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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>The Qur'an</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Qur'an-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rashidi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rashidi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Rashidi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rashidi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Umayyad" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umayyad"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Umayyad</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umayyad-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abbasid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbasid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Abbasid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abbasid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Andalusi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Andalusi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Andalusi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Andalusi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maghrebi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maghrebi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Maghrebi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maghrebi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mamluk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mamluk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Mamluk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mamluk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Ottoman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nahda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nahda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Nahda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nahda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.1</span> <span>Poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prose_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prose_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.2</span> <span>Prose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prose_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>Modern literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poetry_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.1</span> <span>Poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Novels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.2</span> <span>Novels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.3</span> <span>Plays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Arabic_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Arabic_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classical Arabic literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_Arabic_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classical Arabic literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_Arabic_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poetry_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Religious scholarship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culinary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culinary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Culinary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culinary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-fiction_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-fiction_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Non-fiction literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-fiction_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compilations_and_manuals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compilations_and_manuals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Compilations and manuals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compilations_and_manuals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biography,_history,_and_geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biography,_history,_and_geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Biography, history, and geography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biography,_history,_and_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Diaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_theory_and_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_theory_and_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.4</span> <span>Literary theory and criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_theory_and_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fiction_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiction_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Fiction literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiction_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Epic_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epic_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Epic literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epic_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maqama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maqama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Maqama</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maqama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Love_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Love_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.3</span> <span>Love literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Love_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Murder_mystery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Murder_mystery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.4</span> <span>Murder mystery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Murder_mystery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satire_and_comedy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satire_and_comedy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.5</span> <span>Satire and comedy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satire_and_comedy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theatre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theatre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.6</span> <span>Theatre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theatre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_novels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_novels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.7</span> <span>Philosophical novels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_novels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.8</span> <span>Science fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arabic_literature_for_young_readers_and_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabic_literature_for_young_readers_and_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.9</span> <span>Arabic literature for young readers and children</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabic_literature_for_young_readers_and_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_in_Arabic_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_Arabic_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Women in Arabic literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Women_in_Arabic_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Women in Arabic literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Women_in_Arabic_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Medieval_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Medieval_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The Medieval Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Medieval_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Al-Nahda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Al-Nahda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Al-Nahda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Al-Nahda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_20th_century_to_early_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_20th_century_to_early_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Late 20th century to early 21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_20th_century_to_early_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_Arabic_literature_by_women_writers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_Arabic_literature_by_women_writers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Contemporary Arabic literature by women writers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_Arabic_literature_by_women_writers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Literary criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outside_views_of_Arabic_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_views_of_Arabic_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Outside views of Arabic literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outside_views_of_Arabic_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Arabic literature</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 62 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-62" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">62 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="أدب عربي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أدب عربي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lliteratura_%C3%A1rabe" title="Lliteratura árabe – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lliteratura árabe" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fr%C9%99b_%C9%99d%C9%99biyyat%C4%B1" title="Ərəb ədəbiyyatı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ərəb ədəbiyyatı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="আরবি সাহিত্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আরবি সাহিত্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sastra_Arab" title="Sastra Arab – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Sastra Arab" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D3%99%D1%80%D3%99%D0%BF_%D3%99%D2%99%D3%99%D0%B1%D0%B8%D3%99%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Ғәрәп әҙәбиәте – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ғәрәп әҙәбиәте" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Арабска литература – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Арабска литература" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapska_knji%C5%BEevnost" title="Arapska književnost – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Arapska književnost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_%C3%A0rab" title="Literatura àrab – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Literatura àrab" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabische_Literatur" title="Arabische Literatur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Arabische Literatur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araabiakeelne_kirjandus" title="Araabiakeelne kirjandus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Araabiakeelne kirjandus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_%C3%A1rabe" title="Literatura árabe – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Literatura árabe" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arablingva_literaturo" title="Arablingva literaturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Arablingva literaturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabiar_literatura" title="Arabiar literatura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arabiar literatura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ادبیات عربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ادبیات عربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litt%C3%A9rature_arabophone" title="Littérature arabophone – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Littérature arabophone" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_%C3%A1rabe" title="Literatura árabe – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Literatura árabe" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%9E%8D_%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99" title="아랍 문학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아랍 문학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Արաբական գրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արաբական գրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="अरबी साहित्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अरबी साहित्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapska_knji%C5%BEevnost" title="Arapska književnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Arapska književnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sastra_Arab" title="Sastra Arab – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sastra Arab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letteratura_araba" title="Letteratura araba – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Letteratura araba" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%80_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ಅರಬ್ಬೀ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅರಬ್ಬೀ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="არაბული ლიტერატურა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="არაბული ლიტერატურა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D3%99%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Араб әдебиеті – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Араб әдебиеті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litterae_Arabicae" title="Litterae Arabicae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Litterae Arabicae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_irodalom" title="Arab irodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Arab irodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Арапска книжевност – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Арапска книжевност" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letteratura_G%C4%A7arbija" title="Letteratura Għarbija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Letteratura Għarbija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="არაბული ლიტერატურა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="არაბული ლიტერატურა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sastera_Arab" title="Sastera Arab – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sastera Arab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%97%E1%80%AE%E1%80%85%E1%80%AC%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1" title="အာရဗီစာပေ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အာရဗီစာပေ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabische_literatuur" title="Arabische literatuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Arabische literatuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A9%E3%83%93%E3%82%A2%E8%AA%9E%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="アラビア語文学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アラビア語文学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabisk_litteratur" title="Arabisk litteratur – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Arabisk litteratur" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_adabiyoti" title="Arab adabiyoti – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Arab adabiyoti" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A4" title="ਅਰਬੀ ਸਾਹਿਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਰਬੀ ਸਾਹਿਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8" title="عربی ادب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="عربی ادب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8" title="عربي ادب – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عربي ادب" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_arabska" title="Literatura arabska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Literatura arabska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_%C3%A1rabe" title="Literatura árabe – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Literatura árabe" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_arab%C4%83" title="Literatura arabă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Literatura arabă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Арабская литература – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Арабская литература" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%C3%ABrsia_arabe" title="Letërsia arabe – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Letërsia arabe" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8" title="عربي ادب – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="عربي ادب" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabsk%C3%A1_literat%C3%BAra" title="Arabská literatúra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Arabská literatúra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabska_knji%C5%BEevnost" title="Arabska književnost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Arabska književnost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8E%DA%98%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%B9%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="وێژەی عەرەبی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="وێژەی عەرەبی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%9A%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Арапска књижевност – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Арапска књижевност" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapska_knji%C5%BEevnost" title="Arapska književnost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Arapska književnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabisk_litteratur" title="Arabisk litteratur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Arabisk litteratur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="அராபிய இலக்கியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அராபிய இலக்கியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%80_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ಅರಬ್ಬೀ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಅರಬ್ಬೀ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">History of literature</a><br /><span class="nobold">by era</span></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_text_corpora" title="Ancient text corpora">corpora</a>)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature#Bronze_Age" title="Ancient literature">Bronze Age</a></b></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language#History" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_inscriptions" title="Hittite inscriptions">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language#Vocabulary_and_texts" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_language#Sample_text_and_vocabulary" title="Lydian language">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_texts" title="Ugaritic texts">Ugarit</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature#Classical_Antiquity" title="Ancient literature">Classical</a></b></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hebrew_writings" title="Ancient Hebrew writings">Ancient Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashokan_Prakrit" title="Ashokan Prakrit">Ancient Prakrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Classical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Classical Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language#Attestations" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language#Inscriptions" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature#Persian_literature_of_the_medieval_and_pre-modern_periods" title="Persian literature">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Old Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_literature" title="Syriac literature">Syriac</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_medieval_literature" title="Early medieval literature">Early medieval</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_literature" title="Armenian literature">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language#Records" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Byzantine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_literature" title="Coptic literature">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhari_language#Buddhist_manuscripts_in_Gāndhāri" title="Gandhari language">Gandhari Prakrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez#History_and_literature" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_literature" title="Georgian literature">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_literature#Heian_literature" title="Japanese literature">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_literature" title="Kannada literature">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharashtri_Prakrit#Early_literature" title="Maharashtri Prakrit">Maharashtri Prakrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages#Pre-Proto-Mongolic" title="Mongolic languages">Pre-Proto-Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German_literature" title="Old High German literature">Old German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Khmer#Attestation_and_History" title="Old Khmer">Old Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Malay_language#Old_Malay" title="History of the Malay language">Old Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic#Literary_works" title="Old Turkic">Old Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_literature" title="Old Norse literature">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_literature" title="Pali literature">Pali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka_language#Texts" title="Saka language">Saka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language#Discovery_of_Sogdian_texts" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_literature" title="Tibetan literature">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Welsh_literature" title="Medieval Welsh literature">Welsh</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval</a> by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/10th_century_in_literature" title="10th century in literature">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11th_century_in_literature" title="11th century in literature">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12th_century_in_literature" title="12th century in literature">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13th_century_in_literature" title="13th century in literature">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_century_in_literature" title="14th century in literature">14th</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_literature" title="Early modern literature">Early modern</a> by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/15th_century_in_literature" title="15th century in literature">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_literature" title="16th century in literature">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17th_century_in_literature" title="17th century in literature">17th</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Modern by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/18th_century_in_literature" title="18th century in literature">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_literature" title="19th century in literature">19th</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_literature" title="Contemporary literature">Contemporary</a> by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_literature" title="20th century in literature">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_in_literature" title="21st century in literature">21st</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#ddddff;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/16px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/24px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="274" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_literature_by_era" title="Template:History of literature by era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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href="/wiki/Early_medieval_literature" title="Early medieval literature">Early medieval</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em 0 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Rome" title="Matter of Rome">Matter of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_France" title="Matter of France">Matter of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">Matter of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Byzantine</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;padding:0.15em 0.6em 0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em 0 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arabic</a></li></ul> <p><i>By century</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/10th_century_in_literature" title="10th century in literature">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11th_century_in_literature" title="11th century in literature">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12th_century_in_literature" title="12th century in literature">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13th_century_in_literature" title="13th century in literature">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_century_in_literature" title="14th century in literature">14th</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;padding:0.15em 0.6em 0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_literature" title="Renaissance literature">European Renaissance</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em 0 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/15th_century_in_literature" title="15th century in literature">15th century</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#ddddff;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/16px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/24px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="274" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medieval_and_Renaissance_literature" title="Template:Medieval and Renaissance literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medieval_and_Renaissance_literature" title="Template talk:Medieval and Renaissance literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval_and_Renaissance_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval and Renaissance literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Arabic literature</b> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الأدب العربي</span> / <a href="/wiki/ALA-LC" class="mw-redirect" title="ALA-LC">ALA-LC</a>: <i>al-Adab al-‘Arabī</i>) is the writing, both as <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, produced by writers in the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a>. The Arabic word used for literature is <i><a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Adab</a></i>, which comes from a meaning of <a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">etiquette</a>, and which implies politeness, culture and enrichment.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arabic literature emerged in the 5th century with only fragments of the written language appearing before then. The <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> would have the greatest lasting effect on <a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">Arab culture</a> and its literature. Arabic literature flourished during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, but has remained vibrant to the present day, with poets and prose-writers across the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, as well as in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_diaspora" title="Arab diaspora">Arab diaspora</a>, achieving increasing success.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2005_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2005-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Islamic_poetry">Pre-Islamic poetry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pre-Islamic poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabic_poetry" title="Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry">Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry</a></div> <p>Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry is referred to in traditional Arabic literature as <i>al-shiʿr al-Jāhilī</i>, "poetry from the <a href="/wiki/Jahiliyyah" title="Jahiliyyah">Jahiliyyah</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic Arabia</a>, markets such as <a href="/wiki/Souk_Okaz" title="Souk Okaz">Souq Okaz</a>, in addition to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Souq_Majanna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Souq Majanna (page does not exist)">Souq Majanna</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%A9" class="extiw" title="ar:سوق مجنة">ar</a>]</span> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Souq_Dhi_al-Maj%C4%81z&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Souq Dhi al-Majāz (page does not exist)">Souq Dhi al-Majāz</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%B0%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2" class="extiw" title="ar:سوق ذي المجاز">ar</a>]</span>, were destinations for caravans from throughout the peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At these markets poetry was recited, and the dialect of the <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a>, the tribe in control of Souq Okaz of Mecca, became predominant.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Days_of_the_Arabs" title="Days of the Arabs">Days of the Arabs</a></i>, tales in both <a href="/wiki/Prosimetrum" title="Prosimetrum">meter and prose</a>, contains the oldest extant Arabic narratives, focusing on battles and raids.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poets">Poets</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Poets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarah_on_horse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Antarah_on_horse.jpg/220px-Antarah_on_horse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Antarah_on_horse.jpg/330px-Antarah_on_horse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Antarah_on_horse.jpg/440px-Antarah_on_horse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="805" /></a><figcaption>Portrayal of the <a href="/wiki/Jahiliyyah" title="Jahiliyyah">Jahili</a> period poet-knight <a href="/wiki/Antarah_ibn_Shaddad" title="Antarah ibn Shaddad">Antarah ibn Shaddad</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Notable poets of the pre-Islamic period were <a href="/wiki/Abu_Layla_al-Muhalhel" title="Abu Layla al-Muhalhel">Abu Layla al-Muhalhel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Shanfara" title="Al-Shanfara">Al-Shanfara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also the poets of the <i><a href="/wiki/Mu%27allaqat" title="Mu'allaqat">Mu'allaqat</a></i>, or "the suspended ones", a group of poems said to have been on display in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These poets are <a href="/wiki/Imru%27_al-Qais" title="Imru' al-Qais">Imru' al-Qais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tarafa" title="Tarafa">Tarafah ibn al-‘Abd</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abid_Ibn_al-Abrass&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abid Ibn al-Abrass (page does not exist)">Abid Ibn al-Abrass</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B5" class="extiw" title="ar:عبيد بن الأبرص">ar</a>]</span>, <a href="/wiki/Harith_ibn_Hilliza" class="mw-redirect" title="Harith ibn Hilliza">Harith ibn Hilliza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_Kulthum" title="Amr ibn Kulthum">Amr ibn Kulthum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zuhayr_ibn_Abi_Sulma" class="mw-redirect" title="Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma">Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Nabigha" title="Al-Nabigha">Al-Nabigha al-Dhubiyānī</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antara_Ibn_Shaddad" class="mw-redirect" title="Antara Ibn Shaddad">Antara Ibn Shaddad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-A%27sha" title="Al-A'sha">al-A'sha al-Akbar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lab%C4%ABd" class="mw-redirect" title="Labīd">Labīd ibn Rabī'ah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Al-Khansa" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Khansa">Al-Khansa</a> stood out in her poetry of <i><a href="/wiki/Rith%C4%81%27" title="Rithā'">rithā'</a></i> or <a href="/wiki/Elegy" title="Elegy">elegy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Hutay%27a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Hutay'a (page does not exist)">al-Hutay'a</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9" class="extiw" title="ar:الحطيئة">ar</a>]</span> was prominent for his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mad%C4%ABh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Madīh (page does not exist)">madīh</a></i>, or "<a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">panegyric</a>", as well as his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hij%C4%81%27&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hijā' (page does not exist)">hijā'</a> </i><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A1_(%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%B1)" class="extiw" title="ar:هجاء (شعر)">ar</a>]</span>, or "<a href="/wiki/Invective" title="Invective">invective</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prose">Prose</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Prose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As literature was transmitted orally and not written, prose represents little of what has been passed down.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main forms were parables (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">المَثَل</span></span> <i>al-mathal</i>), speeches (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الخطابة</span></span> <i>al-khitāba</i>), and stories (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">القِصَص</span></span> <i>al-qisas</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quss_Bin_S%C4%81%27ida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quss Bin Sā'ida (page does not exist)">Quss Bin Sā'ida</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A" class="extiw" title="ar:قس بن ساعدة الإيادي">ar</a>]</span> was a notable Arab ruler, writer, and <a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">orator</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aktham_Bin_Sayfi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aktham Bin Sayfi (page does not exist)">Aktham Bin Sayfi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%AB%D9%85_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A" class="extiw" title="ar:أكثم بن صيفي التميمي">ar</a>]</span> was also one of the most famous rulers of the Arabs, as well as one of their most renowned speech-givers.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Qur'an"><span id="The_Qur.27an"></span>The Qur'an</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Qur'an"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg/220px-Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg/330px-Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg/440px-Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3791" data-file-height="2581" /></a><figcaption>The Qur'an is one of the most influential examples of Arabic literature</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, the main <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">holy book</a> of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, had a significant influence on the Arabic language, and marked the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Islamic literature</a>. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a>, the tribe of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Not only is the Qur'an the first work of any significant length written in the language, but it also has a far more complicated structure than the earlier literary works with its 114 <i><a href="/wiki/Surah" title="Surah">surah</a></i> (chapters) which contain 6,236 <i><a href="/wiki/Ayat" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayat">ayat</a></i> (verses). It contains <a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">injunctions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">narratives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Homilies">homilies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parable" title="Parable">parables</a>, direct addresses from God, instructions and even comments on how the Qu'ran will be received and understood. It is also admired for its layers of metaphor as well as its clarity, a feature which is mentioned in <a href="/wiki/An-Nahl" title="An-Nahl">An-Nahl</a>, the 16th surah. </p><p>The 92 <a href="/wiki/Meccan_surah" title="Meccan surah">Meccan suras</a>, believed to have been revealed to Muhammad in Mecca before the <a href="/wiki/Hegira" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegira">Hijra</a>, deal primarily with <a href="/w/index.php?title=%27usul_ad-din&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="'usul ad-din (page does not exist)">'usul ad-din</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86" class="extiw" title="ar:أصول الدين">ar</a>]</span>, or "the principles of religion", whereas the 22 <a href="/wiki/Medinan_surah" title="Medinan surah">Medinan suras</a>, believed to have been revealed to him after the Hijra, deal primarily with <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> and prescriptions of Islamic life.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>qur'an</i> comes from the Arabic root qaraʼa (قرأ), meaning "he read" or "he recited"; in early times the text was transmitted orally. The various tablets and scraps on which its suras were written were compiled under <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a> (573-634), and first transcribed in unified <i>masahif</i>, or copies of the Qur'an, under <a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a> (576-656).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although it contains elements of both prose and poetry, and therefore is closest to <i><a href="/wiki/Rhymed_prose" title="Rhymed prose">Saj</a></i> or <a href="/wiki/Rhymed_prose" title="Rhymed prose">rhymed prose</a>, the Qur'an is regarded as entirely apart from these classifications. The text is believed to be <a href="/wiki/Divine_revelation" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine revelation">divine revelation</a> and is seen by <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> as being eternal or 'uncreated'. This leads to the doctrine of <i><a href="/wiki/I%27jaz" title="I'jaz">i'jaz</a></i> or inimitability of the Qur'an which implies that nobody can copy the work's style. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Or do they say, “He has fabricated this ˹Quran˺!”? Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ “Produce ten fabricated sûrahs like it and seek help from whoever you can—other than Allah—if what you say is true!”</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>11:13</cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>And if you are in doubt about what We have revealed to Our servant, then produce a sûrah like it and call your helpers other than </p><p>Allah, if what you say is true. </p><p>But if you do not - and you will never be able to - then fear the Fire, whose fuel is people and stones, prepared for the disbelievers. </p> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>2:23-24</cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Say, "If mankind and the jinn gathered in order to produce the like of this Qur’ān, they could not produce the like of it, even if they were to each other assistants."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>17:88</cite></div></blockquote> <p>This doctrine of <i>i'jaz</i> possibly had a slight limiting effect on Arabic literature; proscribing exactly what could be written. Whilst Islam allows Muslims to write, read and recite poetry, the Qur'an states in the 26th sura (<a href="/wiki/Ash-Shu%27ara" title="Ash-Shu'ara">Ash-Shu'ara</a> or The Poets) that poetry which is blasphemous, obscene, praiseworthy of sinful acts, or attempts to challenge the Qu'ran's content and form, is forbidden for Muslims. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>And as to the poets, those who go astray follow them </p><p> Do you not see that they wander about bewildered in every valley? And that they say that which they do not do </p><p> Except those who believe and do good works and remember Allah much and defend themselves after they are oppressed; and they who act unjustly shall know to what final place of turning they shall turn back. </p> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>26:224-227</cite></div></blockquote> <p>This may have exerted dominance over the pre-Islamic poets of the 6th century whose popularity may have vied with the Qur'an amongst the people. There was a marked lack of significant poets until the 8th century. One notable exception was <a href="/wiki/Hassan_ibn_Thabit" title="Hassan ibn Thabit">Hassan ibn Thabit</a> who wrote poems in praise of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> and was known as the "prophet's poet". Just as the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> has held an important place in the literature of other languages, The Qur'an is important to Arabic. It is the source of many ideas, allusions and quotes and its moral message informs many works. </p><p>Aside from the Qur'an the <i><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a></i> or tradition of what Muhammed is supposed to have said and done are important literature. The entire body of these acts and words are called <i><a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunnah</a></i> or way and the ones regarded as <i>sahih</i> or genuine of them are collected into hadith. Some of the most significant collections of hadith include those by <a href="/wiki/Muslim_ibn_al-Hajjaj" title="Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj">Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Isma%27il_al-Bukhari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari">Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari</a>. </p><p>The other important genre of work in Qur'anic study is the <i><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">tafsir</a></i> or <a href="/wiki/Close_reading" title="Close reading">commentaries</a> Arab writings relating to religion also includes many <a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">sermons</a> and devotional pieces as well as the sayings of <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a> which were collected in the 10th century as <i><a href="/wiki/Nahj_al-Balaghah" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahj al-Balaghah">Nahj al-Balaghah</a></i> or <i>The Peak of Eloquence</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rashidi">Rashidi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Rashidi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a>, or the "rightly guided caliphs," literary centers developed in the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hijaz</a>, in cities such as <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>; in the Levant, in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>; and in Iraq, in <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Literary production—and poetry in particular—in this period served the spread of Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was also poetry to praise brave warriors, to inspire soldiers in <i><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Rith%C4%81%27" title="Rithā'"><i>rithā</i>'</a> to mourn those who fell in battle.