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<span>Primary cell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_cell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_cell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Secondary cell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marcus'_theory_of_electron_transfer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marcus'_theory_of_electron_transfer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Marcus' theory of electron transfer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marcus'_theory_of_electron_transfer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surface_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Surface effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacturing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacturing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Manufacturing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Manufacturing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Manufacturing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Manufacturing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structure_of_the_electrode" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure_of_the_electrode"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Structure of the electrode</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure_of_the_electrode-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrodes_in_lithium_ion_batteries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrodes_in_lithium_ion_batteries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Electrodes in lithium ion batteries</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Electrodes_in_lithium_ion_batteries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Electrodes in lithium ion batteries subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Electrodes_in_lithium_ion_batteries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cathodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cathodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Cathodes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cathodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Anodes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanical_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanical_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Mechanical properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanical_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_anodes_and_cathodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_anodes_and_cathodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Other anodes and cathodes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_anodes_and_cathodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Welding_electrodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Welding_electrodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Welding electrodes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Welding_electrodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternating_current_electrodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternating_current_electrodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Alternating current electrodes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternating_current_electrodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemically_modified_electrodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemically_modified_electrodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Chemically modified electrodes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemically_modified_electrodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrode</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 68 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-68" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">68 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrode" title="Elektrode – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Elektrode" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%A8_%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="قطب كهربائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قطب كهربائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrod" title="Elektrod – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elektrod" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-ke%CC%8Dk" title="Tiān-ke̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiān-ke̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Электрод – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Электрод" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Електрод – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Електрод" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroda" title="Elektroda – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Elektroda" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%C3%A8ctrode" title="Elèctrode – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Elèctrode" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroda" title="Elektroda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Elektroda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrode" title="Elektrode – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Elektrode" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrode" title="Elektrode – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektrode" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrood" title="Elektrood – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Elektrood" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Ηλεκτρόδιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηλεκτρόδιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodo" title="Electrodo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Electrodo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrodo" title="Elektrodo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Elektrodo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrodo" title="Elektrodo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Elektrodo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF" title="الکترود – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الکترود" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lectrode" title="Électrode – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Électrode" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%C3%A9ctrodo" title="Eléctrodo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Eléctrodo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EA%B7%B9" title="전극 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전극" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Էլեկտրոդներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էլեկտրոդներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrode_za_zavarivanje" title="Elektrode za zavarivanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Elektrode za zavarivanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrodo" title="Elektrodo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Elektrodo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrode" title="Elektrode – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Elektrode" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafskaut" title="Rafskaut – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rafskaut" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettrodo" title="Elettrodo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Elettrodo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94" title="אלקטרודה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלקטרודה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0" title="ವಿದ್ಯುದ್ವಾರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿದ್ಯುದ್ವಾರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="ელექტროდი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ელექტროდი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Электрод – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Электрод" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektw%C3%B2d" title="Elektwòd – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Elektwòd" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Электрод – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Электрод" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrods" title="Elektrods – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Elektrods" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrodas" title="Elektrodas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Elektrodas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Електрода – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Електрода" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrod" title="Elektrod – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Elektrod" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrode" title="Elektrode – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Elektrode" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%A5%B5" title="電極 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電極" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrode" title="Elektrode – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Elektrode" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrode" title="Elektrode – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Elektrode" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrode" title="Elektrode – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Elektrode" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrod" title="Elektrod – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Elektrod" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroda" title="Elektroda – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Elektroda" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%C3%A9trodo" title="Elétrodo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Elétrodo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrod" title="Elektrod – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Elektrod" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrod" title="Electrod – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Electrod" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Электрод – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электрод" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroda" title="Elektroda – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Elektroda" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Electrode" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektr%C3%B3da" title="Elektróda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Elektróda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroda" title="Elektroda – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Elektroda" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%95%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="جەمسەری کارەبایی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جەمسەری کارەبایی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Електрода – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Електрода" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroda" title="Elektroda – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Elektroda" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrodi" title="Elektrodi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Elektrodi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrod" title="Elektrod – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Elektrod" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88" title="மின்முனை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மின்முனை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8E%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%8D" title="ఎలక్ట్రోడ్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఎలక్ట్రోడ్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94" title="อิเล็กโทรด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อิเล็กโทรด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Электрод – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Электрод" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrot" title="Elektrot – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Elektrot" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Електрод – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Електрод" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%81" title="برقیرہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برقیرہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90i%E1%BB%87n_c%E1%BB%B1c" title="Điện cực – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Điện cực" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%A5%B5" title="電極 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="電極" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E6%9E%81" title="电极 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="电极" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Pokémon, see <a href="/wiki/Electrode_(Pok%C3%A9mon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrode (Pokémon)">Electrode (Pokémon)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arc_welding_electrodes_and_electrode_holder.triddle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Arc_welding_electrodes_and_electrode_holder.triddle.jpg/290px-Arc_welding_electrodes_and_electrode_holder.triddle.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Arc_welding_electrodes_and_electrode_holder.triddle.jpg/435px-Arc_welding_electrodes_and_electrode_holder.triddle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Arc_welding_electrodes_and_electrode_holder.triddle.jpg/580px-Arc_welding_electrodes_and_electrode_holder.triddle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Electrodes used in <a href="/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding" title="Shielded metal arc welding">shielded metal arc welding</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/electrode" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:electrode"> electrode</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <p>An <b>electrode</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">electrical conductor</a> used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">circuit</a> (e.g. a <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> or air). Electrodes are essential parts of <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">batteries</a> that can consist of a variety of materials (chemicals) depending on the type of battery. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> coined the term "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/electrode" class="extiw" title="wikt:electrode"> electrode</a>" in 1833; the word recalls the Greek ἤλεκτρον (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc">ḗlektron</i></span>, "amber") and ὁδός (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc">hodós</i></span>, "path, way"). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Electrophorus" title="Electrophorus">electrophore</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/Johan_Wilcke" title="Johan Wilcke">Johan Wilcke</a> in 1762, was an early version of an electrode used to study <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anode_and_cathode_in_electrochemical_cells">Anode and cathode in electrochemical cells</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Anode and cathode in electrochemical cells"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg/220px-Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg/330px-Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg/440px-Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of a voltaic (<a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">galvanic</a>) cell</figcaption></figure> <p>Electrodes are an essential part of any <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">battery</a>. The first electrochemical battery was devised by <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> and was aptly named the <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltaic cell">Voltaic cell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This battery consisted of a stack of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> electrodes separated by <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brine</a>-soaked paper disks. Due to fluctuation in the voltage provided by the voltaic cell, it was not very practical. The first practical battery was invented in 1839 and named the <a href="/wiki/Daniell_cell" title="Daniell cell">Daniell cell</a> after <a href="/wiki/John_Frederic_Daniell" title="John Frederic Daniell">John Frederic Daniell</a>. It still made use of the zinc–copper electrode combination. Since then, <a href="/wiki/List_of_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of batteries">many more batteries</a> have been developed using various materials. The basis of all these is still using two electrodes, <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anodes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathodes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anode_(-)"><span id="Anode_.28-.29"></span>Anode (-)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Anode (-)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>'Anode' was coined by <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> at <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>'s request, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> words ἄνο (ano), 'upwards' and ὁδός (hodós), 'a way'.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The anode is the electrode through which the <a href="/wiki/Conventional_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Conventional current">conventional current</a> enters from the electrical circuit of an <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cell" title="Electrochemical cell">electrochemical cell</a> (battery) into the non-<a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metallic</a> cell. The <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> then flow to the other side of the battery. <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> surmised that the electrical flow moved from positive to negative.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The electrons flow away from the anode and the conventional current towards it. From both can be concluded that the charge of the anode is negative. The electron entering the anode comes from the <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidation</a> reaction that takes place next to it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cathode_(+)"><span id="Cathode_.28.2B.29"></span>Cathode (+)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cathode (+)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The cathode is in many ways the opposite of the anode. The name (also coined by Whewell) comes from the Greek words κάτω (kato), 'downwards' and ὁδός (hodós), 'a way'. It is the positive electrode, meaning the electrons flow from the electrical circuit through the cathode into the non-metallic part of the electrochemical cell. At the cathode, the reduction reaction takes place with the electrons arriving from the wire connected to the cathode and are absorbed by the <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing_agent" title="Oxidizing agent">oxidizing agent</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_cell">Primary cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Primary cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batteries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Batteries.jpg/220px-Batteries.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Batteries.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="214" /></a><figcaption>Various disposable batteries: two 9-volt, two "AAA", two "AA", and one each of "C", "D", a cordless phone battery, a camcorder battery, a 2-meter handheld ham radio battery, and a button battery.