_M%C3%BAk-a-tah-mish-o-k%C3%A1h-kaik%2C_Black_Hawk%2C_Prominent_Sac_Chief_-_1985.66.2_-_Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/George_Catlin_-_M%C3%BAk-a-tah-mish-o-k%C3%A1h-kaik%2C_Black_Hawk%2C_Prominent_Sac_Chief_-_1985.66.2_-_Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum.jpg/520px-George_Catlin_-_M%C3%BAk-a-tah-mish-o-k%C3%A1h-kaik%2C_Black_Hawk%2C_Prominent_Sac_Chief_-_1985.66.2_-_Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="1400" /></a></span><br />Black Hawk, the Sauk war chief and namesake of the Black Hawk War in 1832</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>April 6 – August 27, 1832</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michigan_Territory" title="Michigan Territory">Michigan Territory</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> American victory</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281822-1836%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281822-1836%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281822-1836%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281822-1836%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281822-1836%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281822-1836%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk" title="Ho-Chunk">Ho-Chunk</a> <a href="/wiki/Menominee" title="Menominee">Menominee</a> <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Dakota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi" title="Potawatomi">Potawatomi</a> allies</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Black Hawk's <a href="/wiki/British_Band" title="British Band">British Band</a> with <a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk" title="Ho-Chunk">Ho-Chunk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi" title="Potawatomi">Potawatomi</a> allies</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Atkinson_(soldier)" title="Henry Atkinson (soldier)">Henry Atkinson</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Edmund_P._Gaines" title="Edmund P. Gaines">Edmund P. Gaines</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Henry_Dodge" title="Henry Dodge">Henry Dodge</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Stillman" title="Isaiah Stillman">Isaiah Stillman</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Buchanan" title="Robert C. Buchanan">Robert C. Buchanan</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_(Sauk_leader)" title="Black Hawk (Sauk leader)">Black Hawk</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Neapope" title="Neapope">Neapope</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Wabokieshiek" title="Wabokieshiek">Wabokieshiek</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 6,000+ <a href="/wiki/Militia_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Militia in the United States">militiamen</a> <br />630 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army regulars</a><br />700+ Native Americans<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 500 warriors<br />600 non-combatants</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 77 killed (including non-combatants)<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_172_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_172-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 450–600 killed (including non-combatants)<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_172_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_172-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Black Hawk War</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minor_attacks_of_the_Black_Hawk_War" title="Minor attacks of the Black Hawk War">Minor battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stillman%27s_Run" title="Battle of Stillman's Run">Stillman's Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Grove_ambush" title="Buffalo Grove ambush">Buffalo Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plum_River_raid" title="Plum River raid">Plum River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Creek_massacre" title="Indian Creek massacre">Indian Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Vrain_massacre" title="St. Vrain massacre">St. Vrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_at_Fort_Blue_Mounds" title="Attacks at Fort Blue Mounds">Fort Blue Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spafford_Farm_massacre" title="Spafford Farm massacre">Spafford Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1832)" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1832)">Horseshoe Bend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waddams_Grove" title="Battle of Waddams Grove">Waddams Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kellogg%27s_Grove" title="Battle of Kellogg's Grove">Kellogg's Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_at_Ament%27s_Cabin" title="Attack at Ament's Cabin">Ament's Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Apple_River_Fort" title="Battle of Apple River Fort">Apple River Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinsinawa_Mound_raid" title="Sinsinawa Mound raid">Sinsinawa Mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wisconsin_Heights" title="Battle of Wisconsin Heights">Wisconsin Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bad_Axe" title="Battle of Bad Axe">Bad Axe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Black Hawk War</b> was a conflict between the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_(Sauk_leader)" title="Black Hawk (Sauk leader)">Black Hawk</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sauk_people" title="Sauk people">Sauk</a> leader. The war erupted after Black Hawk and a group of Sauks, <a href="/wiki/Meskwaki" title="Meskwaki">Meskwakis</a> (Fox), and <a href="/wiki/Kickapoo_people" title="Kickapoo people">Kickapoos</a>, known as the "<a href="/wiki/British_Band" title="British Band">British Band</a>", crossed the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>, to the U.S. state of <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa Indian Territory</a> in April 1832. Black Hawk's motives were ambiguous, but he was apparently hoping to reclaim land that was taken over by the United States in the disputed 1804 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_St._Louis_(1804)" title="Treaty of St. Louis (1804)">Treaty of St. Louis</a>. </p><p>U.S. officials, convinced that the British Band was hostile, mobilized a frontier <a href="/wiki/Militia_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Militia in the United States">militia</a> and opened fire on a delegation from the Native Americans on May 14, 1832. Black Hawk responded by successfully attacking the militia at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stillman%27s_Run" title="Battle of Stillman's Run">Battle of Stillman's Run</a>. He led his band to a secure location in what is now southern <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> and was pursued by U.S. forces. Meanwhile, other Native Americans conducted raids against forts and colonies largely unprotected with the absence of the militia. Some <a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk" title="Ho-Chunk">Ho-Chunk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi" title="Potawatomi">Potawatomi</a> warriors took part in these raids, although most tribe members tried to avoid the conflict. The <a href="/wiki/Menominee" title="Menominee">Menominee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Dakota</a> tribes, already at odds with the Sauks and Meskwakis, supported the United States. </p><p>Commanded by General <a href="/wiki/Henry_Atkinson_(soldier)" title="Henry Atkinson (soldier)">Henry Atkinson</a>, the U.S. forces tracked the British Band. Militia under Colonel <a href="/wiki/Henry_Dodge" title="Henry Dodge">Henry Dodge</a> caught up with the British Band on July 21 and defeated them at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wisconsin_Heights" title="Battle of Wisconsin Heights">Battle of Wisconsin Heights</a>. Black Hawk's band was weakened by hunger, death, and desertion, and many native survivors retreated towards the Mississippi. On August 2, U.S. soldiers attacked the remnants of the British Band at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bad_Axe" title="Battle of Bad Axe">Battle of Bad Axe</a>, killing many and capturing most who remained alive. Black Hawk and other leaders escaped, but later surrendered and were imprisoned for a year. </p><p>The Black Hawk War gave <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> his <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_in_the_Black_Hawk_War" title="Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War">brief military service</a>, although he saw no combat.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other participants who would later become famous included <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Clyman" title="James Clyman">James Clyman</a>. The war gave impetus to the U.S. policy of <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a>, in which Native American tribes were pressured to sell their lands and move west of the Mississippi River to reside. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 18th century, the <a href="/wiki/Sauk_people" title="Sauk people">Sauk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meskwaki" title="Meskwaki">Meskwaki</a> (or Fox) <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> tribes lived along the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> in what are now the U.S. states of <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a>. The land they lived on was considered sacred because of the fertile soil, prime hunting, accessibility to lead, and access to water, which was helpful for trade. The two tribes had become closely connected after having been displaced from the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_region_(North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Lakes region (North America)">Great Lakes region</a> in conflicts with <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> and other Native American tribes, particularly after the so-called <a href="/wiki/Fox_Wars" title="Fox Wars">Fox Wars</a> ended in the 1730s.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time of the Black Hawk War, the population of the two tribes was about 6,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disputed_treaty">Disputed treaty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Disputed treaty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_St._Louis_(1804)" title="Treaty of St. Louis (1804)">Treaty of St. Louis (1804)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stlouistreatymap1804.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Stlouistreatymap1804.png/220px-Stlouistreatymap1804.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Stlouistreatymap1804.png/330px-Stlouistreatymap1804.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Stlouistreatymap1804.png/440px-Stlouistreatymap1804.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1276" /></a><figcaption>The land ceded to the United States in the 1804 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_St._Louis_(1804)" title="Treaty of St. Louis (1804)">Treaty of St. Louis</a> is shown here in yellow.</figcaption></figure> <p>As the United States colonized westward in the early 19th century, government officials sought to buy as much Native American land as possible. In 1804, <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Territory" title="Indiana Territory">territorial governor</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> negotiated a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_St._Louis_(1804)" title="Treaty of St. Louis (1804)">treaty in St. Louis</a> in which a group of Sauk and Meskwaki leaders supposedly sold their lands east of the Mississippi for more than $2,200, in goods and annual payments of $1,000 in goods. The treaty became controversial because the Native leaders had not been authorized by their tribal councils to cede lands. Historian Robert Owens argued that the chiefs probably did not intend to give up ownership of the land, and that they would not have sold so much valuable territory for such a modest price.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Patrick Jung concluded that the Sauk and Meskwaki chiefs intended to cede a little land, but that the Americans included more territory in the treaty's language than the Natives realized.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Jung, the Sauks and Maskwacis did not learn the true extent of the cession until years later.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1804 treaty allowed the tribes to continue using the ceded land until it was sold to American colonists by the U.S. government.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the next two decades, Sauks continued to live at <a href="/wiki/Saukenuk" class="mw-redirect" title="Saukenuk">Saukenuk</a>, their primary village, which was located near the confluence of the Mississippi and <a href="/wiki/Rock_River_(Mississippi_River)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock River (Mississippi River)">Rock Rivers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1828, the U.S. government finally began to have the ceded land surveyed for colonists. <a href="/wiki/Indian_agent" title="Indian agent">Indian agent</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Forsyth_(Indian_agent)" title="Thomas Forsyth (Indian agent)">Thomas Forsyth</a> informed the Sauks that they should vacate Saukenuk and their other settlements east of the Mississippi.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sauks_divided">Sauks divided</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sauks divided"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Sauks were divided about whether to resist implementation of the disputed 1804 treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Sauks decided to relocate west of the Mississippi rather than become involved in a confrontation with the United States. The leader of this group was <a href="/wiki/Keokuk_(Sauk_leader)" title="Keokuk (Sauk leader)">Keokuk</a>, who had helped defend Saukenuk against the Americans during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>. Keokuk was not a chief, but as a skilled orator, he often spoke on behalf of the Sauk civil chiefs in negotiations with the Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Keokuk regarded the 1804 treaty as a fraud, but after having seen the size of American cities on the east coast in 1824, he did not think the Sauks could successfully oppose the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Americans knew Keokuk was for peace and would not wage war against them. For this reason, the Americans gave him many gifts, hoping to bribe Keokuk into moving across the Mississippi into Iowa. The American plan succeeded when Keokuk and a majority of the tribe decided to leave. However, about 800 Sauks—roughly one-sixth of the tribe—chose instead to resist American expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_56_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_56-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_(Sauk_leader)" title="Black Hawk (Sauk leader)">Black Hawk</a>, a war captain who had fought against the United States in the War of 1812 and was now in his 60s, emerged as the leader of this faction in 1829.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Keokuk, Black Hawk was not a civil chief, but he became Keokuk's primary rival for influence within the tribe. Black Hawk had actually signed a treaty in May 1816 that affirmed the disputed 1804 land cession, but he insisted that what had been written down was different from what had been spoken at the treaty conference. According to Black Hawk, the "whites were in the habit of saying one thing to the Indians and putting another thing down on paper."