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable poets of this rite include <a href="/wiki/Ka%27b_ibn_Zuhayr" title="Ka'b ibn Zuhayr">Ka'b ibn Zuhayr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Thabit" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan ibn Thabit">Hasan ibn Thabit</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Dh%C5%AB%27%C4%ABb_al-Hudhal%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Dhū'īb al-Hudhalī (page does not exist)">Abu Dhū'īb al-Hudhalī</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88_%D8%B0%D8%A4%D9%8A%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B0%D9%84%D9%8A" class="extiw" title="ar:أبو ذؤيب الهذلي">ar</a>]</span>, and <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81bigha_al-Ja%E2%80%98d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Nābigha al-Ja‘dī">Nābigha al-Ja‘dī</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was also poetry for entertainment often in the form of <i><a href="/wiki/Ghazal" title="Ghazal">ghazal</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notables of this movement were <a href="/wiki/Jamil_ibn_Ma%27mar" title="Jamil ibn Ma'mar">Jamil ibn Ma'mar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Layla_al-Akhyaliyya" title="Layla al-Akhyaliyya">Layla al-Akhyaliyya</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Umar_Ibn_Abi_Rabi%27ah" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar Ibn Abi Rabi'ah">Umar Ibn Abi Rabi'ah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umayyad">Umayyad</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Umayyad"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a>, which created the <a href="/wiki/Shia%E2%80%93Sunni_relations" title="Shia–Sunni relations">Shia–Sunni split</a> over the rightful <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliph</a>, had a great impact on Arabic literature.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas Arabic literature—along with Arab society—was greatly centralized in the time of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a>, it became fractured at the beginning of the period of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, as power struggles led to tribalism.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arabic literature at this time reverted to its state in <a href="/wiki/Jahiliyyah" title="Jahiliyyah"><i>al-Jahiliyyah</i></a>, with markets such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Souq_of_Kinasa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Souq of Kinasa (page does not exist)">Kinasa</a> near <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Souq_of_Mirbad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Souq of Mirbad (page does not exist)">Mirbad</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%AF_(%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%82)" class="extiw" title="ar:المربد (سوق)">ar</a>]</span> near <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, where poetry in praise and admonishment of political parties and tribes was recited.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Poets and scholars found support and patronage under the Umayyads, but the literature of this period was limited in that it served the interests of parties and individuals, and as such was not a free art form.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notable writers of this political poetry include <a href="/wiki/Al-Akhtal_al-Taghlibi" title="Al-Akhtal al-Taghlibi">Al-Akhtal al-Taghlibi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jarir_ibn_Atiyah" title="Jarir ibn Atiyah">Jarir ibn Atiyah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Farazdaq" title="Al-Farazdaq">Al-Farazdaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Kumayt_ibn_Zayd_al-Asadi" title="Al-Kumayt ibn Zayd al-Asadi">Al-Kumayt ibn Zayd al-Asadi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tirimmah_Bin_Hakim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tirimmah Bin Hakim (page does not exist)">Tirimmah Bin Hakim</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85" class="extiw" title="ar:الطرماح بن الحكيم">ar</a>]</span>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubayd_Allah_ibn_Qays_ar-Ruqiyat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ubayd Allah ibn Qays ar-Ruqiyat (page does not exist)">Ubayd Allah ibn Qays ar-Ruqiyat</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" class="extiw" title="ar:عبد الله بن قيس الرقيات">ar</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were also poetic forms of <a href="/wiki/Rajaz_(prosody)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajaz (prosody)"><i>rajaz</i></a>—mastered by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-%27Ajjaj&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-'Ajjaj (page does not exist)">al-'Ajjaj</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B1" class="extiw" title="ar:العجاج الشاعر">ar</a>]</span> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ru%27uba_bin_al-Ajjaj&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ru'uba bin al-Ajjaj (page does not exist)">Ru'uba bin al-Ajjaj</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A4%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AC" class="extiw" title="ar:رؤبة بن العجاج">ar</a>]</span>—and <i>ar-Rā'uwīyyāt,</i> or "<a href="/wiki/Pastoral" title="Pastoral">pastoral poetry</a>"—mastered by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ar-R%C4%81%27%C4%AB_an-Nam%C4%ABr%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ar-Rā'ī an-Namīrī (page does not exist)">ar-Rā'ī an-Namīrī</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A" class="extiw" title="ar:الراعي النميري">ar</a>]</span> and <a href="/wiki/Dhu_ar-Rumma" title="Dhu ar-Rumma">Dhu ar-Rumma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abbasid">Abbasid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Abbasid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maqamat_hariri.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/220px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/330px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/440px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="989" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> by <a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Mahmud_al-Wasiti" title="Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti">Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti</a> in a manuscript of the <i><a href="/wiki/Maqama" title="Maqama">Maqama</a> of <a href="/wiki/Al-Hariri_of_Basra" title="Al-Hariri of Basra">Al-Hariri</a>.</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> period is generally recognized as the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, and was a time of significant literary production. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> hosted numerous scholars and writers such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of stories in the <i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i> feature the Abbasid caliph <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Al-Hariri_of_Basra" title="Al-Hariri of Basra">Al-Hariri of Basra</a> was a notable literary figure of this period. </p><p>Some of the important poets in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abbasid literature (page does not exist)">Abbasid literature</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A" class="extiw" title="ar:الأدب في العصر العباسي">ar</a>]</span> were: <a href="/wiki/Bashshar_ibn_Burd" title="Bashshar ibn Burd">Bashshar ibn Burd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Nuwas" title="Abu Nuwas">Abu Nuwas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu-l-%27Atahiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu-l-'Atahiya">Abu-l-'Atahiya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_ibn_al-Walid" title="Muslim ibn al-Walid">Muslim ibn al-Walid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abbas_Ibn_al-Ahnaf" title="Abbas Ibn al-Ahnaf">Abbas Ibn al-Ahnaf</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Hussein_bin_ad-Dahhak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Hussein bin ad-Dahhak (page does not exist)">Al-Hussein bin ad-Dahhak</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B6%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%83" class="extiw" title="ar:الحسين بن الضحاك">ar</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Andalusi">Andalusi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Andalusi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_al-Andalus" title="Literature of al-Andalus">Literature of al-Andalus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg/220px-Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg/330px-Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg/440px-Maler_der_Geschichte_von_Bay%C3%A2d_und_Riy%C3%A2d_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1841" /></a><figcaption>An image from the manuscript of <i><a href="/wiki/Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad" title="Hadith Bayad wa Riyad">Hadith Bayad wa Riyad</a></i> (13th century).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_al-Andalus" title="Literature of al-Andalus">Andalusi literature</a> was produced in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, or Islamic Iberia, from its <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Muslim conquest</a> in 711 to either the <a href="/wiki/Granada_War" title="Granada War">Catholic conquest of Granada</a> in 1492 or the <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moors</a> ending in 1614. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abd_Rabbih" title="Ibn Abd Rabbih">Ibn Abd Rabbih's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Al-%CA%BFIqd_al-Far%C4%ABd" title="Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd">Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd</a></i> (The Unique Necklace) and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></i> were influential works of literature from this tradition. Notable literary figures of this period include <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ziryab" title="Ziryab">Ziryab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zaydun" title="Ibn Zaydun">Ibn Zaydun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wallada_bint_al-Mustakfi" title="Wallada bint al-Mustakfi">Wallada bint al-Mustakfi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tamid_ibn_Abbad" title="Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad">Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajja" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajja">Ibn Bajja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Bakri" title="Al-Bakri">Al-Bakri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rushd" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Rushd">Ibn Rushd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hafsa_bint_al-Hajj_al-Rukuniyya" title="Hafsa bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya">Hafsa bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Quzman" title="Ibn Quzman">Ibn Quzman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Baqa_ar-Rundi" title="Abu al-Baqa ar-Rundi">Abu al-Baqa ar-Rundi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Khatib" title="Ibn al-Khatib">Ibn al-Khatib</a>. The <i><a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">muwashshah</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Zajal" title="Zajal">zajal</a></i> were important literary forms in al-Andalus. </p><p>The rise of Arabic literature in al-Andalus occurred in dialogue with the <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">golden age of Jewish culture in Iberia</a>. Most Jewish writers in al-Andalus—while incorporating elements such as rhyme, meter, and themes of classical Arabic poetry—created poetry in Hebrew, but <a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Naghrillah" title="Samuel ibn Naghrillah">Samuel ibn Naghrillah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_ibn_Naghrela" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph ibn Naghrela">Joseph ibn Naghrela</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sahl_of_Seville" title="Ibn Sahl of Seville">Ibn Sahl al-Isra'ili</a> wrote poetry in Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> wrote his landmark <i>Dalãlat al-Hā'irīn</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Guide_for_the_Perplexed" title="The Guide for the Perplexed">The Guide for the Perplexed</a></i>) in Arabic using the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maghrebi">Maghrebi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Maghrebi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fatima_al-Fihri" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatima al-Fihri">Fatima al-Fihri</a> founded <a href="/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin" title="University of al-Qarawiyyin">al-Qarawiyiin University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fez,_Morocco" title="Fez, Morocco">Fes</a> in 859, recognised as the first university in the world. Particularly from the beginning of the 12th century, with sponsorship from the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid dynasty</a>, the university played an important role in the development of literature in the region, welcoming scholars and writers from throughout the Maghreb, al-Andalus, and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:202_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:202-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the scholars who studied and taught there were <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Khaldoun">Ibn Khaldoun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Bitruji" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Bitruji">al-Bitruji</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hirzihim" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Hirzihim">Ibn Hirzihim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sidi_Harazim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidi Harazim">Sidi Harazim</a>), <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Khatib" title="Ibn al-Khatib">Ibn al-Khatib</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Al-Wazzan" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Wazzan">Al-Wazzan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Leo_Africanus" title="Leo Africanus">Leo Africanus</a>) as well as the Jewish theologian <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:202_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:202-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sufi_literature" title="Sufi literature">Sufi literature</a> played an important role in literary and intellectual life in the region from this early period, such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Jazuli" title="Muhammad al-Jazuli">Muhammad al-Jazuli's</a> book of prayers <i><a href="/wiki/Dala%27il_al-Khayrat" title="Dala'il al-Khayrat">Dala'il al-Khayrat</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Zaydani_Library" title="Zaydani Library">Zaydani Library</a>, the library of the <a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a> Sultan <a href="/wiki/Zidan_Abu_Maali" title="Zidan Abu Maali">Zidan Abu Maali</a>, was stolen by Spanish privateers in the 16th century and kept at the <a href="/wiki/El_Escorial" title="El Escorial">El Escorial Monastery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mamluk">Mamluk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mamluk"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abd_al-Zahir" title="Ibn Abd al-Zahir">Ibn Abd al-Zahir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kathir" title="Ibn Kathir">Ibn Kathir</a> were notable writers of history.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman">Ottoman</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ottoman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Significant poets of Arabic literature in the time of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> included <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ash-Shab_adh-Dharif&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ash-Shab adh-Dharif (page does not exist)">ash-Shab adh-Dharif</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81" class="extiw" title="ar:الشاب الظريف">ar</a>]</span>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Busiri" title="Al-Busiri">Al-Busiri</a> author of "<i><a href="/wiki/Al-Burda" title="Al-Burda">Al-Burda</a></i>", <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wardi" title="Ibn al-Wardi">Ibn al-Wardi</a> (died 1349), <a href="/wiki/Safi_al-Din_al-Hilli" title="Safi al-Din al-Hilli">Safi al-Din al-Hilli</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Nubata" title="Ibn Nubata">Ibn Nubata</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Ghani_al-Nabulsi" title="Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi">Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi</a> wrote on various topics including theology and travel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nahda">Nahda</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Nahda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Nahda</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tahtawi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Tahtawi.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="216" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="216" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_at-Tahtawi" title="Rifa'a at-Tahtawi">Rifa'a at-Tahtawi</a> oversaw an unprecedented translation program in <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate Egypt</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the 19th century, a revival took place in Arabic literature, along with much of Arabic culture, and is referred to in Arabic as "<i><a href="/wiki/Al-Nahda" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Nahda">al-Nahda</a></i>", which means "the renaissance".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStarkey200623_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarkey200623-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a strand of <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">neoclassicism</a> in the Nahda, particularly among writers such as <a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_at-Tahtawi" title="Rifa'a at-Tahtawi">Tahtawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Faris_al-Shidyaq" title="Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq">Shidyaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasif_al-Yaziji" title="Nasif al-Yaziji">Yaziji</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Muwaylihi" title="Muhammad al-Muwaylihi">Muwaylihi</a>, who believed in the <i>iḥyāʾ</i> "reanimation" of Arabic literary heritage and tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStarkey2006Ch._3_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarkey2006Ch._3-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The translation of foreign literature was a major element of the Nahda period. An important translator of the 19th century was <a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_al-Tahtawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa'a al-Tahtawi">Rifa'a al-Tahtawi</a>, who founded the <a href="/wiki/Madrasat_al-Alsun" title="Madrasat al-Alsun">School of Languages</a> (also knowns as <i>School of Translators</i>) in 1835 in Cairo. In the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Jabra_Ibrahim_Jabra" title="Jabra Ibrahim Jabra">Jabra Ibrahim Jabra</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Palestinians" title="Palestinians">Palestinian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraqi</a> intellectual living mostly in Bagdad, translated works by <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a> or <a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">William Faulkner</a>, among many others. </p><p>This resurgence of new writing in Arabic was confined mainly to cities in <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate" title="Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate">Lebanon</a> until the 20th century, when it spread to other countries in the region. This cultural renaissance was not only felt within the Arab world, but also beyond, with a growing interest in <a href="/wiki/Translation" title="Translation">translating</a> of Arabic works into European languages. Although the use of the Arabic language was revived, particularly in poetry, many of the <a href="/wiki/Trope_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trope (linguistics)">tropes</a> of the previous literature, which served to make it so ornate and complicated, were dropped. </p><p>Just as in the 8th century, when a movement to translate <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> and other literature had helped vitalise Arabic literature, another translation movement during this period would offer new ideas and material for Arabic literature. An early popular success was <i><a href="/wiki/The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo" title="The Count of Monte Cristo">The Count of Monte Cristo</a></i>, which spurred a host of <a href="/wiki/Historical_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical novel">historical novels</a> on similar Arabic subjects. <a href="/wiki/Jurji_Zaydan" title="Jurji Zaydan">Jurji Zaydan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niqula_Haddad" title="Niqula Haddad">Niqula Haddad</a> were important writers of this genre.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry">Poetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9.png/220px-%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9.png/330px-%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9.png/440px-%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9.png 2x" data-file-width="1532" data-file-height="1638" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/May_Ziadeh" title="May Ziadeh">May Ziadeh</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Palestinians" title="Palestinians">Palestinian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people" title="Lebanese people">Lebanese</a> poet, essayist, translator, and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_literary_salons_and_societies_in_the_Arab_world" title="Women's literary salons and societies in the Arab world">literary salon</a> host.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Nahda</a>, poets like <a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shawqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Shawqi">Ahmad Shawqi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hafiz_Ibrahim" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafiz Ibrahim">Hafiz Ibrahim</a> began to explore the possibility of developing the classical poetic forms.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these neoclassical poets were acquainted with Western literature but mostly continued to write in classical forms, while others, denouncing blind imitation of classical poetry and its recurring themes,<sup id="cite_ref-Studies_in_Modern_Arabic_Prose_and_Poetry_p._34_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Studies_in_Modern_Arabic_Prose_and_Poetry_p._34-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sought inspiration from French or English <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">romanticism</a>. </p><p>The next generation of poets, the so-called Romantic poets, began to absorb the impact of developments in Western poetry to a far greater extent, and felt constrained by <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassical</a> traditions which the previous generation had tried to uphold. The <a href="/wiki/Mahjar" title="Mahjar">Mahjari</a> poets were emigrants who mostly wrote in the Americas, but were similarly beginning to experiment further with the possibilities of Arabic poetry. This experimentation continued in the Middle East throughout the first half of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prominent poets of the <a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Nahda</a>, or "Renaissance," were <a href="/wiki/Nasif_al-Yaziji" title="Nasif al-Yaziji">Nasif al-Yaziji</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Sami_el-Baroudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmoud Sami el-Baroudi">Mahmoud Sami el-Baroudi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%B8%A4ifn%C4%AB_N%C4%81%E1%B9%A3if&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ḥifnī Nāṣif (page does not exist)">Ḥifnī Nāṣif</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%81%D9%86%D9%8A_%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%81" class="extiw" title="ar:حفني ناصف">ar</a>]</span>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ism%C4%81%CA%BB%C4%ABl_%E1%B9%A2abr%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ismāʻīl Ṣabrī (page does not exist)">Ismāʻīl Ṣabrī</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%B5%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A" class="extiw" title="ar:إسماعيل صبري">ar</a>]</span>, and <a href="/wiki/Hafez_Ibrahim" title="Hafez Ibrahim">Hafez Ibrahim</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Shawqi" title="Ahmed Shawqi">Ahmed Shawqi</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jamil_Sidqi_al-Zahawi" title="Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi">Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maruf_al_Rusafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maruf al Rusafi">Maruf al Rusafi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fawzi_al-Ma%27luf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fawzi al-Ma'luf (page does not exist)">Fawzi al-Ma'luf</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%81" class="extiw" title="ar:فوزي المعلوف">ar</a>]</span>, and <a href="/wiki/Khalil_Mutran" title="Khalil Mutran">Khalil Mutran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prose_2">Prose</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Prose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_al-Tahtawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa'a al-Tahtawi">Rifa'a at-Tahtawi</a>, who lived in Paris from 1826 to 1831, wrote <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_Paris_Profile&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A Paris Profile (page does not exist)">A Paris Profile</a> </i><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B5_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%B5_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B2" class="extiw" title="ar:تخليص الإبريز في تلخيص باريز">ar</a>]</span> about his experiences and observations and published it in 1834.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</a> founded the journal <a href="/wiki/Al-Jinan_(magazine)" title="Al-Jinan (magazine)"><i>Al-Jinan</i></a> in 1870 and started writing the first encyclopedia in Arabic: <a href="/wiki/Da%27irat_ul-Ma%27arif" class="mw-redirect" title="Da'irat ul-Ma'arif">Da'irat ul-Ma'arif</a> in 1875.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Faris_al-Shidyaq" title="Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq">Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq</a> published a number of influential books and was the editor-in-chief of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ar-Ra%27id_at-Tunisi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ar-Ra'id at-Tunisi (page does not exist)">ar-Ra'id at-Tunisi</a> </i><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A_(%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%A9)" class="extiw" title="ar:الرائد التونسي (صحيفة)">ar</a>]</span> in Tunis and founder of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Jawa%27ib&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Jawa'ib (page does not exist)">Al-Jawa'ib</a> </i><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8_(%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9)" class="extiw" title="ar:الجوائب (جريدة)">ar</a>]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Adib_Ishaq" title="Adib Ishaq">Adib Ishaq</a> spent his career in journalism and theater, working for the expansion of the press and the rights of the people.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jam%C4%81l_al-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī">Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Afghānī</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a> founded the revolutionary anti-colonial pan-Islamic journal <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Urwah_al-Wuthqa" title="Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa">Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi">Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qasim_Amin" title="Qasim Amin">Qasim Amin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kamil_Pasha" title="Mustafa Kamil Pasha">Mustafa Kamil</a> were reformers who influenced public opinion with their writing.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Saad_Zaghloul" title="Saad Zaghloul">Saad Zaghloul</a> was a revolutionary leader and a renowned orator appreciated for his eloquence and reason.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Yaziji" title="Ibrahim al-Yaziji">Ibrahim al-Yaziji</a> founded the newspaper <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=An-Najah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="An-Najah (page does not exist)">an-Najah</a></i> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">النجاح</span></span> "Achievement") in 1872, the magazine <i><a href="/wiki/At-Tabib" title="At-Tabib">At-Tabib</a></i>, the magazine <a href="/wiki/Al-Bayan_(journal)" title="Al-Bayan (journal)"><i>Al-Bayan</i></a>, and the magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Ad-Diya" title="Ad-Diya">Ad-Diya</a></i> and translated the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> into Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wal%C4%AB_ad-D%C4%ABn_Yakan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walī ad-Dīn Yakan (page does not exist)">Walī ad-Dīn Yakan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%86" class="extiw" title="ar:ولي الدين يكن">ar</a>]</span> launched a newspaper called <i>al-Istiqama</i> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الاستقامة</span></span>, " Righteousness") to challenge Ottoman authorities and push for social reforms, but they shut it down in the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Lutfi_al-Manfaluti" title="Mustafa Lutfi al-Manfaluti">Mustafa Lutfi al-Manfaluti</a>, who studied under Muhammad Abduh at <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar University</a>, was a prolific essayist and published many articles encouraging the people to reawaken and liberate themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Suleyman_al-Boustani" title="Suleyman al-Boustani">Suleyman al-Boustani</a> translated the <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i> into Arabic and commented on it.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Khalil Gibran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ameen_Rihani" title="Ameen Rihani">Ameen Rihani</a> were two major figures of the <a href="/wiki/Mahjar" title="Mahjar">Mahjar</a> movement within the Nahda.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jurji_Zaydan" title="Jurji Zaydan">Jurji Zaydan</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Al-Hilal_(magazine)" title="Al-Hilal (magazine)"><i>Al-Hilal</i></a> magazine in 1892, <a href="/wiki/Yacoub_Sarrouf" class="mw-redirect" title="Yacoub Sarrouf">Yacoub Sarrouf</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%81" class="extiw" title="ar:يعقوب صروف">ar</a>]</span> founded <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtataf_(magazine)" title="Al-Muqtataf (magazine)"><i>Al-Muqtataf</i></a> in 1876, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Cheikho" title="Louis Cheikho">Louis Cheikho</a> founded the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Machriq" title="Al-Machriq">Al-Machriq</a></i> in 1898.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other notable figures of the Nahda were <a href="/wiki/Mostafa_Saadeq_Al-Rafe%27ie" title="Mostafa Saadeq Al-Rafe'ie">Mostafa Saadeq Al-Rafe'ie</a> and <a href="/wiki/May_Ziadeh" title="May Ziadeh">May Ziadeh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Kattani" title="Muhammad al-Kattani">Muhammad al-Kattani</a>, founder of one of the first arabophone newspapers in Morocco, called <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=At-T%C4%81%27%C5%ABn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="At-Tā'ūn (page does not exist)">At-Tā'ūn</a></i>, and author of several poetry collections, was a leader of the Nahda in the Maghreb.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_literature">Modern literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Modern literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_literature" title="Modern Arabic literature">Modern Arabic literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TahaHussein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/TahaHussein.jpg/220px-TahaHussein.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/TahaHussein.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="233" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Taha_Hussein" title="Taha Hussein">Taha Hussein</a>, referred to as the "Dean of Arabic Literature" (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: عميد الأدب العربي).</figcaption></figure> <p>Beginning in the late 19th century, the Arabic novel became one of the most important forms of expression in Arabic literature.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rise of an <i>efendiyya</i>, an elite, secularist urban class with a Western education, gave way to new forms of literary expression: modern Arabic fiction.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This new <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeois</a> class of <i>literati</i> used <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_theater&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arabic theater (page does not exist)">theater</a> from the 1850s, starting in Lebanon, and the <a href="/wiki/Private_press" title="Private press">private press</a> from the 1860s and 1870s to spread its ideas, challenge traditionalists, and establish its position in a rapidly transforming society.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The modern Arabic novel, particularly as a means of social critique and reform, has its roots in a deliberate departure from the traditionalist language and aesthetics of classical <i>adab</i> for "less embellished but more entertaining narratives."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This direction began with translations from French and English, followed by social romances by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sal%C4%ABm_al-Bust%C4%81n%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salīm al-Bustānī (page does not exist)">Salīm al-Bustānī</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" class="extiw" title="ar:سليم البستاني">ar</a>]</span> and other writers—particularly Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Khalil_al-Khuri" title="Khalil al-Khuri">Khalil al-Khuri's</a> narrative <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Way,_Idhan_Lastu_bi-Ifranj%C4%AB!&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Way, Idhan Lastu bi-Ifranjī! (page does not exist)">Way, Idhan Lastu bi-Ifranjī!</a></i> (1859-1860) was an early example.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The emotionalism of early 20th century writers such as <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Lutfi_al-Manfaluti" title="Mustafa Lutfi al-Manfaluti">Mustafa Lutfi al-Manfaluti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Kahlil Gibran</a>, who wrote with heavy <a href="/wiki/Moralism" title="Moralism">moralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sentimentality" title="Sentimentality">sentimentality</a>, equated the novel as a literary form with imported Western ideas and "shallow sentimentalism."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writers such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_Taimur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhammad Taimur (page does not exist)">Muhammad Taimur</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1" class="extiw" title="ar:محمد تيمور">ar</a>]</span> of <a href="/wiki/Al-Madrasa_al-%E1%B8%A4ad%C4%ABtha" title="Al-Madrasa al-Ḥadītha">Al-Madrasa al-Ḥadītha</a> "the Modern School," calling for an <i>adab qawmī "</i>national literature," largely avoided the novel and experimented with short stories instead.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hussein_Heikal" title="Mohammed Hussein Heikal">Mohammed Hussein Heikal's</a> 1913 novel <a href="/wiki/Zaynab_(novel)" title="Zaynab (novel)"><i>Zaynab</i></a> was a compromise, as it included heavy sentimentality but portrayed local personality and characters.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the 20th century, Arabic writers in poetry, prose and theatre plays have reflected the changing political and social climate of the Arab world. <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-colonial</a> themes were prominent early in the 20th century, with writers continuing to explore the region's relationship with the West. Internal political upheaval has also been a challenge, with writers suffering censorship or persecution. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a> featured writers such as <a href="/wiki/Taha_Hussein" title="Taha Hussein">Taha Hussein</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Days_(book)" title="The Days (book)">Al-Ayyām</a>,</i> <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Mazini" title="Ibrahim al-Mazini">Ibrahim al-Mazini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abbas_Mahmoud_al-Aqqad" title="Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad">Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tawfiq_al-Hakim" title="Tawfiq al-Hakim">Tawfiq al-Hakim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The acceptance of suffering in al-Hakim's 1934 <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Awdat_ar-r%C5%AB%E1%B8%A5&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Awdat ar-rūḥ (page does not exist)">Awdat ar-rūḥ</a> </i><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD_(%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9)" class="extiw" title="ar:عودة الروح (رواية)">ar</a>]</span>, is exemplary of the disappointment that prevailed over the idealism of the new middle class.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of increasing <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>, binary struggles such as the "materialism of the West" against the "spiritualism of the East," "progressive individuals and a backward, ignorant society," and "a city-versus-countryside divide" were common themes in the literature of this period and since.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are many contemporary Arabic writers, such as <a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Saeed" title="Mahmoud Saeed">Mahmoud Saeed</a> (Iraq) who wrote <i>Bin Barka Ally</i>, and <i>I Am The One Who Saw (Saddam City)</i>. Other contemporary writers include <a href="/wiki/Sonallah_Ibrahim" title="Sonallah Ibrahim">Sonallah Ibrahim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Munif" title="Abdul Rahman Munif">Abdul Rahman Munif</a>, who were imprisoned by the government for their critical opinions. At the same time, others who had written works supporting or praising governments, were promoted to positions of authority within cultural bodies. <a href="/wiki/Nonfiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonfiction">Nonfiction</a> writers and academics have also produced political polemics and criticisms aiming to re-shape Arabic politics. Some of the best known are <a href="/wiki/Taha_Hussein" title="Taha Hussein">Taha Hussein</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Future_of_Culture_in_Egypt" title="The Future of Culture in Egypt">The Future of Culture in Egypt</a></i>, which was an important work of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationalism" title="Egyptian nationalism">Egyptian nationalism</a>, and the works of <a href="/wiki/Nawal_el-Saadawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nawal el-Saadawi">Nawal el-Saadawi</a>, who campaigned for <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a>. Tayeb Salih from <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghassan_Kanafani" title="Ghassan Kanafani">Ghassan Kanafani</a> from <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> are two other writers who explored identity in relationship to foreign and domestic powers, the former writing about colonial/post-colonial relationships, and the latter on the repercussions of the Palestinian struggle. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry_2">Poetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Arabic poetry">Modern Arabic poetry</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:41%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Mention no longer the driver on his night journey and the wide striding camels, and give up talk of morning dew and ruins.<br />I no longer have any taste for love songs on dwellings which already went down in seas of [too many] odes.<br />So, too, the <i><a href="/wiki/Haloxylon_persicum" title="Haloxylon persicum">ghada</a></i>, whose fire, fanned by the sighs of those enamored of it, cries out to the poets: "Alas for my burning!"<br />If a steamer leaves with my friends on sea or land, why should I direct my complaints to the camels? </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—Excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a>'s <i>Mashhad al-ahwal</i> (1870), translated by <a href="/wiki/Shmuel_Moreh" title="Shmuel Moreh">Shmuel Moreh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Studies_in_Modern_Arabic_Prose_and_Poetry_p._34_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Studies_in_Modern_Arabic_Prose_and_Poetry_p._34-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, there was a largely unsuccessful movement by several poets to write poems in <a href="/wiki/Free_verse" title="Free verse">free verse</a> (<i>shi'r hurr</i>). Iraqi poets <a href="/wiki/Badr_Shakir_al-Sayyab" title="Badr Shakir al-Sayyab">Badr Shakir al-Sayyab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazik_Al-Malaika" title="Nazik Al-Malaika">Nazik Al-Malaika</a> (1923-2007) are considered to be the originators of free verse in Arabic poetry. Most of these experiments were abandoned in favour of <a href="/wiki/Prose_poetry" title="Prose poetry">prose poetry</a>, of which the first examples in modern Arabic literature are to be found in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and of which two of the most influential proponents were Nazik al-Malaika and <a href="/wiki/Iman_Mersal" title="Iman Mersal">Iman Mersal</a>. The development of <a href="/wiki/Modernist_poetry" title="Modernist poetry">modernist poetry</a> also influenced poetry in Arabic. More recently, poets such as <a href="/wiki/Adunis" class="mw-redirect" title="Adunis">Adunis</a> have pushed the boundaries of stylistic experimentation even further. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aziz_Pasha_Abaza_%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%A7_%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%A9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Aziz_Pasha_Abaza_%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%A7_%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%A9.jpg/220px-Aziz_Pasha_Abaza_%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%A7_%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%A9.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Aziz_Pasha_Abaza_%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%A7_%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%A9.jpg/330px-Aziz_Pasha_Abaza_%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%A7_%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%A9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Aziz_Pasha_Abaza_%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%A7_%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%A9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aziz_Pasha_Abaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Aziz Pasha Abaza">Aziz Pasha Abaza</a>, poet from the aristocratic literary Egyptian family the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Abaza" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Abaza">House of Abaza</a> of <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a> <a href="/wiki/Abazin" class="mw-redirect" title="Abazin">Abazin</a> origin</figcaption></figure> <p>An example of modern poetry in classical Arabic style with themes of <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a> is the work of <a href="/wiki/Aziz_Pasha_Abaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Aziz Pasha Abaza">Aziz Pasha Abaza</a>. He came from <a href="/wiki/Abaza_family" title="Abaza family">Abaza family</a> which produced notable Arabic literary figures including Ismail Pasha Abaza, <a href="/wiki/Fekry_Pasha_Abaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Fekry Pasha Abaza">Fekry Pasha Abaza</a>, novelist <a href="/wiki/Tharwat_Abaza" title="Tharwat Abaza">Tharwat Abaza</a>, Ismail <a href="/wiki/Pasha" title="Pasha">Pasha</a> Abaza and Desouky <a href="/wiki/Pasha" title="Pasha">Pasha</a> Abaza, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Poetry retains a very important status in the Arab world. <a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Darwish" title="Mahmoud Darwish">Mahmoud Darwish</a> was regarded as the Palestinian national poet, and his funeral was attended by thousands of mourners. Syrian poet <a href="/wiki/Nizar_Qabbani" title="Nizar Qabbani">Nizar Qabbani</a> addressed less political themes, but was regarded as a cultural icon, and his poems provide the lyrics for many popular songs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Novels">Novels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Novels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two distinct trends can be found in the <i>nahda</i> period of revival. The first was a neo-classical movement which sought to rediscover the literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by traditional literary genres—such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Maqama" title="Maqama">maqama</a></i>—and works like <i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i>. In contrast, a modernist movement began by translating Western modernist works—primarily novels—into Arabic. </p><p>In the 19th century, individual authors in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> created original works by imitating classical narrative genres: <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Faris_Shidyaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Faris Shidyaq">Ahmad Faris Shidyaq</a> with <i>Leg upon Leg</i> (1855), Khalil Khoury with <i>Yes... so I am not a Frank</i> (1859), <a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a> with <i>The Forest of Truth</i> (1865), <a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Salim al-Bustani</a> with <i>At a Loss in the Levantine Gardens</i> (1870), and Muhammad al-Muwaylihi with <i>Isa ibn Hisham's Tale</i> (1907).<sup id="cite_ref-Logan,_ed.,_p._573._33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Logan,_ed.,_p._573.-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This trend was furthered by <a href="/wiki/Jurji_Zaydan" title="Jurji Zaydan">Jurji Zaydan</a> (author of many historical novels), <a href="/wiki/Khalil_Gibran" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalil Gibran">Khalil Gibran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mikha%27il_Na%27ima" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikha'il Na'ima">Mikha'il Na'ima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Haykal" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Husayn Haykal">Muhammad Husayn Haykal</a> (author of <i><a href="/wiki/Zaynab_(novel)" title="Zaynab (novel)">Zaynab</a></i>). Meanwhile, female writer <a href="/wiki/Zaynab_Fawwaz" title="Zaynab Fawwaz">Zaynab Fawwaz</a>'s first novel <i>Ḥusn al-'Awāqib aw Ghādah al-Zāhirah</i> (<i>The Happy Ending</i>, 1899) was also influential.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the authors of the <i>Encyclopedia of the Novel</i>: </p> <blockquote><p>Almost each of the above [works] have been claimed as the first Arabic novel, which goes to suggest that the Arabic novel emerged from several rehearsals and multiple beginnings rather than from one single origin. Given that the very Arabic word "<i>riwaya</i>", which is now used exclusively in reference to the "novel", has traditionally conjured up a tangle of narrative genres [...], it might not be unfair to contend that the Arabic novel owes its early formation not only to the appropriation of the novel genre from Europe [...] but also, and more importantly, to the revival and transformation of traditional narrative genres in the wake of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s 1798 expedition into Egypt and the Arab world's firsthand encounter with industrialized imperial Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Logan,_ed.,_p._573._33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Logan,_ed.,_p._573.-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A common theme in the modern Arabic novel is the study of family life with obvious resonances of the wider family of the Arabic world.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (October 2012)">according to whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> Many of the novels have been unable to avoid the politics and conflicts of the region with war often acting as background to intimate family dramas. The works of <a href="/wiki/Naguib_Mahfuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Naguib Mahfuz">Naguib Mahfuz</a> depict life in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, and his <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Trilogy" title="Cairo Trilogy">Cairo Trilogy</a>, describing the struggles of a modern Cairene family across three generations, won him a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_prize_for_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel prize for literature">Nobel prize for literature</a> in 1988. He was the first Arabic writer to win the prize. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plays">Plays</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Plays"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The musical plays of Lebanese <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroun_an-Naqqash" class="extiw" title="de:Maroun an-Naqqash">Maroun Naccache</a> from the mid-1800s are considered the birth of not only <a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre in Lebanon">theatre in Lebanon</a>, but also modern Arab theatre.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern Arabic drama began to be written in the 19th century chiefly in Egypt and mainly influenced and in imitation of French works. It was not until the 20th century that it began to develop a distinctly Arab flavour and be seen elsewhere. The most important Arab playwright was <a href="/wiki/Tawfiq_al-Hakim" title="Tawfiq al-Hakim">Tawfiq al-Hakim</a> whose first play was a re-telling of the Qur'anic story of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_sleepers" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven sleepers">Seven sleepers</a> and the second an epilogue for the <i>Thousand and One Nights</i>. Other important dramatists of the region include Yusuf al-Ani from <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saadallah_Wannous" title="Saadallah Wannous">Saadallah Wannous</a> from <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_Arabic_literature">Classical Arabic literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Classical Arabic literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poetry_3">Poetry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_culture" title="Category:Arab culture">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle fn org country-name adr"><a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">Arabic culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maq%C4%81ma_21_(fols._58v%E2%80%9359r,_double-page_spread_as_a_unit),_Maqamat_al-Harari,_1237.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg/260px-Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg/390px-Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg/520px-Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg 2x" data-file-width="852" data-file-height="524" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_architecture" title="Category:Arabic architecture">Architecture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b>Styles</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Yemen" title="Architecture of Yemen">Yemeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_architecture" title="Nabataean architecture">Nabataean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_architecture" title="Umayyad architecture">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_architecture" title="Fatimid architecture">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">Moorish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_architecture" title="Mamluk architecture">Mamluk</a></li></ul> <p><br /> <b>Features </b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ablaq" title="Ablaq">Ablaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfiz" title="Alfiz">Alfiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes"> Arabic dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banna%27i" title="Banna'i">Banna'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girih" title="Girih">Girih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_arch" title="Horseshoe arch">Horseshoe arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howz" title="Howz">Howz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostyle" title="Hypostyle">Hypostyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Islamic calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Islamic geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ornament" title="Islamic ornament">Islamic ornament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwan" title="Iwan">Iwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liwan" title="Liwan">Liwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashrabiya" title="Mashrabiya">Mashrabiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riad_(architecture)" title="Riad (architecture)">Riad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic#Arab" title="Mosaic">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multifoil_arch" title="Multifoil arch">Multifoil arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqarnas" title="Muqarnas">Muqarnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagash_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagash painting">Nagash painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadad" title="Qadad">Qadad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflecting_pool" title="Reflecting pool">Reflecting pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riwaq_(arcade)" title="Riwaq (arcade)">Riwaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahn" title="Sahn">Sahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socarrat" title="Socarrat">Socarrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stucco_decoration_in_Islamic_architecture" title="Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture">Stucco decoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadelakt" title="Tadelakt">Tadelakt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaulting" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaulting">Vaulting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voussoir" title="Voussoir">Voussoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windcatcher" title="Windcatcher">Windcatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zellij" title="Zellij">Zellij</a></li></ul> <p><b>Types</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albarrana_tower" title="Albarrana tower">Albarrana tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar" title="Alcázar">Alcázar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bazaar" title="Bazaar">Bazaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caravanserai" title="Caravanserai">Caravanserai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">Bimaristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammam" title="Hammam">Hammam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasbah" title="Kasbah">Kasbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqam_(shrine)" title="Maqam (shrine)">Maqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazar_(mausoleum)" title="Mazar (mausoleum)">Mazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medina_quarter" title="Medina quarter">Medina quarter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalat_(fortress)" title="Qalat (fortress)">Qalat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribat" title="Ribat">Ribat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebil" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebil">Sabil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadirvan" title="Shadirvan">Shadirvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tekyeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tekyeh">Tekyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Well house">Well house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zawiya_(institution)" title="Zawiya (institution)">Zawiya</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_art" title="Category:Arabic art">Art</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b>Styles</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_art" title="Ancient South Arabian art">Ancient South Arabian art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_art" title="Nabataean art">Nabataean art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_art" title="Fatimid art">Fatimid art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate#Art" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk art</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b>Types</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_calligraphy" title="Arabic calligraphy">Arabic calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_graffiti" title="Islamic graffiti">Arabic graffiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_carpet" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab carpet">Arab carpet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_miniature" title="Arabic miniature">Arabic miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_pottery" title="Category:Arabic pottery">Arabic pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_wood_carving_in_Palestine" title="Olive wood carving in Palestine">Palestinian wood carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_embroidery" title="Islamic embroidery">Islamic embroidery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving#Islamic_hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">Islamic hardstone carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Islamic garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_glass" title="Islamic glass">Islamic glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving#Islamic_ivory" title="Ivory carving">Islamic ivory carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art#Islamic_brasswork" title="Islamic art">Islamic Metalwork</a></li></ul> <p><b>Features </b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque_(Islamic_art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabesque (Islamic art)">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_geometric_patterns" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic geometric patterns">Arabic geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banna%27i" title="Banna'i">Banna'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damask" title="Damask">Damask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girih_tiles" title="Girih tiles">Girih tiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedwig_glass" title="Hedwig glass">Hedwig glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiswah" title="Kiswah">Kiswah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqarnas" title="Muqarnas">Muqarnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Arabic">Pseudo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zellij" title="Zellij">Zellij</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine">Cuisine</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabian_cuisine" title="Eastern Arabian cuisine">Khalij <span style="font-size:85%;">(Arabian Peninsula)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_cuisine" title="Levantine cuisine">Arab Mashriq <span style="font-size:85%;">(Levant)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Mashriq <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mesopotamia)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cuisine" title="Egyptian cuisine">Mawset <span style="font-size:85%;">(Egypt)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_cuisine" title="Sudanese cuisine">Mawset <span style="font-size:85%;">(Sudan)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghreb_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Maghreb cuisine">Arab Maghreb <span style="font-size:85%;">(North Africa)</span></a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_clothing" title="Category:Arabic clothing">Dress</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b>Headwear</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agal_(accessory)" title="Agal (accessory)">Agal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battoulah" title="Battoulah">Battoulah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haik_(garment)" title="Haik (garment)"> Haik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keffiyeh" title="Keffiyeh">Keffiyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litham" title="Litham">Litham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhalla" title="Madhalla">Madhalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqiyah_(cap)" title="Taqiyah (cap)">Taqiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantour" title="Tantour">Tantour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fez_(hat)" title="Fez (hat)">Tarboush (fez)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turban" title="Turban">Turban</a></li></ul> <p><b>Clothing</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abaya" title="Abaya">Abaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisht_(clothing)" title="Bisht (clothing)">Bisht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnous" title="Burnous">Burnous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djellaba" title="Djellaba">Djellaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durra%27ah" title="Durra'ah">Durra'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fouta_towel" title="Fouta towel">Fouta towel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izaar" title="Izaar">Izaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jellabiya" title="Jellabiya">Jellabiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaftan" title="Kaftan">Kaftan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarong#Somalia" title="Sarong">Macawis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robe_of_honour" title="Robe of honour">Robe of honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirwal" title="Sirwal">Sirwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takchita" class="mw-redirect" title="Takchita">Takchita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thawb" title="Thawb">Thawb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiraz" title="Tiraz">Tiraz</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_music" title="Arabic music">Music</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b>Theory</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_maqam" title="Arabic maqam">Arabic maqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_tone_system" title="Arab tone system">Arab tone system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_scale" title="Algerian scale">Algerian scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm_in_Arabic_music" title="Rhythm in Arabic music">Rhythm in Arabic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqsim" title="Taqsim">Taqsim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jins" title="Jins">Jins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazma" title="Lazma">Lazma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teslim" title="Teslim">Teslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarter_tone" title="Quarter tone">Quarter tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_musical_instruments" title="Category:Arabic musical instruments">Arabic musical instruments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Musiqa_al-Kabir" title="Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir"> Great Book of Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Aghani" title="Kitab al-Aghani"> Kitab al-Aghani</a></li></ul> <p><b>Genres</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_pop" title="Arabic pop">Arabic pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_hip_hop" title="Arabic hip hop">Arabic hip hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_rock" title="Arabic rock">Arabic rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_music#Arabic_jazz" title="Arabic music"> Arabic jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_music#20th_century" title="Arabic music"> Classical Arab music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opera_in_Arabic" title="Opera in Arabic">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Jeel" title="Al Jeel">Al Jeel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaliji_(music)" title="Khaliji (music)">Khaliji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%AF" title="Raï">Raï</a></li></ul> <p><b>Art music</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andalusian_classical_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalusian classical music">Andalusian classical music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_nubah" title="Andalusi nubah">Andalusi nubah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashraf" class="mw-redirect" title="Bashraf">Bashraf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawr" title="Dawr">Dawr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulab" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulab">Dulab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layali" title="Layali">Layali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malhun" title="Malhun">Malhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_maqam" title="Iraqi maqam">Iraqi maqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawwal" title="Mawwal">Mawwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">Muwashshah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasidah" class="mw-redirect" title="Qasidah">Qasidah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qudud_Halabiya" title="Qudud Halabiya">Qudud Halabiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sama%27i" title="Sama'i">Sama'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahmilah" title="Tahmilah">Tahmilah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqsim" title="Taqsim">Taqsim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waslah" title="Waslah">Waslah</a></li></ul> <p><b>Folk</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ataaba" title="Ataaba">Ataaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%AF" title="Raï">Algerian Raï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_music" title="Bedouin music"> Bedouin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaabi_(Algeria)" title="Chaabi (Algeria)">Chaabi (Algeria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaabi_(Morocco)" title="Chaabi (Morocco)">Chaabi (Morocco)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baladi" title="Baladi">Egyptian folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fann_at-Tanbura" title="Fann at-Tanbura">Fann at-Tanbura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fijiri" title="Fijiri">Fijiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnawa_music" title="Gnawa music">Gnawa (North Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liwa_(music)" title="Liwa (music)">Liwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawwal" title="Mawwal">Mawwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezwed" title="Mezwed">Mezwed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samri" title="Samri">Samri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawt_(music)" title="Sawt (music)">Sawt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaabi" title="Shaabi">Shaabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zajal" title="Zajal">Zajal</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Dance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ardah" title="Ardah">Ardah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belly_dance" title="Belly dance">Belly dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dabke" title="Dabke">Dabke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance#Deheyeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Deheyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance#Guedra" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Guedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance#Hagallah" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Hagallah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaleegy_(dance)" title="Khaleegy (dance)">Khaleegy </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liwa_(music)" title="Liwa (music)">Liwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizmar_(dance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizmar (dance)">Mizmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouled_Nail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ouled Nail">Ouled Nail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raqs_Sharqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Raqs Sharqi">Raqs Sharqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samri" title="Samri">Samri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance#Shamadan" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Shamadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance#Schikhatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Schikhatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahtib" title="Tahtib">Tahtib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_whirling#Egyptian_tanoura" title="Sufi whirling">Tanoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yowlah" title="Yowlah">Yowlah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z%C4%81r" title="Zār">Zār</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Scripts</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic"> Old </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Arabic" title="Paleo-Arabic"> Paleo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern</a></li></ul> <p><b>Prose</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_epic_literature" title="Arabic epic literature">Epic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhymed_prose" title="Rhymed prose">Saj <span style="font-size:85%;">(ryhmed prose)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqama" title="Maqama">Maqama</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Love_in_Arabic_literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Love in Arabic literature (page does not exist)">Love in Arabic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_erotic_literature" title="Category:Arabic erotic literature">Arabic erotic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_grimoires" title="Category:Arabic grimoires">Arabic grimoires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism#Classical_and_medieval_criticism" title="Literary criticism">Literary_criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_short_story" title="Arabic short story">Arabic short story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabaqat" title="Tabaqat">Tabaqat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tezkire" title="Tezkire">Tezkire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rihla" title="Rihla">Rihla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islamic_mirrors_for_princes" title="Category:Islamic mirrors for princes">Mirrors for princes</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Islamic</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%ABra" class="mw-redirect" title="Sīra">Sīra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">Aqidah</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_anthologies" title="Category:Arabic anthologies">Anthologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic-language_poets" title="Category:Arabic-language poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabic_poetry" title="Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry">Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Arabic poetry">Modern Arabic poetry</a></li></ul> <p><b>Genres</b> </p> <ul><li>Madih</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hija" class="mw-redirect" title="Hija">Hija</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rith%C4%81%27" title="Rithā'">Rithā'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wa%E1%B9%A3f" title="Waṣf">Waṣf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazal" title="Ghazal">Ghazal</a></li> <li>Khamriyyah</li> <li>Tardiyyah</li> <li>Khawal</li> <li>Fakhr</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamasah" title="Hamasah">Hamasah</a></li></ul> <p><b>Forms</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwan_(poetry)" title="Diwan (poetry)"> Diwan </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasida" title="Qasida">Qasida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">Muwashshah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajaz_(prosody)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajaz (prosody)">Urjūza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathnawi" title="Mathnawi">Mathnawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruba%27i" title="Ruba'i">Ruba'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nas%C4%ABb_(poetry)" title="Nasīb (poetry)">Nasīb </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riddles_(Arabic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Riddles (Arabic)">Riddles </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharja" title="Kharja">Kharja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zajal" title="Zajal">Zajal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawwal" title="Mawwal">Mawwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabati" title="Nabati">Nabati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghinnawa" title="Ghinnawa">Ghinnawa</a></li> <li>Humayni</li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Arabic_prosody" title="Arabic prosody">Arabic prosody</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayt_(poetry)" title="Bayt (poetry)">Bayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%ACaw%C4%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ṭawīl">Ṭawīl</a></li> <li>Madīd</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas%C4%AB%E1%B9%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Basīṭ">Basīṭ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamil_(metre)" title="Kamil (metre)"> Kamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C4%81fir" class="mw-redirect" title="Wāfir">Wāfir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazaj_meter" title="Hazaj meter">Hazaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajaz" title="Rajaz">Rajaz </a></li> <li>Ramal</li> <li>Munsariħ</li> <li>Khafīf</li> <li>Muqtaḍab</li> <li>Mujtathth</li> <li>Muḍāriʿ</li> <li>Sarīʿ</li> <li>Mutaqārib</li> <li>Mutadārik</li></ul> <p><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">National literatures of Arab States</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_literature" title="Algerian literature">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Bahrain" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Djibouti" title="Literature of Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_literature" title="Iraqi literature">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Jordan" title="Culture of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_literature" title="Kuwaiti literature">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Lebanon" title="Culture of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_literature" title="Libyan literature">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_literature" title="Moroccan literature">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Oman" title="Culture of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_literature" title="Palestinian literature">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatari_literature" title="Qatari literature">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Saudi_Arabian_writers" title="List of Saudi Arabian writers">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_literature" title="Somali literature">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_literature" title="Sudanese literature">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_literature" title="Syrian literature">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_literature" title="Tunisian literature">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Culture of the United Arab Emirates">U.A.E.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Yemen" title="Culture of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic science">Science</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alchemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic alchemy">Arabic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_astrology" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic astrology">Arabic astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic astronomy">Arabic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic geography">Arabic geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Arabic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic mathematics">Arabic mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Arabic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic psychology">Arabic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic technology">Arabic technology</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic philosophy">Philosophy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Arabic Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism#Islamic_world" title="Aristotelianism">Islamic Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_Islamic_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonism in Islamic Philosophy">Islamic Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Islamic Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_metaphysics" title="Sufi metaphysics">Sufi metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Farabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li></ul> <p><b>Concepts</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-aql_al-faal" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-aql al-faal">Al-aql al-faal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aql_bi-l-fi%27l" class="mw-redirect" title="Aql bi-l-fi'l">Aql bi-l-fi'l</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ins%C4%81n_al-K%C4%81mil" title="Al-Insān al-Kāmil">Al-Insān al-Kāmil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhati_in_islamic_philosophy" title="Dhati in islamic philosophy">Dhati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcs_of_Descent_and_Ascent" title="Arcs of Descent and Ascent">Arcs of Descent and Ascent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">Asabiyyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hal_(Sufism)" title="Hal (Sufism)">Hal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irfan" title="Irfan">Irfan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafs" title="Nafs">Nafs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadar" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadar">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalb" title="Qalb">Qalb</a></li></ul> <p><b>Texts</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liber_de_Causis" title="Liber de Causis">Liber de Causis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theology_of_Aristotle" class="mw-redirect" title="The Theology of Aristotle">The Theology of Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-isharat_wa_al-tanbihat" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat">Al-isharat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_the_Apple" title="The Book of the Apple">The Book of the Apple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers" title="The Incoherence of the Philosophers">The Incoherence of the Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Incoherence" title="The Incoherence of the Incoherence">The Incoherence of the Incoherence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theologus_Autodidactus" title="Theologus Autodidactus">Theologus Autodidactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Harmony_of_Religions_and_Philosophy" title="On the Harmony of Religions and Philosophy">On the Harmony of Religions and Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Questions" title="Sicilian Questions">Sicilian Questions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi#Commentaries_and_translations_of_Fuṣūṣ_al-Ḥikam" title="Ibn Arabi"> Fusus al-Hikam</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabian_mythology" title="Category:Arabian mythology">Mythology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ababil_(mythology)" title="Ababil (mythology)">Ababil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantis_of_the_Sands" title="Atlantis of the Sands">Atlantis of the Sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahamut" title="Bahamut">Bahamut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Idols" title="Book of Idols">Book of Idols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Wonders" title="Book of Wonders">Book of Wonders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buraq" title="Buraq">Buraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dandan" title="Dandan">Dandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falak_(Arabian_legend)" title="Falak (Arabian legend)">Falak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghoul" title="Ghoul">Ghoul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinn_(mythology)" title="Hinn (mythology)">Hinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houri" title="Houri">Houri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifrit" title="Ifrit">Ifrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iram_of_the_Pillars" title="Iram of the Pillars">Iram of the Pillars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">Jinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karkadann" title="Karkadann">Karkadann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kujata_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kujata (mythology)">Kujata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luqman" title="Luqman">Luqman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_carpet" title="Magic carpet">Magic carpet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marid" title="Marid">Marid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Qaf" title="Mount Qaf">Mount Qaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasnas" title="Nasnas">Nasnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qareen" title="Qareen">Qareen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutrub" title="Qutrub">Qutrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roc_(mythology)" title="Roc (mythology)"> Roc </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddad" title="Shaddad">Shaddad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadhavar" title="Shadhavar">Shadhavar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Ma%27arif" title="Shams al-Ma'arif">Shams al-Ma'arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She-Camel_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="She-Camel of God">She-Camel of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C4%81%E1%B8%B3w%C4%81%E1%B8%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="Wāḳwāḳ">Wāḳwāḳ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulfiqar" title="Zulfiqar">Zulfiqar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarqa_al_Yamama" title="Zarqa al Yamama">Zarqa al Yamama</a></li></ul> <p><b>Fictional Arab people</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aladdin" title="Aladdin">Aladdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Alhazred" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Alhazred">Abdul Alhazred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Baba">Ali Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alta%C3%AFr_Ibn-La%27Ahad" class="mw-redirect" title="Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad">Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battal_Gazi" title="Battal Gazi">Battal Gazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_Ben_Nemsi" title="Kara Ben Nemsi">Kara Ben Nemsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Marsile" title="King Marsile">King Marsile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layla_and_Majnun" title="Layla and Majnun">Layla and Majnun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othello" title="Othello">Othello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palamedes_(Arthurian_legend)" title="Palamedes (Arthurian legend)">Palamedes </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Jasmine" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Jasmine">Princess Jasmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%27s_al_Ghul" title="Ra's al Ghul">Ra's al Ghul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinbad_the_Sailor" title="Sinbad the Sailor">Sindbad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talia_al_Ghul" title="Talia al Ghul">Talia al Ghul</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arabian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian mythology">Spirituality</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b>North Arabian