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Primary_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary cell">primary cell</a> is a battery designed to be used once and then discarded. This is due to the electrochemical reactions taking place at the electrodes in the cell not being reversible. An example of a primary cell is the discardable <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_battery" title="Alkaline battery">alkaline battery</a> commonly used in flashlights. Consisting of a zinc anode and a manganese oxide cathode in which ZnO is formed. </p><p>The half-reactions are: </p> <dl><dd>Zn<sub>(s)</sub> + 2OH<sup>−</sup><sub>(<a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aq</a>)</sub> → ZnO<sub>(s)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> + 2e<sup>−</sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \qquad \qquad }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="2em" /> <mspace width="2em" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \qquad \qquad }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/24e99050b6f2243f938e8556f306dd64fd9d9d1e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:9.29ex; height:0.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \qquad \qquad }"></span> [E<sup>0</sup><sub>oxidation</sub> = -1.28 V]</dd> <dd>2MnO<sub>2(s)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> + 2e<sup>−</sup> → Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3(s)</sub> + 2OH<sup>−</sup><sub>(aq)</sub><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \qquad }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="2em" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \qquad }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a0a9ceb3f51a3855999d6bbee5f3b6a8d54ade22" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:4.645ex; height:0.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \qquad }"></span> [E<sup>0</sup><sub>reduction</sub> = +0.15 V]</dd></dl> <p>Overall reaction: </p> <dl><dd>Zn<sub>(s)</sub> + 2MnO<sub>2(s)</sub> ⇌ ZnO<sub>(s)</sub> + Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3(s)</sub><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \qquad \qquad }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="2em" /> <mspace width="2em" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \qquad \qquad }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/24e99050b6f2243f938e8556f306dd64fd9d9d1e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:9.29ex; height:0.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \qquad \qquad }"></span> [E<sup>0</sup><sub>total</sub> = +1.43 V]</dd></dl> <p>The ZnO is prone to clumping and will give less efficient discharge if recharged again. It is possible to recharge these batteries but is due to safety concerns advised against by the manufacturer. Other primary cells include <a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">zinc–carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93chloride_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Zinc–chloride battery">zinc–chloride</a>, and lithium iron disulfide. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_cell">Secondary cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Secondary cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rechargable_Batteries_(50826854891).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Rechargable_Batteries_%2850826854891%29.jpg/220px-Rechargable_Batteries_%2850826854891%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Rechargable_Batteries_%2850826854891%29.jpg/330px-Rechargable_Batteries_%2850826854891%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Rechargable_Batteries_%2850826854891%29.jpg/440px-Rechargable_Batteries_%2850826854891%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>Rechargeable Batteries</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fig_bat_Discharge_Charge3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Fig_bat_Discharge_Charge3.png/220px-Fig_bat_Discharge_Charge3.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Fig_bat_Discharge_Charge3.png/330px-Fig_bat_Discharge_Charge3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Fig_bat_Discharge_Charge3.png 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="234" /></a><figcaption>Electric current and electrons directions for a secondary battery during discharge and charge</figcaption></figure> <p>Contrary to the primary cell a secondary cell can be recharged. The first was the <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">lead–acid battery</a>, invented in 1859 by French physicist <a href="/wiki/Gaston_Plant%C3%A9" title="Gaston Planté">Gaston Planté</a>. This type of battery is still the most widely used in among others automobiles.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cathode consists of <a href="/wiki/Lead_dioxide" title="Lead dioxide">lead dioxide</a> (PbO2) and the anode of solid lead. Other commonly used <a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Rechargeable batteries">rechargeable batteries</a> are <a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">nickel–cadmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel–metal hydride">nickel–metal hydride</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-ion">Lithium-ion</a>. The last of which will be explained more thoroughly in this article due to its importance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marcus'_theory_of_electron_transfer"><span id="Marcus.27_theory_of_electron_transfer"></span>Marcus' theory of electron transfer</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Marcus' theory of electron transfer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marcus theory is a theory originally developed by Nobel laureate <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a> and explains the rate at which an electron can move from one chemical species to another,<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for this article this can be seen as 'jumping' from the electrode to a species in the solvent or vice versa. We can represent the problem as calculating the transfer rate for the transfer of an electron from donor to an acceptor </p> <dl><dd>D + A → D<sup>+</sup> + A<sup>−</sup></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hush_adiabatic_electron_transfer_model_parameters.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hush_adiabatic_electron_transfer_model_parameters.png/220px-Hush_adiabatic_electron_transfer_model_parameters.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hush_adiabatic_electron_transfer_model_parameters.png/330px-Hush_adiabatic_electron_transfer_model_parameters.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Hush_adiabatic_electron_transfer_model_parameters.png 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="503" /></a><figcaption>Potential energy surface for the donor and the acceptor as</figcaption></figure> <p>The potential energy of the system is a function of the translational, rotational, and vibrational coordinates of the reacting species and the molecules of the surrounding medium, collectively called the reaction coordinates. The abscissa the figure to the right represents these. From the classical electron transfer theory, the expression of the <a href="/wiki/Reaction_rate_constant" title="Reaction rate constant">reaction rate constant</a> (probability of reaction) can be calculated, if a non-adiabatic process and parabolic potential energy are assumed, by finding the point of intersection (Q<sub>x</sub>). One important thing to note, and was noted by Marcus when he came up with the theory, the electron transfer must abide by the law of conservation of energy and the Frank-Condon principle. Doing this and then rearranging this leads to the expression of the free energy activation (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msup> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>†</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/85c34e2e62ac1e108932affba2d1419ecbf96f27" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.725ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }}"></span>) in terms of the overall free energy of the reaction (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta G^{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msup> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta G^{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a6abc1b2a7cf969ad2e8697f5e8190f9a149d9f0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.817ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta G^{0}}"></span>). </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }={\frac {1}{4\lambda }}(\Delta G^{0}+\lambda )^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msup> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>†</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>λ</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msup> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mi>λ</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }={\frac {1}{4\lambda }}(\Delta G^{0}+\lambda )^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/82fbd2ea72174faedc8ea1ebf984b6bc212711c5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:23.053ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }={\frac {1}{4\lambda }}(\Delta G^{0}+\lambda )^{2}}"></span> </p><p>In which the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b43d0ea3c9c025af1be9128e62a18fa74bedda2a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda }"></span> is the reorganisation energy. Filling this result in the classically derived <a href="/wiki/Arrhenius_equation" title="Arrhenius equation">Arrhenius equation</a> </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k=A\,\exp \left({\frac {-\Delta G^{\dagger }}{kT}}\right),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msup> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>†</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k=A\,\exp \left({\frac {-\Delta G^{\dagger }}{kT}}\right),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/572674ed5eb057e3478208c6dd510ce03476c165" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:21.817ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k=A\,\exp \left({\frac {-\Delta G^{\dagger }}{kT}}\right),}"></span> </p><p>leads