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Keokuk1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Native American chief in regalia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Keokuk1.jpg/170px-Keokuk1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Keokuk1.jpg/255px-Keokuk1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Keokuk1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="268" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption>Keokuk by <a href="/wiki/George_Catlin" title="George Catlin">George Catlin</a>, c. 1830s</figcaption></figure> <p>Black Hawk was determined to hold onto Saukenuk, a village at the confluence of the Rock River with the Mississippi, where he lived and had been born. When the Sauks returned to the village in 1829 after their annual winter hunt in the west, they found that it had been occupied by squatters who were anticipating the sale of land.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After months of clashes with the squatters, the Sauks left in September 1829 for the next winter hunt. Hoping to avoid further confrontations, Keokuk told Forsyth that he and his followers would not return to Saukenuk.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Against the advice of Keokuk and Forsyth, Black Hawk's faction returned to Saukenuk in the spring of 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This time, they were joined by more than 200 <a href="/wiki/Kickapoo_people" title="Kickapoo people">Kickapoos</a>, a people who had often allied with the Sauks.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Hawk and his followers became known as the "<a href="/wiki/British_Band" title="British Band">British Band</a>" because they sometimes flew a British flag to defy claims of U.S. sovereignty, and because they hoped to gain the support of the British at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Malden" title="Fort Malden">Fort Malden</a> in Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_Hawk_1831_newspaper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Black_Hawk_1831_newspaper.jpg/220px-Black_Hawk_1831_newspaper.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Black_Hawk_1831_newspaper.jpg/330px-Black_Hawk_1831_newspaper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Black_Hawk_1831_newspaper.jpg/440px-Black_Hawk_1831_newspaper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Newspaper account of the alarm caused by Sauk returning to <a href="/wiki/Saukenuk" class="mw-redirect" title="Saukenuk">Saukenuk</a>, <i>Washington National Intelligencer</i>, June 13, 1831</figcaption></figure> <p>When the British Band once again returned to Saukenuk in 1831, Black Hawk's following had grown to about 1,500 people, and now included some <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi" title="Potawatomi">Potawatomis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a people with close ties to the Sauks and Meskwakis.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American officials determined to force the British Band out of the state. General <a href="/wiki/Edmund_P._Gaines" title="Edmund P. Gaines">Edmund P. Gaines</a>, commander of the Western Department of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a>, assembled troops with the hope of intimidating Black Hawk into leaving. The army had no cavalry to pursue the Sauks should they flee further into Illinois on horseback, and so on June 5 Gaines requested that the state <a href="/wiki/Militia_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Militia in the United States">militia</a> provide a mounted battalion.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Illinois governor <a href="/wiki/John_Reynolds_(Illinois_politician)" title="John Reynolds (Illinois politician)">John Reynolds</a> had already alerted the militia; about 1,500 volunteers turned out.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, Keokuk convinced many of Black Hawk's followers to leave Illinois.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 25, 1831, Gaines sent troops to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vandruff_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vandruff Island (page does not exist)">Vandruff Island</a> across from Saukenuk. The island had been named for a farmer and trader who operated a ferry, as well as sold liquor to the natives, which had previously prompted a raid by Black Hawk to destroy the whiskey.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This time, underbrush had grown to impede the militiamen from landing, so the next day the militia tried to assault Saukenuk itself, only to find that Black Hawk and his followers had abandoned the village and recrossed the Mississippi.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 30, Black Hawk, <a href="/wiki/Quashquame" title="Quashquame">Quashquame</a>, and other Sauk leaders met with Gaines and signed an agreement in which the Sauks promised to remain west of the Mississippi and to break off further contact with the British in Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Black_Hawk's_return"><span id="Black_Hawk.27s_return"></span>Black Hawk's return</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Black Hawk's return"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In late 1831, <a href="/wiki/Neapope" title="Neapope">Neapope</a>, a Sauk civil chief, returned from Fort Malden and told Black Hawk that the British and the other Illinois tribes were prepared to support the Sauks against the United States. Why Neapope made these claims, which would prove to be unfounded, is unclear. Historians have described Neapope's report to Black Hawk as "wishful thinking"<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the product of a "fertile imagination".<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_66_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_66-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Hawk welcomed the information, though he would later criticize Neapope for misleading him. He spent the winter in an unsuccessful attempt to recruit additional allies from other tribes and from Keokuk's followers.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Neapope's erroneous report, <a href="/wiki/Wabokieshiek" title="Wabokieshiek">Wabokieshiek</a> ("White Cloud"), a shaman known to Americans as the "Winnebago Prophet", had claimed that other tribes were ready to support Black Hawk.<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_66_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_66-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wabokieshiek's mother was a <a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk" title="Ho-Chunk">Ho-Chunk</a> (Winnebago), but his father had belonged to a Sauk clan that provided the tribe's civil leaders. When Wabokieshiek joined the British Band in 1832, he would become the ranking Sauk civil chief in the group.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His village, <a href="/wiki/Prophetstown,_Illinois" title="Prophetstown, Illinois">Prophetstown</a>, was about thirty-five miles up the Rock River from Saukenuk.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The village was inhabited by about 200<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_56_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_56-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ho-Chunks, Sauks, Meskwakis, Kickapoos, and Potawatomis who were dissatisfied with tribal leaders who refused to stand up to American expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although some Americans would later characterize Wabokieshiek as a primary instigator of the Black Hawk War, the Winnebago Prophet, according to historian John Hall, "actually discouraged his followers from resorting to armed conflict with the whites".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On April 5, 1832, the British Band entered Illinois once again.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numbering about 500 warriors and 600 non-combatants, they crossed near the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Iowa_River" title="Iowa River">Iowa River</a> over to Yellow Banks (present-day <a href="/wiki/Oquawka,_Illinois" title="Oquawka, Illinois">Oquawka, Illinois</a>), and then headed north.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Hawk's intentions upon reentering Illinois are not entirely clear, since reports from both colonists and Indian sources are conflicting. Some said that the British Band intended to reoccupy Saukenuk, while others said that the destination was Prophetstown.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian Kerry Trask, "even Black Hawk may not have been sure where they were going and what they intended to do".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the British Band moved into Illinois, American officials urged Wabokieshiek to advise Black Hawk to turn back. Previously, the Winnebago Prophet had encouraged Black Hawk to come to Prophetstown, arguing that the 1831 agreement made with General Gaines prohibited a return to Saukenuk, but did not forbid the Sauks from moving to Prophetstown.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Now, instead of telling Black Hawk to turn back, Wabokieshiek told him that, as long as the British Band remained peaceful, the Americans would have no choice but to let them settle at Prophetstown, especially if the British and the area tribes supported the band.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the British Band traveled with armed guards as a security precaution, Black Hawk was probably hoping to avoid a war when he reentered Illinois. The presence of women, children, and the elderly indicated that the band was not a war party.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Intertribal_war_and_American_policy">Intertribal war and American policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Intertribal war and American policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the return of Black Hawk's band worried U.S. officials, they were at the time more concerned about the possibility of a war among the <a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Native American tribes</a> in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most accounts of the Black Hawk War focus on the conflict between Black Hawk and the United States, but historian John Hall argues that this overlooks the perspective of many Native American participants. According to Hall, "the Black Hawk War also involved an intertribal conflict that had smoldered for decades".<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tribes along the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mississippi_River" title="Upper Mississippi River">Upper Mississippi</a> had long fought for control of diminishing hunting grounds, and the Black Hawk War provided an opportunity for some Natives to resume a war that had nothing to do with Black Hawk.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After having displaced the British as the dominant outside power following the War of 1812, the United States had assumed the role of mediator in intertribal disputes. Before the Black Hawk War, U.S. policy discouraged intertribal warfare. This was not strictly for humanitarian reasons: intertribal warfare made it more difficult for the United States to acquire Indian land and move the tribes to the West, a policy known as <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a>, which had become the primary goal by the late 1820s.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> U.S. efforts at mediation included multi-tribal treaty councils at <a href="/wiki/Prairie_du_Chien,_Wisconsin" title="Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin">Prairie du Chien</a> in <a href="/wiki/First_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="First Treaty of Prairie du Chien">1825</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chien">1830</a>, in which tribal boundaries were drawn.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Native Americans sometimes resented American mediation, especially young men, for whom warfare was an important avenue of social advancement.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fort_armstrong.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Fort_armstrong.JPG/220px-Fort_armstrong.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Fort_armstrong.JPG/330px-Fort_armstrong.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Fort_armstrong.JPG/440px-Fort_armstrong.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2415" data-file-height="1610" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fort_Armstrong,_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Armstrong, Illinois">Fort Armstrong</a> was located on Rock Island, which is now known as <a href="/wiki/Rock_Island_Arsenal" title="Rock Island Arsenal">Arsenal Island</a>. The view is from the Illinois side, with Iowa in the background.</figcaption></figure> <p>The situation was complicated by the American <a href="/wiki/Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">spoils system</a>. After <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> assumed the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. presidency</a> in March 1829, many competent <a href="/wiki/Indian_agent" title="Indian agent">Indian agents</a> were replaced by unqualified Jackson loyalists, argues historian John Hall. Men like <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Forsyth_(Indian_agent)" title="Thomas Forsyth (Indian agent)">Thomas Forsyth</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Marsh_(pioneer)" title="John Marsh (pioneer)">John Marsh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_McKenney" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas McKenney">Thomas McKenney</a> were replaced by less qualified men such as <a href="/wiki/Felix_St._Vrain" title="Felix St. Vrain">Felix St. Vrain</a>. In the 19th century, historian <a href="/wiki/Lyman_Draper" title="Lyman Draper">Lyman Draper</a> argued that the Black Hawk War could have been avoided had Forsyth remained as the agent to the <a href="/wiki/Sauk_people" title="Sauk people">Sauks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1830, violence threatened to undo American attempts at preventing intertribal warfare. In May, Dakotas (<a href="/wiki/Santee_Sioux" class="mw-redirect" title="Santee Sioux">Santee Sioux</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Menominee" title="Menominee">Menominees</a> killed fifteen <a href="/wiki/Meskwaki" title="Meskwaki">Meskwakis</a> attending a treaty conference at Prairie du Chien. In retaliation, a party of Meskwakis and Sauks killed twenty-six Menominees, including women and children, at Prairie du Chien in July 1831.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American officials discouraged the Menominees from seeking revenge, but the western bands of the tribe formed a coalition with the Dakotas to strike at the Sauks and Meskwakis.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hoping to prevent the outbreak of a wider war, American officials ordered the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army">U.S. Army</a> to arrest the Meskwakis who massacred the Menominees.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General Gaines was ill, and so his subordinate, Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Henry_Atkinson_(soldier)" title="Henry Atkinson (soldier)">Henry Atkinson</a>, received the assignment.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atkinson was a middle-aged officer who had ably handled administrative and diplomatic tasks, most notably during the 1827 <a href="/wiki/Winnebago_War" title="Winnebago War">Winnebago War</a>, but he had never seen combat.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 8, he set out from <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Barracks" class="mw-redirect" title="Jefferson Barracks">Jefferson Barracks</a> in Missouri, moving up the Mississippi River by steamboat with about 220 soldiers. By chance, Black Hawk and his British Band had just crossed into Illinois. Although Atkinson did not realize it, his boats passed Black Hawk's band.