deities</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allah#Pre-Islamic_Arabians" title="Allah">Allah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-%E2%80%98Uzz%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-‘Uzzá">Al-‘Uzzá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Lat" title="Al-Lat">Al-Lat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%C4%81t" class="mw-redirect" title="Manāt">Manāt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dushara" title="Dushara">Dushara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaabou" title="Chaabou">Chaabou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manaf_(deity)" title="Manaf (deity)">Manaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuha_(deity)" title="Nuha (deity)">Nuha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kutbay" title="Al-Kutbay">Al-Kutbay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asira" title="Asira">Asira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awal" title="Awal">Awal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azizos" title="Azizos">Azizos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajir" title="Bajir">Bajir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quzah" title="Quzah">Quzah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%C4%81t" class="mw-redirect" title="Manāt">Manāt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%C4%81t" class="mw-redirect" title="Manāt">Manāt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%27ra" class="mw-redirect" title="A'ra">A'ra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abgal_(god)" title="Abgal (god)">Abgal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aglibol" title="Aglibol">Aglibol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qaum" title="Al-Qaum">Al-Qaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atarsamain" title="Atarsamain">Atarsamain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baalshamin" title="Baalshamin">Baalshamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bel_(mythology)" title="Bel (mythology)">Bēl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubal" title="Hubal">Hubal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suwa%27" title="Suwa'">Suwa'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theandrios" title="Theandrios">Theandrios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadd" title="Wadd">Wadd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malakbel" title="Malakbel">Malakbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orotalt" title="Orotalt">Orotalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruda_(deity)" title="Ruda (deity)">Ruda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27d_(idol)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'd (idol)">Sa'd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarhibol" title="Yarhibol">Yarhibol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Is%C4%81f_and_N%C4%81%27ila" class="mw-redirect" title="Isāf and Nā'ila">Isāf and Nā'ila</a></li></ul> <p><b>South Arabian deities</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almaqah" title="Almaqah">Almaqah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amm_(god)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amm (god)">Amm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anbay" title="Anbay">Anbay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attar_(god)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attar (god)">Athtar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salman_(myth)" title="Salman (myth)"> Salman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhat-Badan" title="Dhat-Badan">Dhat-Badan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haubas" title="Haubas">Haubas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%27lab" title="Ta'lab">Ta'lab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qaynan" title="Qaynan">Qaynan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basamum" title="Basamum">Basamum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhul_Khalasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhul Khalasa">Dhul Khalasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haukim" title="Haukim">Haukim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasr_(idol)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasr (idol)">Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Sīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%27uq" title="Ya'uq">Ya'uq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaghuth" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaghuth">Yaghūth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yatha" title="Yatha">Yatha</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_culture" title="Template:Arabic culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_culture" title="Template talk:Arabic culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A large proportion of Arabic literature before the 20th century is in the form of poetry, and even prose from this period is either filled with snippets of poetry or is in the form of <i><a href="/wiki/Saj%27" title="Saj'">saj'</a></i> or rhymed prose. The themes of the poetry range from high-flown hymns of praise to bitter personal attacks and from religious and mystical ideas to poems on women and wine. An important feature of the poetry which would be applied to all of the literature was the idea that it must be pleasing to the ear. The poetry and much of the prose was written with the design that it would be spoken aloud and great care was taken to make all writing as mellifluous as possible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_scholarship">Religious scholarship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Religious scholarship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The research into the life and times of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, and determining the genuine parts of the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunnah</a>, was an important early reason for scholarship in or about the Arabic language. It was also the reason for the collecting of pre-Islamic poetry; as some of these poets were close to the prophet—<a href="/wiki/Lab%C4%ABd" class="mw-redirect" title="Labīd">Labid</a> meeting Muhammad and converting to Islam—and their writings illuminated the times when these events occurred. Muhammad also inspired the first Arabic <a href="/wiki/Biography" title="Biography">biographies</a>, known as A<i>l-Sirah Al-Nabawiyyah</i>; the earliest was by <a href="/wiki/Wahb_ibn_Munabbih" title="Wahb ibn Munabbih">Wahb ibn Munabbih</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Ishaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Ishaq">Muhammad ibn Ishaq</a> wrote the best known. Whilst covering the life of the prophet they also told of the battles and events of early Islam and have numerous digressions on older biblical traditions. </p><p>Some of the earliest works studying the Arabic language were started in the name of Islam. Tradition has it that the caliph <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a>, after reading a copy of the Qur'an with errors in it, asked <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Aswad_al-Du%27ali" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali">Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali</a> to write a work codifying <a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic grammar</a>. <a href="/wiki/Khalil_ibn_Ahmad" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalil ibn Ahmad">Khalil ibn Ahmad</a> would later write <i>Kitab al-Ayn</i>, the first dictionary of Arabic, along with works on <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a> and <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, and his pupil <a href="/wiki/Sibawayh" title="Sibawayh">Sibawayh</a> would produce the most respected work of Arabic grammar known simply as <i>al-Kitab</i> or <i>The Book</i>. </p><p>Other caliphs followed after <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">'Abd al-Malik</a> made Arabic the official language for the administration of the new empire, such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a> who set up the <i><a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">Bayt al-Hikma</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> for research and translations. <a href="/wiki/Basrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Basrah">Basrah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufah</a> were two other important seats of learning in the early Arab world, between which there was a strong rivalry. </p><p>The institutions set up mainly to investigate more fully the Islamic religion were invaluable in studying many other subjects. Caliph <a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik">Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik</a> was instrumental in enriching the literature by instructing scholars to translate works into Arabic. The first was probably <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s correspondence with <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> translated by Salm Abu al-'Ala'. From the east, and in a very different literary genre, the scholar <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Ibn_al-Muqaffa" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa">Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa</a> translated the animal <a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">fables</a> of the <i><a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Panchatantra</a></i>. These translations would keep alive scholarship and learning, particularly that of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a> in Europe and the works would often be first re-introduced to Europe from the Arabic versions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culinary">Culinary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Culinary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine">Arab cuisine</a></div> <p>More medieval cookbooks have survived into the present day written in Arabic than in any other language. Classical Arabic culinary literature is comprised not only of cookbooks, there are also many works of scholarship, and descriptions of contemporary foods can be found in fictional and legendary tales like <i><a href="/wiki/The_Thousand_and_One_Nights" class="mw-redirect" title="The Thousand and One Nights">The Thousand and One Nights</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-zaouali_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zaouali-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these texts predate <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sayyar_al-Warraq" title="Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq">Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq</a>'s <i>Kitab al-Tabikh</i>, the earliest known book of medieval Arabic cuisine. The <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian language</a> <i>Ḵusraw ī Kawādān ud rēdak-ēw</i>, translated into Arabic after the conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> by Arab armies in the 7th century, was a guide to the sophisticated culinary and court culture of the time, written as a fictionalized narrative about an orphan descended from priestly roots who learns the ways of <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a>'s court.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early authors appear to have been familiar with the earlier works of <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rufus_of_Ephesus" title="Rufus of Ephesus">Rufus of Ephesus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galen_of_Pergamum" class="mw-redirect" title="Galen of Pergamum">Galen of Pergamum</a>. Galen's <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=On_the_Properties_of_Foodstuffs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="On the Properties of Foodstuffs (page does not exist)">On the Properties of Foodstuffs</a></i> was translated into Arabic as <i>Kitab al-aghdiya</i> and was cited by all contemporary medical writers in the Caliphate during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi</a>. Al-Razi was himself the author of an early text on food <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Manafi_al-Aghdhiya_wa_Daf_Madarriha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manafi al-Aghdhiya wa Daf Madarriha (page does not exist)">Manafi al-Aghdhiya wa Daf Madarriha</a></i> (Book of the Benefits of Food, and Remedies against Its Harmful Effects). Interest in Galen's work was not limited only to Muslim scholars; Jewish scholar <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_Isha%E1%B8%B3_ibn_Sulayman_al-Isra%27ili" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Ya'qub Ishaḳ ibn Sulayman al-Isra'ili">Abu Ya'qub Ishaḳ ibn Sulayman al-Isra'ili</a> wrote <i>Book on Foods</i> (also in Arabic) in the same period. Rufus' original <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> work has not survived into the present day, and it is only known to us from its Arabic translation.<sup id="cite_ref-zaouali_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zaouali-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-fiction_literature">Non-fiction literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Non-fiction literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Compilations_and_manuals">Compilations and manuals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Compilations and manuals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 9th century <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nadim" title="Ibn al-Nadim">Ibn al-Nadim</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdadi</a> bookseller, compiled a crucial work in the study of Arabic literature. The <i><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Fihrist" class="mw-redirect" title="Kitab al-Fihrist">Kitab al-Fihrist</a></i> is a catalogue of all books available for sale in Baghdad, and it gives an overview of the state of the literature at that time. </p><p>One of the most common forms of literature during the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> period was the compilation. These were collections of facts, ideas, instructive stories and poems on a single topic, and covers subjects as diverse as house and garden, women, gate-crashers, blind people, envy, animals and misers. These last three compilations were written by <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">al-Jahiz</a>, the acknowledged master of the form. These collections were important for any <i>nadim</i>, a companion to a ruler or noble whose role was often involved regaling the ruler with stories and information to entertain or advise. </p><p>A type of work closely allied to the collection was the manual in which writers like <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Qutaybah" title="Ibn Qutaybah">ibn Qutaybah</a> offered instruction in subjects like etiquette, how to rule, how to be a bureaucrat and even how to write. Ibn Qutaybah also wrote one of the earliest histories of the Arabs, drawing together biblical stories, Arabic <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folk tales</a> and more historical events. </p><p>The subject of sex was frequently investigated in Arabic literature. The <i><a href="/wiki/Ghazal" title="Ghazal">ghazal</a></i> or love poem had a long history, being at times tender and chaste and at other times rather explicit. In the <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> tradition, the love poem would take on wider, mystical and religious importance. Sex manuals were also written such as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Perfumed_Garden" title="The Perfumed Garden">The Perfumed Garden</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Ring_of_the_Dove" title="The Ring of the Dove">Ṭawq al-Ḥamāmah</a></i> or <i>The Dove's Neckring</i> by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">ibn Hazm</a> and <i>Nuzhat al-albab fi-ma la yujad fi kitab</i> or <i>Delight of Hearts Concerning What will Never Be Found in a Book</i> by <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Tifashi" title="Ahmad al-Tifashi">Ahmad al-Tifashi</a>. Countering such works are one like <i>Rawdat al-muhibbin wa-nuzhat al-mushtaqin</i> or <i>Meadow of Lovers and Diversion of the Infatuated</i> by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Qayyim_al-Jawziyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah">ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah</a> who advises on how to separate love and lust and avoid sin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biography,_history,_and_geography"><span id="Biography.2C_history.2C_and_geography"></span>Biography, history, and geography</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Biography, history, and geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aside from the early <a href="/wiki/Biography" title="Biography">biographies</a> of Muhammad, the first major biographer to weigh character rather than just producing a hymn of praise was <a href="/wiki/Al-Baladhuri" title="Al-Baladhuri">al-Baladhuri</a> with his <i><a href="/wiki/Genealogies_of_the_Nobles" title="Genealogies of the Nobles">Kitab ansab al-ashraf</a></i> or <i>Book of the Genealogies of the Noble</i>, a collection of biographies. Another important biographical dictionary was begun by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khallikan" title="Ibn Khallikan">ibn Khallikan</a> and expanded by al-Safadi and one of the first significant <a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">autobiographies</a> was <i><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-I%27tibar" title="Kitab al-I'tibar">Kitab al-I'tibar</a></i> which told of <a href="/wiki/Usamah_ibn_Munqidh" class="mw-redirect" title="Usamah ibn Munqidh">Usamah ibn Munqidh</a> and his experiences in fighting in the <a href="/wiki/Crusade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusade">Crusades</a>. This time period saw the emergence of the genre of <i>tabaqat</i> (biographical dictionaries or biographical compendia).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khurdadhbih" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Khurdadhbih">Ibn Khurdadhbih</a>, an official in the <a href="/wiki/Mail" title="Mail">postal service</a> wrote one of the first <a href="/wiki/Guide_book" title="Guide book">travel books</a> and the form remained a popular one in Arabic literature with books by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal" title="Ibn Hawqal">ibn Hawqal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Fadlan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Fadlan">ibn Fadlan</a>, al-Istakhri, <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqaddasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muqaddasi">al-Muqaddasi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Idrisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Idrisi">al-Idrisi</a> and most famously the travels of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battutah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Battutah">ibn Battutah</a>. These give a view of the many cultures of the wider <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> world and also offer <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> perspectives on the non-Muslim peoples on the edges of the empire. They also indicated just how great a trading power the Muslim peoples had become. These were often sprawling accounts that included details of both <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>. </p><p>Some writers concentrated solely on history like <a href="/wiki/Al-Ya%27qubi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ya'qubi">al-Ya'qubi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a>, whilst others focused on a small portion of history such as <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Azraq" title="Ibn al-Azraq">ibn al-Azraq</a>, with a history of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Tahir_Tayfur" title="Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur">ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur</a>, writing a history of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. The historian regarded as the greatest of all Arabic historians though is <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">ibn Khaldun</a> whose history <i><a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a></i> focuses on society and is a founding text in <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diaries">Diaries</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Diaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Near East</a>, Arabic <a href="/wiki/Diary" title="Diary">diaries</a> were first being written from before the 10th century, though the medieval diary which most resembles the modern diary was that of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ali_ibn_al-Banna" title="Abu Ali ibn al-Banna">Abu Ali ibn al-Banna</a> in the 11th century. His diary was the earliest to be arranged in order of date (<i>ta'rikh</i> in Arabic), very much like modern diaries.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Literary_theory_and_criticism">Literary theory and criticism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Literary theory and criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">Literary criticism</a> in Arabic literature often focused on religious texts, and the several long religious traditions of <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a> and textual <a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">exegesis</a> have had a profound influence on the study of secular texts. This was particularly the case for the literary traditions of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Islamic literature</a>. </p><p>Literary criticism was also employed in other forms of medieval <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a> and literature from the 9th century, notably by <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a> in his <i>al-Bayan wa-'l-tabyin</i> and <i>al-Hayawan</i>, and by <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_al-Mu%27tazz" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah ibn al-Mu'tazz">Abdullah ibn al-Mu'tazz</a> in his <i>Kitab al-Badi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiction_literature">Fiction literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Fiction literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabian_nights_manuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Arabian_nights_manuscript.jpg/220px-Arabian_nights_manuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Arabian_nights_manuscript.jpg/330px-Arabian_nights_manuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Arabian_nights_manuscript.jpg/440px-Arabian_nights_manuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>A 14th century Arabic <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_%CA%BFAbd_Rabbih" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn ʿAbd Rabbih">Ibn ʿAbd Rabbih</a>'s book <i><a href="/wiki/Al-%CA%BFIqd_al-Far%C4%ABd" title="Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd">Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd</a></i> is considered one of the seminal texts of Arabic fiction.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, there was a great distinction between <i>al-fus'ha</i> (quality language) and <i>al-ammiyyah</i> (language of the common people). Not many writers would write works in this <i>al-ammiyyah</i> or common language and it was felt that literature had to be improving, educational and with purpose rather than just entertainment. This did not stop the common role of the <i>hakawati</i> or story-teller who would retell the entertaining parts of more educational works or one of the many Arabic <a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">fables</a> or <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folk-tales</a>, which were often not written down in many cases. Nevertheless, some of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novels</a>, including the first <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical novel">philosophical novels</a>, were written by Arabic authors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Epic_literature">Epic literature</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Epic literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_epic_literature" title="Arabic epic literature">Arabic epic literature</a></div> <p>The most famous example of Arabic fiction is the <i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i> (<i>Arabian Nights</i>). It is easily the best-known work of all Arabic literature, and still affects many of the ideas non-Arabs have about <a href="/wiki/Arabic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic culture">Arabic culture</a>. A good example of the lack of popular Arabic prose fiction is that the stories of <a href="/wiki/Aladdin" title="Aladdin">Aladdin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ali_Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Baba">Ali Baba</a>, usually regarded as part of the <i>Tales from One Thousand and One Nights</i>, were not actually part of the <i>Tales</i>. They were first included in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> translation of the <i>Tales</i> by <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Galland" title="Antoine Galland">Antoine Galland</a> who heard them being told by <a href="/wiki/Maronites" title="Maronites">Maronite</a> <a href="/wiki/Hanna_Diyab" title="Hanna Diyab">Hanna Dyab</a> and only existed in incomplete Arabic manuscripts before that. The other great character from Arabic literature, <a href="/wiki/Sinbad" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinbad">Sinbad</a>, is from the <i>Tales</i>. </p><p>The <i>One Thousand and One Nights</i> is usually placed in the genre of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_epic_literature" title="Arabic epic literature">Arabic epic literature</a> along with several other works. They are usually collections of short stories or episodes strung together into a long tale. The extant versions were mostly written down relatively late, after the 14th century, although many were undoubtedly collected earlier and many of the original stories are probably pre-Islamic. Types of stories in these collections include <a href="/wiki/Animal_fable" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal fable">animal fables</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">proverbs</a>, stories of <i><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a></i> or propagation of the faith, humorous tales, moral tales, tales about the wily con-man Ali Zaybaq, and tales about the prankster <a href="/w/index.php?title=Juha_(character)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Juha (character) (page does not exist)">Juha</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maqama">Maqama</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Maqama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Maqama" title="Maqama">Maqama</a></i> not only straddles the divide between <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, being instead a form of <a href="/wiki/Rhymed_prose" title="Rhymed prose">rhymed prose</a>, it is also part-way between fiction and non-fiction. Over a series of short narratives, which are fictionalised versions of real-life situations, different ideas are contemplated. A good example of this is a <i>maqama</i> on musk, which purports to compare the feature of different perfumes but is in fact a work of political satire comparing several competing rulers. <i>Maqama</i> also makes use of the doctrine of <i>badi</i> or deliberately adding complexity to display the writer's dexterity with language. <a href="/wiki/Al-Hamadhani" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hamadhani">Al-Hamadhani</a> is regarded as the originator of <i>maqama</i>; his work was taken up by <a href="/wiki/Al-Hariri_of_Basra" title="Al-Hariri of Basra">Abu Muhammad al-Qasim al-Hariri</a>, one of al-Hariri's <i>maqama</i> being a study of al-Hamadhani's own work. <i>Maqama</i> was an exceptionally popular form of Arabic literature, one of the few forms which continued to be written during the decline of Arabic in the 17th and 18th centuries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Love_literature">Love literature</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Love literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A famous example of <a href="/wiki/Romance_(love)" title="Romance (love)">romantic</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a> is <i><a href="/wiki/Layla_and_Majnun" title="Layla and Majnun">Layla and Majnun</a></i>, dating back to the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> era in the 7th century. It is a <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragic</a> story of undying <a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">love</a>. <i>Layla and Majnun</i> is considered part of the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Love" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic Love">platonic Love</a> (Arabic: حب عذري) genre, so-called because the couple never marry or consummate their relationship, that is prominent in Arabic literature, though the literary motif is found throughout the world. Other famous Virgin Love stories include <i>Qays and Lubna</i>, <i>Kuthair and Azza</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Marwa_and_al-Majnun_al-Faransi" title="Marwa and al-Majnun al-Faransi">Marwa and al-Majnun al-Faransi</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Antarah_ibn_Shaddad" title="Antarah ibn Shaddad">Antara and Abla</a></i>. </p><p>The 10th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></i> features a fictional <a href="/wiki/Anecdote" title="Anecdote">anecdote</a> of a "prince who strays from his palace during his wedding feast and, drunk, spends the night in a cemetery, confusing a corpse with his bride. The story is used as a gnostic parable of the soul's <a href="/wiki/Pre-existence" title="Pre-existence">pre-existence</a> and return from its terrestrial <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sojourn" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:sojourn">sojourn</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another medieval Arabic love story was <i><a href="/wiki/Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad" title="Hadith Bayad wa Riyad">Hadith Bayad wa Riyad</a></i> (<i>The Story of Bayad and Riyad</i>), a 13th-century <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> love story. The main characters of the tale are Bayad, a merchant's son and a foreigner from <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, and Riyad, a well-educated girl in the court of an unnamed <a href="/wiki/Hajib" title="Hajib">Hajib</a> (vizier or minister) of 'Iraq which is referred to as the lady. The <i>Hadith Bayad wa Riyad</i> manuscript is believed to be the only illustrated manuscript known to have survived from more than eight centuries of Muslim and Arab presence in Spain. </p><p>Many of the tales in the <i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i> are also love stories or involve romantic love as a central theme. This includes the <a href="/wiki/Frame_story" title="Frame story">frame story</a> of <a href="/wiki/Scheherazade" title="Scheherazade">Scheherazade</a> herself, and many of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_stories_within_One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="List of stories within One Thousand and One Nights">stories she narrates</a>, including "<a href="/wiki/Aladdin" title="Aladdin">Aladdin</a>", "<a href="/wiki/The_Ebony_Horse" title="The Ebony Horse">The Ebony Horse</a>", "<a href="/wiki/The_Three_Apples" title="The Three Apples">The Three Apples</a>", "Tale of Tàj al-Mulúk and the Princess Dunyà: The Lover and the Loved", "Adi bin Zayd and the Princess Hind", "Di'ibil al-Khuza'i With the Lady and Muslim bin al-Walid", "The Three Unfortunate Lovers", and others. </p><p>Several elements of <a href="/wiki/Courtly_love" title="Courtly love">courtly love</a> were developed in Arabic literature, namely the notions of "love for love's sake" and "exaltation of the beloved lady" which have been traced back to Arabic literature of the 9th and 10th centuries. The notion of the "ennobling power" of love was developed in the early 11th century by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim psychology">Persian psychologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina</a> (known as "Avicenna" in Europe), in his Arabic treatise <i>Risala fi'l-Ishq</i> (<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/works/avicenna-love.pdf">A Treatise on Love</a></i>). The final element of courtly love, the concept of "love as desire never to be fulfilled", was also at times implicit in <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Murder_mystery">Murder mystery</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Murder mystery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest known example of a <a href="/wiki/Whodunit" title="Whodunit">whodunit</a> <a href="/wiki/Crime_fiction" title="Crime fiction">murder mystery</a> was "<a href="/wiki/The_Three_Apples" title="The Three Apples">The Three Apples</a>", one of the tales narrated by <a href="/wiki/Scheherazade" title="Scheherazade">Scheherazade</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i> (<i>Arabian Nights</i>). In this tale, a fisherman discovers a heavy locked chest along the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> river and he sells it to the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliph</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a>, who then has the chest broken open only to find inside it the dead body of a young woman who was cut into pieces. Harun orders his <a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">vizier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_ibn_Yahya" title="Ja'far ibn Yahya">Ja'far ibn Yahya</a>, to solve the crime and find the murderer within three days, or be executed if he fails his assignment.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Suspense" title="Suspense">Suspense</a> is generated through multiple <a href="/wiki/Plot_twist" title="Plot twist">plot twists</a> that occur as the story progresses.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may thus be considered an archetype for <a href="/wiki/Detective_fiction" title="Detective fiction">detective fiction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Satire_and_comedy">Satire and comedy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Satire and comedy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a>, the genre of <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satirical</a> poetry was known as <i>hija</i>. Satire was introduced into prose literature by the author <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">al-Jahiz</a> in the 9th century. While dealing with serious topics in what are now known as <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, sociology and <a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology in medieval Islam">psychology</a>, he introduced a satirical approach, "based on the premise that, however serious the subject under review, it could be made more interesting and thus achieve greater effect, if only one leavened the lump of solemnity by the insertion of a few amusing anecdotes or by the throwing out of some witty or paradoxical observations."<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was well aware that, in treating of new themes in his prose works, he would have to employ a vocabulary of a nature more familiar in <i>hija</i>, satirical poetry. For example, in one of his <a href="/wiki/Zoological" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoological">zoological</a> works, he satirized the preference for longer <a href="/wiki/Human_penis_size" title="Human penis size">human penis size</a>, writing: "If the length of the penis were a sign of honor, then the <a href="/wiki/Mule" title="Mule">mule</a> would belong to the (honorable tribe of) <a href="/wiki/Quraysh_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quraysh (tribe)">Quraysh</a>". Another satirical story based on this preference was an <i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">Arabian Nights</a></i> tale called "Ali with the Large Member".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 10th century, the writer <a href="/wiki/Tha%27alibi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tha'alibi">Tha'alibi</a> recorded satirical poetry written by the poets As-Salami and Abu Dulaf, with As-Salami praising Abu Dulaf's <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">wide breadth of knowledge</a> and then mocking his ability in all these subjects, and with Abu Dulaf responding back and satirizing As-Salami in return.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of Arabic <a href="/wiki/Political_satire" title="Political satire">political satire</a> included another 10th-century poet Jarir satirizing Farazdaq as "a transgressor of the <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a>" and later Arabic poets in turn using the term "Farazdaq-like" as a form of political satire.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The terms "<a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">comedy</a>" and "satire" became synonymous after <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></i> was translated into Arabic in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>, where it was elaborated upon by Arabic writers and <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophers</a>, such as Abu Bischr, his pupil <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from <a href="/wiki/Greek_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek drama">Greek dramatic</a> representation and instead identified it with <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetic</a> themes and forms, such as <i>hija</i> (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension", and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or troublous beginnings and happy endings, associated with classical Greek comedy. After the <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Latin translations of the 12th century</a>, the term "comedy" thus gained a new semantic meaning in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theatre">Theatre</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Theatre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While <a href="/wiki/Puppet" title="Puppet">puppet</a> theatre and <a href="/wiki/Passion_play" class="mw-redirect" title="Passion play">passion plays</a> were popular in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Moreh_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreh-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> live <a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">theatre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> has only been a visible part of Arabic literature in the modern era. There may have been a much longer theatrical tradition but it was probably not regarded as legitimate literature and mostly went unrecorded. There is an ancient tradition of public performance amongst <a href="/wiki/Shi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'i">Shi'i</a> Muslims of a play depicting the life and death of <a href="/wiki/Al-Husayn" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Husayn">al-Husayn</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karbala" title="Battle of Karbala">battle of Karbala</a> in 680 CE. There are also several plays composed by <a href="/wiki/Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_Ibn_D%C4%81niy%C4%81l" title="Muḥammad Ibn Dāniyāl">Shams al-din Muhammad ibn Daniyal</a> in the 13th century when he mentions that older plays are getting stale and offers his new works as fresh material. </p><p>The most popular forms of theater in the medieval Islamic world were puppet theatre (which included hand puppets, <a href="/wiki/Shadow_play" title="Shadow play">shadow plays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marionette" title="Marionette">marionette</a> productions) and live <a href="/wiki/Passion_play" class="mw-redirect" title="Passion play">passion plays</a> known as <i>ta'ziya</i>, where actors re-enact episodes from <a href="/wiki/Muslim_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim history">Muslim history</a>. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">plays</a> revolved around the <i><a href="/wiki/Shahid" title="Shahid">shaheed</a></i> (martyrdom) of <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a>'s sons <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Hasan ibn Ali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Husayn ibn Ali</a>. Live secular plays were known as <i>akhraja</i>, recorded in medieval <i><a href="/wiki/Adab_(behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Adab (behavior)">adab</a></i> literature, though they were less common than puppetry and <i>ta'ziya</i> theater.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreh_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreh-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> had a noticeable influence on the works of <a href="/wiki/George_Peele" title="George Peele">George Peele</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_Alcazar" title="The Battle of Alcazar">The Battle of Alcazar</a></i> and Shakespeare's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Venice" title="The Merchant of Venice">The Merchant of Venice</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Titus_Andronicus" title="Titus Andronicus">Titus Andronicus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Othello" title="Othello">Othello</a></i>, which featured a Moorish <a href="/wiki/Othello_(character)" title="Othello (character)">Othello</a> as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish <a href="/wiki/Delegation" title="Delegation">delegations</a> from <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> to <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan England">Elizabethan England</a> at the beginning of the 17th century, ignoring the fact that <i><a href="/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Venice" title="The Merchant of Venice">The Merchant of Venice</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Titus_Andronicus" title="Titus Andronicus">Titus Andronicus</a></i> were both penned in the 16th century. In 2016, opera singer and actor <a href="/wiki/David_Serero_(singer)" title="David Serero (singer)">David Serero</a> performed Othello in a Moroccan adaptation in New York.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophical_novels">Philosophical novels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Philosophical novels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Arab <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a> (Abubacer)<sup id="cite_ref-Jon_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jon-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a>, were pioneers of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical novel">philosophical novel</a> as they wrote the earliest <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novels</a> dealing with <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">philosophical fiction</a>. Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic novel <i><a href="/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></i> (<i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>) as a response to <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers" title="The Incoherence of the Philosophers">The Incoherence of the Philosophers</a></i>. This was followed by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a> who wrote a fictional narrative <i><a href="/wiki/Theologus_Autodidactus" title="Theologus Autodidactus">Theologus Autodidactus</a></i> as a response to Ibn Tufail's <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>. Both of these narratives had <a href="/wiki/Protagonist" title="Protagonist">protagonists</a> (Hayy in <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> and Kamil in <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i>) who were <a href="/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">autodidactic</a> individuals <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">spontaneously generated</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">cave</a> and living in seclusion on a <a href="/wiki/Desert_island" class="mw-redirect" title="Desert island">desert island</a>, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone on the desert island for most of the story in <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> (until he meets a <a href="/wiki/Castaway" title="Castaway">castaway</a> named Absal), the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> (when castaways take him back to civilization with them), developing into the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Coming_of_age" title="Coming of age">coming of age</a> plot and eventually becoming the first example of a <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> novel. </p><p>Ibn al-Nafis described his book <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." He presents rational arguments for bodily <a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">resurrection</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">immortality</a> of the human <a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">soul</a>, using both demonstrative <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case. Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> claim of Avicenna and Ibn Tufail that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali. Ibn al-Nafis' work was later translated into Latin and English as <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> in the early 20th century. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> translation of Ibn Tufail's work, entitled <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>, first appeared in 1671, prepared by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Pococke" title="Edward Pococke">Edward Pococke</a> the Younger. The first English translation by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Ockley" title="Simon Ockley">Simon Ockley</a> was published in 1708, and <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> translations were also published at the time. These translations later inspired <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Defoe" title="Daniel Defoe">Daniel Defoe</a> to write <i><a href="/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe" title="Robinson Crusoe">Robinson Crusoe</a></i>, which also featured a desert island narrative and was regarded as the <a href="/wiki/First_novel_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="First novel in English">first novel in English</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wainwright_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wainwright-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> also inspired <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, an acquaintance of Pococke, to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, <i>The Aspiring Naturalist</i>, in the late 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Toomer-222_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toomer-222-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The story also anticipated <a href="/wiki/Rousseau" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseau">Rousseau</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education">Émile</a></i> in some ways, and is also similar to the later story of <a href="/wiki/Mowgli" title="Mowgli">Mowgli</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jungle_Book" title="The Jungle Book">The Jungle Book</a></i> as well the character of <a href="/wiki/Tarzan" title="Tarzan">Tarzan</a>, in that a baby is abandoned in a deserted tropical island where he is taken care of and fed by a mother <a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">wolf</a>. Other European writers influenced by <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> include <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Wainwright_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wainwright-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Melchis%C3%A9dech_Th%C3%A9venot" title="Melchisédech Thévenot">Melchisédech Thévenot</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Wallis" title="John Wallis">John Wallis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Keith_(missionary)" title="George Keith (missionary)">George Keith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Barclay" title="Robert Barclay">Robert Barclay</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quakers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hartlib" title="Samuel Hartlib">Samuel Hartlib</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Toomer-222_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toomer-222-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Science_fiction">Science fiction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Science fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Sira al-Nabawiyyah</i> (<i>The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography</i>), known in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> as <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> (which is a phonetic transliteration of the Greek name Θεολόγος Αὐτοδίδακτος, meaning self-taught theologian), written by the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab</a> polymath <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a> (1213–1288), is the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> novel. While also being an early <a href="/wiki/Desert_island" class="mw-redirect" title="Desert island">desert island</a> story and <a href="/wiki/Coming_of_age" title="Coming of age">coming of age</a> story, the novel deals with various science fiction elements such as <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">spontaneous generation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Futurology" class="mw-redirect" title="Futurology">futurology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">apocalyptic themes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">end of the world and doomsday</a>, <a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">resurrection</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using his own extensive <a href="/wiki/Science_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in medieval Islam">scientific knowledge</a> in <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in medieval Islam">anatomy, biology, physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">astronomy, cosmology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geography_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography in medieval Islam">geology</a>. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> religious teachings in terms of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">philosophy</a>. For example, it was through this novel that Ibn al-Nafis introduces his scientific theory of <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, and he makes references to his own scientific discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a> in order to explain bodily resurrection. The novel was later translated into English as <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> in the early 20th century. </p><p>A number of <a href="/wiki/Story_within_a_story" title="Story within a story">stories within</a> the <i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i> (<i>Arabian Nights</i>) also feature science fiction elements. One example is "The Adventures of Bulukiya", where the <a href="/wiki/Protagonist" title="Protagonist">protagonist</a> Bulukiya's quest for the <a href="/wiki/Elixir_of_life" title="Elixir of life">herb of immortality</a> leads him to explore the seas, journey to the <a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Jahannam" title="Jahannam">Jahannam</a>, and travel across the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a> to different worlds much larger than his own world, anticipating elements of <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galactic</a> science fiction;<sup id="cite_ref-Irwin_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Irwin-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along the way, he encounters societies of <a href="/wiki/Genie" class="mw-redirect" title="Genie">jinns</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mermaid" title="Mermaid">mermaids</a>, talking <a href="/wiki/Serpent_(symbolism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Serpent (symbolism)">serpents</a>, talking <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a>, and other forms of life.<sup id="cite_ref-Irwin_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Irwin-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another <i>Arabian Nights</i> tale, the protagonist Abdullah the Fisherman gains the ability to breathe underwater and discovers an underwater <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarine</a> society that is portrayed as an inverted reflection of society on land, in that the underwater society follows a form of <a href="/wiki/Primitive_communism" title="Primitive communism">primitive communism</a> where concepts like money and clothing do not exist. Other <i>Arabian Nights</i> tales deal with lost ancient technologies, advanced ancient civilizations that went astray, and catastrophes which overwhelmed them.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<a href="/wiki/The_City_of_Brass_(One_Thousand_and_One_Nights)" class="mw-redirect" title="The City of Brass (One Thousand and One Nights)">The City of Brass</a>" features a group of travellers on an <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> expedition<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> across the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> to find an ancient lost city and attempt to recover a brass vessel that <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> once used to trap a <a href="/wiki/Genie" class="mw-redirect" title="Genie">jinn</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, along the way, encounter a <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummified</a> queen, <a href="/wiki/Petrifaction_in_mythology_and_fiction" title="Petrifaction in mythology and fiction">petrified</a> inhabitants,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> lifelike <a href="/wiki/Humanoid_robot" title="Humanoid robot">humanoid robots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Automata" class="mw-redirect" title="Automata">automata</a>, seductive <a href="/wiki/Marionette" title="Marionette">marionettes</a> dancing without strings,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a brass horseman <a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robot</a> who directs the party towards the ancient city. "<a href="/wiki/The_Ebony_Horse" title="The Ebony Horse">The Ebony Horse</a>" features a robot<sup id="cite_ref-Pinault_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pinault-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the form of a flying mechanical horse controlled using keys that could fly into outer space and towards the Sun, while the "Third Qalandar's Tale" also features a robot in the form of an uncanny <a href="/wiki/Sailor" title="Sailor">boatman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pinault_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pinault-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The City of Brass" and "The Ebony Horse" can be considered early examples of proto-science fiction. </p><p>Other examples of early Arabic proto-science fiction include <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a>'s <i>Opinions of the residents of a splendid city</i> about a <a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">utopian</a> society, and elements such as the <a href="/wiki/Flying_carpet" class="mw-redirect" title="Flying carpet">flying carpet</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arabic_literature_for_young_readers_and_children">Arabic literature for young readers and children</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Arabic literature for young readers and children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As in other languages, there is a growing number of literary works written in Arabic for <a href="/wiki/Young_adult_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Young adult fiction">young readers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With this group of readers in mind, the Young Readers series of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Press" title="New York University Press">New York University Press</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Arabic_Literature" title="Library of Arabic Literature">Library of Arabic Literature</a> (LAL) offers contemporary and even classical texts in its Weaving Words collection, like the tenth-century anthology of stories and anecdotes <i>Al-Faraj Ba'd al-Shiddah</i> (Deliverance Follows Adversity<i>)</i> by medieval writer Al-Muḥassin ibn ʿAlī al-Tanūkhī (327–84/939–94).<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In her 2011 essay "Arabic Children's Literature Today: Determining Factors and Tendencies" author and translator from Arabic to German Petra Dünges gave an overview of fiction written for Arab children since its beginnings in Egypt during the late 19th century, focussing on books published between 1990 and 2010. Judging from several modern illustrated books and <a href="/wiki/Manga" title="Manga">mangas</a> such as <i>Gold Ring</i> (الذهب سوار) by Emirati writer Qays Sidqiyy (<a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Zayed_Book_Award" title="Sheikh Zayed Book Award">Sheikh Zayed Book Award</a> 2010), she noted an increase in the variety of children's literature in the changing modern Arab society. Further, she noticed a growing demand for stories and adequate illustrations that take children as readers seriously. Finally, she ascertained that Arabic children's literature is an important contribution the development of Arab society, crucial to keeping Arab culture and the Arabic language alive.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marcia Lynx Qualey, editor-in-chief of <a href="/wiki/ArabLit" title="ArabLit">ArabLit</a> online magazine, has translated Arabic novels for young readers, such as <i>Thunderbirds</i> by Palestinian writer Sonia Nimr.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, she has written on Arabic books for teens<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and participated in academic forums.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She and other literary translators and consultants publish the website ArabKidLitNow!, promoting translated Arabic literature for children and young readers.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Women_in_Arabic_literature">Women in Arabic literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Women in Arabic literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_literary_salons_and_societies_in_the_Arab_world" title="Women's literary salons and societies in the Arab world">Women's literary salons and societies in the Arab world</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islamic culture</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Seljuk_architecture" title="Anatolian Seljuk architecture">Anatolian Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Islamic_architecture" title="Chinese Islamic architecture">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_architecture" title="Fatimid architecture">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque_architecture_in_Indonesia" title="Mosque architecture in Indonesia">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_architecture" title="Mamluk architecture">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">Moorish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_architecture" title="Somali architecture">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudano-Sahelian_architecture" title="Sudano-Sahelian architecture">Sudano-Sahelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_mosque" title="Tatar mosque">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_architecture" title="Swahili architecture">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_architecture" title="Umayyad architecture">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Yemen" title="Architecture of Yemen">Yemeni</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_embroidery" title="Islamic embroidery">Embroidery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_glass" title="Islamic glass">Glassware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_miniature" title="Islamic miniature">Miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_clothing" title="Islamic clothing">Clothing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abaya" title="Abaya">Abaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agal_(accessory)" title="Agal (accessory)">Agal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boubou_(clothing)" title="Boubou (clothing)">Boubou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burqa" title="Burqa">Burqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chador" title="Chador">Chador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijab" title="Hijab">Hijab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headscarf" title="Headscarf">Headscarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jilb%C4%81b" title="Jilbāb">Jilbab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jellabiya" title="Jellabiya">Jellabiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaftan" title="Kaftan">Kaftan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kameez" class="mw-redirect" title="Kameez">Kameez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keffiyeh" title="Keffiyeh">Keffiyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kupiah" title="Kupiah">Kupiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niq%C4%81b" title="Niqāb">Niqāb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salwar" title="Salwar">Salwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songkok" title="Songkok">Songkok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqiyah_(cap)" title="Taqiyah (cap)">Taqiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thawb" title="Thawb">Thawb</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Holidays</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27een" class="mw-redirect" title="Arba'een">Arba'een</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Ghadir" title="Eid al-Ghadir">al-Ghadir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaand_Raat" title="Chaand Raat">Chaand Raat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Fitr" title="Eid al-Fitr">al-Fitr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Adha" title="Eid al-Adha">al-Adha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamat_Day" title="Imamat Day">Imamat Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_New_Year" title="Islamic New Year">New Year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laylat_al-Qadr" class="mw-redirect" title="Laylat al-Qadr">al-Qadr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawlid" title="Mawlid">Mawlid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laylat_al_Bara%27at" class="mw-redirect" title="Laylat al Bara'at">Bara’at</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laylat_al-Raghaib" title="Laylat al-Raghaib">Raghaib</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_literature" title="Azerbaijani literature">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_literature" title="Bengali literature">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_literature" title="Crimean Tatar literature">Crimean Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_literature" title="Gambian literature">Gambian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_literature" title="Hausa literature">Hausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_literature" title="Indonesian literature">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Kashmir" title="Literature of Kashmir">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_literature" title="Kazakh literature">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_literature" title="Kurdish literature">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_literature" title="Kyrgyz literature">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_literature" title="Malaysian literature">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malian_literature" title="Malian literature">Malian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_literature" title="Nigerian literature">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_literature_and_poetry" title="Pashto literature and poetry">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_literature" title="Punjabi literature">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_literature" title="Sindhi literature">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_literature" title="Somali literature">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_literature" title="South Asian literature">South Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_literature" title="Tajik literature">Tajik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_literature" title="Tatar literature">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_literature" title="Turkish literature">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_literature" title="Turkmen literature">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu_literature" title="Urdu literature">Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_literature" title="Uyghur literature">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_literature" title="Uzbek literature">Uzbek</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashik" title="Ashik">Ashik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daf" title="Daf">Daf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dastgah" class="mw-redirect" title="Dastgah">Dastgah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamelan" title="Gamelan">Gamelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendang_beleq" title="Gendang beleq">Gendang beleq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazal" title="Ghazal">Ghazal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ha%E1%B8%8Dra" title="Haḍra">Haḍra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamd" title="Hamd">Hamd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarigan" title="Jarigan">Jari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madih_nabawi" title="Madih nabawi">Madih nabawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappila_songs" title="Mappila songs">Mappilappattu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_maqam" title="Arabic maqam">Maqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mugham" title="Mugham">Mugam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%CA%BDat" title="Naʽat">Naʽat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasheed" title="Nasheed">Nasheed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noha" title="Noha">Noha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qawwali" title="Qawwali">Qawwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_music" title="Sufi music">Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talempong" title="Talempong">Talempong</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theatre">Theatre</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.55em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangsawan" title="Bangsawan">Bangsawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cem_(Alevism)" title="Cem (Alevism)">Cem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat" title="Karagöz and Hacivat">Karagöz and Hacivat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sama_(Sufism)" title="Sama (Sufism)">Sama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%27zieh" title="Ta'zieh">Ta'zieh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayang" title="Wayang">Wayang</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#e6e6ff;padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.5em;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_culture" title="Template:Islamic culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_culture" title="Template talk:Islamic culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the words of Clarissa Burt, </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Despite the historical and social conditions that contributed to an almost total eclipse of women's poetic expression in the literary record as maintained in Arabic culture from the pre-Islamic era through the nineteenth century, with a few significant exceptions, women poets writing in Arabic have made tremendous strides since the dawn of the twentieth century in presenting their poetic offerings in mainstream cultural forums, and contributing to a plethora of new and modern poetic currents in literary cultural throughout the Arab world.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Whilst not playing a major attested part in Arabic literature for much of its history, women have had a continuing role. Women's literature in Arabic has been relatively little researched, and features relatively little in most Arabic-language education systems, meaning that its prominence and importance is probably generally underrated.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Medieval_Period">The Medieval Period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: The Medieval Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Arabic_female_poets" title="Medieval Arabic female poets">Medieval Arabic female poets</a></div> <p>In the estimation of <a href="/wiki/Tahera_Qutbuddin" title="Tahera Qutbuddin">Tahera Qutbuddin</a>, </p> <dl><dd>the citation of women's poetry in the general medieval anthologies is sparse. The earliest anthologists either ignored women poets or made disparaging remarks about them ... In his introduction to the <i>Nuzhat al-Julasa</i>, al-Suyuti refers to a large (at least six-volume) anthology--now lost--of 'ancient' women's poetry ... It would seem from this that women poets may have formed a more dynamic part of the poetic landscape, at least in the earliest classical period, than is generally believed.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>(The main modern anthology of medieval Arabic women's writing in English translation is that of Abdullah al-Udhari.)<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pre-Islamic women's literature seems to have been limited to the genre of <i>marathiya</i> ('elegy').<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest poetesses were <a href="/wiki/Al-Khansa" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Khansa">al-Khansa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Layla_al-Akhyaliyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Layla al-Akhyaliyyah">Layla al-Akhyaliyyah</a> of the 7th century. Their concentration on the <i>ritha'</i> or elegy suggests that this was a form deemed acceptable for women to work with. However, the love lyric was also an important genre of women's poetry. The <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> and <a href="/wiki/%27Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="'Abbasid">'Abbasid</a> periods saw professional singing slave girls (<i>qiyan</i>, sing. <i>quayna</i>) who sang love songs and accompanied these with music; alongside panegyric and competitive verse-capping, <i>qiyan</i> also sang love-poetry (<i>ghazal</i>). In his <i>Risalat al-Qiyan</i> (<i>Epistle of the Singing-Girls</i>), al-Jahiz (d. 255/868×69) reckoned that an accomplished singer might have a repertoire of 4,000 songs. Pre-eminent 'Abbasid singing-girls included: <a href="/wiki/%27Inan" class="mw-redirect" title="'Inan">'Inan</a> (paramour of <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a>, r. 786–809); <a href="/wiki/Arib_al-Ma%27muniyya" title="Arib al-Ma'muniyya">Arib al-Ma'muniyya</a> (concubine of <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a>, r. 813–17); and <a href="/wiki/Fadl_Ashsha%27ira" class="mw-redirect" title="Fadl Ashsha'ira">Fadl Ashsha'ira</a> (d. 871; concubine of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">Al-Mutawakkil</a>, r. 847–61). Meanwhile, Harun al-Rashid's half-sister <a href="/wiki/%E2%80%98Ulayya_bint_al-Mahd%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="‘Ulayya bint al-Mahdī">‘Ulayya bint al-Mahdī</a> (777-825) was also known for her poetic skills, as was the mystic and poet of Basra <a href="/wiki/Rabia_Basri" title="Rabia Basri">Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya</a> (d. 801).<sup id="cite_ref-Tahera_Qutbuddin_2006_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tahera_Qutbuddin_2006-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women also had an important role in pre-modern periods as patrons of the arts.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Writings from medieval moorish Spain attest to several important female writers, pre-eminently <a href="/wiki/Wallada_bint_al-Mustakfi" title="Wallada bint al-Mustakfi">Wallada bint al-Mustakfi</a> (1001–1091), an Umawi princess of al-Andulus, who wrote <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> poetry and was the lover of fellow poet <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zaydun" title="Ibn Zaydun">ibn Zaydun</a>; the Granadan poet <a href="/wiki/Hafsa_Bint_al-Hajj_al-Rukuniyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafsa Bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya">Hafsa Bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya</a> (d. 1190/91); and <a href="/wiki/Nazhun_al-Garnatiya_bint_al-Qulai%E2%80%99iya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazhun al-Garnatiya bint al-Qulai’iya">Nazhun al-Garnatiya bint al-Qulai’iya</a> (d. 1100). These and other women writers suggest a hidden world of literature by women. </p><p>Despite their lack of prominence among the literary elite, women still played an important part as characters in Arabic literature. <i><a href="/wiki/Delhemma" title="Delhemma">Sirat al-amirah Dhat al-Himmah</a></i>, for example, is an <a href="/wiki/Arabic_epic_literature" title="Arabic epic literature">Arabic epic</a> with a female warrior, Fatima Dhat al-Himma, as protagonist,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Scheherazade" title="Scheherazade">Scheherazade</a> is famous for cunningly telling stories in the <i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i> to save her life. </p><p>The Mamluk period saw the flourishing of the Sufi master and poet <a href="/wiki/%27A%27isha_al-Ba%27uniyya" title="'A'isha al-Ba'uniyya">'A'isha al-Ba'uniyya</a> (d. 1517), who was probably the Arabic-speaking world's most prolific female author before the twentieth century. Living in what is now Egypt and Syria, she came from the <a href="/wiki/Al-Ba%27uni" title="Al-Ba'uni">al-Ba'uni</a> family, noted for its judges and scholars, and belonged to the 'Urmawi branch of the <a href="/wiki/Qadiriyya" title="Qadiriyya">Qadiriyya</a> order. 'A'isha composed at least twelve books in prose and verse, which included over three hundred long mystical and religious poems.<sup id="cite_ref-Tahera_Qutbuddin_2006_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tahera_Qutbuddin_2006-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Al-Nahda">Al-Nahda</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Al-Nahda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest prominent female writer of the modern period during which the Arab cultural renaissance (<a href="/wiki/Al-Nahda" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Nahda">Al-Nahda</a>) took place is <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A1hirih" title="Táhirih">Táhirih</a> (1820–52), from what is now Iran. She wrote fine Arabic and Persian poetry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_literary_salons_and_societies_in_the_Arab_world" title="Women's literary salons and societies in the Arab world">Women's literary salons and societies in the Arab world</a> were also pioneered during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, initially by <a href="/wiki/Christian_Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Arab">Christian Arab</a> women, who tended to have more freedom and access to education than their female Muslim contemporaries in the Ottoman Empire. <a href="/wiki/Maryana_Marrash" title="Maryana Marrash">Maryana Marrash</a> (1848−1919) started what is now believed to have been the first literary salon including women in <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>. In 1912, <a href="/wiki/May_Ziadeh" title="May Ziadeh">May Ziadeh</a> (1886-1941) also started a literary salon in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> and in 1922, <a href="/wiki/Mary_%27Ajami" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary 'Ajami">Mary 'Ajami</a> (1888−1965) did the same in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>. These salons supported the emergence of women's literary and journalistic writing and publishing by growing exchange in the male-dominated world of Arabic literature.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_20th_century_to_early_21st_century">Late 20th century to early 21st century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Late 20th century to early 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> A quote by Clarissa Burt on modern Arabic poetry by female Arab authors: </p><blockquote><p>Unlocked from the constraints of the traditional ode, several of these and other women have had long careers of poetry writing, entering into areas of expression of women's experience that had not been presented in print before. In many ways, this poetic work has gone hand in hand with the growth of critical discourse about women's role, status, and experience, and women's desires to be fully participating members of public society. [...] With few exceptions, critical reception in the Arab world of these and other women poets has been lukewarm at best, for the most part, often filled with criticism of their adherence or lack thereof to poetic principles that have been held as prescriptive in many schools of Arabic literary criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarissa_Burt_2007_p._78_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarissa_Burt_2007_p._78-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Alongside <a href="/wiki/Maryana_Marrash" title="Maryana Marrash">Maryana Marrash</a>, May Ziadeh, and <a href="/wiki/Mary_%27Ajami" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary 'Ajami">Mary 'Ajami</a>, pioneering figures in women's writing in Arabic during this period are <a href="/wiki/Zaynab_Fawwaz" title="Zaynab Fawwaz">Zaynab Fawwaz</a> (modern Lebanon/Egypt, 1846–1914), who arguably wrote the first novel in Arabic and was the first woman to write a play in that language as well;<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Aisha_Taymur" title="Aisha Taymur">Aisha Taymur</a> (modern Turkey/Egypt, 1840–1902); <a href="/wiki/Malak_Hifni_Nasif" title="Malak Hifni Nasif">Malak Hifni Nasif</a> (under the pseudonym Bahithat al-Badiyya, Egypt 1886–1918); <a href="/wiki/Anbara_Salam_Khalidy" class="mw-redirect" title="Anbara Salam Khalidy">Anbara Salam Khalidy</a> (modern Palestine/Lebanon, 1897–1988) <a href="/wiki/Anbara_Salam_Khalidy" class="mw-redirect" title="Anbara Salam Khalidy">Anbara Salam Khalidy</a> (modern Palestine/Lebanon, 1897–1986) and <a href="/wiki/Salma_al-Malaika" title="Salma al-Malaika">Salma al-Malaika</a> (Iraq, 1908–1953, under the pseudonym Umm Nizar). </p><p>Since the Second World War, Arabic women's poetry has become markedly more prominent.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarissa_Burt_2007_p._78_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarissa_Burt_2007_p._78-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nazik_Al-Malaika" title="Nazik Al-Malaika">Nazik Al-Malaika</a> (Iraq/Egypt, 1923–2007) was the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Salma_al-Kadhimiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Salma al-Kadhimiyya">Salma al-Kadhimiyya</a>, who in her own right was a poet and a vanguard of the early nationalist movement. Al-Malaika, alongside <a href="/wiki/Badr_Shakir_al-Sayyab" title="Badr Shakir al-Sayyab">Badr Shakir al-Sayyab</a>, can be considered the initiator of the Free Verse Movement in Arabic poetry. Al-Malaika's poetry is characterised by thematic variations and the use of imagery. She also wrote <i>The Case of Contemporary Poets</i> which is considered a major contribution to Arab literary criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other major post-war poetic voices include <a href="/wiki/Fadwa_Touqan" class="mw-redirect" title="Fadwa Touqan">Fadwa Touqan</a> (Palestine, 1917–2003), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rab%C4%81b_al-K%C4%81%E1%BA%93im%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rabāb al-Kāẓimī (page does not exist)">Rabāb al-Kāẓimī</a> (Iraq, b. 1920), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jal%C4%ABla_Ri%E1%B8%8Da&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jalīla Riḍa (page does not exist)">Jalīla Riḍa</a> (Egypt, 1920–2001), <a href="/wiki/Salma_Khadra_Jayyusi" title="Salma Khadra Jayyusi">Salma Khadra Jayyusi</a> (Palestine, 1926-), <a href="/wiki/Lami%27a_%27Abbas_%27Amara" class="mw-redirect" title="Lami'a 'Abbas 'Amara">Lami'a 'Abbas 'Amara</a> (Iraq, b. 1927). </p><p>The poetry of <a href="/wiki/Saniya_Salih" class="mw-redirect" title="Saniya Salih">Saniya Salih</a> (Syria, 1935–85) appeared in many well-known magazines of her time, particularly <i>Shi’r</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Mawaqif" title="Mawaqif">Mawaqif</a>,</i> but remained in the shadow of work by her husband, the poet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Maghut" title="Muhammad al-Maghut">Muhammad al-Maghout</a>. Her later poems often address her relationship with her two daughters, and many were written during her illness, as she died of cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other Arab post-war poetesses include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zubayda_Bash%C4%ABr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zubayda Bashīr (page does not exist)">Zubayda Bashīr</a> (Tunis, b. 1938); <a href="/wiki/Ghada_al-Samman" title="Ghada al-Samman">Ghada al-Samman</a> (Syria, b. 1942), known not only for poetry, but also for short stories and novels, <a href="/wiki/Su%27ad_al-Sabah" class="mw-redirect" title="Su'ad al-Sabah">Su'ad al-Sabah</a> (Kuwait, b.1942) and <a href="/wiki/Hamda_Khamis" title="Hamda Khamis">Hamda Khamis</a> (Bahrain, b. 1946), who is regarded as Bahrain's first female free-verse poet. </p><p>More recent Arabic literature has seen a growing number of female writers' works published: <a href="/wiki/Suhayr_al-Qalamawi" title="Suhayr al-Qalamawi">Suhayr al-Qalamawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulfat_Idilbi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulfat Idilbi">Ulfat Idlibi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Layla_Balabakki" title="Layla Balabakki">Layla Ba'albakki</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zuhrabi_Mattummal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zuhrabi Mattummal (page does not exist)">Zuhrabi Mattummal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hoda_Barakat" title="Hoda Barakat">Hoda Barakat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alifa_Rifaat" title="Alifa Rifaat">Alifa Rifaat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salwa_Bakr" title="Salwa Bakr">Salwa Bakr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samiha_Khrais" title="Samiha Khrais">Samiha Khrais</a> are some of these novelists and prose writers. There has also been a number of significant female authors who wrote <a href="/wiki/Non-fiction" title="Non-fiction">non-fiction</a>, often exploring the female condition in Muslim societies, including <a href="/wiki/Zaynab_al-Ghazali" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaynab al-Ghazali">Zaynab al-Ghazali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nawal_el-Saadawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nawal el-Saadawi">Nawal el-Saadawi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fatema_Mernissi" title="Fatema Mernissi">Fatema Mernissi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Women writers in the Arab world have unavoidably courted controversy. <a href="/wiki/Layla_Balabakki" title="Layla Balabakki">Layla Ba'albakki</a>, for instance, was charged with obscenity and "endangering public morality" a few months after she published her collection of short stories titled <i>Tenderness to the Moon</i> (1963). The Lebanese vice squad actually traveled to every bookstore, where the book was sold, to confiscate all remaining copies because of its erotic content.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, women's oral literature used in ceremonies called <i>Būqālah</i>, also meaning ceramic pitcher, became a symbol of national identity and anti-colonialism during the <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">War of Independence</a> in the 1950s and early 60s. These poems are usually four to ten lines in <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a>, and cover topics ranging from everyday life, like love and work, to the political, like the struggle for independence. Since using Algerian Arabic as poetic language was considered an act of cultural resistance in itself at the time, these poems took on a revolutionary implication.