to </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k=A\,\exp \left[{\frac {-(\Delta G^{0}+\lambda )^{2}}{4\lambda kT}}\right]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msup> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mi>λ</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>λ</mi> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k=A\,\exp \left[{\frac {-(\Delta G^{0}+\lambda )^{2}}{4\lambda kT}}\right]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d5dce1cabe338c7c99de9017275f3f525aecd1f5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:27.61ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k=A\,\exp \left[{\frac {-(\Delta G^{0}+\lambda )^{2}}{4\lambda kT}}\right]}"></span> </p><p>With A being the pre-exponential factor which is usually experimentally determined,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although a semi classical derivation provides more information as will be explained below. </p><p>This classically derived result qualitatively reproduced observations of a maximum electron transfer rate under the conditions <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }=\lambda }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msup> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>†</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mi>λ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }=\lambda }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/612c88245b5019a6110241c3715a8b10eed4fa92" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:9.179ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }=\lambda }"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a more extensive mathematical treatment one could read the paper by Newton.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An interpretation of this result and what a closer look at the physical meaning of the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b43d0ea3c9c025af1be9128e62a18fa74bedda2a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda }"></span> one can read the paper by Marcus.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>the situation at hand can be more accurately described by using the displaced harmonic oscillator model, in this model <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunneling" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum tunneling">quantum tunneling</a> is allowed. This is needed in order to explain why even at near-zero Kelvin there still are electron transfers,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in contradiction to the classical theory. </p><p>Without going into too much detail on how the derivation is done, it rests on using <a href="/wiki/Fermi%27s_golden_rule" title="Fermi's golden rule">Fermi's golden rule</a> from time-dependent <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_theory" title="Perturbation theory">perturbation theory</a> with the full <a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_mechanics#Basic_physical_interpretation" title="Hamiltonian mechanics">Hamiltonian</a> of the system. It is possible to look at the overlap in the wavefunctions of both the reactants and the products (the right and the left side of the chemical reaction) and therefore when their energies are the same and allow for electron transfer. As touched on before this must happen because only then conservation of energy is abided by. Skipping over a few mathematical steps the probability of electron transfer can be calculated (albeit quite difficult) using the following formula </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w_{ET}={\frac {|J|^{2}}{\hbar ^{2}}}\int _{-\infty }^{+\infty }dt\,e^{-i\Delta Et/\hbar -g(t)}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>E</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>J</mi> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <msup> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>i</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>E</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w_{ET}={\frac {|J|^{2}}{\hbar ^{2}}}\int _{-\infty }^{+\infty }dt\,e^{-i\Delta Et/\hbar -g(t)}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0f1bf834271817d120f3a881e8d83f87daa2bd3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:32.964ex; height:6.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w_{ET}={\frac {|J|^{2}}{\hbar ^{2}}}\int _{-\infty }^{+\infty }dt\,e^{-i\Delta Et/\hbar -g(t)}}"></span> </p><p>With <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle J}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>J</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle J}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/359e4f407b49910e02c27c2f52e87a36cd74c053" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.471ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle J}"></span> being the electronic coupling constant describing the interaction between the two states (reactants and products) and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g(t)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g(t)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b84f700860ee7af27797d11ddfad3d185eb7af0e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.765ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g(t)}"></span> being the <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line_shape" title="Spectral line shape">line shape function</a>. Taking the classical limit of this expression, meaning <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \hbar \omega \ll kT}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mi>ω</mi> <mo>≪</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \hbar \omega \ll kT}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/52c4e669940d3f0f0b22104cd6296e8963ab3f4c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:9.214ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \hbar \omega \ll kT}"></span>, and making some substitution an expression is obtained very similar to the classically derived formula, as expected. <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w_{ET}={\frac {|J|^{2}}{\hbar }}{\sqrt {\frac {\pi }{\lambda kT}}}\exp \left[{\frac {-(\Delta E+\lambda )^{2}}{4\lambda kT}}\right]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>E</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>J</mi> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mfrac> <mi>π</mi> <mrow> <mi>λ</mi> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </msqrt> </mrow> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>E</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>λ</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>λ</mi> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w_{ET}={\frac {|J|^{2}}{\hbar }}{\sqrt {\frac {\pi }{\lambda kT}}}\exp \left[{\frac {-(\Delta E+\lambda )^{2}}{4\lambda kT}}\right]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3a9ac3bceea415577318ca69fea5d6a3073d9f81" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:39.49ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w_{ET}={\frac {|J|^{2}}{\hbar }}{\sqrt {\frac {\pi }{\lambda kT}}}\exp \left[{\frac {-(\Delta E+\lambda )^{2}}{4\lambda kT}}\right]}"></span> </p><p>The main difference is now the pre-exponential factor has now been described by more physical parameters instead of the experimental factor <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}"></span>. One is once again revered to the sources as listed below for a more in-depth and rigorous mathematical derivation and interpretation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efficiency">Efficiency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The physical properties of electrodes are mainly determined by the material of the electrode and the topology of the electrode. The properties required depend on the application and therefore there are many kinds of electrodes in circulation. The defining property for a material to be used as an electrode is that it be <a href="/wiki/Conductive" class="mw-redirect" title="Conductive">conductive</a>. Any conducting material such as metals, <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> or conductive <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> can therefore be used as an electrode. Often electrodes consist of a combination of materials, each with a specific task. Typical constituents are the active materials which serve as the particles which oxidate or reduct, <a href="/wiki/Conductive_agent" title="Conductive agent">conductive agents</a> which improve the conductivity of the electrode and binders which are used to contain the active particles within the electrode. The efficiency of electrochemical cells is judged by a number of properties, important quantities are the <a href="/wiki/Self-discharge" title="Self-discharge">self-discharge</a> time, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Discharge_voltage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Discharge voltage (page does not exist)">discharge voltage</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_performance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cycle performance (page does not exist)">cycle performance</a>. The physical properties of the electrodes play an important role in determining these quantities. Important properties of the electrodes are: the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">electrical resistivity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity" title="Specific heat capacity">specific heat capacity</a> (c_p), the <a href="/wiki/Electrode_potential" title="Electrode potential">electrode potential</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a>. Of course, for technological applications, the cost of the material is also an important factor.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The values of these properties at room temperature (T = 293 K) for some commonly used materials are listed in the table below. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Common electrode properties<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Properties</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> (Li)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Manganese</a> (Mn)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a> (Cu)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a> (Zn)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">Graphite</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Resistivity (Ωm)</td> <td>8.40e-8</td> <td>1.44e-6</td> <td>1.70e-8</td> <td>5.92e-8</td> <td>6.00e-6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Electrode potential (V)</td> <td>-3.02</td> <td>-1.05</td> <td>-0.340</td> <td>-0.760</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hardness (HV)</td> <td><5</td> <td>500</td> <td>50</td> <td>30</td> <td>7-11 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Specific heat capacity (J/(gK))</td> <td>2.997</td> <td>0.448</td> <td>0.385</td> <td>0.3898</td> <td>0.707 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Surface_effects">Surface effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Surface effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The surface topology of the electrode plays an important role in determining the efficiency of an electrode. The efficiency of the electrode can be reduced due to <a href="/wiki/Contact_resistance" title="Contact resistance">contact resistance</a>. To create an efficient electrode it is therefore important to design it such that it minimizes the contact resistance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Manufacturing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The production of electrodes for Li-ion batteries is done in various steps as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-production_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-production-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The various constituents of the electrode are mixed into a solvent. This mixture is designed such that it improves the performance of the electrodes. Common components of this mixture are: <ul><li>The active electrode particles.</li> <li>A binder used to contain the active electrode particles.</li> <li>A conductive agent used to improve the conductivity of the electrode.</li></ul> <dl><dd>The mixture created is known as an ‘electrode slurry’.</dd></dl></li> <li>The electrode slurry above is coated onto a conductor which acts as the current collector in the electrochemical cell. Typical current collectors are copper for the cathode and aluminum for the anode.</li> <li>After the slurry has been applied to the conductor it is dried and then pressed to the required thickness.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure_of_the_electrode">Structure of the electrode</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Structure of the electrode"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For a given selection of constituents of the electrode, the final efficiency is determined by the internal structure of the electrode. The important factors in the internal structure in determining the performance of the electrode are:<sup id="cite_ref-slurrystructure_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-slurrystructure-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Clustering of the active material and the conductive agent. In order for all the components of the slurry to perform their task, they should all be spread out evenly within the electrode.</li> <li>An even distribution of the conductive agent over the active material. This makes sure that the conductivity of the electrode is optimal.</li> <li>The adherence of the electrode to the current collectors. The adherence makes sure that the electrode does not dissolve into the electrolyte.</li> <li>The density of the active material. A balance should be found between the amount of active material, the conductive agent and the binder. Since the active material is the important factor in the electrode, the slurry should be designed such that the density of the active material is as high as possible, without the conductive agent and the binder not functioning properly.</li></ul> <p>These properties can be influenced in the production of the electrodes in a number of manners. The most important step in the manufacturing of the electrodes is creating the electrode slurry. As can be seen above, the important properties of the electrode all have to do with the even distribution of the components of the electrode. Therefore, it is very important that the electrode slurry be as homogeneous as possible. Multiple procedures have been developed to improve this mixing stage and current research is still being done.<sup id="cite_ref-slurrystructure_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-slurrystructure-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electrodes_in_lithium_ion_batteries">Electrodes in lithium ion batteries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Electrodes in lithium ion batteries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A modern application of electrodes is in <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">lithium-ion batteries</a> (Li-ion batteries). A Li-ion battery is a kind of <a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">flow battery</a> which can be seen in the image on the right. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Redox_Flow_Battery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Redox Flow Battery" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Redox_Flow_Battery.jpg/330px-Redox_Flow_Battery.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Redox_Flow_Battery.jpg/495px-Redox_Flow_Battery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Redox_Flow_Battery.jpg/660px-Redox_Flow_Battery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>A typical flow battery consists of two tanks of liquids which are pumped past a membrane held between two electrodes.<sup id="cite_ref-Qi_040801_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qi_040801-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Furthermore, a Li-ion battery is an example of a secondary cell since it is rechargeable. It can both act as a <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">galvanic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_cell" title="Electrolytic cell">electrolytic cell</a>. Li-ion batteries use lithium ions as the solute in the electrolyte which are dissolved in an <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic</a> <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a>. Lithium electrodes were first studied by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_G._Keyes" title="Frederick G. Keyes">Frederick G. Keyes</a> in 1913.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the following century these electrodes were used to create and study the first Li-ion batteries. Li-ion batteries are very popular due to their great performance. Applications include mobile phones and electric cars. Due to their popularity, much research is being done to reduce the cost and increase the safety of Li-ion batteries. An integral part of the Li-ion batteries are their anodes and cathodes, therefore much research is being done into increasing the efficiency, safety and reducing the costs of these electrodes specifically.<sup id="cite_ref-sigma_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sigma-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cathodes">Cathodes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cathodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Li-ion batteries, the cathode consists of a <a href="/wiki/Intercalation_(chemistry)" title="Intercalation (chemistry)">intercalated</a> lithium compound (a layered material consisting of layers of molecules composed of lithium and other elements). A common element which makes up part of the molecules in the compound is <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>. Another frequently used element is <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>. The best choice of compound usually depends on the application of the battery. Advantages for cobalt-based compounds over manganese-based compounds are their high specific heat capacity, high <a href="/wiki/Volumetric_heat_capacity" title="Volumetric heat capacity">volumetric heat capacity</a>, low self-discharge rate, high discharge voltage and high cycle durability. There are however also drawbacks in using cobalt-based compounds such as their high cost and their low <a href="/wiki/Thermostability" title="Thermostability">thermostability</a>. Manganese has similar advantages and a lower cost, however there are some problems associated with using manganese. The main problem is that manganese tends to dissolve into the electrolyte over time. For this reason, cobalt is still the most common element which is used in the lithium compounds. There is much research being done into finding new materials which can be used to create cheaper and longer lasting Li-ion batteries <sup id="cite_ref-sigma_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sigma-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Chinese and American researchers have demonstrated that ultralong single wall <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a> significantly enhance lithium iron phosphate cathodes. By creating a highly efficient conductive network that securely binds lithium iron phosphate particles, adding carbon nanotubes as a conductive additive at a dosage of just 0.5 wt.% helps cathodes to achieve a remarkable rate capacity of 161.5 mAh g-1 at 0.5 C and 130.2 mAh g-1 at 5 C, whole maintaining 87.4% capacity retention after 200 cycles at 2 C.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anodes">Anodes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Anodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The anodes used in mass-produced Li-ion batteries are either carbon based (usually graphite) or made out of spinel lithium titanate (Li<sub>4</sub>Ti<sub>5</sub>O<sub>12</sub>).