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Atkinson arrived at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Armstrong,_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Armstrong, Illinois">Fort Armstrong</a> on <a href="/wiki/Rock_Island_Arsenal" title="Rock Island Arsenal">Rock Island</a> on April 12, he learned that the British Band was in <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, and that most of the Meskwakis he wanted to arrest were now with the band.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like other American officials, Atkinson was convinced that the British Band intended to start a war. Because he had few troops at his disposal, Atkinson hoped to get support from the Illinois state militia. He wrote to Governor Reynolds on April 13, describing—and perhaps purposely exaggerating—the threat that the British Band posed.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reynolds, who was eager for a war to drive the Indians out of the state, responded as Atkinson had hoped: he called for militia volunteers to assemble at <a href="/wiki/Beardstown,_Illinois" title="Beardstown, Illinois">Beardstown</a> by April 22 to begin a thirty-day enlistment. The 2,100 men who volunteered were organized into a brigade of five regiments under Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Whiteside" title="Samuel Whiteside">Samuel Whiteside</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the militiamen was <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_in_the_Black_Hawk_War" title="Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War">23-year-old Abraham Lincoln</a>, who was elected captain of his company.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Initial_diplomacy">Initial diplomacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Initial diplomacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shabbona_(chief)1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Shabbona_%28chief%291.jpg/170px-Shabbona_%28chief%291.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Shabbona_%28chief%291.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="238" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi" title="Potawatomi">Potawatomi</a> chief <a href="/wiki/Shabbona" title="Shabbona">Shabbona</a> tried to keep his tribe out of the war.</figcaption></figure> <p>After Atkinson's arrival at Rock Island on April 12, 1832, he, Keokuk, and Meskwaki chief <a href="/wiki/Wapello_(chief)" title="Wapello (chief)">Wapello</a> sent emissaries to the British Band, which was now ascending the Rock River. Black Hawk rejected the messages advising him to turn back.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colonel <a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a>, a regular army officer who served under Atkinson, later stated that Atkinson should have made an attempt to stop the British Band by force. Some historians have agreed, arguing that Atkinson could have prevented the outbreak of war with more decisive action or astute diplomacy. Cecil Eby charged that "Atkinson was a paper general, unwilling to proceed until all risk had been eliminated".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kerry Trask, however, argued that Atkinson was correct in believing that he did not yet have enough troops to stop the British Band.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Patrick Jung, leaders on both sides had little chance of avoiding bloodshed at this point, because the militiamen and some of Black Hawk's warriors were spoiling for a fight.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, Black Hawk learned that the <a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk" title="Ho-Chunk">Ho-Chunk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi" title="Potawatomi">Potawatomi</a> tribes were less supportive than anticipated. As in other tribes, different bands of these tribes often pursued different policies.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ho-Chunks who lived along the Rock River in Illinois had family ties to the Sauks; they cautiously supported the British Band while trying not to provoke the Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ho-Chunks in Wisconsin were more divided. Some bands, remembering their loss to the Americans in the 1827 <a href="/wiki/Winnebago_War" title="Winnebago War">Winnebago War</a>, decided to stay clear of the conflict. Other Ho-Chunks with ties to the Dakotas and Menominees, most notably <a href="/wiki/Waukon_Decorah" title="Waukon Decorah">Waukon Decorah</a> and his brothers, were eager to fight against the British Band.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most Potawatomis wanted to remain neutral in the conflict, but found it difficult to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many settlers, recalling the <a href="/wiki/Fort_Dearborn_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Dearborn massacre">Fort Dearborn massacre</a> of 1812, distrusted the Potawatomis and assumed that they would join Black Hawk's uprising.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Potawatomi leaders worried that the tribe as a whole would be punished if any Potawatomis supported Black Hawk. At a council outside Chicago on May 1, 1832, Potawatomi leaders including <a href="/wiki/Billy_Caldwell" title="Billy Caldwell">Billy Caldwell</a> "passed a resolution declaring any Potawatomi who supported Black Hawk a traitor to his tribe".<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In mid May, Potawatomi chiefs <a href="/wiki/Shabonna" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabonna">Shabonna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waubonsie" title="Waubonsie">Waubonsie</a> told Black Hawk that neither they nor the British would come to his aid.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Without British supplies, adequate provisions, or Native allies, Black Hawk realized that his band was in serious trouble.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By some accounts, he was ready to negotiate with Atkinson to end the crisis, but an ill-fated encounter with Illinois militiamen would end all possibility of a peaceful resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stillman's_Run"><span id="Stillman.27s_Run"></span>Stillman's Run</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Stillman's Run"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stillman%27s_Run" title="Battle of Stillman's Run">Battle of Stillman's Run</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Major_Isaiah_Stillman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Major_Isaiah_Stillman.jpg/170px-Major_Isaiah_Stillman.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Major_Isaiah_Stillman.jpg/255px-Major_Isaiah_Stillman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Major_Isaiah_Stillman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Stillman" title="Isaiah Stillman">Isaiah Stillman</a>, militia commander at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stillman%27s_Run" title="Battle of Stillman's Run">Battle of Stillman's Run</a></figcaption></figure> <p>General <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Whiteside" title="Samuel Whiteside">Samuel Whiteside</a>'s militia brigade had been mustered into federal service at Rock Island under General Atkinson in late April, and divided into four regiments (commanded by Colonels John DeWitt, Jacob Fry, John Thomas, and Samuel M. Thompson), and a scout or spy battalion commanded by <a href="/wiki/James_D._Henry" title="James D. Henry">James D. Henry</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with judge William Thomas as their quartermaster. Atkinson had allowed Reynolds, Whiteside, and the militiamen to leave up the Rock River on April 27, while he brought up the rear with the regular soldiers, directing his least trained and disciplined men—to "move upon the Indians should they be within striking distance without waiting for my arrival".<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_84_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_84-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Governor Reynolds accompanied the expedition as a major general of militia. </p><p>On May 10, the militia marching up the Rock River in pursuit of the British Band reached Prophetstown (about 35 miles from their starting point at the confluence). Rather than wait per Atkinson's plan, they burned White Cloud's empty village, and proceeded about 40 miles upriver to Dixon's Ferry, where they waited for Atkinson and his troops.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ford_p._78_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ford_p._78-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Reynolds wanted to allow the 260 eager militiamen not yet federalized to continue further as scouts, the cautious Whiteside insisted on waiting for Atkinson at the settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dixon's Ferry had actually been established in 1826 by Ogee, of half-native ancestry, where the wagon trail connecting Peoria to the lead mines in Galena crossed the Rock River; settlers had established cabins along the Peoria/Galena trace and at the crossing, so that by 1829 its post office served settlers up the river as far as Rockford.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On May 12, learning that Black Hawk's band was only twenty-five miles away, eager militiamen led by Major <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Stillman" title="Isaiah Stillman">Isaiah Stillman</a> left Whiteside's encampment, making another camp on a tributary of the Rock River later named <a href="/wiki/Stillman_Valley,_Illinois" title="Stillman Valley, Illinois">Stillman Valley</a> after him. Seeing a small party of natives with a red flag, Major Samuel Hackelton and some men pursued without waiting for orders, and Hackelton killed a native before returning to Whiteside's camp with the news.<sup id="cite_ref-Ford_p._78_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ford_p._78-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Black Hawk and others were nearby, and near dusk on May 14 attacked Stillman's party in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stillman%27s_Run" title="Battle of Stillman's Run">Battle of Stillman's Run</a>. Accounts of the battle vary.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Hawk later stated that he sent three men under a white flag to parley, but the Americans imprisoned them and opened fire on a second group of emissaries who followed. Some militiamen claimed they never saw a white flag; others believed that the flag was a ruse the Indians used to set an ambush.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All accounts agree that Black Hawk's warriors attacked the militia camp at dusk, that the much more numerous militia were routed, and the survivors straggled into Whiteside's camp. To Black Hawk's surprise, his forty warriors killed twelve Illinois militiamen, and suffered only three fatalities.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Battle of Stillman's Run proved a turning point. Before the battle, Black Hawk had not committed to war. Now he determined to avenge what he saw as the treacherous killing of his warriors under a flag of truce.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whiteside too was incensed when he returned to the battle site with a burial party and viewed the mutilated corpses.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Stillman's defeat, American leaders like President Jackson and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Lewis Cass</a> refused to consider a diplomatic solution; they wanted a resounding victory over Black Hawk to serve as an example to other Native Americans who might consider similar uprisings.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Initial_raids">Initial raids</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Initial raids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="text-align:center; float:right; clear:right"> <tbody><tr> <td><div style="position: relative;"> <div style="position: absolute; left: 172px; top: 164px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stillman%27s_Run" title="Battle of Stillman's Run"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 180px; top: 163px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stillman%27s_Run" title="Battle of Stillman's Run">Stillman's Run</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 147px; top: 164px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Grove_ambush" title="Buffalo Grove ambush"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 81px; top: 163px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Grove_ambush" title="Buffalo Grove ambush">Buffalo Grove</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 110px; top: 154px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Plum_River_raid" title="Plum River raid"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 57px; top: 153px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Plum_River_raid" title="Plum River raid">Plum River</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 199px; top: 202px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Creek_massacre" title="Indian Creek massacre"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 199px; top: 191px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Creek_massacre" title="Indian Creek massacre">Indian Creek</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 128px; top: 138px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/St._Vrain_massacre" title="St. Vrain massacre"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 136px; top: 137px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/St._Vrain_massacre" title="St. Vrain massacre">St. Vrain</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 137px; top: 74px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Attacks_at_Fort_Blue_Mounds" title="Attacks at Fort Blue Mounds"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 145px; top: 73px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Attacks_at_Fort_Blue_Mounds" title="Attacks at Fort Blue Mounds">Fort Blue Mounds</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 123px; top: 108px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Spafford_Farm_massacre" title="Spafford Farm massacre"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 131px; top: 107px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Spafford_Farm_massacre" title="Spafford Farm massacre">Spafford Farm</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 129px; top: 99px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1832)" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1832)"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 137px; top: 98px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1832)" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1832)">Horseshoe Bend</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 131px; top: 125px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waddams_Grove" title="Battle of Waddams Grove"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 139px; top: 124px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waddams_Grove" title="Battle of Waddams Grove">Waddams Grove</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 126px; top: 135px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kellogg%27s_Grove" title="Battle of Kellogg's Grove"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 52px; top: 135px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kellogg%27s_Grove" title="Battle of Kellogg's Grove">Kellogg's Grove</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 165px; top: 211px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Attack_at_Ament%27s_Cabin" title="Attack at Ament's Cabin"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 173px; top: 210px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Attack_at_Ament%27s_Cabin" title="Attack at Ament's Cabin">Ament's Cabin</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 105px; top: 130px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Apple_River_Fort" title="Battle of Apple River Fort"><span style="float:left; width:8px; height:8px; font-size:8px; line-height:8px; word-spacing:8px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size:smaller; left: 36px; top: 120px; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Apple_River_Fort" title="Battle of Apple River Fort">Apple River Fort</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 81px; top: 113px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Sinsinawa_Mound_raid" title="Sinsinawa Mound raid"><span style="float:left; 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left: 184px; top: 137px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/7px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/11px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/14px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Rockford,_Illinois" title="Rockford, Illinois"><span style="float:left; width:7px; height:7px; font-size:7px; line-height:7px; word-spacing:7px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 144px; top: 133px; padding: 0;"><span style="position:relative; overflow:hidden; width:8px; height:8px; z-index:2;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/7px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/11px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/14px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span><span style="position:absolute; top:0; left:0; padding-top:5px; z-index:5;"><a href="/wiki/Freeport,_Illinois" title="Freeport, Illinois"><span style="float:left; width:7px; height:7px; font-size:7px; line-height:7px; word-spacing:7px; cursor:pointer;">   </span></a></span></span></div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 80px; top: 1px; padding: 0;">Michigan Territory (Wisconsin)</div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 200px; top: 260px; padding: 0;">Illinois</div> <div style="position: absolute; left: 3px; top: 173px; padding: 0;">Unorganized <br />Territory (Iowa)</div> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_Hawk_path.