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_Arabic_literature_by_women_writers">Contemporary Arabic literature by women writers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Contemporary Arabic literature by women writers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Suffice to say although female Arab authors still risk controversy by discussing explicit themes or taboo topic in their works, it is a theme explored more explicitly and with more vigour due to greater outreach thanks to social media and more international awareness of Arab literature. More current Arab female writers include <a href="/wiki/Hanan_al-Shaykh" title="Hanan al-Shaykh">Hanan al-Shaykh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salwa_Al_Neimi" title="Salwa Al Neimi">Salwa al-Neimi</a> (writer, poet and journalist), <a href="/wiki/Joumana_Haddad" title="Joumana Haddad">Joumanna Haddad</a> (journalist and poet), <a href="/wiki/Assia_Djebar" title="Assia Djebar">Assia Djebar</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ahdaf_Soueif" title="Ahdaf Soueif">Ahdaf Soueif</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yasmine_El_Rashidi" title="Yasmine El Rashidi">Yasmine El-Rashidi</a> amongst others who confront less-talked about topics such as sex, prostitution, homosexuality and political censorship and prosecution within the Arab diaspora and also internationally in relation to Arab emigration. </p><p>Contemporary female Arab writers/poets/journalists alongside producing literature and non-fiction works often take on an activist role in their careers in order to highlight and improve the female condition in Arab society. This concept is embodied in female figures such as <a href="/wiki/Mona_Eltahawy" title="Mona Eltahawy">Mona Eltahawy</a>, who is an Egyptian columnist and international public speaker. She is best known for her unconventional comments on Arab and Muslim issues and her involvement in global feminism. In 2015, she released her book <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Headscarves_and_Hymens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Headscarves and Hymens (page does not exist)">Headscarves and Hymens</a></i> in which she argues the need for a sexual revolution in the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another writer from Egypt is <a href="/wiki/Basma_Abdel_Aziz" title="Basma Abdel Aziz">Basma Abdel Aziz</a>, who has published dystopian novels called <a href="/wiki/The_Queue_(Abdel_Aziz_novel)" title="The Queue (Abdel Aziz novel)">The Queue</a> or <i>Here is a Body,</i> as well as nonfiction based on her studies of oppression, torture and authoritarian language of the government in Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contemporary Arab women's literature has been strongly influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_diaspora" title="Arab diaspora">diaspora of Arabic-speakers</a>, who have produced writing not only in Arabic, but also in other languages, prominently English, French, Dutch and German. The Internet is also important in furthering the reach of literature produced in Arabic or Arabic-speaking regions: </p> <blockquote><p>It is among the younger generation of poets that the Internet has become a platform for mounting collections and sharing poetry. Some of these poets have their own websites, while others are included on ever growing web anthologies being posted by young Arab computer geeks dedicated to the construction of web archives for Arabic poetry and poetic history. Similarly, critical treatment of these women's poetry, while now well established in on-line resources and web-based sites for major paper publications throughout the Arab world, has yet to produce clearly defined critical means of articulating emerging values for poetry, for measuring the critical worth of some of these new productions, and for encouraging the production of Arab women's poetry which will have weight, depth, and acclaim comparable to the work of some of the major Arab male poets of our day.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literary_criticism">Literary criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Literary criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For multiple centuries, there has been a vibrant culture of <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary criticism</a> in the Arabic speaking world. The poetry festivals of the pre-Islamic period often pitched two poets against each other in a war of verse, in which one would be decided to be winner by the audience. Literary criticism also relates to theology, and gained official status with Islamic studíes of the Qur'an. Although nothing which might be termed 'literary criticism' in the modern sense, was applied to a work held to be <i>i'jaz</i> or inimitable and divinely inspired, textual analysis, called <i><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a></i> and referring to independent reasoning, was permitted. This study allowed for a better understanding of the message and facilitated interpretation for practical use, all of which helped the development of a critical method important for later work on other literature. A clear distinction regularly drawn between works in literary language and popular works has meant that only part of the literature in Arabic was usually considered worthy of study and criticism. </p><p>Some of the first Arabic <a href="/wiki/Poetry_analysis" title="Poetry analysis">poetry analysis</a> are <i>Qawa'id al-shi'r</i> or <i>The Foundations of Poetry</i> by <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufan</a> grammarian Tha'lab (d. 904)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeinrichsAllen201262_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinrichsAllen201262-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Naqd al-shi'r</i> or <i>Poetic Criticism</i> by <a href="/wiki/Qudamah_ibn_Ja%27far" class="mw-redirect" title="Qudamah ibn Ja'far">Qudamah ibn Ja'far</a>. Other works continued the tradition of contrasting two poets in order to determine which one best follows the rule of classical poetic structure. Plagiarism also became a significant topic, exercising the critics' concerns. The works of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutanabbi" title="Al-Mutanabbi">al-Mutanabbi</a> were particularly studied with this concern. He was considered by many the greatest of all Arab poets, but his own arrogant self-regard for his abilities did not endear him to other writers and they looked for a source for his verse.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just as there were collections of facts written about many different subjects, numerous collections detailing every possible <a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">rhetorical figure</a> used in literature emerged, as well as how to write guides. </p><p>Modern criticism first compared new works unfavourably with the classical ideals of the past, but these standards were soon rejected as too artificial. The adoption of the forms of European <a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">romantic poetry</a> dictated the introduction of corresponding critical standards. <a href="/wiki/Taha_Hussayn" class="mw-redirect" title="Taha Hussayn">Taha Hussayn</a>, himself well versed in European thought, would even dare to examine the Qur'an with modern critical analysis, in which he pointed out ideas and stories borrowed from pre-Islamic poetry. </p><p>An outstanding Sudanese <a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">scholar</a> and literary critic with a long list of publications on poetry or other genres, and on Arabic language in general, was <a href="/wiki/Abdalla_Eltayeb" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdalla Eltayeb">Abdallah al-Tayyib</a> (1921–2003). Arguably his most notable work is <i>A Guide to Understanding Arabic Poetry</i>, written over thirty-five years and published in four volumes of several thousand pages.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outside_views_of_Arabic_literature">Outside views of Arabic literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Outside views of Arabic literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>, Arabic literary culture had a massive impact on <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Jewish literary culture</a> in the tenth to thirteenth centuries; this included the assimilation of features, genres, and stylistic devices of Arabic poetry as well as—influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">classicizing</a> Quranic language of classical Arabic poetry—the decision to write poetry in Hebrew and in a register rooted in <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Literature in Arabic has been influential outside the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>. One of the first important translations of Arabic literature was <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Ketton" title="Robert of Ketton">Robert of Ketton</a>'s translation of the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> in the twelfth century, but it would not be until the early eighteenth century that much of the diverse Arabic literature would be recognised in the West. This was mostly due to <a href="/wiki/Arabist" title="Arabist">Arabists</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Forster_Fitzgerald_Arbuthnot" title="Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot">Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot</a> and his books such as <i>Arabic Authors: A Manual of Arabian History and Literature</i>. The 1996 <a href="/wiki/Panizzi_Lectures" title="Panizzi Lectures">Panizzi Lectures</a> were on the "Introduction of Arabic Learning into England."<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Galland" title="Antoine Galland">Antoine Galland</a>'s French translation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Thousand_and_One_Nights" class="mw-redirect" title="Thousand and One Nights">Thousand and One Nights</a></i> was the first major work in Arabic which found great success outside the Muslim world. Other significant translators were <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_R%C3%BCckert" title="Friedrich Rückert">Friedrich Rückert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton" title="Richard Francis Burton">Richard Burton</a>, along with others working at <a href="/wiki/Fort_William,_India" title="Fort William, India">Fort William, India</a>. Since at least the 19th century, Arabic and many works in other Western Asian languages fuelled a fascination in <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalist</a> thinking and artistic production in the West. Works of dubious 'foreign' morals were particularly popular, but even these were censored for content, such as homosexual references, which were not permitted in <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian society</a>. Most of the works chosen for translation helped confirm the stereotypes of the audiences.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Compared to the variety and scope of literature written in Arabic, relatively few historical or modern Arabic works have been translated into other languages. </p><p>Since the mid-20th century, there has been an increase of translations of Arabic books into other languages, and Arabic authors began to receive a certain amount of acclaim. Egyptian writer <a href="/wiki/Naguib_Mahfouz" title="Naguib Mahfouz">Naguib Mahfouz</a> had most of his works translated after he won the 1988 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Literature">Nobel Prize for Literature</a>. Other writers, including <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Munif" title="Abdul Rahman Munif">Abdul Rahman Munif</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tayeb_Salih" title="Tayeb Salih">Tayeb Salih</a> have found critical acclaim by Western scholars, and both <a href="/wiki/Alaa_Al_Aswany" title="Alaa Al Aswany">Alaa Al Aswany</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Yacoubian_Building" title="The Yacoubian Building">The Yacoubian Building</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Rajaa_al-Sanea" title="Rajaa al-Sanea">Rajaa al-Sanea</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Girls_of_Riyadh" title="Girls of Riyadh">Girls of Riyadh</a></i> attracted significant Western media attention in the first decade of the 21st century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_literature" title="Modern Arabic literature">Modern Arabic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copto-Arabic_literature" title="Copto-Arabic literature">Copto-Arabic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_short_story" title="Arabic short story">Arabic short story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riddles_(Arabic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Riddles (Arabic)">Riddles (Arabic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_music" title="Arabic music">Arabic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian mythology">Arabian mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Literary Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_Arabic_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where Arabic is an official language">List of countries and territories where Arabic is an official language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_miniature" title="Arabic miniature">Arabic miniature</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Firmage, Edwin Brown and Wiess, Bernard G. and Welch, John W. <i>Religion and Law</i>. 1990, page 202-3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. ix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2005-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2005_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2005">Allen 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMiller2024" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Nathaniel A. (2024). <i>The emergence of Arabic poetry: from regional identities to Islamic canonization</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 3–4, 30–31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5128-2530-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5128-2530-5"><bdi>978-1-5128-2530-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+emergence+of+Arabic+poetry%3A+from+regional+identities+to+Islamic+canonization&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=3-4%2C+30-31&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1-5128-2530-5&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Nathaniel+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-35"><sup><i><b>aj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-36"><sup><i><b>ak</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-37"><sup><i><b>al</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-38"><sup><i><b>am</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-39"><sup><i><b>an</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-40"><sup><i><b>ao</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-41"><sup><i><b>ap</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-42"><sup><i><b>aq</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-43"><sup><i><b>ar</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-44"><sup><i><b>as</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-45"><sup><i><b>at</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFالفاخوري2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">الفاخوري, حنا (1 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GH6DDwAAQBAJ"><i>تاريخ الأدب العربي</i></a> (in Arabic). DMC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A&rft.pub=DMC&rft.date=2014-01-01&rft.aulast=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A&rft.aufirst=%D8%AD%D9%86%D8%A7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGH6DDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2007" class="citation cs2">Jones, Alan (1 December 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/ayyam-al-arab-SIM_0259#:~:text=Ayy%C4%81m%20al-%CA%BFArab%20,%20%E2%80%9Cdays,Islamic%20and%20early%20Islamic%20times.">"Ayyām al-ʿArab"</a>, <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE</i>, Brill<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ayy%C4%81m+al-%CA%BFArab&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+THREE&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007-12-01&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-3%2Fayyam-al-arab-SIM_0259%23%3A~%3Atext%3DAyy%25C4%2581m%2520al-%25CA%25BFArab%2520%2C%2520%25E2%2580%259Cdays%2CIslamic%2520and%2520early%2520Islamic%2520times.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doc.aljazeera.net/followup/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD-%D9%85%D9%84%D9%81-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9/">"الوثائقية تفتح ملف "اللغة العربية"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>الجزيرة الوثائقية</i> (in Arabic). 8 September 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220616052303/https://doc.aljazeera.net/followup/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD-%D9%85%D9%84%D9%81-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9&rft.atitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD+%D9%85%D9%84%D9%81+%22%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9%22&rft.date=2019-09-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoc.aljazeera.net%2Ffollowup%2F%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2588%25D8%25AB%25D8%25A7%25D8%25A6%25D9%2582%25D9%258A%25D8%25A9-%25D8%25AA%25D9%2581%25D8%25AA%25D8%25AD-%25D9%2585%25D9%2584%25D9%2581-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2584%25D8%25BA%25D8%25A9-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25B9%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A8%25D9%258A%25D8%25A9%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuardian_Staff2004" class="citation web cs1">Guardian Staff (23 September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2004/sep/23/research.highereducation1">"Centuries in the House of Wisdom"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210330150800/http://www.theguardian.com/education/2004/sep/23/research.highereducation1">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Centuries+in+the+House+of+Wisdom&rft.date=2004-09-23&rft.au=Guardian+Staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Feducation%2F2004%2Fsep%2F23%2Fresearch.highereducation1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Khalili2011" class="citation book cs1">Al-Khalili, Jim (31 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aJ5zDM1KfewC&q=omar"><i>The House of Wisdom: How Arabic Science Saved Ancient Knowledge and Gave Us the Renaissance</i></a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-47623-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-47623-9"><bdi>978-1-101-47623-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+House+of+Wisdom%3A+How+Arabic+Science+Saved+Ancient+Knowledge+and+Gave+Us+the+Renaissance&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2011-03-31&rft.isbn=978-1-101-47623-9&rft.aulast=Al-Khalili&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaJ5zDM1KfewC%26q%3Domar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Harun-al-Rashid">"Hārūn al-Rashīd | ʿAbbāsid caliph"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210314164533/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Harun-al-Rashid">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=H%C4%81r%C5%ABn+al-Rash%C4%ABd+%7C+%CA%BFAbb%C4%81sid+caliph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FHarun-al-Rashid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:42-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:42_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZohar2005" class="citation book cs1">Zohar, Zion (June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H6K1IcaHwd0C"><i>Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry: From the Golden Age of Spain to Modern Times</i></a>. NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9706-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9706-8"><bdi>978-0-8147-9706-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sephardic+and+Mizrahi+Jewry%3A+From+the+Golden+Age+of+Spain+to+Modern+Times&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2005-06&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-9706-8&rft.aulast=Zohar&rft.aufirst=Zion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH6K1IcaHwd0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaimonides1919" class="citation book cs1">Maimonides, Moses (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uva.x030589251"><i>The guide for the perplexed</i></a> (2d ed., rev. throughout (3rd impression). ed.). London. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuva.x030589251">2027/uva.x030589251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+guide+for+the+perplexed&rft.edition=2d+ed.%2C+rev.+throughout+%283rd+impression%29.&rft.pub=London&rft.date=1919&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fuva.x030589251&rft.aulast=Maimonides&rft.aufirst=Moses&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2027%2Fuva.x030589251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:202-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:202_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:202_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTazi1972" class="citation book cs1">Tazi, Abdelhadi (1972). <i>Jami' al-Qarawiyyin: al-Masjid wa'l-Jami'ah bi Madinat Fas (Mausu'ah li-Tarikhiha al-Mi'mari wa'l-Fikri). 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Beirut: Dar al Kitab ab Lubnani.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jami%27+al-Qarawiyyin%3A+al-Masjid+wa%27l-Jami%27ah+bi+Madinat+Fas+%28Mausu%27ah+li-Tarikhiha+al-Mi%27mari+wa%27l-Fikri%29.+Al+Qaraouiyyine%3A+la+Mosqu%C3%A9e-Universit%C3%A9+de+F%C3%A8s+%28histoire+architecturale+et+intellectuelle%29&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pub=Dar+al+Kitab+ab+Lubnani&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Tazi&rft.aufirst=Abdelhadi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wdl.org/ar/item/4082/">"دلائل الخيرات"</a>. <i>www.wdl.org</i>. 1885. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170513032733/https://www.wdl.org/ar/item/4082/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wdl.org&rft.atitle=%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA&rft.date=1885&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Far%2Fitem%2F4082%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wdl.org/ar/item/4082/">"دلائل الخيرات"</a>. <i>www.wdl.org</i>. 1885. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170513032733/https://www.wdl.org/ar/item/4082/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wdl.org&rft.atitle=%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA&rft.date=1885&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Far%2Fitem%2F4082%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.net/news/cultureandart/2019/8/24/%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7-%D9%85%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A-%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86">"قراصنة المتوسط الذين نقلوا كنوز العربية لأوروبا.. رحلة مكتبة مولاي زيدان المغربي إلى الإسكوريال الإسباني"</a>. <i>www.aljazeera.net</i> (in Arabic). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415012837/https://www.aljazeera.net/news/cultureandart/2019/8/24/%d9%82%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%b5%d9%86%d8%a9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%85%d8%aa%d9%88%d8%b3%d8%b7-%d9%85%d9%83%d8%aa%d8%a8%d8%a9-%d9%85%d9%88%d9%84%d8%a7%d9%8a-%d8%b2%d9%8a%d8%af%d8%a7%d9%86">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aljazeera.net&rft.atitle=%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B0%D9%8A%D9%86+%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7+%D9%83%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7..+%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A9+%D9%85%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A9+%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A+%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A+%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.net%2Fnews%2Fcultureandart%2F2019%2F8%2F24%2F%25D9%2582%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B5%25D9%2586%25D8%25A9-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2585%25D8%25AA%25D9%2588%25D8%25B3%25D8%25B7-%25D9%2585%25D9%2583%25D8%25AA%25D8%25A8%25D8%25A9-%25D9%2585%25D9%2588%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25D9%258A-%25D8%25B2%25D9%258A%25D8%25AF%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert2003" class="citation journal cs1">Robert, Irwin (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://knowledge.uchicago.edu/record/1048?ln=en">"Mamluk Literature (MSR VII.1, 2003)"</a>. <i>Mamlūk Studies Review</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6082%2FM1542KRD">10.6082/M1542KRD</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1947-2404">1947-2404</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210925032222/https://knowledge.uchicago.edu/record/1048?ln=en">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Maml%C5%ABk+Studies+Review&rft.atitle=Mamluk+Literature+%28MSR+VII.1%2C+2003%29&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6082%2FM1542KRD&rft.issn=1947-2404&rft.aulast=Robert&rft.aufirst=Irwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fknowledge.uchicago.edu%2Frecord%2F1048%3Fln%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarkey200623-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStarkey200623_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStarkey2006">Starkey 2006</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarkey2006Ch._3-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStarkey2006Ch._3_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStarkey2006">Starkey 2006</a>, Ch. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_com_27115">"Novel, Arabic"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE</i>. 2014. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_com_27115">10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_com_27115</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+THREE&rft.atitle=Novel%2C+Arabic&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_com_27115&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_com_27115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moreh (1976), p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Somekh, pp. 36–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Studies_in_Modern_Arabic_Prose_and_Poetry_p._34-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Studies_in_Modern_Arabic_Prose_and_Poetry_p._34_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Studies_in_Modern_Arabic_Prose_and_Poetry_p._34_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Moreh (1988), p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jayyusi (1992), pp. 132—180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.qantara.de/content/rifaa-rafi-al-tahtawi-france-as-a-role-model">"Rifa'a Rafi' al-Tahtawi: France as a Role Model - Qantara.de"</a>. <i>Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World</i>. 15 September 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200930033208/https://en.qantara.de/content/rifaa-rafi-al-tahtawi-france-as-a-role-model">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Qantara.de+-+Dialogue+with+the+Islamic+World&rft.atitle=Rifa%27a+Rafi%27+al-Tahtawi%3A+France+as+a+Role+Model+-+Qantara.de&rft.date=2009-09-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.qantara.de%2Fcontent%2Frifaa-rafi-al-tahtawi-france-as-a-role-model&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpadola2018" class="citation journal cs1">Spadola, Emilio (25 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004369498/BP000005.xml">"The Call of Communication: Mass Media and Reform in Interwar Morocco"</a>. <i>Middle Eastern and North African Societies in the Interwar Period</i>: 97–122. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004369498_006">10.1163/9789004369498_006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004369498" title="Special:BookSources/9789004369498"><bdi>9789004369498</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201339014">201339014</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211024172111/https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004369498/BP000005.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+Eastern+and+North+African+Societies+in+the+Interwar+Period&rft.atitle=The+Call+of+Communication%3A+Mass+Media+and+Reform+in+Interwar+Morocco&rft.pages=97-122&rft.date=2018-06-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201339014%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004369498_006&rft.isbn=9789004369498&rft.aulast=Spadola&rft.aufirst=Emilio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004369498%2FBP000005.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFكافى/-/-2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">كافى/-/-, أحمد (1 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_94qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT64"><i>مشاريع الإصلاح السياسي في المغرب في القرنين التاسع عشر</i></a> (in Arabic). ktab INC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B9+%D8%B9%D8%B4%D8%B1&rft.pub=ktab+INC.&rft.date=2013-01-01&rft.aulast=%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%89%2F-%2F-&rft.aufirst=%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_94qDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen 1995.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alkalimah.net/Articles/Read/5532">"مجلة الكلمة - المدرسة الحديثة.. جيل ما بعد الريادة"</a>. <i>www.alkalimah.net</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220922215244/http://www.alkalimah.net/Articles/Read/5532">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.alkalimah.net&rft.atitle=%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A9+-+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A9..+%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%84+%D9%85%D8%A7+%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alkalimah.net%2FArticles%2FRead%2F5532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jayyusi (1977), p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://article.albawaba.net/ar/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8-%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9/%D9%85%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%85-10-%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA-%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%A9-1462416">"مكتبة البوابة: أهم 10 كتب للأديب المصري ثروت أباظة | البوابة"</a>. <i>article.albawaba.net</i> (in Arabic)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=article.albawaba.net&rft.atitle=%D9%85%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9%3A+%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%85+10+%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8+%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A+%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA+%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%A9+%7C+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farticle.albawaba.net%2Far%2F%25D8%25A3%25D8%25AF%25D8%25A8-%25D9%2588%25D8%25AB%25D9%2582%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%25D8%25A9%2F%25D9%2585%25D9%2583%25D8%25AA%25D8%25A8%25D8%25A9-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25A8%25D9%2588%25D8%25A7%25D8%25A8%25D8%25A9-%25D8%25A3%25D9%2587%25D9%2585-10-%25D9%2583%25D8%25AA%25D8%25A8-%25D9%2584%25D9%2584%25D8%25A3%25D8%25AF%25D9%258A%25D8%25A8-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2585%25D8%25B5%25D8%25B1%25D9%258A-%25D8%25AB%25D8%25B1%25D9%2588%25D8%25AA-%25D8%25A3%25D8%25A8%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B8%25D8%25A9-1462416&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFسمير2024" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">سمير, رانيا (3 January 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sqawoa.com/archives/47555">"عائلة أباظة: تاريخ طويل وأثر عميق في مصر"</a>. <i>صوت القبائل العربية والعائلات المصرية</i> (in Arabic)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9&rft.atitle=%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84%D8%A9+%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%A9%3A+%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE+%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84+%D9%88%D8%A3%D8%AB%D8%B1+%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%82+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1&rft.date=2024-01-03&rft.aulast=%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1&rft.aufirst=%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsqawoa.com%2Farchives%2F47555&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Logan,_ed.,_p._573.-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Logan,_ed.,_p._573._33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Logan,_ed.,_p._573._33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Logan, ed., p. 573.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph T. Zeidan, Arab Women Novelists: the Formative Years and Beyond (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995), p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stone, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zaouali-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zaouali_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zaouali_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaouali2007" class="citation book cs1">Zaouali, Lilia (2007). <i>Medieval Cuisine of the Islamic World</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Iranica+Online&rft.atitle=%E1%B8%B4usraw+%C4%AB+Kaw%C4%81d%C4%81n+ud+r%C4%93dak-%C4%93w&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fkusraw-kawadan-ud-redak-ew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Auchterlonie.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Makdisi, pp.173–185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Gelder, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://expositions.bnf.fr/livrarab/grands/158.htm">"L'art du Livre arabe"</a>. <i>expositions.bnf.fr</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220922220812/http://expositions.bnf.fr/livrarab/grands/158.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=expositions.bnf.fr&rft.atitle=L%27art+du+Livre+arabe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fexpositions.bnf.fr%2Flivrarab%2Fgrands%2F158.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHefter2011" class="citation journal cs1">Hefter, Thomas (1 April 2011). "The Unique Necklace (Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd), Vol. 1, by Ibn ʿAbd Rabbih and Roger M. A. Allen". <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i>. <b>70</b> (1): 167–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F659081">10.1086/659081</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2968">0022-2968</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Unique+Necklace+%28Al-%CA%BFIqd+al-Far%C4%ABd%29%2C+Vol.+1%2C+by+Ibn+%CA%BFAbd+Rabbih+and+Roger+M.+A.+Allen.&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=167-168&rft.date=2011-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F659081&rft.issn=0022-2968&rft.aulast=Hefter&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamori, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Von Grunebaum, pp. 233–234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pinault, pp. 86–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pinault, pp. 93, 95 & 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pinault, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bosworth, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marzolph, van Leeuwen & Wassouf, pp. 97–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bosworth, pp. 77–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bosworth, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Webber.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moreh-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Moreh_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moreh_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Moreh (1986).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2016/06/190147/othello-seen-through-a-moroccan-lens/">"Othello: Seen Through a Moroccan Lens"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190518062504/https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2016/06/190147/othello-seen-through-a-moroccan-lens/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Othello%3A+Seen+Through+a+Moroccan+Lens&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.moroccoworldnews.com%2F2016%2F06%2F190147%2Fothello-seen-through-a-moroccan-lens%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jon-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jon_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McGinnis & Reisman, p. 284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hassan.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glassé, p. 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wainwright-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wainwright_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wainwright_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wainwright.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Toomer-222-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Toomer-222_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toomer-222_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Toomer, p. 222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, ed., pp. 224–239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, ed., p. 227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, ed., p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Irwin-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Irwin_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Irwin_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Irwin, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Irwin, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Irwin, pp. 211–212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamori, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pinault, pp. 148–149 & 217–219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Irwin, p. 213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamori, pp. 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pinault-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pinault_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pinault_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pinault, pp. 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynx_Qualey2017" class="citation web cs1">Lynx Qualey, Marcia (16 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.qantara.de/content/arab-teens-and-young-adult-literature-the-new-wave">"Arab teens and Young Adult literature: The new wave - Qantara.de"</a>. <i>Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201112184627/https://en.qantara.de/content/arab-teens-and-young-adult-literature-the-new-wave">Archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Qantara.de+-+Dialogue+with+the+Islamic+World&rft.atitle=Arab+teens+and+Young+Adult+literature%3A+The+new+wave+-+Qantara.de&rft.date=2017-01-16&rft.aulast=Lynx+Qualey&rft.aufirst=Marcia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.qantara.de%2Fcontent%2Farab-teens-and-young-adult-literature-the-new-wave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynx_Qualey2020" class="citation web cs1">Lynx Qualey, Marcia (5 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201201061355/https://arablit.org/category/ya/">"YA"</a>. <i>ArabLit & ArabLit Quarterly</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arablit.org/category/ya/">the original</a> on 1 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ArabLit+%26+ArabLit+Quarterly&rft.atitle=YA&rft.date=2020-11-05&rft.aulast=Lynx+Qualey&rft.aufirst=Marcia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farablit.org%2Fcategory%2Fya%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.libraryofarabicliterature.org/ar/young-readers/">"Young Readers"</a>. <i>Library of Arabic Literature</i> (in Arabic). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220930160750/https://www.libraryofarabicliterature.org/ar/young-readers/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Arabic+Literature&rft.atitle=Young+Readers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.libraryofarabicliterature.org%2Far%2Fyoung-readers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynx_Qualey2020" class="citation web cs1">Lynx Qualey, Marcia (16 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-fanarmedia.org/2020/10/series-brings-alive-classical-arabic-texts-for-young-readers/">"Series Brings Alive Classical Arabic Texts for Young Readers"</a>. <i>Al-Fanar Media</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201116231749/https://www.al-fanarmedia.org/2020/10/series-brings-alive-classical-arabic-texts-for-young-readers/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al-Fanar+Media&rft.atitle=Series+Brings+Alive+Classical+Arabic+Texts+for+Young+Readers&rft.date=2020-10-16&rft.aulast=Lynx+Qualey&rft.aufirst=Marcia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-fanarmedia.org%2F2020%2F10%2Fseries-brings-alive-classical-arabic-texts-for-young-readers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDünges2011" class="citation journal cs1">Dünges, Petra (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0030812900111150/type/journal_article">"Arabic Children's Literature Today: Determining Factors and Tendencies"</a>. <i>Publications of the Modern Language Association of America</i>. <b>126</b> (1): 170–181. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1632%2Fpmla.2011.126.1.170">10.1632/pmla.2011.126.1.170</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0030-8129">0030-8129</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162200447">162200447</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240104152417/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/pmla/article/abs/arabic-childrens-literature-today-determining-factors-and-tendencies/10DFF0E0D6F9A2C318B08731ED03E7E0">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Modern+Language+Association+of+America&rft.atitle=Arabic+Children%27s+Literature+Today%3A+Determining+Factors+and+Tendencies&rft.volume=126&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=170-181&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162200447%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0030-8129&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1632%2Fpmla.2011.126.1.170&rft.aulast=D%C3%BCnges&rft.aufirst=Petra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0030812900111150%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also El Kholy, Nadia. “Arab World.” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Children's Literature. Ed. Jack Zipes. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNimr2022" class="citation book cs1">Nimr, Sonia (25 October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://utpress.utexas.edu/books/nimr-qualey-thunderbird"><i>Thunderbird Book One By Sonia Nimr, translated by M. Lynx Qualey</i></a>. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4773-2581-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4773-2581-0"><bdi>978-1-4773-2581-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210165637/https://utpress.utexas.edu/books/nimr-qualey-thunderbird">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thunderbird+Book+One+By+Sonia+Nimr%2C+translated+by+M.+Lynx+Qualey&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2022-10-25&rft.isbn=978-1-4773-2581-0&rft.aulast=Nimr&rft.aufirst=Sonia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Futpress.utexas.edu%2Fbooks%2Fnimr-qualey-thunderbird&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Qualey, M. Lynx. (2014) "Arabic Books for Teens." <i>World Literature Today</i> 88, no. 1: 6-6. doi:10.1353/wlt.2014.0127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorbettPhillips2021" class="citation journal cs1">Corbett, Emily; Phillips, Leah (12 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.24877%2FIJYAL.64">"Ploughing the Field: YA in Translation"</a>. <i>The International Journal of Young Adult Literature</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 1–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.24877%2FIJYAL.64">10.24877/IJYAL.64</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2634-5277">2634-5277</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245751051">245751051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Young+Adult+Literature&rft.atitle=Ploughing+the+Field%3A+YA+in+Translation&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-15&rft.date=2021-11-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245751051%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2634-5277&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.24877%2FIJYAL.64&rft.aulast=Corbett&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft.au=Phillips%2C+Leah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.24877%252FIJYAL.64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arabkidlitnow.com/">"ArabKidLitNow!"