<sup id="cite_ref-sigma_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sigma-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Graphite anodes have been successfully implemented in many modern commercially available batteries due to its cheap price, longevity and high energy density.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it presents issues of dendrite growth, with risks of shorting the battery and posing a safety issue.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Li<sub>4</sub>Ti<sub>5</sub>O<sub>12</sub> has the second largest market share of anodes, due to its stability and good rate capability, but with challenges such as low capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the early 2000s, silicon anode research began picking up pace, becoming one of the decade's most promising candidates for future lithium-ion battery anodes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Silicon has one of the highest gravimetric capacities when compared to graphite and Li<sub>4</sub>Ti<sub>5</sub>O<sub>12</sub> as well as a high volumetric one. Furthermore, Silicon has the advantage of operating under a reasonable open circuit voltage without parasitic lithium reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, silicon anodes have a major issue of volumetric expansion during lithiation of around 360%.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This expansion may pulverize the anode, resulting in poor performance.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To fix this problem, scientists looked into varying the dimensionality of the Si.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many studies have been developed in <a href="/wiki/Silicon_nanowire" title="Silicon nanowire">Si nanowires</a>, Si tubes as well as Si sheets.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, composite hierarchical Si anodes have become the major technology for future applications in lithium-ion batteries. In the early 2020s, technology is reaching commercial levels with factories being built for mass production of anodes in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, metallic lithium is another possible candidate for the anode. It boasts a higher specific capacity than silicon, however, does come with the drawback of working with the highly unstable metallic lithium.<sup id="cite_ref-cen.acs.org_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cen.acs.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly to graphite anodes, dendrite formation is another major limitation of metallic lithium, with the solid electrolyte interphase being a major design challenge.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the end, if stabilized, metallic lithium would be able to produce batteries that hold the most charge, while being the lightest.<sup id="cite_ref-cen.acs.org_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cen.acs.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent years, researchers have conducted several studies on the use of single wall <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a> (SWCNTs) as conductive additives. These SWCNTs help to preserve electron conduction, ensure stable electrochemical reactions, and maintain uniform volume changes during cycling, effectively reducing anode pulverization.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanical_properties">Mechanical properties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mechanical properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A common failure mechanism of batteries is mechanical shock, which breaks either the electrode or the system's container, leading to poor conductivity and electrolyte leakage.<sup id="cite_ref-Why_do_batteries_fail_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Why_do_batteries_fail-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the relevance of mechanical properties of electrodes goes beyond the resistance to collisions due to its environment. During standard operation, the incorporation of ions into electrodes leads to a change in volume. This is well exemplified by Si electrodes in lithium-ion batteries expanding around 300% during lithiation.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such change may lead to the deformations in the lattice and, therefore stresses in the material. The origin of stresses may be due to geometric constraints in the electrode or inhomogeneous plating of the ion.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phenomenon is very concerning as it may lead to electrode fracture and performance loss. Thus, mechanical properties are crucial to enable the development of new electrodes for long lasting batteries. A possible strategy for measuring the mechanical behavior of electrodes during operation is by using <a href="/wiki/Nanoindentation" title="Nanoindentation">nanoindentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The method is able to analyze how the stresses evolve during the electrochemical reactions, being a valuable tool in evaluating possible pathways for coupling mechanical behavior and electrochemistry. </p><p>More than just affecting the electrode's morphology, stresses are also able to impact electrochemical reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the chemical driving forces are usually higher in magnitude than the mechanical energies, this is not true for Li-ion batteries.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study by Dr. Larché established a direct relation between the applied stress and the chemical potential of the electrode.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though it neglects multiple variables such as the variation of elastic constraints, it subtracts from the total chemical potential the elastic energy induced by the stress. </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu =\mu ^{o}+k\cdot T\cdot \log(\gamma \cdot x)+\Omega \cdot \sigma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>σ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu =\mu ^{o}+k\cdot T\cdot \log(\gamma \cdot x)+\Omega \cdot \sigma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4694a2040a8173fac47d257b4f8e1641f305bfae" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:32.557ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu =\mu ^{o}+k\cdot T\cdot \log(\gamma \cdot x)+\Omega \cdot \sigma }"></span> </p><p>In this equation, <b>μ</b> represents the chemical potential, with <b>μ°</b> being its reference value. <b>T</b> stands for the temperature and <b>k</b> the <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant" title="Boltzmann constant">Boltzmann constant</a>. The term <b>γ</b> inside the logarithm is the activity and <b>x</b> is the ratio of the ion to the total composition of the electrode. The novel term <b>Ω</b> is the partial molar volume of the ion in the host and <b>σ</b> corresponds to the mean stress felt by the system. The result of this equation is that diffusion, which is dependent on chemical potential, gets impacted by the added stress and, therefore changes the battery's performance. Furthermore, mechanical stresses may also impact the electrode's solid-electrolyte-interphase layer.<sup id="cite_ref-Why_do_batteries_fail_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Why_do_batteries_fail-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The interface which regulates the ion and charge transfer and can be degraded by stress. Thus, more ions in the solution will be consumed to reform it, diminishing the overall efficiency of the system.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_anodes_and_cathodes">Other anodes and cathodes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other anodes and cathodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> having polarity (<a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrolytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrolytic">electrolytic capacitors</a>) the anode is the positive (+) electrode and the cathode the negative (−). The electrons enter the device through the cathode and exit the device through the anode. Many devices have other electrodes to control operation, e.g., base, gate, control grid. </p><p>In a three-electrode cell, a counter electrode, also called an <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_electrode" title="Auxiliary electrode">auxiliary electrode</a>, is used only to make a connection to the electrolyte so that a current can be applied to the <a href="/wiki/Working_electrode" title="Working electrode">working electrode</a>. The counter electrode is usually made of an inert material, such as a <a href="/wiki/Noble_metal" title="Noble metal">noble metal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a>, to keep it from dissolving. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Welding_electrodes">Welding electrodes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Welding electrodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Arc_welding" title="Arc welding">arc welding</a>, an electrode is used to conduct current through a workpiece to fuse two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable, in the case of <a href="/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding" title="Gas metal arc welding">gas metal arc welding</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding" title="Shielded metal arc welding">shielded metal arc welding</a>, or non-consumable, such as in <a href="/wiki/Gas_tungsten_arc_welding" title="Gas tungsten arc welding">gas tungsten arc welding</a>. For a direct current system, the weld rod or stick may be a cathode for a filling type weld or an anode for other welding processes. For an alternating current arc welder, the welding electrode would not be considered an anode or cathode. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternating_current_electrodes">Alternating current electrodes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Alternating current electrodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For electrical systems which use <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a>, the electrodes are the connections from the circuitry to the object to be acted upon by the electric current but are not designated anode or cathode because the direction of flow of the electrons changes <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">periodically</a>, usually many <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">times per second</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemically_modified_electrodes">Chemically modified electrodes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Chemically modified electrodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Chemically_modified_electrode" title="Chemically modified electrode">Chemically modified electrodes</a> are electrodes that have their surfaces chemically modified to change the electrode's <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">physical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical">electrochemical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical">optical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical">electrical</a>, and transportive properties. These electrodes are used for advanced purposes in research and investigation.<sup id="cite_ref-Durst_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durst-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Electrodes are used to provide current through nonmetal objects to alter them in numerous ways and to measure conductivity for numerous purposes. Examples include: </p> <ul><li>Electrodes for <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cells</a></li> <li>Electrodes for medical purposes, such as <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">EEG</a> (for recording brain activity), <a href="/wiki/Electrocardiogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrocardiogram">ECG</a> (recording <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_cycle" title="Cardiac cycle">heart beats</a>), <a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy" title="Electroconvulsive therapy">ECT</a> (electrical brain stimulation), <a href="/wiki/Defibrillator" class="mw-redirect" title="Defibrillator">defibrillator</a> (recording and delivering cardiac stimulation)</li> <li>Electrodes for <a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">electrophysiology</a> techniques in biomedical research</li> <li>Electrodes for execution by the <a href="/wiki/Electric_chair" title="Electric chair">electric chair</a></li> <li>Electrodes for <a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">electroplating</a></li> <li>Electrodes for <a href="/wiki/Arc_welding" title="Arc welding">arc welding</a></li> <li>Electrodes for <a href="/wiki/Cathodic_protection" title="Cathodic protection">cathodic protection</a></li> <li>Electrodes for <a href="/wiki/Ground_(electricity)" title="Ground (electricity)">grounding</a></li> <li>Electrodes for <a href="/wiki/Chemical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical analysis">chemical analysis</a> using <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical">electrochemical</a> methods</li> <li>Nanoelectrodes for high-precision measurements in <a href="/wiki/Nanoelectrochemistry" title="Nanoelectrochemistry">nanoelectrochemistry</a></li> <li>Inert electrodes for <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> (made of <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_electrode_assembly" title="Membrane electrode assembly">Membrane electrode assembly</a></li> <li>Electrodes for <a href="/wiki/Taser" title="Taser">Taser</a> electroshock weapon</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reference_electrode" title="Reference electrode">Reference electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_diffusion_electrode" title="Gas diffusion electrode">Gas diffusion electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose_electrode" title="Cellulose electrode">Cellulose electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">Anion</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Cation</a></li> <li>Electron versus <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">electron hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">Electron microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafel_equation" title="Tafel equation">Tafel equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_cathode" title="Hot cathode">Hot cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_cathode" title="Cold cathode">Cold cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversible_charge_injection_limit" title="Reversible charge injection limit">Reversible charge injection limit</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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W (1973-08-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-6160%2873%2990021-7">"A linear theory of thermochemical equilibrium of solids under stress"</a>. <i>Acta Metallurgica</i>. <b>21</b> (8): 1051–1063. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0001-6160%2873%2990021-7">10.1016/0001-6160(73)90021-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-6160">0001-6160</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Metallurgica&rft.atitle=A+linear+theory+of+thermochemical+equilibrium+of+solids+under+stress&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1051-1063&rft.date=1973-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0001-6160%2873%2990021-7&rft.issn=0001-6160&rft.aulast=Larch%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Cahn%2C+J.+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2F0001-6160%252873%252990021-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrode" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhaoCui2016" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Kejie; Cui, Yi (2016-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eml.2016.10.003">"Understanding the role of mechanics in energy materials: A perspective"</a>. <i>Extreme Mechanics Letters</i>. Mechanics of Energy Materials. <b>9</b>: 347–352. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ExML....9..347Z">2016ExML....9..347Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eml.2016.10.003">10.1016/j.eml.2016.10.003</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2352-4316">2352-4316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Extreme+Mechanics+Letters&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+role+of+mechanics+in+energy+materials%3A+A+perspective&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=347-352&rft.date=2016-12-01&rft.issn=2352-4316&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.eml.2016.10.003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016ExML....9..347Z&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Kejie&rft.au=Cui%2C+Yi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.eml.2016.10.003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrode" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Durst-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Durst_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Durst, R., Baumner, A., Murray, R., Buck, R., & Andrieux, C., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.iupac.org/publications/pac/1997/pdf/6906x1317.pdf">Chemically modified electrodes: Recommended terminology and definitions (PDF)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140201184359/http://old.iupac.org/publications/pac/1997/pdf/6906x1317.pdf">Archived</a> 2014-02-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", IUPAC, 1997, pp 1317–1323.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrode&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKebedeEzema2022" class="citation book cs1">Kebede, Mesfin A.; Ezema, Fabian I., eds. (2022). <i>Electrode materials for energy storage and conversion</i> (First ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9781003145585">10.1201/9781003145585</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-70304-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-70304-2"><bdi>978-0-367-70304-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240536462">240536462</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electrode+materials+for+energy+storage+and+conversion&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=CRC+Press%2FTaylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240536462%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1201%2F9781003145585&rft.isbn=978-0-367-70304-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrode" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoeffChenCabanaRichardson2013" class="citation journal cs1">Doeff, MM; Chen, G; Cabana, J; Richardson, TJ; Mehta, A; Shirpour, M; Duncan, H; Kim, C; Kam, KC; Conry, T (11 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3989498">"Characterization of electrode materials for lithium ion and sodium ion batteries using synchrotron radiation techniques"</a>. <i>Journal of Visualized Experiments</i> (81): e50594. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3791%2F50594">10.3791/50594</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3989498">3989498</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24300777">24300777</a>.</cite><span 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style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">Galvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_cell" title="Concentration cell">Concentration cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Electric battery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">Flow battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trough_battery" title="Trough battery">Trough battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermogalvanic_cell" title="Thermogalvanic cell">Thermogalvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">Voltaic pile</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Galvanic_Cell.