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Locator map of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois showing location of battles described in the text, the battles are clustered in northeast Illinois and southeast Wisconsin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Black_Hawk_path.png/300px-Black_Hawk_path.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Black_Hawk_path.png/450px-Black_Hawk_path.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Black_Hawk_path.png/600px-Black_Hawk_path.png 2x" data-file-width="706" data-file-height="750" /></a></span></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Map of Black Hawk War sites<br /><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/8px-Red_Battle_X.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/12px-Red_Battle_X.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Red_Battle_X.png/16px-Red_Battle_X.png 2x" data-file-width="151" data-file-height="154" /></span></span> <small>Battle (with name)</small> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/7px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/11px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/14px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span> <small>Fort / settlement</small> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/7px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/11px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/14px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span> <small>Native village</small><br /><small>Symbols are wikilinked to article</small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>With hostilities now underway, and few allies to depend upon, Black Hawk sought a place of refuge for the women, children, and elderly in his band. Accepting an offer from the Rock River Ho-Chunks, the band traveled further upriver to <a href="/wiki/Lake_Koshkonong" title="Lake Koshkonong">Lake Koshkonong</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Michigan_Territory" title="Michigan Territory">Michigan Territory</a> and camped in an isolated place known as the "Island".<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the non-combatants secure, members of the British Band, with a number of Ho-Chunk and Potawatomi allies, began raiding settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not all Native Americans in the region supported this turn of events; most notably, Potawatomi chief <a href="/wiki/Shabonna" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabonna">Shabonna</a> rode throughout the settlements, warning settlers of the impending attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The initial raiding parties consisted primarily of Ho-Chunk and Potawatomi warriors. The first attack came on May 19, 1832, when Ho-Chunks <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Grove_ambush" title="Buffalo Grove ambush">ambushed six men</a> near <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Grove,_Illinois_(Ogle_County)" class="mw-redirect" title="Buffalo Grove, Illinois (Ogle County)">Buffalo Grove, Illinois</a>, killing a man named William Durley.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Durley's <a href="/wiki/Scalping" title="Scalping">scalped</a> and mutilated body was found by Indian agent <a href="/wiki/Felix_St._Vrain" title="Felix St. Vrain">Felix St. Vrain</a>. The Indian agent was himself <a href="/wiki/St._Vrain_massacre" title="St. Vrain massacre">killed and mutilated</a>, along with three other men, several days later at <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%27s_Grove" title="Kellogg's Grove">Kellogg's Grove</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ho-Chunks and Potawatomis who took part in the war were sometimes motivated by grievances not directly related to Black Hawk's objectives.<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_95_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_95-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such incident was the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Creek_massacre" title="Indian Creek massacre">Indian Creek massacre</a>. In the spring of 1832, Potawatomis living along Indian Creek were upset that a settler named William Davis had dammed the creek, preventing fish from reaching their village. Davis ignored the protests, and assaulted a Potawatomi man who tried to dismantle the dam.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Black Hawk War provided the Indian Creek Potawatomis with an opportunity for revenge. On May 21, about fifty Potawatomis and three Sauks from the British Band attacked Davis's settlement, killing, scalping, and mutilating fifteen men, women, and children.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two teenage girls from the settlement were kidnapped and taken to Black Hawk's camp.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Ho-Chunk chief named White Crow negotiated their release two weeks later.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like other Rock River Ho-Chunks, White Crow was trying to placate the Americans while clandestinely aiding the British Band.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="American_reorganization">American reorganization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: American reorganization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>News of Stillman's defeat, the Indian Creek massacre, and other smaller attacks triggered panic among the settlers. Many fled to <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, then a small town, which became overcrowded with hungry refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Potawatomis also fled towards Chicago, not wanting to get caught in the conflict nor be mistaken for hostiles.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the region, settlers hurriedly organized militia units and built small forts.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Stillman's defeat on May 14, the regulars and militia continued up the Rock River to search for Black Hawk. The militiamen became discouraged at not being able to find the British Band. When they heard about the Indian raids, many deserted so that they could return home to defend their families.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As morale plummeted, Governor Reynolds asked his militia officers to vote on whether to continue the campaign. General Whiteside, disgusted with the performance of his men, cast the tie-breaking vote in favor of disbanding.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of Whiteside's brigade disbanded at <a href="/wiki/Ottawa,_Illinois" title="Ottawa, Illinois">Ottawa, Illinois</a>, on May 28. About 300 men, including Abraham Lincoln, agreed to remain in the field for twenty more days until a new militia force could be organized.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Whiteside's brigade disbanded, Atkinson organized a new force in June 1832 that he dubbed the "Army of the Frontier".<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The army consisted of 629 regular army infantrymen and 3,196 mounted militia volunteers. The militia was divided into three brigades commanded by Brigadier Generals <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Posey_(general)" title="Alexander Posey (general)">Alexander Posey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milton_Alexander" title="Milton Alexander">Milton Alexander</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_D._Henry" title="James D. Henry">James D. Henry</a>. Since many men were assigned to local patrols and guard duties, Atkinson had only 450 regulars and 2,100 militiamen available for campaigning.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many more militiamen served in units that were not part of the Army of the Frontier's three brigades. Abraham Lincoln, for example, reenlisted as a private in an independent company that was taken into federal service. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Dodge" title="Henry Dodge">Henry Dodge</a>, a Michigan territorial militia colonel who would prove to be one of the best commanders in the war,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> fielded a battalion of mounted volunteers that numbered 250 men at its strongest. The overall number of militiamen who took part in the war is not precisely known; the total from Illinois alone has been estimated at six to seven thousand.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to organizing a new militia army, Atkinson also began to recruit Native American allies, reversing the previous American policy of trying to prevent intertribal warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Menominees, Dakotas, and some Ho-Chunks bands were eager to go to war against the British Band. By June 6, agent <a href="/wiki/Joseph_M._Street" title="Joseph M. Street">Joseph M. Street</a> had assembled about 225 Natives at Prairie du Chien.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This force included about eighty Dakotas under <a href="/wiki/Wapasha_II" title="Wapasha II">Wabasha</a> and L'Arc, forty Menominees, and several bands of Ho Chunks.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Indian warriors followed their own leaders, Atkinson placed the force under the nominal command of <a href="/wiki/William_S._Hamilton" title="William S. Hamilton">William S. Hamilton</a>, a militia colonel and a son of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>. Hamilton would prove to be an unfortunate choice to lead the force; historian John Hall characterized him as "pretentious and unqualified".<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before long, the Indians became frustrated with marching around under Hamilton and not seeing any action. Some Menominee scouts remained, but most of the Natives eventually left Hamilton and fought the war on their own terms.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="June_raids">June raids</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: June raids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In June 1832, after hearing that Atkinson was forming a new army, Black Hawk began sending out raiding parties. Perhaps hoping to lead the Americans away from his camp at Lake Koshkonong, he targeted areas to the west.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first major attack occurred on June 14 near present-day <a href="/wiki/South_Wayne,_Wisconsin" title="South Wayne, Wisconsin">South Wayne, Wisconsin</a>, when a band of about 30 warriors attacked a group of farmers, <a href="/wiki/Spafford_Farm_massacre" title="Spafford Farm massacre">killing and scalping four</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pecatonica_Battleground1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of rolling hills, a river, and trees" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Pecatonica_Battleground1.jpg/220px-Pecatonica_Battleground1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Pecatonica_Battleground1.jpg/330px-Pecatonica_Battleground1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Pecatonica_Battleground1.jpg/440px-Pecatonica_Battleground1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="433" /></a><figcaption>An 1857 painting of the battlefield at Horseshoe Bend</figcaption></figure> <p>Responding to this attack, militia Colonel Henry Dodge gathered a force of twenty-nine mounted volunteers and set out in pursuit of the attackers. On June 16, Dodge and his men cornered about eleven of the raiders at a bend in the <a href="/wiki/Pecatonica_River" title="Pecatonica River">Pecatonica River</a>. In a brief battle, the Americans killed and scalped all of the Natives.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1832)" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1832)">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a> (or Battle of Pecatonica) was the first real American victory in the war, and helped restore public confidence in the volunteer militia force.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the same day of Dodge's victory, another skirmish took place at <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%27s_Grove" title="Kellogg's Grove">Kellogg's Grove</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Stephenson_County,_Illinois" title="Stephenson County, Illinois">Stephenson County, Illinois</a>. American forces had occupied Kellogg's Grove in an effort to intercept war parties raiding to the west. In the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Kellogg%27s_Grove" class="mw-redirect" title="First Battle of Kellogg's Grove">First Battle of Kellogg's Grove</a>, militia commanded by <a href="/wiki/Adam_W._Snyder" title="Adam W. Snyder">Adam W. Snyder</a> pursued a British Band raiding party of about thirty warriors. Three Illinois militiamen and six Native warriors died in the fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two days later, on June 18, militia under <a href="/wiki/James_W._Stephenson" title="James W. Stephenson">James W. Stephenson</a> encountered what was probably the same war party near <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Creek_(Illinois)" title="Yellow Creek (Illinois)">Yellow Creek</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waddams_Grove" title="Battle of Waddams Grove">Battle of Waddams Grove</a> became a hard-fought, hand-to-hand melee. Three militiamen and five or six Indians were killed in the action.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Back on June 6, when a civilian miner was killed by raiders near the village of <a href="/wiki/Blue_Mounds,_Wisconsin" title="Blue Mounds, Wisconsin">Blue Mounds</a> in the Michigan Territory, residents began to fear that the Rock River Ho-Chunks were joining the war.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 20, a Ho-Chunk raiding party estimated by one eyewitness to be as large as 100 warriors <a href="/wiki/Attacks_at_Fort_Blue_Mounds" title="Attacks at Fort Blue Mounds">attacked the settler fort</a> at Blue Mounds. Two militiamen were killed in the attack, one of whom was badly mutilated.