</a>. <i>ArabKidLitNow!</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230227051150/https://arabkidlitnow.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ArabKidLitNow%21&rft.atitle=ArabKidLitNow%21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farabkidlitnow.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clarissa Burt, 'Arts: Poets and Poetry: Arab States', in Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures, ed. by Suad Joseph (Leiden: Brill, 2003-2007), V: 77-80 (pp. 77-78).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoda Thabet, <i>Pioneering Female Authors in Egypt and the Levant: An Introduction into the Origins of the Arabic Novel</i> (Reykjavík: Háskólaprent, 2013) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9979-72-479-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-9979-72-479-7">978-9979-72-479-7</a>; cf. <a href="/wiki/Tahera_Qutbuddin" title="Tahera Qutbuddin">Tahera Qutbuddin</a>, 'Women Poets', in <i>Medieval Islamic Civilisation: An Encyclopedia</i>, ed. by Josef W. Meri, 2 vols (New York: Routledge, 2006), II 867, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140207005116/http://nelc.uchicago.edu/sites/nelc.uchicago.edu/files/2006%20Women%20Poets%20%28Med.%20Islamic.%20Civ.%20Enc.%29.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nelc.uchicago.edu/sites/nelc.uchicago.edu/files/2006%20Women%20Poets%20(Med.%20Islamic.%20Civ.%20Enc.).pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnelc.uchicago.edu%2Fsites%2Fnelc.uchicago.edu%2Ffiles%2F2006%2520Women%2520Poets%2520%28Med.%2520Islamic.%2520Civ.%2520Enc.%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tahera Qutbuddin, 'Women Poets', in <i>Medieval Islamic Civilisation: An Encyclopedia</i>, ed. by Josef W. Meri, 2 vols (New York: Routledge, 2006), II 865-67 (p. 867), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140207005116/http://nelc.uchicago.edu/sites/nelc.uchicago.edu/files/2006%20Women%20Poets%20%28Med.%20Islamic.%20Civ.%20Enc.%29.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nelc.uchicago.edu/sites/nelc.uchicago.edu/files/2006%20Women%20Poets%20(Med.%20Islamic.%20Civ.%20Enc.).pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnelc.uchicago.edu%2Fsites%2Fnelc.uchicago.edu%2Ffiles%2F2006%2520Women%2520Poets%2520%28Med.%2520Islamic.%2520Civ.%2520Enc.%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Classical Poems by Arab Women: A Bilingual Anthology</i>, ed. and trans. by Abdullah al-Udhari (London: Saqi Books, 1999) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/086356-047-4" title="Special:BookSources/086356-047-4">086356-047-4</a>; books.google.co.uk/books/about/Classical_poems_by_Arab_women.html?id=WniBAAAAIAAJ&.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tahera Qutbuddin, 'Women Poets', in <i>Medieval Islamic Civilisation: An Encyclopedia</i>, ed. by Josef W. Meri, 2 vols (New York: Routledge, 2006), II 865, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140207005116/http://nelc.uchicago.edu/sites/nelc.uchicago.edu/files/2006%20Women%20Poets%20%28Med.%20Islamic.%20Civ.%20Enc.%29.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nelc.uchicago.edu/sites/nelc.uchicago.edu/files/2006%20Women%20Poets%20(Med.%20Islamic.%20Civ.%20Enc.).pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnelc.uchicago.edu%2Fsites%2Fnelc.uchicago.edu%2Ffiles%2F2006%2520Women%2520Poets%2520%28Med.%2520Islamic.%2520Civ.%2520Enc.%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tahera_Qutbuddin_2006-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tahera_Qutbuddin_2006_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tahera_Qutbuddin_2006_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tahera Qutbuddin, 'Women Poets', in <i>Medieval Islamic Civilisation: An Encyclopedia</i>, ed. by Josef W. Meri, 2 vols (New York: Routledge, 2006), II 866, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140207005116/http://nelc.uchicago.edu/sites/nelc.uchicago.edu/files/2006%20Women%20Poets%20%28Med.%20Islamic.%20Civ.%20Enc.%29.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nelc.uchicago.edu/sites/nelc.uchicago.edu/files/2006%20Women%20Poets%20(Med.%20Islamic.%20Civ.%20Enc.).pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnelc.uchicago.edu%2Fsites%2Fnelc.uchicago.edu%2Ffiles%2F2006%2520Women%2520Poets%2520%28Med.%2520Islamic.%2520Civ.%2520Enc.%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/D._Fairchild_Ruggles" title="D. Fairchild Ruggles">D. Fairchild Ruggles</a>, 'Women, Patrons', ed. by Josef W. Meri, 2 vols (New York: Routledge, 2006), II 863-65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Remke Kruk, <i>The Warrior Women of Islam: Female Empowerment in Arabic Popular Literature</i>, Library of Middle East History, 54 (London: Tauris, 2014).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooke1993" class="citation cs2">Cooke, Miriam (14 January 1993), Badawi, M. M. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9780511519659A022/type/book_part">"Arab women writers"</a>, <i>Modern Arabic Literature</i> (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 443–462, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521331975.014">10.1017/chol9780521331975.014</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33197-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33197-5"><bdi>978-0-521-33197-5</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240104152313/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/modern-arabic-literature/arab-women-writers/7F25C21A6CC1EE41AE0C50E2B8C3CA9F">archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Arabic+Literature&rft.atitle=Arab+women+writers&rft.pages=443-462&rft.date=1993-01-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521331975.014&rft.isbn=978-0-521-33197-5&rft.aulast=Cooke&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FCBO9780511519659A022%2Ftype%2Fbook_part&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clarissa_Burt_2007_p._78-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Clarissa_Burt_2007_p._78_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clarissa_Burt_2007_p._78_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clarissa Burt, 'Arts: Poets and Poetry: Arab States', in <i>Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures</i>, ed. by Suad Joseph (Leiden: Brill, 2003-2007), V: 77-80 (p. 78).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhareebDougherty2004" class="citation book cs1">Ghareeb, Edmund A.; Dougherty, Beth (18 March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RIB5qT9sGnwC&q=Salma+al-Kadhimiyya&pg=PA152"><i>Historical Dictionary of Iraq</i></a>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810865686" title="Special:BookSources/9780810865686"><bdi>9780810865686</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240104152319/https://books.google.com/books?id=RIB5qT9sGnwC&q=Salma+al-Kadhimiyya&pg=PA152#v=onepage&q=Salma%20al-Kadhimiyya&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Gender+and+identity+reflected+in+the+works+of+Naw%C4%81l+Al-Sa%27ad%C4%81w%C4%AB+and+Sam%C4%AB%E1%B8%A5ah+Khrais&rft.aulast=Oesterreicher&rft.aufirst=Zachary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdisplay%2F477749840%3Fsource%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Slyomovics, S. (2014). Algerian Women's Buqalah Poetry: Oral Literature, Cultural Politics, and Anti-Colonial Resistance. Journal Of Arabic Literature, 45(2-3), 145-168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAspden2015" class="citation web cs1">Aspden, Rachel (12 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jun/12/headscarves-and-hymens-why-the-middle-east-needs-a-sexual-revolution-mona-eltahawy-review">"Headscarves and Hymens: Why the Middle East Needs a Sexual Revolution by Mona Eltahawy – review"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170203174412/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jun/12/headscarves-and-hymens-why-the-middle-east-needs-a-sexual-revolution-mona-eltahawy-review">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Headscarves+and+Hymens%3A+Why+the+Middle+East+Needs+a+Sexual+Revolution+by+Mona+Eltahawy+%E2%80%93+review&rft.date=2015-06-12&rft.aulast=Aspden&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2015%2Fjun%2F12%2Fheadscarves-and-hymens-why-the-middle-east-needs-a-sexual-revolution-mona-eltahawy-review&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaum2015" class="citation web cs1">Daum, Rachael (29 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arablit.org/2015/12/29/basma-abdel-aziz-the-worst-thing-is-that-publishers-are-scared-too/">"Basma Abdel Aziz: 'The Worst Thing Is That Publishers Are Scared, Too'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>ArabLit & ArabLit Quarterly</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180331150517/https://arablit.org/2015/12/29/basma-abdel-aziz-the-worst-thing-is-that-publishers-are-scared-too/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ArabLit+%26+ArabLit+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Basma+Abdel+Aziz%3A+%27The+Worst+Thing+Is+That+Publishers+Are+Scared%2C+Too%27&rft.date=2015-12-29&rft.aulast=Daum&rft.aufirst=Rachael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farablit.org%2F2015%2F12%2F29%2Fbasma-abdel-aziz-the-worst-thing-is-that-publishers-are-scared-too%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clarissa Burt, 'Arts: Poets and Poetry: Arab States', in <i>Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures</i>, ed. by Suad Joseph (Leiden: Brill, 2003-2007), V: 77-80 (p. 80).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinrichsAllen201262-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeinrichsAllen201262_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeinrichsAllen2012">Heinrichs & Allen 2012</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://insidearabia.com/al-mutanabbi-and-the-arrogance-within-the-life-of-a-great-arabic-poet/">"Al Mutanabbi and the Arrogance Within: The Life of a Great Arabic Poet"</a>. <i>Inside Arabia</i>. 12 September 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220814223348/https://insidearabia.com/al-mutanabbi-and-the-arrogance-within-the-life-of-a-great-arabic-poet/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Inside+Arabia&rft.atitle=Al+Mutanabbi+and+the+Arrogance+Within%3A+The+Life+of+a+Great+Arabic+Poet&rft.date=2020-09-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finsidearabia.com%2Fal-mutanabbi-and-the-arrogance-within-the-life-of-a-great-arabic-poet%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kingfaisalprize.org/professor-abd-allah-al-tayyeb/">"King Faisal Prize | Professor Abd Allah Al-Tayyeb"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210730163613/https://kingfaisalprize.org/professor-abd-allah-al-tayyeb/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=King+Faisal+Prize+%7C+Professor+Abd+Allah+Al-Tayyeb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkingfaisalprize.org%2Fprofessor-abd-allah-al-tayyeb%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorillas2000" class="citation cs2">Morillas, Consuelo López (31 August 2000), Menocal, María Rosa; Scheindlin, Raymond P.; Sells, Michael (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139177870A009/type/book_part">"Language"</a>, <i>The Literature of Al-Andalus</i> (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 31–59, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521471596.004">10.1017/chol9780521471596.004</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47159-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47159-6"><bdi>978-0-521-47159-6</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240104152418/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/literature-of-alandalus/language/FBA9950D0150F8F03F0AC0EAEB9EB8CF">archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 December</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Literature+of+Al-Andalus&rft.atitle=Language&rft.pages=31-59&rft.date=2000-08-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521471596.004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47159-6&rft.aulast=Morillas&rft.aufirst=Consuelo+L%C3%B3pez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FCBO9781139177870A009%2Ftype%2Fbook_part&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnett, Charles. 1997. <i>The Introduction of Arabic Learning into England.</i> London: British Library.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Introduction of Arabic Learning into England,</i> (1998) review. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_Collector" title="The Book Collector">The Book Collector</a></i> 47 (no4) Winter: 553-554.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Allen_(translator)" title="Roger Allen (translator)">Allen, Roger</a> (1995). <i>The Arabic Novel: an Historical and Critical Introduction</i> (2nd ed.). Syracuse University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0815626411" title="Special:BookSources/978-0815626411">978-0815626411</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Allen_(translator)" title="Roger Allen (translator)">Allen, Roger</a> (2005) [1998]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mP27WzY7KSMC"><i>The Arabic Literary Heritage: The Development of its Genres and Criticism</i></a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-48525-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-48525-8"><bdi>0-521-48525-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230515232927/https://books.google.com/books?id=mP27WzY7KSMC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabic+Literary+Heritage%3A+The+Development+of+its+Genres+and+Criticism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-521-48525-8&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmP27WzY7KSMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ashtiany, Julia; Johnstone, T. M.; Latham, J. D.; Serjeant, R. B.; Smith, G. Rex, ed. (1990). <i>Abbasid Belles-lettres</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521240161" title="Special:BookSources/9780521240161">9780521240161</a>.</li> <li>Auchterlonie, Paul (1986). <i>Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: a Summary Guide and Bibliography</i>. Middle East Libraries Committee. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-948889-01-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-948889-01-2">0-948889-01-2</a>.</li> <li>Beeston, A. F. L.; Johnstone T. M.; Serjeant, R. B.; Smith, G. R., ed. (1983). <i>Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-24015-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-24015-8">0-521-24015-8</a>.</li> <li>Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1976). <i>The Mediaeval Islamic Underworld: the Banū Sāsān in Arabic Society and Literature</i>. Brill. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-04392-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-04392-6">90-04-04392-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasheed_El-Enany" title="Rasheed El-Enany">El-Enany, Rasheed</a> (1993). <i>Naguib Mahfouz: the Pursuit of Meaning</i>. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-07395-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-07395-2">0-415-07395-2</a>.</li> <li>Glassé, Cyril (2001). <i>The New Encyclopedia of Islam</i>. AltaMira Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780759101906" title="Special:BookSources/9780759101906">9780759101906</a>.</li> <li>Hamori, Andras (1971). "An Allegory from the Arabian Nights: the City of Brass". <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i>. Volume XXXIV.</li> <li>Hashmi, Alamgir, ed. (1986). <i>The Worlds of Muslim Imagination</i>. Gulmohar.</li> <li>Hassan, Nawal Muhammad (1980). <i>Hayy Bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: a Study of an Early Arabic Impact on English Literature</i>. Al-Rashid House for Publication.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeinrichsAllen2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W. P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Roger_Allen_(translator)" title="Roger Allen (translator)">Allen, R.M.A.</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC&pg=PA62">"Arabic poetics"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Roland_Greene" title="Roland Greene">Greene, Roland</a>; et al. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC"><i>The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics</i></a> (4th rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 62–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15491-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15491-6"><bdi>978-0-691-15491-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabic+poetics&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+Poetry+and+Poetics&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=62-65&rft.edition=4th+rev.&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-691-15491-6&rft.aulast=Heinrichs&rft.aufirst=W.+P.&rft.au=Allen%2C+R.M.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuKiC6IeFR2UC%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Irwin, Robert (2005). <i>The Arabian Nights: a Companion</i>. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781860649837" title="Special:BookSources/9781860649837">9781860649837</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJayyusi1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Salma_Jayyusi" class="mw-redirect" title="Salma Jayyusi">Jayyusi, Salma Khadra</a> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8pI3AAAAIAAJ"><i>Trends and Movements in Modern Arabic Poetry</i></a>. Vol. 1–2. Leiden: E. J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-04920-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-04920-7"><bdi>90-04-04920-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trends+and+Movements+in+Modern+Arabic+Poetry&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=90-04-04920-7&rft.aulast=Jayyusi&rft.aufirst=Salma+Khadra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8pI3AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJayyusi1992" class="citation book cs1">Jayyusi, Salma Khadra (1992). "The Romantic Poets". In <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Mustafa_Badawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Mustafa Badawi">Badawi, Mohammed Mustafa</a> (ed.). <i>Modern Arabic Literature</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33197-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33197-5"><bdi>978-0-521-33197-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Romantic+Poets&rft.btitle=Modern+Arabic+Literature&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-521-33197-5&rft.aulast=Jayyusi&rft.aufirst=Salma+Khadra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Jones, Alan (2003). "Foreword". In Rodwell, J. M. <i>The Koran</i>. Phoenix. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1842126097" title="Special:BookSources/978-1842126097">978-1842126097</a>.</li> <li>Logan, Peter Melville, ed. (2011). <i>The Encyclopedia of the Novel</i>. Volume I. Wiley-Blackwell. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405161848" title="Special:BookSources/978-1405161848">978-1405161848</a>.</li> <li>Makdisi, George (May 1, 1986). "The Diary in Islamic Historiography: Some Notes". <i>History and Theory</i>. Volume XV.</li> <li>Marzolph, Ulrich; van Leeuwen, Richard; Wassouf, Hassan (2004). <i>The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia</i>. ABC-CLIO. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57607-204-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-57607-204-5">1-57607-204-5</a>.</li> <li>McGinnis, Jon; Reisman, David C. (2007). <i>Classical Arabic Philosophy: an Anthology of Sources</i>. Hackett Publishing Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780872208711" title="Special:BookSources/9780872208711">9780872208711</a>.</li> <li>Menocal, María Rosa; Scheindlin, Raymond P.; Sells, Michael, ed. (2000). <i>The Literature of al-Andalus</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-47159-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-47159-1">0-521-47159-1</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoreh1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shmuel_Moreh" title="Shmuel Moreh">Moreh, S.</a> (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G7Q3AAAAIAAJ"><i>Modern Arabic Poetry 1800–1970: The Development of its Forms and Themes under the Influence of Western Literature</i></a>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-04795-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-04795-6"><bdi>90-04-04795-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240104152309/https://books.google.com/books?id=G7Q3AAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Arabic+Poetry+1800%E2%80%931970%3A+The+Development+of+its+Forms+and+Themes+under+the+Influence+of+Western+Literature&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=90-04-04795-6&rft.aulast=Moreh&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG7Q3AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Moreh, Shmuel (1986). "Live Theater in Medieval Islam". In Sharon, Moshe. <i>Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: in Honour of Professor David Ayalon</i>. Brill.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoreh1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shmuel_Moreh" title="Shmuel Moreh">Moreh, Shmuel</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MssUAAAAIAAJ"><i>Studies in Modern Arabic Prose and Poetry</i></a>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08359-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-08359-6"><bdi>90-04-08359-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230602082211/https://books.google.com/books?id=MssUAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Modern+Arabic+Prose+and+Poetry&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=90-04-08359-6&rft.aulast=Moreh&rft.aufirst=Shmuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMssUAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Pinault, David (1992). <i>Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights</i>. Brill Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09530-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09530-6">90-04-09530-6</a>.</li> <li>Russell, G. A., ed. (1994). <i>The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-century England</i>. Brill. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004098886" title="Special:BookSources/9789004098886">9789004098886</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSomekh1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sasson_Somekh" title="Sasson Somekh">Somekh, Sasson</a> (1992). "The Neo-classical Arabic poets". In <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Mustafa_Badawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Mustafa Badawi">Badawi, Mohammed Mustafa</a> (ed.). <i>Modern Arabic Literature</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33197-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33197-5"><bdi>978-0-521-33197-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Neo-classical+Arabic+poets&rft.btitle=Modern+Arabic+Literature&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-521-33197-5&rft.aulast=Somekh&rft.aufirst=Sasson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarkey2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Starkey" title="Paul Starkey">Starkey, Paul</a> (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernarabiclite0000star/mode/1up"><i>Modern Arabic Literature</i></a></span>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-1291-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-1291-2"><bdi>0-7486-1291-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Arabic+Literature&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7486-1291-2&rft.aulast=Starkey&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernarabiclite0000star%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stone, Christopher (2008). <i>Popular Culture and Nationalism in Lebanon: the Fairouz and Rahbani Nation</i>. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203939321" title="Special:BookSources/9780203939321">9780203939321</a>.</li> <li>Toomer, G. J. (1996). <i>Eastern Wisedome and Learning: the Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-century England</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198202912" title="Special:BookSources/9780198202912">9780198202912</a>.</li> <li>van Gelder, G. J. H. (1982). <i>Beyond the Line: Classical Arabic Literary Critics on the Coherence and Unity of the Poem</i>. Brill. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-06854-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-06854-6">90-04-06854-6</a>.</li> <li>von Grunebaum, G. E. (1952). "Avicenna's Risâla fî 'l-'išq and Courtly Love", <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i>.</li> <li>Wainwright, Martin (March 22, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/mar/22/featuresreviews.guardianreview1">"Desert island scripts"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080724144426/http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,918454,00.html">Archived</a> 24 July 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>.</li> <li>Young, M. J. L.; Latham, J. D.; Serjeant, R. B., ed. (1990). <i>Religion, Learning and Science in the Abbasid Period</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-32763-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-32763-6">0-521-32763-6</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Abdel-Malek, Kamal, "Popular Arabic Religious Narratives", in <i>Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God</i> (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker. Santa Barbara, Ca: ABC-Clio, 2014, Vol 2, pp. 460–465.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadawi1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mustafa_Badawi" title="Muhammad Mustafa Badawi">Badawi, M. M.</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E4DbToJtTeUC"><i>A Critical Introduction to Modern Arabic Poetry</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20699-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20699-5"><bdi>0-521-20699-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Introduction+to+Modern+Arabic+Poetry&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-521-20699-5&rft.aulast=Badawi&rft.aufirst=M.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE4DbToJtTeUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadawi1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mustafa_Badawi" title="Muhammad Mustafa Badawi">Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa</a> (1993). <i>A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Modern+Arabic+Literature&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Badawi&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Mustafa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCachia2002" class="citation book cs1">Cachia, Pierre (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabicliterature0000cach"><i>Arabic literature: an overview</i></a>. London: RoutledgeCurzon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780700717255" title="Special:BookSources/9780700717255"><bdi>9780700717255</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/252908467">252908467</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabic+literature%3A+an+overview&rft.place=London&rft.pub=RoutledgeCurzon&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F252908467&rft.isbn=9780700717255&rft.aulast=Cachia&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farabicliterature0000cach&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Eglash, Ruth. "Arabic manuscripts from J'lem libraries to go online" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jpost.com/Features/In-Thespotlight/Arabic-manuscripts-from-Jlem-libraries-to-go-online">Arabic manuscripts from J'lem libraries to go online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoejeThatcher1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jan_de_Goeje" title="Michael Jan de Goeje">Goeje, Michael Jan de</a>; Thatcher, Griffithes Wheeler (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Arabia#Literature"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Arabia#Literature">"Arabia § Literature" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 271–276.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabia+%C2%A7+Literature&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=271-276&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Goeje&rft.aufirst=Michael+Jan+de&rft.au=Thatcher%2C+Griffithes+Wheeler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denys_Johnson-Davies" title="Denys Johnson-Davies">Johnson-Davies, Denys</a> (ed.) 2006, <a href="//archive.org/details/anchorbookofmode00john" class="extiw" title="iarchive:anchorbookofmode00john"><i>The Anchor book of modern Arabic fiction</i></a>, New York: Anchor Books.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arabnews.com/node/325681">Kaaki, Lisa (2019). <i>A history of Arab women in literature</i></a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeisamiStarkey1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Meisami, Julie Scott; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Starkey" title="Paul Starkey">Starkey, Paul</a>, eds. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sx1bqgibKhQC"><i>Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature</i></a>. Vol. 1. London; New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203020425">10.4324/9780203020425</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-18571-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-18571-8"><bdi>0-415-18571-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Arabic+Literature&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203020425&rft.isbn=0-415-18571-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dsx1bqgibKhQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeisamiStarkey1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Meisami, Julie Scott; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Starkey" title="Paul Starkey">Starkey, Paul</a>, eds. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DbCFBX6b3eEC"><i>Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature</i></a>. Vol. 2. London; New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-18572-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-18572-6"><bdi>0-415-18572-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Arabic+Literature&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-415-18572-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDbCFBX6b3eEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic_literature&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Ontology" title="Arabic Ontology">Arabic Ontology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ontology.birzeit.edu">Lexicographic Search Engine</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of a 1905 <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i> article about "<b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Arabic_Language_and_Literature" class="extiw" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Arabic Language and Literature">Arabic literature</a></b>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/arablit.htm">Cornell University link to Arabic Literature</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100302071400/http://bc.ub.leidenuniv.nl/bc/olg/selec/tawq/index.html">The original Arabic manuscript of Tawq Alhamama</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arabic_manuscripts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_manuscripts" title="Template:Arabic manuscripts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_manuscripts" title="Template talk:Arabic manuscripts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_manuscripts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic manuscripts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arabic_manuscripts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_manuscripts" title="Islamic manuscripts">Arabic manuscripts</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Islamic_manuscripts" title="Category:Islamic manuscripts">Manuscripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">7th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/PERF_558" title="PERF 558">PERF 558</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Muhammad%27s_letters_to_the_heads_of_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad's letters to the heads of state">Letters by Muhammad</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Earliest known illuminated <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'ans</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Maqama" title="Maqama">Maqama</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Maqama" title="Maqama">Maqama</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Fixed_Stars" title="The Book of Fixed Stars">The Book of Fixed Stars</a></i> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kit%C4%81b_%E1%B9%A2uwar_al-kaw%C4%81kib_(al-th%C4%81bitah)_(Bodleian_Library_MS._Marsh_144)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kitāb Ṣuwar al-kawākib (al-thābitah) (Bodleian Library MS. Marsh 144)">Marsh 144</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timbuktu_Manuscripts" title="Timbuktu Manuscripts">Timbuktu Manuscripts</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:The_Speech_of_Wild_Animals" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:The Speech of Wild Animals">The Speech of Wild Animals</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Maqamat_al-Hariri" title="Maqamat al-Hariri">Maqamat al-Hariri</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/File:Maqamat_al-Hariri,_BNF_Arabe_3924,_first_page._Dated_1118,_by_al-Q%C4%81sim_ibn_%CA%BFAl%C4%AB_al-_%E1%B8%A4ar%C4%ABr%C4%AB_al-Ba%E1%B9%A3r%C4%AB_(1054-1122).jpg" title="File:Maqamat al-Hariri, BNF Arabe 3924, first page. Dated 1118, by al-Qāsim ibn ʿAlī al- Ḥarīrī al-Baṣrī (1054-1122).jpg">Arabe 3924</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kit%C4%81b_al-Diry%C4%81q" title="Kitāb al-Diryāq">Kitāb al-Diryāq</a></i> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kit%C3%A2b_al-Diry%C3%A2q_-_BNF_Arabe2964" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kitâb al-Diryâq - BNF Arabe2964">Arabe 2964</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_materia_medica" title="De materia medica">De materia medica</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kit%C4%81b-al-Daraj" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kitāb-al-Daraj">Kitāb-al-Daraj</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Fixed_Stars" title="The Book of Fixed Stars">The Book of Fixed Stars</a></i> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kit%C4%81b_%E1%B9%A2uwar_al-kaw%C4%81kib_(al-th%C4%81bitah)_(TSMK,_A._3493)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kitāb Ṣuwar al-kawākib (al-thābitah) (TSMK, A. 3493)">TSMK, A. 3493</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Ten_Treatises_of_the_Eye" title="Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye">Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye</a></i></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bodleian_Library_MS_Huntington_264" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bodleian Library MS Huntington 264">MS Huntington 264</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Maqamat_al-Hariri" title="Maqamat al-Hariri">Maqamat al-Hariri</a></i> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maqamat_of_al-Hariri_-_BNF_Arabe3929" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maqamat of al-Hariri - BNF Arabe3929">Arabe 3929</a>, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maqamat_of_al-Hariri_-_BNF_Arabe_6094" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maqamat of al-Hariri - BNF Arabe 6094">Arabe 6094</a>, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maqamat_of_al-Hariri_-_BNF_Arabe5847" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maqamat of al-Hariri - BNF Arabe5847">Arabe 5847</a>, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maqamat_of_al-Hariri_-_Suleymaniye_Library,_Esad_Efendi_2916" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maqamat of al-Hariri - Suleymaniye Library, Esad Efendi 2916">Esad Efendi 2961</a>, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maqamat_of_al-Hariri_-_British_Library,_Ms._Or._9718" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maqamat of al-Hariri - British Library, Ms. Or. 9718">Or. 9718</a>, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maqamat_of_al-Hariri_-_St_Petersburg_S23" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maqamat of al-Hariri - St Petersburg S23">S.23</a>)<br /></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kit%C4%81b_al-Diry%C4%81q" title="Kitāb al-Diryāq">Kitāb al-Diryāq</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kit%C4%81b_na%CA%BFt_al-%E1%B8%A5ayaw%C4%81n" title="Kitāb naʿt al-ḥayawān">Kitāb naʿt al-ḥayawān</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_materia_medica" title="De materia medica">De materia medica</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kit%C4%81b_al-bay%E1%B9%ADara" title="Kitāb al-bayṭara">Kitāb al-bayṭara</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Aghani" title="Kitab al-Aghani">Kitab al-Aghani</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kal%C4%ABla_wa-Dimna" title="Kalīla wa-Dimna">Kalīla wa-Dimna</a></i> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kalila_and_Dimna_(BNF)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kalila and Dimna (BNF)">Arabe 3465</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ris%C4%81lat_al-%E1%B9%A2%C5%ABf%C4%AB_f%C4%AB_al-kaw%C4%81kib" title="Risālat al-Ṣūfī fī al-kawākib">Risālat al-Ṣūfī fī al-kawākib</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad" title="Hadith Bayad wa Riyad">Hadith Bayad wa Riyad</a></i> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Had%C3%AEth_Bay%C3%A2d_wa_Riy%C3%A2d_-_BAVaticana_Ar._Ris._368" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Hadîth Bayâd wa Riyâd - BAVaticana Ar. Ris. 368">Vat. Arabo 368</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridawiya_Library,_MS_5229" title="Ridawiya Library, MS 5229">MS 5229</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></i> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity_(MSS_Esad_Efendi_3636)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (MSS Esad Efendi 3636)">Esad Efendi 3636</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABw%C4%81n_Lugh%C4%81t_al-Turk" title="Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk">Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Maqamat_al-Hariri" title="Maqamat al-Hariri">Maqamat al-Hariri</a></i> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maqamat_of_al-Hariri_-_Manuscript_British_Library,_Ms._Or._Add._22114" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maqamat of al-Hariri - Manuscript British Library, Ms. Or. Add. 22114">Or. Add. 22114</a>, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maqamat_of_al-Hariri_-_British_Library,_Ms._Or._Add._7293" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maqamat of al-Hariri - British Library, Ms. Or. Add. 7293">Or. 7293</a>, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maqamat_of_al-Hariri_-_Vienna_%C3%96NB_AF9" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maqamat of al-Hariri - Vienna ÖNB AF9">ÖNB AF9</a>, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maqamat_of_al-Hariri_-_Oxford_Bodleian,_Marsh_458" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maqamat of al-Hariri - Oxford Bodleian, Marsh 458">Marsh 458</a>)<br /></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Remaining_Signs_of_Past_Centuries" title="The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries">The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries</a></i> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Al-%C4%80th%C4%81r_al-b%C4%81qiyah_%E2%80%98an_al-qur%C5%ABn_al-kh%C4%81liyah_-_Edinburgh_University_Library_Or_Ms_161" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Al-Āthār al-bāqiyah ‘an al-qurūn al-khāliyah - Edinburgh University Library Or Ms 161">Or Ms 161</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wonders_of_Creatures_and_the_Marvels_of_Creation" class="mw-redirect" title="The Wonders of Creatures and the Marvels of Creation">The Wonders of Creatures and the Marvels of Creation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jami%27_al-tawarikh" title="Jami' al-tawarikh">Jami' al-tawarikh</a></i> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jami_al-Tawarikh_(Edinburgh)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Jami al-Tawarikh (Edinburgh)">Or Ms 20</a>, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jami_al-Tawarikh_(Khalili)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Jami al-Tawarikh (Khalili)">MSS 77</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">15th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bijapur_Collection" title="Bijapur Collection">Bijapur Collection</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Galland_Manuscript" title="Galland Manuscript">Galland Manuscript</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Remaining_Signs_of_Past_Centuries" title="The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries">The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries</a></i> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Al-%C4%80%E1%B9%AF%C4%81r_al-b%C4%81qiya_%CA%BFan_al-qur%C5%ABn_al-%E1%BA%96%C4%81liya_(BNF_MS_Arabe_1489)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Al-Āṯār al-bāqiya ʿan al-qurūn al-ẖāliya (BNF MS Arabe 1489)">Arabe 1489</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_calligraphy" title="Arabic calligraphy">Arabic calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_miniature" title="Arabic miniature">Arabic miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_School" title="Baghdad School">Baghdad School</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sharb%C5%ABsh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharbūsh">Sharbūsh</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arabic_literature" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namara_inscription" title="Namara inscription">Namara inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabic_inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions">Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Pre-Islamic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mu%27allaqat" title="Mu'allaqat">Pre-Islamic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Layla_al-Muhalhel" title="Abu Layla al-Muhalhel">Abu Layla al-Muhalhel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_ibn_Zayd" title="Adi ibn Zayd">Adi ibn Zayd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afira_bint_%27Abbad" title="Afira bint 'Abbad">Afira bint 'Abbad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-F%C4%81ri%CA%BFah_bint_Shadd%C4%81d" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Fāriʿah bint Shaddād">Al-Fāriʿah bint