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Galvanic cell"><img alt="Galvanic cell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/150px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/225px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/300px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_battery" title="Primary battery">Primary cell</a><br /><span class="nobold">(non-rechargeable)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_battery" title="Alkaline battery">Alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Aluminium–air battery">Aluminium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunsen_cell" title="Bunsen cell">Bunsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromic_acid_cell" title="Chromic acid cell">Chromic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_cell" title="Clark cell">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniell_cell" title="Daniell cell">Daniell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cell" title="Dry cell">Dry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison%E2%80%93Lalande_cell" title="Edison–Lalande cell">Edison–Lalande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grove_cell" title="Grove cell">Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leclanch%C3%A9_cell" title="Leclanché cell">Leclanché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_metal_battery" title="Lithium metal battery">Lithium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_battery" title="Mercury battery">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery" title="Nickel oxyhydroxide battery">Nickel oxyhydroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Silicon–air battery">Silicon–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_oxide_battery" title="Silver oxide battery">Silver oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weston_cell" title="Weston cell">Weston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamboni_pile" title="Zamboni pile">Zamboni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Zinc–air battery">Zinc–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">Zinc–carbon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Secondary cell</a><br /><span class="nobold">(rechargeable)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">Lead–acid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VRLA_battery" title="VRLA battery">gel–VRLA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">Lithium ion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_carbon_battery" title="Dual carbon battery">Dual carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">Lithium–iron–phosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_polymer_battery" title="Lithium polymer battery">Lithium–polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Lithium–sulfur battery">Lithium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-titanate_battery" title="Lithium-titanate battery">Lithium–titanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_battery" title="Molten-salt battery">Molten salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanopore_battery" title="Nanopore battery">Nanopore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanowire_battery" title="Nanowire battery">Nanowire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">Nickel–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93hydrogen_battery" title="Nickel–hydrogen battery">Nickel–hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93iron_battery" title="Nickel–iron battery">Nickel–iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93lithium_battery" title="Nickel–lithium battery">Nickel–lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery" title="Nickel–metal hydride battery">Nickel–metal hydride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93zinc_battery" title="Nickel–zinc battery">Nickel–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysulfide%E2%80%93bromide_battery" title="Polysulfide–bromide battery">Polysulfide–bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium-ion_battery" title="Potassium-ion battery">Potassium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_alkaline_battery" title="Rechargeable alkaline battery">Rechargeable alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Silver–cadmium battery">Silver–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_zinc_battery" title="Silver zinc battery">Silver–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-ion_battery" title="Sodium-ion battery">Sodium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Sodium–sulfur battery">Sodium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_battery" title="Solid-state battery">Solid state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanadium_redox_battery" title="Vanadium redox battery">Vanadium redox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93bromine_battery" title="Zinc–bromine battery">Zinc–bromine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93cerium_battery" title="Zinc–cerium battery">Zinc–cerium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Other cell</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="Atomic battery">Atomic battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">Anode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binder_(material)" title="Binder (material)">Binder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">Cathode</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">Electrolyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-cell" title="Half-cell">Half-cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">Salt bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">Semipermeable membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link 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class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metalworking_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metalworking navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metalworking" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">Metalworking</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metalworking_navbox/weld" title="Template:Metalworking navbox/weld"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metalworking_navbox/weld" title="Template talk:Metalworking navbox/weld"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li 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href="/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding" title="Gas metal arc welding">Gas metal (Microwire/MIG/GMAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_tungsten_arc_welding" title="Gas tungsten arc welding">Gas tungsten (Heliarc/TIG/GTAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_arc_welding" title="Plasma arc welding">Plasma (PAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding" title="Shielded metal arc welding">Shielded metal (Stick/MMA/SMAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submerged_arc_welding" title="Submerged arc welding">Submerged (SAW)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_welding_processes" title="List of welding processes">Other processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_resistance_welding" title="Electric resistance welding">Electric resistance (ERW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_welding" title="Electron-beam welding">Electron-beam (EBW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroslag_welding" title="Electroslag welding">Electroslag (ESW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exothermic_welding" title="Exothermic welding">Exothermic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forge_welding" title="Forge welding">Forge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_welding" title="Friction welding">Friction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_stir_welding" title="Friction stir welding">Friction stir (FSW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_stud_welding" title="Friction stud welding">Friction stud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_beam_welding" title="Laser beam welding">Laser beam (LBW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser-hybrid_welding" title="Laser-hybrid welding">Laser-hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_pulse_welding" title="Magnetic pulse welding">Magnetic pulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxy-fuel_welding_and_cutting" title="Oxy-fuel welding and cutting">Oxyacetylene (OAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spot_welding" title="Spot welding">Spot (RSW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrasonic_welding" title="Ultrasonic welding">Ultrasonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upset_welding" title="Upset welding">Upset</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filler_metal" title="Filler metal">Filler metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding_helmet" title="Welding helmet">Helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding_power_supply" title="Welding power supply">Power supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_welding" title="Robot welding">Robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shielding_gas" title="Shielding gas">Shielding gas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heat-affected_zone" title="Heat-affected zone">Heat-affected zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photokeratitis" title="Photokeratitis">Photokeratitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual_stress" title="Residual stress">Residual stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weldability" title="Weldability">Weldability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">Casting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_fabrication" title="Metal fabrication">Fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_processes" title="Forming processes">Forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">Jewellery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machining" title="Machining">Machining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalsmith" title="Metalsmith">Smithing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_metalworking" title="Outline of metalworking">Tools and terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" 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