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_Il_Apple_River_Fort2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A wooden stockade fronted by a wall of vertically placed logs and a corner blockhouse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Elizabeth_Il_Apple_River_Fort2.JPG/220px-Elizabeth_Il_Apple_River_Fort2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Elizabeth_Il_Apple_River_Fort2.JPG/330px-Elizabeth_Il_Apple_River_Fort2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Elizabeth_Il_Apple_River_Fort2.JPG/440px-Elizabeth_Il_Apple_River_Fort2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Replica of Apple River Fort in Elizabeth, Illinois</figcaption></figure> <p>On June 24, 1832, Black Hawk and about 200 warriors attacked at the hastily constructed <a href="/wiki/Apple_River_Fort" title="Apple River Fort">Apple River Fort</a>, near present-day <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth,_Illinois" title="Elizabeth, Illinois">Elizabeth, Illinois</a>. Local settlers, warned of Black Hawk's approach, took refuge in the fort, which was defended by about 20<sup id="cite_ref-Trask,_222_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trask,_222-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 35<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> militiamen. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Apple_River_Fort" title="Battle of Apple River Fort">Battle of Apple River Fort</a> lasted about forty-five minutes. The women and girls inside the fort, under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Armstrong_(settler)" title="Elizabeth Armstrong (settler)">Elizabeth Armstrong</a>, loaded muskets and molded bullets.<sup id="cite_ref-Trask,_222_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trask,_222-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After losing several men, Black Hawk broke off the siege, looted the nearby homes, and headed back towards his camp.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next day, June 25, Black Hawk's party encountered a militia battalion commanded by Major <a href="/wiki/John_Dement" title="John Dement">John Dement</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Kellogg%27s_Grove" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Battle of Kellogg's Grove">Second Battle of Kellogg's Grove</a>, Black Hawk's warriors drove the militiamen inside their fort and commenced a two-hour siege. After losing nine warriors and killing five militiamen, Black Hawk broke off the siege and returned to his main camp at Lake Koshkonong.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This would prove to be Black Hawk's last military success in the war. With his band running low on food, he decided to take them back across the Mississippi.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Final_campaign">Final campaign</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Final campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On June 15, 1832, President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>, displeased with Atkinson's handling of the war, appointed General <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a> to take command.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scott gathered about 950 troops from eastern army posts just as a <a href="/wiki/Second_cholera_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Second cholera pandemic">cholera pandemic</a> had spread to eastern North America.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Scott's troops traveled by steamboat from <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a>, across the Great Lakes towards Chicago, his men started getting sick from cholera, with many of them dying. At each place the vessels landed, the sick were deposited and soldiers deserted. By the time the last steamboat landed in Chicago, Scott had only about 350 effective soldiers left.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 29, Scott began a hurried journey west, ahead of his troops, eager to take command of what was certain to be the war's final campaign, but he would be too late to see any combat.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>General Atkinson, who learned in early July that Scott would be taking command, hoped to bring the war to a successful conclusion before Scott's arrival.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Americans had difficulty locating the British Band, however, thanks in part to false intelligence given to them by area Native Americans. Potawatomis and Ho-Chunks in Illinois, many of whom had sought to remain neutral in the war, decided to cooperate with the Americans. Tribal leaders knew that some of their warriors had aided the British Band, and so they hoped that a highly visible show of support for the Americans would dissuade U.S. officials from punishing the tribes after the conflict was over. Wearing white headbands to distinguish themselves from hostile Natives, Ho-Chunks and Potawatomis served as guides for Atkinson's army.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ho-Chunks sympathetic to the plight of Black Hawk's people misled Atkinson into thinking that the British Band was still at Lake Koshkonong. While Atkinson's men were trudging through the swamps and running low on provisions, the British Band had in fact relocated miles to the north.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Potawatomis under Billy Caldwell also managed to demonstrate support for the Americans while avoiding battle.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In mid-July, Colonel Dodge learned from métis trader Pierre Paquette that the British Band was camped near the Rock River rapids, at present <a href="/wiki/Hustisford,_Wisconsin" title="Hustisford, Wisconsin">Hustisford, Wisconsin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dodge and <a href="/wiki/James_D._Henry" title="James D. Henry">James D. Henry</a> set out in pursuit from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Winnebago" title="Fort Winnebago">Fort Winnebago</a> on July 15.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British Band, reduced to fewer than 600 people due to death and desertion, headed for the Mississippi River as the militia approached.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Americans pursued them, killing and scalping several Native stragglers along the way.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wisconsin_Heights">Wisconsin Heights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Wisconsin Heights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wisconsin_Heights" title="Battle of Wisconsin Heights">Battle of Wisconsin Heights</a></div> <p>On July 21, 1832, the militiamen caught up with the British Band near present-day <a href="/wiki/Sauk_City,_Wisconsin" title="Sauk City, Wisconsin">Sauk City, Wisconsin</a>. To buy time for the noncombatants to cross the Wisconsin River, Black Hawk and Neapope confronted the Americans in a rear guard action that became known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wisconsin_Heights" title="Battle of Wisconsin Heights">Battle of Wisconsin Heights</a>. Black Hawk was desperately outnumbered, leading about 50 Sauks and 60 to 70 Kickapoos against 750 militiamen.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The battle was a lopsided victory for the militiamen, who lost only one man while killing as many as 68 of Black Hawk's warriors.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the high casualties, the battle allowed much of the British Band, including many women and children, to escape across the river.<sup id="cite_ref-lewis_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lewis-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Hawk had managed to hold off a much larger force while allowing most of his people to escape, a difficult military operation that impressed some U.S. Army officers when they learned of it.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Battle of Wisconsin Heights had been a victory for the militia; no regular soldiers of the U.S. Army had been present.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atkinson and the regulars joined up with the volunteers several days after the battle. With a force of about 400 regulars and 900 militiamen, the Americans crossed the Wisconsin River on July 27 and resumed the pursuit of the British Band.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British Band was moving slow, encumbered with wounded warriors and people dying of starvation. The Americans followed the trail of dead bodies, cast off equipment, and the remains of horses the hungry Natives had eaten.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bad_Axe">Bad Axe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bad Axe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bad_Axe" title="Battle of Bad Axe">Battle of Bad Axe</a></div> <p>After the Battle of Wisconsin Heights, a messenger from Black Hawk had shouted to the militiamen that the starving British Band was going back across the Mississippi and would fight no more. No one in the American camp understood the message, however, since their Ho-Chunk guides were not present to interpret.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Hawk may have believed that the Americans had gotten the message, and that they had not pursued him after the Battle of Wisconsin Heights. He apparently expected that the Americans were going to let his band recross the Mississippi untouched.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Bad_Axe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Battle_of_Bad_Axe.jpg/300px-Battle_of_Bad_Axe.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Battle_of_Bad_Axe.jpg/450px-Battle_of_Bad_Axe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Battle_of_Bad_Axe.jpg/600px-Battle_of_Bad_Axe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>Native American women and children fleeing for their lives, preparing to cross the Mississippi River, during Black Hawk's defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bad_Axe" title="Battle of Bad Axe">Battle of Bad Axe</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Americans, however, had no intentions of letting the British Band escape. The <a href="/wiki/Warrior_(steamboat)" title="Warrior (steamboat)"><i>Warrior</i></a>, a steamboat outfitted with an artillery piece, patrolled the Mississippi River, while American-allied Dakotas, Menominees, and Ho-Chunks watched the banks.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 1, the <i>Warrior</i> arrived at the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Bad_Axe_River" title="Bad Axe River">Bad Axe River</a>, where the Dakotas told the Americans that they would find Black Hawk's people.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Hawk raised a white flag in an attempt to surrender, but his intentions may have been garbled in translation.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Americans, in no mood to accept a surrender anyway, thought that the Indians were using the white flag to set an ambush. When they became certain that the Natives on land were the British Band, they opened fire. Twenty-three Natives were killed in the exchange of gunfire, while just one soldier on the <i>Warrior</i> was injured.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Das_illustrirte_Mississippithal_-_dargestellt_in_80_nach_der_natur_aufgenommenen_ansichten_vom_wasserfalle_zu_St._Anthony_an_bis_zum_gulf_von_Mexico_(1857)_(14590318379).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Das_illustrirte_Mississippithal_-_dargestellt_in_80_nach_der_natur_aufgenommenen_ansichten_vom_wasserfalle_zu_St._Anthony_an_bis_zum_gulf_von_Mexico_%281857%29_%2814590318379%29.jpg/300px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Das_illustrirte_Mississippithal_-_dargestellt_in_80_nach_der_natur_aufgenommenen_ansichten_vom_wasserfalle_zu_St._Anthony_an_bis_zum_gulf_von_Mexico_%281857%29_%2814590318379%29.jpg/450px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Das_illustrirte_Mississippithal_-_dargestellt_in_80_nach_der_natur_aufgenommenen_ansichten_vom_wasserfalle_zu_St._Anthony_an_bis_zum_gulf_von_Mexico_%281857%29_%2814590318379%29.jpg/600px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3088" data-file-height="2218" /></a><figcaption>The steamboat <i><a href="/wiki/Warrior_(steamboat)" title="Warrior (steamboat)">Warrior</a></i> firing upon escaping Native Americans trying to get across the Mississippi River to safety in Iowa</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <i>Warrior</i> left, Black Hawk decided to seek refuge in the north with the <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwes</a>. Only about 50 people, including Wabokieshiek, agreed to go with him; the others remained, determined to cross the Mississippi and return to Sauk territory.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next morning, on August 2, Black Hawk was heading north when he learned that the American army had closed in on the members of the British Band who were trying to cross the Mississippi.<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_169_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_169-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He tried to rejoin the main body, but after a skirmish with American troops near present-day <a href="/wiki/Victory,_Wisconsin" title="Victory, Wisconsin">Victory, Wisconsin</a>, he gave up the attempt.<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_169_154-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_169-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sauk chief <a href="/wiki/Weesheet" class="mw-redirect" title="Weesheet">Weesheet</a> later criticized Black Hawk and Wabokieshiek for abandoning the people during the final battle of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bad_Axe" title="Battle of Bad Axe">Battle of Bad Axe</a> began at about 9:00 am on August 2 after the Americans caught up with the remnants of the British Band a few miles downstream from the mouth of the Bad Axe River. The British Band was reduced to roughly 500 people by this time, including about 150 warriors.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The warriors fought with the Americans while the Native noncombatants frantically tried to cross the river. Many made it to one of the two nearby islands, but were dislodged after the steamboat <i>Warrior</i> returned at noon, carrying regulars and Menominees allied with the Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The battle was another lopsided victory for the Americans, who lost just 14 men, including one Menominee who died by <a href="/wiki/Friendly_fire" title="Friendly fire">friendly fire</a> and was buried with honors alongside the US soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least 260 members of the British Band were killed, including about 110 who drowned while trying to cross the river. Although the regular soldiers of the U.S. Army generally tried to avoid needless bloodshed, many of the militiamen intentionally killed Native noncombatants, sometimes in cold blood.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The encounter was, in the words of historian Patrick Jung, "less of a battle and more of a massacre".<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_172_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_172-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Menominees from <a href="/wiki/Green_Bay,_Wisconsin" title="Green Bay, Wisconsin">Green Bay</a>, who had mobilized a battalion of nearly 300 men, arrived too late for the battle. They were upset at having missed the chance to fight their old enemies, and so on August 10, General Scott sent 100 of them after a part of the British Band that had escaped.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indian agent Samuel C. Stambaugh, who accompanied them, urged the Menominees not to take any scalps, but Chief Grizzly Bear insisted that such a prohibition could not be enforced.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The group tracked down about ten Sauks, only two of whom were warriors. The Menominees killed and scalped the warriors, but spared the women and children.