Shaddād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hujayjah" title="Al-Hujayjah">Al-Hujayjah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-%E1%B8%A4urqah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ḥurqah">Al-Ḥurqah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khirniq_bint_Badr" title="Al-Khirniq bint Badr">Al-Khirniq bint Badr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shanfara" title="Al-Shanfara">Al-Shanfara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nu%27man_ibn_Humaydah" title="Al-Nu'man ibn Humaydah">Al-Nu'man ibn Humaydah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Alqama_ibn_%27Abada" class="mw-redirect" title="'Alqama ibn 'Abada">'Alqama ibn 'Abada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Amir_ibn_al-Tufayl" class="mw-redirect" title="'Amir ibn al-Tufayl">'Amir ibn al-Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_Kulthum" title="Amr ibn Kulthum">Amr ibn Kulthum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarah_ibn_Shaddad" title="Antarah ibn Shaddad">Antarah ibn Shaddad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-A%27sha" title="Al-A'sha">Al-A'sha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harith_ibn_Hilliza_Al-Yashkuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Harith ibn Hilliza Al-Yashkuri">Harith ibn Hilliza Al-Yashkuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatim_al-Tai" title="Hatim al-Tai">Hatim al-Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lab%C4%ABd" class="mw-redirect" title="Labīd">Labīd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laila_bint_Lukaiz" title="Laila bint Lukaiz">Laila bint Lukaiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahd_al-Aadiyya" title="Mahd al-Aadiyya">Mahd al-Aadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27aqqir" title="Mu'aqqir">Mu'aqqir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nabigha" title="Al-Nabigha">Al-Nabigha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imru%27_al-Qais" title="Imru' al-Qais">Imru' al-Qais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaw%27al_ibn_%27Adiya" title="Samaw'al ibn 'Adiya">Samaw'al ibn 'Adiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarafa" title="Tarafa">Tarafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_al-Huwayrith" title="Uthman ibn al-Huwayrith">Uthman ibn al-Huwayrith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuhayr_bin_Abi_Sulma" title="Zuhayr bin Abi Sulma">Zuhayr bin Abi Sulma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuhayr_ibn_Janab" title="Zuhayr ibn Janab">Zuhayr ibn Janab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktham_ibn_Saifi" class="mw-redirect" title="Aktham ibn Saifi">Aktham ibn Saifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Munakhal" title="Al-Munakhal">Al-Munakhal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Classical" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Akhtal_al-Taghlibi" title="Al-Akhtal al-Taghlibi">Al-Akhtal al-Taghlibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farazdaq" title="Al-Farazdaq">Al-Farazdaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Hamid_al-Katib" title="Abd al-Hamid al-Katib">Abd al-Hamid al-Katib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fadl_Ashsha%27ira" class="mw-redirect" title="Fadl Ashsha'ira">Fadl Ashsha'ira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_ibn_Thabit" title="Hassan ibn Thabit">Hassan ibn Thabit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Hasina" title="Ibn Abi Hasina">Ibn Abi Hasina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maysun_bint_Bahdal" title="Maysun bint Bahdal">Maysun bint Bahdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamil_ibn_Ma%27mar" title="Jamil ibn Ma'mar">Jamil ibn Ma'mar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suraqa_bin_Malik" class="mw-redirect" title="Suraqa bin Malik">Suraqa bin Malik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarir_ibn_Atiyah" title="Jarir ibn Atiyah">Jarir ibn Atiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%27b_bin_Zuhayr" class="mw-redirect" title="Ka'b bin Zuhayr">Ka'b bin Zuhayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khansa" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Khansa">Al-Khansa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuthayyir" title="Kuthayyir">Kuthayyir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layla_al-Akhyaliyya" title="Layla al-Akhyaliyya">Layla al-Akhyaliyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suraqah_al-Bariqi" title="Suraqah al-Bariqi">Suraqah al-Bariqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutayla_ukht_al-Nadr" title="Qutayla ukht al-Nadr">Qutayla ukht al-Nadr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waddah_al-Yaman" title="Waddah al-Yaman">Waddah al-Yaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunus_al-Katib_al-Mughanni" title="Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni">Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zufar_ibn_al-Harith_al-Kilabi" title="Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi">Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_Jadan_al-Himyari" title="Dhu Jadan al-Himyari">Dhu Jadan al-Himyari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorayd_bin_Al_Soma" title="Dorayd bin Al Soma">Dorayd bin Al Soma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatari_ibn_al-Fuja%27a" title="Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a">Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mufaddal_al-Dabbi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mufaddal al-Dabbi">al-Mufaddal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E2%80%98Ulayya_bint_al-Mahd%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="‘Ulayya bint al-Mahdī">Bint al-Mahdī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbas_Ibn_al-Ahnaf" title="Abbas Ibn al-Ahnaf">Ibn al-Ahnaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_al-Mu%27tazz" title="Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz">Ibn al-Mu'tazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Firas_al-Hamdani" title="Abu Firas al-Hamdani">Abu Firas al-Hamdani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Tammam" title="Abu Tammam">Abu Tammam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Hasan_Ahmad_ibn_Muhammad_ibn_Abdallah_ibn_al-Mudabbir" title="Abu'l-Hasan Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Abdallah ibn al-Mudabbir">Al-Mudabbir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Qasim_al-Husayn_ibn_Ali_al-Maghribi" title="Abu'l-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ali al-Maghribi">Abu'l-Qasimbal-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arib_al-Ma%27muniyya" title="Arib al-Ma'muniyya">Arib al-Ma'muniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Asma%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Asma'i">Al-Asma'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Tifashi" title="Ahmad al-Tifashi">Ahmad al-Tifashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Atahiya" title="Abu al-Atahiya">Abu al-Atahiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Fadl_ibn_al-%27Amid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Fadl ibn al-'Amid">ibn al-'Amid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badi%27_al-Zaman_al-Hamadani" title="Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadani">Al-Hamadani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baha%27_al-din_Zuhair" class="mw-redirect" title="Baha' al-din Zuhair">Baha' al-din Zuhair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashshar_ibn_Burd" title="Bashshar ibn Burd">Bashshar ibn Burd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhturi" title="Buhturi">Buhturi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Busiri" title="Al-Busiri">Al-Busiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani" title="Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani">Al-Isfahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fath_ibn_Khaqan" title="Al-Fath ibn Khaqan">Al-Fath ibn Khaqan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hariri_of_Basra" title="Al-Hariri of Basra">Al-Hariri of Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Farid" title="Ibn al-Farid">Ibn al-Farid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Rumi" title="Ibn al-Rumi">Ibn al-Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Duraid" title="Ibn Duraid">Ibn Duraid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Sari_al-Zajjaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Sari al-Zajjaj">al-Zajjaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_al-Azhari" title="Abu Mansur al-Azhari">Abu Mansur al-Azhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mahdi" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi">ibn al-Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mudabbir" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mudabbir">ibn al-Mudabbir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27arri" title="Al-Ma'arri">Al-Ma'arri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwan_ibn_Abi_Hafsa" title="Marwan ibn Abi Hafsa">Marwan ibn Abi Hafsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutanabbi" title="Al-Mutanabbi">Al-Mutanabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Nuwas" title="Abu Nuwas">Abu Nuwas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C4%81riyah" title="Shāriyah">Shāriyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqiyya_Umm_Ali_bint_Ghaith_ibn_Ali_al-Armanazi" title="Taqiyya Umm Ali bint Ghaith ibn Ali al-Armanazi">Al-Armanazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aban_al-Lahiqi" title="Aban al-Lahiqi">Aban al-Lahiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imad_ad-Din_al-Isfahani" class="mw-redirect" title="Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani">Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabia_of_Basra" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabia of Basra">Rabia of Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunus_ibn_Habib" title="Yunus ibn Habib">Yunus ibn Habib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Nasr_al-Jawhari" title="Abu Nasr al-Jawhari">Abu Nasr al-Jawhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khalil_ibn_Ahmad_al-Farahidi" title="Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi">Al-Farahidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shafi%27i" title="Al-Shafi'i">Al-Shafi'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Muqaffa%27" title="Ibn al-Muqaffa'">Ibn al-Muqaffa'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mubarrad" title="Al-Mubarrad">Al-Mubarrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Tahir_Tayfur" title="Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur">Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safiyya_al-Baghdadiyya" title="Safiyya al-Baghdadiyya">Safiyya al-Baghdadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Dawud_al-Zahiri" title="Muhammad bin Dawud al-Zahiri">Al-Zahiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Muhammad_al-Anbari" title="Abu Muhammad al-Anbari">Abu Muhammad al-Anbari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Anbari" title="Ibn al-Anbari">Ibn al-Anbari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qasabani" title="Al-Qasabani">Al-Qasabani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Qutaybah" title="Ibn Qutaybah">Ibn Qutaybah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dik_al-Jinn" title="Dik al-Jinn">Dik al-Jinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E2%80%98In%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="‘Inān">‘Inān</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ahmad_Monajjem" title="Abu Ahmad Monajjem">Abu Ahmad Monajjem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zubayr_ibn_Bakkar" title="Al-Zubayr ibn Bakkar">Ibn Bakkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sar%C4%AB_al-Raff%C4%81%E2%80%99" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Sarī al-Raffā’">Al-Sarī al-Raffā’</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_bin_Yahya_al-Suli" title="Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli">Al-Suli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niftawayh" title="Niftawayh">Niftawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tughrai" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Tughrai">Al-Tughrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layl%C4%81_bint_%E1%B9%ACar%C4%ABf" class="mw-redirect" title="Laylā bint Ṭarīf">Laylā bint Ṭarīf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tha%27alibi" title="Al-Tha'alibi">Al-Tha'alibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Hasan_Mihyar_al-Daylami" title="Abu'l-Hasan Mihyar al-Daylami">Al-Daylami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Hayy%C4%81n_al-Tawh%C4%ABd%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Hayyān al-Tawhīdī">al-Tawhīdī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sharif_al-Radi" title="Al-Sharif al-Radi">Al-Sharif al-Radi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hayyus" title="Ibn Hayyus">Ibn Hayyus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Raghib_al-Isfahani" title="Al-Raghib al-Isfahani">Al-Raghib al-Isfahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharif_al-Murtaza" title="Sharif al-Murtaza">Sharif al-Murtaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_bin_al_Mugrab_Al_Uyuni" title="Ali bin al Mugrab Al Uyuni">Al Uyuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi" title="Yaqut al-Hamawi">Yaqut al-Hamawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Al Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_Al-Hallaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Mansur Al-Hallaj"> Al-Hallaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usama_ibn_Munqidh" title="Usama ibn Munqidh">Usama ibn Munqidh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Qatta%27_al-Siqilli" title="Ibn al-Qatta' al-Siqilli">Ibn al-Qatta' al-Siqilli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Shajari" title="Ibn al-Shajari">Ibn al-Shajari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_%27Adlan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn 'Adlan">Ibn 'Adlan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ja%27far_Ahmad_ibn_Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Sa%27id" title="Abu Ja'far Ahmad ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Sa'id">Abu Ja'far</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Rumaikiyya" title="Al-Rumaikiyya">Al-Rumaikiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Alphaizuli" title="Maria Alphaizuli">Maria Alphaizuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Ammar" title="Muhammad ibn Ammar">Ibn Ammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buthaina_bint_al-Mu%27tamid_ibn_Abbad" title="Buthaina bint al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad">Buthaina </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafsa_bint_al-Hajj_al-Rukuniyya" title="Hafsa bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya">Al-Rukuniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamda_bint_Ziyad_al-Muaddib" title="Hamda bint Ziyad al-Muaddib">Hamda bint Ziyad al-Muaddib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hamdis" title="Ibn Hamdis">Ibn Hamdis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abd_Rabbih" title="Ibn Abd Rabbih">Ibn Abd Rabbih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Abbar" title="Ibn al-Abbar">Ibn al-Abbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Zaqqaq" title="Ibn al-Zaqqaq">Ibn al-Zaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Amira" title="Ibn Amira">Ibn Amira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Baqi" title="Ibn Baqi">Ibn Baqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bassam" title="Ibn Bassam">Ibn Bassam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Juzayy" title="Ibn Juzayy">Ibn Juzayy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khafaja" title="Ibn Khafaja">Ibn Khafaja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Khatib" title="Ibn al-Khatib">Ibn al-Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Quzman" title="Ibn Quzman">Ibn Quzman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sahl_of_Seville" title="Ibn Sahl of Seville">Ibn Sahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zamrak" title="Ibn Zamrak">Ibn Zamrak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zayd%C3%BAn" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Zaydún">Ibn Zaydún</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lubna_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Lubna of Córdoba">Lubna of Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tamid_ibn_Abbad" title="Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad">Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Hani_al-Andalusi_al-Azdi" title="Muhammad ibn Hani al-Andalusi al-Azdi">ibn Hani al-Azdi </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhya_bint_Al-Tayyani" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhya bint Al-Tayyani">Muhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazhun_al-Garnatiya_bint_al-Qulai%E2%80%99iya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazhun al-Garnatiya bint al-Qulai’iya">Nazhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasmuna" title="Qasmuna">Qasmuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tutili" title="Al-Tutili">Al-Tutili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Al-Kiram" title="Umm Al-Kiram">Umm Al-Kiram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallada_bint_al-Mustakfi" title="Wallada bint al-Mustakfi">Yusuf III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_III,_Sultan_of_Granada" class="mw-redirect" title="Yusuf III, Sultan of Granada">Yusuf III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hasan_al-Shushtari" title="Abu al-Hasan al-Shushtari">al-Shushtari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Madyan" title="Abu Madyan">Abu Madyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abbad_al-Rundi" title="Ibn Abbad al-Rundi">al-Rundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Arif" title="Ibn al-Arif">Ibn al-Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Jalil_ibn_Wahbun" title="Abd al-Jalil ibn Wahbun">Ibn Wahbun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Majid_ibn_Abdun" title="Abd al-Majid ibn Abdun">Ibn Abdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Walid_al-Baji" title="Abu al-Walid al-Baji">al-Baji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Fazazi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Fazazi">al-Fazazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Yayyab" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Yayyab">Ibn al-Yayyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jubayr" title="Ibn Jubayr">Ibn Jubayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Kattani" title="Ibn al-Kattani">Ibn al-Kattani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_al-Khisal" title="Ibn Abi al-Khisal">Ibn Abi al-Khisal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Arabshah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad ibn Arabshah">Ahmad ibn Arabshah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Busiri" title="Al-Busiri">Al-Busiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Manzur" title="Ibn Manzur">Ibn Manzur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27A%27isha_al-Ba%27uniyya" title="'A'isha al-Ba'uniyya">'A'isha al-Ba'uniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wardi" title="Ibn al-Wardi">Ibn al-Wardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdallah_Mustawfi" title="Hamdallah Mustawfi">Hamdallah Mustawfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Nubata" title="Ibn Nubata">Ibn Nubata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_ibn_Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_al-Nafzawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Nafzawi">al-Nafzawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qalqashandi" title="Al-Qalqashandi">Al-Qalqashandi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Ghani_al-Nabulsi" title="Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi">Al-Nabulsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuz%C3%BBl%C3%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuzûlî">Fuzûlî</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_al-Baghdadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Qadir al-Baghdadi">Abdul Qadir al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanna_Diyab" title="Hanna Diyab">Hanna Diyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wannan" title="Ibn al-Wannan">Ibn al-Wannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Triki" title="Ahmed Ben Triki">Ahmed Ben Triki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modern" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_literature" title="Modern Arabic literature">Nahda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Samy_El_Baroudy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmoud Samy El Baroudy">El Baroudy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maruf_al_Rusafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maruf al Rusafi">Maruf al Rusafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasif_al-Yaziji" title="Nasif al-Yaziji">Nasif al-Yaziji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Yaziji" title="Ibrahim al-Yaziji">Ibrahim al-Yaziji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamil_Sidqi_al-Zahawi" title="Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi">Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Faris_Shidyaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Faris Shidyaq">Ahmad Faris Shidyaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naoum_Mokarzel" title="Naoum Mokarzel">Naoum Mokarzel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Rida" title="Ahmad Rida">Ahmad Rida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameen_Rihani" title="Ameen Rihani">Ameen Rihani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qustaki_al-Himsi" title="Qustaki al-Himsi">Qustaki al-Himsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi">al-Kawakibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suleyman_al-Boustani" title="Suleyman al-Boustani">Suleyman al-Boustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Zaki_Pasha" title="Ahmad Zaki Pasha">Ahmad Zaki Pasha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_al-Tahtawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa'a al-Tahtawi">Rifa'a al-Tahtawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_Marrash" title="Abdallah Marrash">Abdallah Marrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryana_Marrash" title="Maryana Marrash">Maryana Marrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_Ibrahim" title="Hafez Ibrahim">Hafez Ibrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Shawqi" title="Ahmed Shawqi">Ahmed Shawqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Naimy" title="Mikhail Naimy">Mikhail Naimy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Kahlil Gibran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farah_Antun" title="Farah Antun">Farah Antun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurji_Zaydan" title="Jurji Zaydan">Jurji Zaydan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_Ziadeh" title="May Ziadeh">May Ziadeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Hussein" title="Taha Hussein">Taha Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawfiq_al-Hakim" title="Tawfiq al-Hakim">Tawfiq al-Hakim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_literature" title="Modern Arabic literature">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nawal_El_Saadawi" title="Nawal El Saadawi">Nawal El Saadawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naguib_Mahfouz" title="Naguib Mahfouz">Naguib Mahfouz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Idris" title="Yusuf Idris">Yusuf Idris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonallah_Ibrahim" title="Sonallah Ibrahim">Sonallah Ibrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahlam_Mosteghanemi" title="Ahlam Mosteghanemi">Ahlam Mosteghanemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Darwish" title="Mahmoud Darwish">Mahmoud Darwish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adunis" class="mw-redirect" title="Adunis">Adunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Abd_al-Ghafur_Attar" title="Ahmad Abd al-Ghafur Attar">Ahmad Abd al-Ghafur Attar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdur_Rahman_Kashgari" title="Abdur Rahman Kashgari">Abdur Rahman Kashgari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Maghut" title="Muhammad al-Maghut">Muhammad al-Maghut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizar_Qabbani" title="Nizar Qabbani">Nizar Qabbani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abb%C4%81s_al-Aqq%C4%81d" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbās al-Aqqād">Abbās al-Aqqād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Wahbi_al-Tal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustafa Wahbi al-Tal">Mustafa Wahbi al-Tal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Said_Akl" title="Said Akl">Said Akl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayeq_Abdul-Jaleel" title="Fayeq Abdul-Jaleel">Fayeq Abdul-Jaleel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinan_Antoon" title="Sinan Antoon">Sinan Antoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Tuqan" title="Ibrahim Tuqan">Ibrahim Tuqan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Habibi" title="Emile Habibi">Emile Habibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghassan_Kanafani" title="Ghassan Kanafani">Ghassan Kanafani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghada_al-Samman" title="Ghada al-Samman">Ghada al-Samman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Munif" title="Abdul Rahman Munif">Abdul Rahman Munif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_Abdul_Rahman_Al_Gosaibi" title="Ghazi Abdul Rahman Al Gosaibi">Al Gosaibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboul-Qacem_Echebbi" title="Aboul-Qacem Echebbi">Echebbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanna_Mina" title="Hanna Mina">Hanna Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colette_Khoury" title="Colette Khoury">Colette Khoury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadallah_Wannous" title="Saadallah Wannous">Saadallah Wannous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakaria_Tamer" title="Zakaria Tamer">Zakaria Tamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayeb_Salih" title="Tayeb Salih">Tayeb Salih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leila_Aboulela" title="Leila Aboulela">Leila Aboulela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ihsan_Abdel_Quddous" title="Ihsan Abdel Quddous">Ihsan Abdel Quddous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaa_Al_Aswany" title="Alaa Al Aswany">Alaa Al Aswany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Choukri" title="Mohamed Choukri">Mohamed Choukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leila_Abouzeid" title="Leila Abouzeid">Leila Abouzeid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Bennis" title="Mohammed Bennis">Mohammed Bennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdellatif_Laabi" title="Abdellatif Laabi">Abdellatif Laabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Said_Raihani" title="Mohamed Said Raihani">Mohamed Said Raihani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waciny_Laredj" title="Waciny Laredj">Waciny Laredj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahar_Djaout" title="Tahar Djaout">Tahar Djaout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alifa_Rifaat" title="Alifa Rifaat">Alifa Rifaat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Douagi" title="Ali Douagi">Ali Douagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youssef_Rzouga" title="Youssef Rzouga">Youssef Rzouga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jahin" title="Salah Jahin">Salah Jahin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amal_Abul-Qassem_Donqol" class="mw-redirect" title="Amal Abul-Qassem Donqol">Amal Donqol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Zaki_Abu_Shadi" title="Ahmed Zaki Abu Shadi">Ahmed Zaki Abu Shadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Tawfiq" title="Hasan Tawfiq">Hasan Tawfiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Mazini" title="Ibrahim al-Mazini">Ibrahim al-Mazini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mahdi_al-Jawahiri" title="Muhammad Mahdi al-Jawahiri"> al-Jawahiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safa_Khulusi" title="Safa Khulusi">Safa Khulusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazik_Al-Malaika" title="Nazik Al-Malaika">Nazik Al-Malaika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Matar" title="Ahmed Matar">Ahmed Matar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Wahhab_Al-Bayati" title="Abd al-Wahhab Al-Bayati">Al-Bayati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badr_Shakir_al-Sayyab" title="Badr Shakir al-Sayyab">al-Sayyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Yousef" class="mw-redirect" title="Saadi Yousef">Saadi Yousef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Nasrallah" title="Ibrahim Nasrallah">Ibrahim Nasrallah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elia_Abu_Madi" title="Elia Abu Madi">Elia Abu Madi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Abu_Risha" title="Omar Abu Risha">Omar Abu Risha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_al-Khal" title="Yusuf al-Khal">Yusuf al-Khal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mourid_Barghouti" title="Mourid Barghouti">Mourid Barghouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabra_Ibrahim_Jabra" title="Jabra Ibrahim Jabra">Jabra Ibrahim Jabra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samih_al-Qasim" title="Samih al-Qasim">Samih al-Qasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fadwa_Tuqan" title="Fadwa Tuqan">Fadwa Tuqan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="National_literatures_of_Arab_states" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">National literatures of Arab states</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_literature" title="Algerian literature">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Bahrain" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_the_Comoros&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of the Comoros (page does not exist)">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Djibouti" title="Literature of Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copto-Arabic_literature" title="Copto-Arabic literature">Copto-Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_literature" title="Iraqi literature">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Jordan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Jordan (page does not exist)">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_literature" title="Kuwaiti literature">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_literature" title="Libyan literature">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Mauritania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Mauritania (page does not exist)">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_literature" title="Moroccan literature">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Oman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Oman (page does not exist)">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_literature" title="Palestinian literature">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatari_literature" title="Qatari literature">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Saudi_Arabian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Saudi Arabian (page does not exist)">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_literature" title="Somali literature">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_literature" title="Sudanese literature">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_literature" title="Syrian literature">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_literature" title="Tunisian literature">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of the United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)">U.A.E.</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Yemen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Yemen (page does not exist)">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arabic_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_language" title="Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_language" title="Template talk:Arabic language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arabic_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> language</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet" title="History of the Arabic alphabet">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Influence on other languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Diacritics</a> <ul><li><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#I‘jām_(phonetic_distinctions_of_consonants)" title="Arabic diacritics">i‘jām</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Tashkil_(marks_used_as_phonetic_guides)" title="Arabic diacritics">Tashkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Harakat_(short_vowel_marks)" title="Arabic diacritics">Harakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a> (tanwin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddah" title="Shaddah">Shaddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagger_alif" title="Dagger alif">Dagger alif</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph#Arabic_ʼAlif" title="Aleph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾAlif</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)#Arabic_bāʾ" title="Bet (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw#Arabic_tāʾ" title="Taw"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Tāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">Ṯāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel#Arabic_ǧīm" title="Gimel"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ǧīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth#Arabic_ḥāʾ" title="Heth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ḥāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">Ḫāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet#Arabic_dāl" title="Dalet"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Dāl</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">Ḏāl</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh#Arabic_rāʼ" title="Resh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Rāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Zāy</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_sīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Sīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_shīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Šīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade#Arabic_Ṣād" title="Tsade"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṣād</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">Ḍād</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth#Arabic_Ṭāʾ" title="Teth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṭāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">Ẓāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin#Arabic_ʿAyn" title="Ayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿAyn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ġayn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Fāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph#Arabic_qāf" title="Qoph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Qāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph#Arabic_kāf" title="Kaph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh#Arabic_lām" title="Lamedh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Lām</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem#Arabic_mīm" title="Mem"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Mīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)#Arabic_nūn" title="Nun (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Nūn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)#Arabic_hāʾ" title="He (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Hāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)#Arabic_wāw" title="Waw (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Wāw</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh#Arabic_yāʾ" title="Yodh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Yāʾ</i></span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi_Arabic" title="Old Hijazi Arabic">Old Hijazi Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern<br />spoken</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Sicilian</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltralian" title="Maltralian">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottonera_dialect" title="Cottonera dialect">Cottenera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozitan_dialects" title="Gozitan dialects">Gozitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qormi_dialect" title="Qormi dialect">Qormi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBejtun_dialect" title="Żejtun dialect">Żejtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurrieq_dialect" title="Zurrieq dialect">Żurrieqi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Tunis" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunis</a> (North-Eastern Tunisian)</li></ul></li> <li>Village <ul><li>Eastern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sahil" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sahili</a> (Sahel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sfax" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sfaxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel</a> (Lesser Kabylia)</li></ul></li> <li>Western <ul><li>Traras-Msirda</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Jebli</a> (Mountain)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Judeo-Maghrebi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Central Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan</a></li> <li>Eastern Algerian</li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian koiné</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maqil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemadi_dialect" title="Nemadi dialect">Nemadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Morocco_Arabic" title="Eastern Morocco Arabic">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Morocco_Arabic" title="Western Morocco Arabic">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algerian_Arabic" title="Western Algerian Arabic">Western Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sulaym <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nile Valley</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilit_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic">Gilit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North</a> (Qeltu)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Gulf_Arabic" title="Bahraini Gulf Arabic">Bahraini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Arabic" title="Emirati Arabic">Emirati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a> <ul><li>Bakhtiari</li> <li>Bukhara</li> <li>Kashkadarya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Arabic">Nigerian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_Arabic" title="Bedouin Arabic">Bedouin Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a> <ul><li>Kjal</li> <li>Wqal</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a> <ul><li>Tunisene</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a> <ul><li>Adeni</li> <li>Beda</li> <li>Habban</li> <li>Sanʽani</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Creoles</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin Arabic">pidgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bimbashi_Arabic" title="Bimbashi Arabic">Bimbashi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Gulf Pidgin Arabic">Gulf Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Bengali_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Jordanian Bengali Pidgin Arabic">Jordanian Bengali Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maridi_Arabic" title="Maridi Arabic">Maridi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_madam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin madam">Pidgin madam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turku_Arabic" title="Turku Arabic">Turku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bongor_Arabic" title="Bongor Arabic">Bongor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">Names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">Sun and moon letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾIʿrāb</i></span> (case)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Triliteral root</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic_Corpus" title="Quranic Arabic Corpus">Quranic Arabic Corpus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a><br />· <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Script</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajami_script" title="Ajami script">Ajami script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diwani" title="Diwani">Diwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijazi_script" title="Hijazi script">Hijazi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeli_Thuluth" title="Jeli Thuluth">Jeli Thuluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairouani_calligraphy" title="Kairouani calligraphy">Kairouani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashq" title="Mashq">Mashq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">Muhaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasm" title="Rasm">Rasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruq%CA%BFah_script" title="Ruqʿah script">Ruqʿah script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi" title="Shahmukhi">Shahmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliq_script" title="Taliq script">Taliq script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawqi" title="Tawqi">Tawqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">Thuluth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_keyboard" title="Arabic keyboard">Arabic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script_in_Unicode" title="Arabic script in Unicode">Arabic script in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-6" title="ISO/IEC 8859-6">ISO/IEC 8859-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows-1256" title="Windows-1256">Windows-1256</a></li> <li>MS-DOS codepages <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_708" title="Code page 708">708</a></li> <li>709</li> <li>710</li> <li>711</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_720" title="Code page 720">720</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_864" title="Code page 864">864</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArabic_encoding" title="MacArabic encoding">MacArabic encoding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Islam and Arabic language</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Arabic literature","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arabic_literature","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q194380","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q194380","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-02-09T20:38:18Z","dateModified":"2024-11-19T18:42:55Z","headline":"written literature in Arabic language"}</script> </body> </html>