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Dakotas, who had volunteered 150 warriors to fight against the Sauks and Meskwakis, also arrived too late to participate in the Battle of Bad Axe, but they pursued the members of the British Band who made it across the Mississippi into Iowa. On about August 9, in the final engagement of the war,<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they attacked the remnants of the British Band along the <a href="/wiki/Cedar_River_(Iowa_River)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cedar River (Iowa River)">Cedar River</a>, killing 68 and taking 22 prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ho-Chunks also hunted survivors of the British Band, taking between fifty and sixty scalps.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Black Hawk War resulted in the deaths of 77 settlers, militiamen, and regular soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_172_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_172-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This figure does not include the deaths from cholera suffered by the relief force under General Winfield Scott. Estimates of how many members of the British Band died during the conflict range from about 450 to 600, or about half of the 1,100 people who entered Illinois with Black Hawk in 1832.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of American men with political ambitions fought in the Black Hawk War. At least seven future <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senators</a> took part, as did four future Illinois governors; future governors of Michigan, Nebraska, and the <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Territory" title="Wisconsin Territory">Wisconsin Territory</a>; and two future U.S. presidents, Taylor and Lincoln.<sup id="cite_ref-lewis2d_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lewis2d-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Black Hawk War demonstrated to American officials the need for mounted troops to fight a mounted foe. During the war, the U.S. Army did not have cavalry; the only mounted soldiers were part-time volunteers. After the war, Congress created the <a href="/wiki/US_Army_Rangers#Black_Hawk_War" class="mw-redirect" title="US Army Rangers">Mounted Ranger Battalion</a> under the command of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Dodge" title="Henry Dodge">Henry Dodge</a>, which was expanded to the <a href="/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)">1st Cavalry Regiment</a> in 1833.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_Hawk's_imprisonment_and_legacy"><span id="Black_Hawk.27s_imprisonment_and_legacy"></span>Black Hawk's imprisonment and legacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Black Hawk's imprisonment and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_hawk_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Black_hawk_statue.jpg/220px-Black_hawk_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Black_hawk_statue.jpg/330px-Black_hawk_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Black_hawk_statue.jpg/440px-Black_hawk_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Black Hawk, <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_State_Historic_Site" title="Black Hawk State Historic Site">Black Hawk State Historic Site</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After the Battle of Bad Axe, Black Hawk, Wabokieshiek, and their followers traveled northeast to seek refuge with the Ojibwes. American officials offered a reward of $100 and forty horses for Black Hawk's capture.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While camping near present-day <a href="/wiki/Tomah,_Wisconsin" title="Tomah, Wisconsin">Tomah, Wisconsin</a>, Black Hawk's party was seen by a passing Ho-Chunk man, who alerted his village chief. The village council sent a delegation to Black Hawk's camp and convinced him to surrender to the Americans. On August 27, 1832, Black Hawk and Wabokieshiek surrendered at Prairie du Chien to Indian agent Joseph Street.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colonel Zachary Taylor took custody of the prisoners, and sent them by steamboat to Jefferson Barracks, escorted by Lieutenants <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Anderson_(Union_officer)" title="Robert Anderson (Union officer)">Robert Anderson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By war's end, Black Hawk and nineteen other leaders of the British Band were incarcerated at Jefferson Barracks. Most of the prisoners were released in the succeeding months, but in April 1833, Black Hawk, Wabokieshiek, Neapope, and three others were transferred to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe" title="Fort Monroe">Fort Monroe</a> in Virginia, which was better equipped to hold prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The American public was eager to catch a glimpse of the captured Indians. Large crowds gathered in <a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cincinnati" title="Cincinnati">Cincinnati</a> to watch them pass.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 26, the prisoners met briefly with President Jackson in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, before being taken to Fort Monroe.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in prison they were treated as celebrities: they posed for portraits by artists such as <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bird_King" title="Charles Bird King">Charles Bird King</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Jarvis" title="John Wesley Jarvis">John Wesley Jarvis</a>, and a dinner was held in their honor before they left.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American officials decided to release the prisoners after a few weeks. First, however, the Natives were required to visit several large U.S. cities on the east coast. This was a tactic often used when Native American leaders came to the East, because it was thought that a demonstration of the size and power of the United States would discourage future resistance to U.S. expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning on June 4, 1833, Black Hawk and his companions were taken on a tour of <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. They attended dinners and plays, and were shown a battleship, various public buildings, and a military parade. Huge crowds gathered to see them. Black Hawk's handsome son Nasheweskaska (Whirling Thunder) was a particular favorite.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reaction in the west, however, was less welcoming. When the prisoners traveled through <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a> on their way home, one crowd burned and hanged <a href="/wiki/Effigies" class="mw-redirect" title="Effigies">effigies</a> of the Indians.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to historian Kerry Trask, Black Hawk and his fellow prisoners were treated like celebrities because the Indians served as a living embodiment of the <a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" title="Noble savage">noble savage</a> myth that had become popular in the eastern United States. Then and later, argues Trask, Americans absolved themselves of complicity in the dispossession of Native Americans by expressing admiration or sympathy for defeated Indians like Black Hawk.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mythologizing of Black Hawk continued, argues Trask, with the many plaques and memorials that were later erected in his honor. "Indeed," writes Trask, "most of the reconstructed memory of the Black Hawk War has been designed to make white people feel good about themselves."<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Hawk also became an admired symbol of resistance among Native Americans, even among descendants of those who had opposed him. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treaties_and_removals">Treaties and removals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Treaties and removals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Black Hawk War marked the end of Native armed resistance to U.S. expansion in the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territory" title="Northwest Territory">Old Northwest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war provided an opportunity for American officials such as Andrew Jackson, Lewis Cass, and John Reynolds to compel Native American tribes to sell their lands east of the Mississippi River and move to the West, a policy known as <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a>. Officials conducted a number of treaties after the war to purchase the remaining Native American land claims in the Old Northwest. The Dakotas and Menominees, who won approval from American officials for their role in the war, largely avoided postwar removal pressure until later decades.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the war, American officials learned that some Ho-Chunks had aided Black Hawk more than had been previously known.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eight Ho-Chunks were briefly imprisoned at Fort Winnebago for their role in the war, but charges against them were eventually dropped due to a lack of witnesses.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1832, General Scott and Governor Reynolds conducted a treaty with the Ho-Chunks at Rock Island. The Ho-Chunks ceded all their land south of the Wisconsin River in exchange for a forty-mile strip of land in Iowa and annual payments of $10,000 for twenty-seven years.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The land in Iowa was known as the "Neutral Ground" because it had been designated in 1830 as a buffer zone between the Dakotas and their enemies to the south, the Sauks and Meskwakis.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scott hoped that the settlement of the Ho-Chunks in the Neutral Ground would help keep the peace.<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_186_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_186-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ho-Chunks remaining in Wisconsin were pressured to sign a removal treaty in 1837, even though leaders such as Waukon Decorah had been U.S. allies during the Black Hawk War. General Atkinson was assigned to use the army to forcibly relocate those Ho-Chunks who refused to move to Iowa.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the September 1832 treaty with the Ho-Chunks, Scott and Reynolds conducted another with the Sauks and Meskwakis, with Keokuk and Wapello serving as the primary representatives of their tribes. Scott told the assembled chiefs that "if a particular part of a nation goes out of their country, and makes war, the whole nation is responsible".<sup id="cite_ref-Jung,_186_187-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung,_186-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tribes sold about 6 million acres (24,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_Purchase" title="Black Hawk Purchase">land in eastern Iowa</a> to the United States for payments of $20,000 per year for thirty years, among other provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Keokuk was granted a <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">reservation</a> within the cession and recognized by the Americans as the primary chief of the Sauks and Meskwakis.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tribes sold the reservation to the United States in 1836, and additional land in Iowa the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their last lands in Iowa were sold in 1842, and most of the Natives moved to a reservation in Kansas.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thanks to the decision of Potawatomi leaders to aid the U.S. during the war, American officials did not seize tribal land as <a href="/wiki/War_reparations" title="War reparations">war reparations</a>. Instead, only three individuals accused of leading the Indian Creek massacre were tried in court; they were acquitted.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the drive to purchase Potawatomi land west of the Mississippi began in October 1832, when <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tippecanoe" title="Treaty of Tippecanoe">commissioners in Indiana</a> bought a large amount of Potawatomi land, even though not all Potawatomi bands were represented at the treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tribe was compelled to sell their remaining land west of the Mississippi in a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Chicago" title="Treaty of Chicago">treaty held in Chicago</a> in September 1833.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Black_Hawk_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Black Hawk War">Second Black Hawk War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixty_Years%27_War" title="Sixty Years' War">Sixty Years' War</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 2: Jung, 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jung,_172-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_172_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_172_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_172_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_172_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eby, 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://southernhistorians.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Understanding-the-WBTS-Compiled-Download-Website-Oct-2015.pdf">"Understanding the war between the States – Chapter 24"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+the+war+between+the+States+%E2%80%93+Chapter+24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsouthernhistorians.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F10%2FUnderstanding-the-WBTS-Compiled-Download-Website-Oct-2015.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Hawk+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 21–26; Jung, 13–14; Trask, 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 14; Trask, 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Owens, 87–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 70; Jung, 52–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 54–55; Nichols, 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jung,_56-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_56_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_56_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 53; Trask, 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 90; Trask, 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 47, 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 90, 127; Jung, 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edmunds, 235–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eby, 83–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eby, 88; Jung, 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rockislandpreservation.org/postcards-from-home/view-of-vandruff-island-from-black-hawk-tower/">"View of Vandruff Island from Black Hawk Tower » RIPS"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=View+of+Vandruff+Island+from+Black+Hawk+Tower+%C2%BB+RIPS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rockislandpreservation.org%2Fpostcards-from-home%2Fview-of-vandruff-island-from-black-hawk-tower%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Hawk+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eby, 88–89; Jung, 63; Trask, 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 64; Trask, 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jung,_66-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_66_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_66_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 69; Hall, 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 63, 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dowd, 193; Hall, 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 74; Hall, 116; Trask, 145, gives a more general date of "probably April 6".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 74–75; Trask, 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 149–50; Hall, 129–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 73; Trask, 146–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 110; Jung, 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eby, 35; Jung, 74–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung 50, 70; Hall, 99–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 55, 95; Buckley, 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buckley, 172–75; Hall, 77–78, 100–02.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 9, 24, 55, 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 103–04. Eby, 79, echoed the argument.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 49; Hall, 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 113–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 115; Jung, 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 115; Jung, 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 115; Jung, 71–72; Trask, 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 117; Jung, 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 76; Trask, 158–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 79–80; Trask, 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 76–77; Nichols, 117–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eby, 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 152–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 122–23; Jung, 78–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 86–87; Edmunds, 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 83–84; Nichols, 120; Trask, 180–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harrington, George B. <i>Past and Present of <a href="/wiki/Bureau_County,_Illinois" title="Bureau County, Illinois">Bureau County, Illinois</a></i>. Chicago, IL, USA: Pioneer Publishing (1906). p. 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jung,_84-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_84_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ford_(politician)" title="Thomas Ford (politician)">Thomas Ford</a>, <i>A History of Illinois: from its commencement as a state in 1818 to 1847</i>, annotated and introduced by Rodney O. Davis. University of Illinois Press (1995). pp. 76–77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dnr.illinois.gov/publications/Documents/00000097.pdf"><i>Prophetstown State Park</i></a>, Illinois Department of Natural Resources</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ford_p._78-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ford_p._78_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ford_p._78_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ford, p. 78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 85–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William V. Pooley, "Settlement of Illinois, 1830–1850" (1905). Thesis submitted to the University of Wisconsin. Ann Arbor, Michigan, University Microfilms (1968). p. 147</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, p. 88; Trask, p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, pp. 88–89; Trask, p. 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, p. 89; Hall, pp. 133–134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Battle of Stillman's Run" in William B. Kessell, <i>Encyclopedia of Native American Wars and Warfare</i> (2005), available online</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, pp. 118–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 93–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 94, 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edmunds, 237; Trask, 200; Jung, 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 95; Trask, 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 97; Trask, 198–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jung,_95-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_95_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 135–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 95; Trask, 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 96; Trask, 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 212–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 152–54; 164–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 200–06; Jung, 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edmunds, 238; Jung, 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 194–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 100; Trask, 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 101; Trask, 196–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 114–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 143–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 148; Jung 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 162–63; Jung, 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 109–10; Trask, 233–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 110; Trask, 234–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 111–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 112; Trask, 220–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 112; Trask, 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trask,_222-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trask,_222_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trask,_222_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 121–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 118; Trask, 272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 140–41; Trask, 271–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 141; Trask, 276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edmunds, 239; Hall, 244–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 131–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 165–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 146–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 149–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 153–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 156; Trask, 260–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lewis-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lewis_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis" class="citation web cs1">Lewis, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090815021319/http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/blackhawk/page2c.html">"The Black Hawk War of 1832"</a>. <i>Abraham Lincoln Digitization Project</i>. Northern Illinois University. p. 2c. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/blackhawk/page2c.html">the original</a> on August 15, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 22,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Abraham+Lincoln+Digitization+Project&rft.atitle=The+Black+Hawk+War+of+1832&rft.pages=2c&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flincoln.lib.niu.edu%2Fblackhawk%2Fpage2c.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Hawk+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 161; Trask, 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 162; Trask, 270–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nichols, 131; Trask, 266.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 168–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 192–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 164–65; Hall, 194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 165; Nichols, 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 166; Trask, 279.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 166; Nichols, 133. Jung says "about 60 people" left with Black Hawk; Nichols, 135, estimated "perhaps forty".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jung,_169-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_169_154-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_169_154-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 180–81; Trask, 282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 286–87; Jung, 170–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 171–72; Hall, 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 285–86, 293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 175; Hall, 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 177; Hall, 210–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 172, 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lewis2d-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lewis2d_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis" class="citation web cs1">Lewis, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090619071514/http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/blackhawk/page2d.html">"The Black Hawk War of 1832"</a>. <i>Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project</i>. Northern Illinois University. p. 2d. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/blackhawk/page2d.html">the original</a> on June 19, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Abraham+Lincoln+Historical+Digitization+Project&rft.atitle=The+Black+Hawk+War+of+1832&rft.pages=2d&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flincoln.lib.niu.edu%2Fblackhawk%2Fpage2d.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+Hawk+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung 205–06.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 182; Trask, 294–95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 190–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 298; Jung, 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 192; Trask, 298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nichols, 147; Trask, 298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 191; Nichols, 148; Trask, 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 195–97; Nichols, 148–49; Trask, 300–01.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 301–02; Jung, 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 298–303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buckley, 210; Hall, 255; Jung, 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 209–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 212–13; Jung, 285–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 49; Buckley, 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jung,_186-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_186_187-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jung,_186_187-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 259–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trask, 304; Jung, 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, 201–02.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edmunds, 238; Hall, 208, 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 215–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edmunds, 247–48; Hall, 231.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Buckley, Jay H. <i>William Clark: Indian Diplomat</i>. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3911-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3911-1">978-0-8061-3911-1</a></li> <li>Drake, Benjamin. The life and adventures of Black Hawk: with sketches of Keokuk, the Sac and Fox Indians, and the late Black Hawk war. 1849. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015024448279&view=1up&seq=15">The life and adventures of Black Hawk: with sketches of Keokuk, the Sac and Fox Indians, and the late Black Hawk war.</a></li> <li>Eby, Cecil. <i>"That Disgraceful Affair", The Black Hawk War</i>. New York: Norton, 1973. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-05484-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-05484-5">0-393-05484-5</a></li> <li>Edmunds, R. David. <i>The Potawatomis: Keepers of the Fire</i>. University of Oklahoma Press, 1978. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-1478-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-1478-9">0-8061-1478-9</a></li> <li>Hall, John W. <i>Uncommon Defense: Indian Allies in the Black Hawk War</i>. Harvard University Press, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-03518-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-03518-6">0-674-03518-6</a></li> <li>Jung, Patrick J. <i>The Black Hawk War of 1832</i>. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-3811-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-3811-4">0-8061-3811-4</a></li> <li>Lewis, James E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.lib.niu.edu/illinois/lincoln/topics/blackhawk/background">"The Black Hawk War: Background"</a>. Northern Illinois University Digital Library. Accessed 8 December 2023.</li> <li>Nichols, Roger L. <i>Black Hawk and the Warrior's Path</i>. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88295-884-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-88295-884-4">0-88295-884-4</a></li> <li>Nichols, Roger L. <i>Warrior Nations: The United States and Indian Peoples.</i> Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013</li> <li>Owens, Robert M. <i>Mr. Jefferson's Hammer: William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy</i>. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3842-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3842-8">978-0-8061-3842-8</a></li> <li>Trask, Kerry A. <i>Black Hawk: The Battle for the Heart of America</i>. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-7758-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-7758-8">0-8050-7758-8</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Black Hawk. <i>Life of Black Hawk</i>. Originally published 1833. Reprinted often in various editions. Revised in 1882 with inauthentic embellishments; most modern editions restore the original wording.</li> <li>Whitney, Ellen M., ed. <i>The Black Hawk War, 1831–1832: Volume I, Illinois Volunteers</i>. Springfield, Illinois: Illinois State Historical Library, 1970. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912154-22-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-912154-22-5">0-912154-22-5</a>. Published as Volume XXXV of <i>Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library</i>. Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackhawkwar183135whit">online</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li> <li>———, ed. <i>The Black Hawk War, 1831–1832: Volume II, Letters & Papers, Part I, April 30, 1831 – June 23, 1832</i>. Springfield, Illinois: Illinois State Historical Library, 1973. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912154-22-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-912154-22-5">0-912154-22-5</a>. Published as Volume XXXVI of <i>Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library</i>. Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackhawkwar183136whit">online</a> from the Internet Archive.</li> <li>———, ed. <i>The Black Hawk War, 1831–1832: Volume II, Letters & Papers, Part II, June 24, 1832 – October 14, 1834</i>. Springfield, Illinois: Illinois State Historical Library, 1975. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912154-24-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-912154-24-1">0-912154-24-1</a>. Published as Volume XXXVII of <i>Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library</i>.</li> <li>———, ed. <i>The Black Hawk War, 1831–1832: Volume II, Letters and Papers, Part III, Appendices and Index.</i> Springfield, Illinois: Illinois State Historical Library, 1978. Published as Volume XXXVIII of <i>Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Hawk_War&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Black_Hawk_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Black Hawk War">Black Hawk War</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Black Hawk War</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Black+Hawk+War&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Black+Hawk+War">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Black+Hawk+War&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/black-hawk/the-autobiography-of-ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak-or-black-hawk">The Autobiography of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak, or Black Hawk</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_Ebooks" title="Standard Ebooks">Standard Ebooks</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.lib.niu.edu/illinois/lincoln/newsalem">The Black Hawk War of 1832</a>, Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project, Northern Illinois University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/tp-012/">Turning Points in Wisconsin History: The Black Hawk War</a> (documents from the Wisconsin Historical Society)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pritzkermilitary.org/whats_on/pritzker-military-presents/john-w-hall-uncommon-defense/">Webcast Lecture</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Pritzker_Military_Museum_%26_Library" title="Pritzker Military Museum & Library">Pritzker Military Museum & Library</a> by John W. Hall on March 27, 2010</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/102113858">Black Hawk's autobiography through the interpretation of Antoine LeClaire</a> ; J.B. Patterson, amanuensis and editor of the first edition; an introduction and notes, critical and historical, by James D. Rishell. 1912.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100697750">The Black Hawk watch tower in the county of Rock Island</a>, State of Illinois by John H. Hauberg for Rock Island Chamber of Commerce. 1925.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Black_Hawk_War_of_18325872" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Black_Hawk_War_(1832)" title="Template:Black Hawk War (1832)"><abbr title="View this template" 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style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/British_Band" title="British Band">British Band</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_(Sauk_leader)" title="Black Hawk (Sauk leader)">Black Hawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checokalako" title="Checokalako">Checokalako</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapope" title="Neapope">Neapope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamisseu" title="Pamisseu">Pamisseu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towaunonne" title="Towaunonne">Towaunonne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabokieshiek" title="Wabokieshiek">Wabokieshiek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Dakota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wapasha_II" title="Wapasha II">Wapasha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk" title="Ho-Chunk">Ho-Chunk</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waukon_Decorah" title="Waukon Decorah">Waukon Decorah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Menominee" title="Menominee">Menominee</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Oshkosh" title="Chief Oshkosh">Oshkosh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Potawatomi people">Potawatomi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Caldwell" title="Billy Caldwell">Billy Caldwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabbona" title="Shabbona">Shabbona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waubonsie" title="Waubonsie">Waubonsie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Sauk_people" title="Sauk people">Sauk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meskwaki" title="Meskwaki">Meskwaki</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keokuk_(Sauk_leader)" title="Keokuk (Sauk leader)">Keokuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wapello_(chief)" title="Wapello (chief)">Wapello</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">U.S. people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Atkinson_(soldier)" title="Henry Atkinson (soldier)">Henry Atkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Brady_(general)" title="Hugh Brady (general)">Hugh Brady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Militia_(United_States)" title="Militia (United States)">Militia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Giles_Adams" title="John Giles Adams">John Giles Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Alexander" title="Milton Alexander">Milton Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Bailey_(militia_officer)" title="David Bailey (militia officer)">David Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Brigham" title="Ebenezer Brigham">Ebenezer Brigham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dement" title="John Dement">John Dement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Dodge" title="Henry Dodge">Henry Dodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Hamilton" title="William S. Hamilton">William S. Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_D._Henry" title="James D. Henry">James D. Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_in_the_Black_Hawk_War" title="Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War">Abraham Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Posey_(general)" title="Alexander Posey (general)">Alexander Posey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Rountree" title="John H. Rountree">John H. Rountree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Stillman" title="Isaiah Stillman">Isaiah Stillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Stephenson" title="James W. Stephenson">James W. Stephenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Whiteside" title="Samuel Whiteside">Samuel Whiteside</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Davenport" title="George Davenport">George Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gratiot" title="Henry Gratiot">Henry Gratiot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_LeClaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoine LeClaire">Antoine LeClaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_M._Street" title="Joseph M. Street">Joseph M. Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_St._Vrain" title="Felix St. Vrain">Felix St. Vrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Throckmorton" title="Joseph Throckmorton">Joseph Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satterlee_Clark" title="Satterlee Clark">Satterlee Clark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Apple_River_Fort" title="Apple River Fort">Apple River Fort</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Grove,_Ogle_County,_Illinois" title="Buffalo Grove, Ogle County, Illinois">Buffalo Grove</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dixon%27s_Ferry" title="Dixon's Ferry">Dixon's Ferry</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fort_Armstrong_(Illinois)" title="Fort Armstrong (Illinois)">Fort Armstrong</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fort_Beggs" title="Fort Beggs">Fort Beggs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Galena,_Illinois" title="Galena, Illinois">Galena</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Indian_Creek_(Fox_River)" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Creek (Fox River)">Indian Creek</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kellogg%27s_Grove" title="Kellogg's Grove">Kellogg's Grove</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Plum_River" title="Plum River">Plum River</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_State_Historic_Site" title="Black Hawk State Historic Site">Saukenuk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stillman_Creek_(Illinois)" title="Stillman Creek (Illinois)">Stillman Creek</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stillman%27s_Run_Battle_Site" title="Stillman's Run Battle Site">Stillman's Run Battle Site</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Waddams_Grove,_Illinois" title="Waddams Grove, Illinois">Waddams Grove</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Creek_(Illinois)" title="Yellow Creek (Illinois)">Yellow Creek</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Territory" title="Michigan Territory">Michigan Territory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>)</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bad_Axe_River" title="Bad Axe River">Bad Axe River</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Blue_Mounds_Fort" title="Blue Mounds Fort">Blue Mounds Fort</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fort_Crawford" title="Fort Crawford">Fort Crawford</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fort_Defiance_(Wisconsin)" title="Fort Defiance (Wisconsin)">Fort Defiance</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fort_Hamilton_(Wisconsin)" title="Fort Hamilton (Wisconsin)">Fort Hamilton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fort_Jackson_(Wisconsin)" title="Fort Jackson (Wisconsin)">Fort Jackson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fort_Koshkonong" title="Fort Koshkonong">Fort Koshkonong</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fort_Union_(Wisconsin)" title="Fort Union (Wisconsin)">Fort Union</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gratiot%27s_Grove_(Wisconsin)" title="Gratiot's Grove (Wisconsin)">Gratiot's Grove</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Helena,_Wisconsin" title="Helena, Wisconsin">Helena</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wiota,_Wisconsin" title="Wiota, Wisconsin">Hamilton's Diggings</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pecatonica_River" title="Pecatonica River">Pecatonica River</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roxbury,_Wisconsin" title="Roxbury, Wisconsin">Roxbury</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sinsinawa,_Wisconsin" title="Sinsinawa, Wisconsin">Sinsinawa Mound</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Soldiers_Grove,_Wisconsin" title="Soldiers Grove, Wisconsin">Soldiers Grove</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victory,_Wisconsin" title="Victory, Wisconsin">Victory</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Heights_Battlefield" title="Wisconsin Heights Battlefield">Wisconsin Heights Battlefield</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_River" title="Wisconsin River">Wisconsin River</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Engagements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minor_attacks_of_the_Black_Hawk_War" title="Minor attacks of the Black Hawk War">Minor engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stillman%27s_Run" title="Battle of Stillman's Run">Battle of Stillman's Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Grove_ambush" title="Buffalo Grove ambush">Buffalo Grove ambush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plum_River_raid" title="Plum River raid">Plum River raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Creek_massacre" title="Indian Creek massacre">Indian Creek massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Vrain_massacre" title="St. Vrain massacre">St. Vrain massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_at_Fort_Blue_Mounds" title="Attacks at Fort Blue Mounds">Attacks at Fort Blue Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spafford_Farm_massacre" title="Spafford Farm massacre">Spafford Farm massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1832)" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1832)">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waddams_Grove" title="Battle of Waddams Grove">Battle of Waddams Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kellogg%27s_Grove" title="Battle of Kellogg's Grove">Battle of Kellogg's Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_at_Ament%27s_Cabin" title="Attack at Ament's Cabin">Attack at Ament's Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Apple_River_Fort" title="Battle of Apple River Fort">Battle of Apple River Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinsinawa_Mound_raid" title="Sinsinawa Mound raid">Sinsinawa Mound raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wisconsin_Heights" title="Battle of Wisconsin Heights">Battle of Wisconsin Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bad_Axe" title="Battle of Bad Axe">Battle of Bad Axe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_Purchase" title="Black Hawk Purchase">Black Hawk Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_Tree" title="Black Hawk Tree">Black Hawk Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keokuk%27s_Reserve" title="Keokuk's Reserve">Keokuk's Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_St._Louis_(1804)" title="Treaty of St. Louis (1804)">Treaty of St. Louis (1804)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="First Treaty of Prairie du Chien">First Treaty of Prairie du Chien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chien</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Warrior_(steamboat)" title="Warrior (steamboat)">Warrior</a></i></li></ul> 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title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_Wars" title="Fox Wars">Fox Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_campaign" title="Illinois campaign">Illinois Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Territory_in_the_War_of_1812" title="Illinois Territory in the War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winnebago_War" title="Winnebago War">Winnebago War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Black Hawk War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Mormon_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Mormon War">Illinois Mormon War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Illinois in the American Civil War">Illinois in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Coal_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Coal Wars">Illinois Coal Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Mormon_teachings_on_skin_color" title="Mormon teachings on skin color">Mormon teachings on skin color</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamanites" title="Lamanites">Lamanites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephites" title="Nephites">Nephites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism and slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Utah" title="History of slavery in Utah">History of slavery in Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_relief_of_Indian_Slaves_and_Prisoners" title="Act for the relief of Indian Slaves and Prisoners">Indian Slavery Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interracial_marriage_and_the_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" title="Interracial marriage and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">Interracial marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Placement_Program" title="Indian Placement Program">Indian Placement Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%931872)" title="Black Hawk War (1865–1872)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakara%27s_War" title="Wakara's War">Wakara's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_River_Massacre" title="Bear River Massacre">Bear River Massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massacre by Mormons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Creek_massacre" title="Battle Creek massacre">Battle Creek massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Provo River massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephi_massacre" title="Nephi massacre">Nephi massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circleville_Massacre" title="Circleville Massacre">Circleville Massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massacre of Mormons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_Green_massacre" title="Fountain Green massacre">Fountain Green massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Creek_Canyon_massacre" title="Salt Creek Canyon massacre">Salt Creek Canyon massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sagwitch" title="Sagwitch">Chief Sagwitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuba_(chief)" title="Tuba (chief)">Chief Tuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanosh_(chief)" title="Kanosh (chief)">Chief Kanosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_P._Lee" title="George P. Lee">George P. Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_Young_Kanosh" title="Sally Young Kanosh">Kahpeputz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Tillohash" title="Tony Tillohash">Tony Tillohash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Echo_Hawk" title="Larry Echo Hawk">Larry Echo Hawk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><a href="/wiki/Category:Mormonism_and_Native_Americans" title="Category:Mormonism and Native 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