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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Alchemist_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Alchemist (disambiguation)">Alchemist (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Alchemy (disambiguation)">Alchemy (disambiguation)</a>.</div> Alchemy (from the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> word al-kīmīā, الكیمیاء) is an ancient branch of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Philosophical" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical">philosophical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protoscientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Protoscientific">protoscientific</a> tradition that was historically practised in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rasayana" title="Rasayana">India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam">Muslim world</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Routledge-1">[1]</a> In its Western form, alchemy is first attested in a number of <a href="/wiki/Pseudepigraphical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudepigraphical">pseudepigraphical</a> texts written in <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Greco-Roman Egypt</a> during the first few centuries AD.<a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a> <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Hellenistic_Egypt">Greek-speaking alchemists</a> often referred to their craft as "the Art" (τέχνη) or "Knowledge" (ἐπιστήμη), and it was often characterised as mystic (μυστική), sacred (ἱɛρά), or divine (θɛíα).<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aurora_consurgens_zurich_044_f-21v-44_dragon-pot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Aurora_consurgens_zurich_044_f-21v-44_dragon-pot.jpg/290px-Aurora_consurgens_zurich_044_f-21v-44_dragon-pot.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Aurora_consurgens_zurich_044_f-21v-44_dragon-pot.jpg/435px-Aurora_consurgens_zurich_044_f-21v-44_dragon-pot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Aurora_consurgens_zurich_044_f-21v-44_dragon-pot.jpg/580px-Aurora_consurgens_zurich_044_f-21v-44_dragon-pot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="1086"></a><figcaption>Depiction of an <a href="/wiki/Ouroboros" title="Ouroboros">Ouroboros</a> from the alchemical treatise <a href="/wiki/Aurora_consurgens" title="Aurora consurgens">Aurora consurgens</a> (15th century), <a href="/wiki/Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich" title="Zentralbibliothek Zürich">Zentralbibliothek Zürich</a>, Switzerland</figcaption></figure> <style 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.sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials.<a href="#cite_note-Routledge-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-lindy-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[n 1]</a> Common aims were <a href="/wiki/Chrysopoeia" title="Chrysopoeia">chrysopoeia</a>, the transmutation of "<a href="/wiki/Base_metal" title="Base metal">base metals</a>" (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>) into "<a href="/wiki/Noble_metal" title="Noble metal">noble metals</a>" (particularly <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>);<a href="#cite_note-Routledge-1">[1]</a> the creation of an <a href="/wiki/Elixir_of_life" title="Elixir of life">elixir of immortality</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Routledge-1">[1]</a> and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Panacea_(medicine)" title="Panacea (medicine)">panaceas</a> able to cure any disease.<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a> The perfection of the human body and <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> was thought to result from the alchemical <a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus_(alchemy)" title="Magnum opus (alchemy)">magnum opus</a> ("Great Work").<a href="#cite_note-Routledge-1">[1]</a> The concept of creating the <a href="/wiki/Philosophers%27_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers' stone">philosophers' stone</a> was variously connected with all of these projects. Islamic and European alchemists developed a basic set of <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory techniques">laboratory techniques</a>, theories, and terms, some of which are still in use today. They did not abandon the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophical</a> idea that everything is composed of <a href="/wiki/Four_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Four elements">four elements</a>, and they tended to guard their work in secrecy, often making use of <a href="/wiki/History_of_cryptography" title="History of cryptography">cyphers</a> and cryptic symbolism. In Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">12th-century translations</a> of <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">medieval Islamic works on science</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Recovery_of_Aristotle" class="mw-redirect" title="Recovery of Aristotle">rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy</a> gave birth to a flourishing tradition of Latin alchemy.<a href="#cite_note-Routledge-1">[1]</a> This late medieval tradition of alchemy would go on to play a significant role in the development of <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern era">early modern</a> science (particularly <a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">medicine</a>).<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/exoteric" class="extiw" title="wikt:exoteric">exoteric</a> practical applications and its <a href="/wiki/Esoteric" class="mw-redirect" title="Esoteric">esoteric</a> spiritual aspects, despite criticisms by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Eric_John_Holmyard" title="Eric John Holmyard">Eric J. Holmyard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marie-Louise_von_Franz" title="Marie-Louise von Franz">Marie-Louise von Franz</a> that they should be understood as complementary.<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FRAALC97-10">[9]</a> The former is pursued by <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_physical_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the physical sciences">historians of the physical sciences</a>, who examine the subject in terms of <a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">early chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charlatanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Charlatanism">charlatanism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical">philosophical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of <a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">esotericism</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">psychologists</a>, and some philosophers and <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritualists</a>. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology">1 Etymology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History">2 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Hellenistic_Egypt">2.1 Hellenistic Egypt</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Mythology">2.1.1 Mythology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Technology">2.1.2 Technology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Philosophy">2.1.3 Philosophy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Byzantium">2.2 Byzantium</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#India">2.3 India</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Islamic_world">2.4 Islamic world</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#East_Asia">2.5 East Asia</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Medieval_Europe">2.6 Medieval Europe</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Renaissance_and_early_modern_Europe">2.7 Renaissance and early modern Europe</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Later_modern_period">2.8 Later modern period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Women">2.9 Women</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Modern_historical_research">2.10 Modern historical research</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Core_concepts">3 Core concepts</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Magnum_opus">3.1 Magnum opus</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Modernity">4 Modernity</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Esoteric_interpretations_of_historical_texts">4.1 Esoteric interpretations of historical texts</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Psychology">4.2 Psychology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Literature">4.3 Literature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Science">4.4 Science</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#See_also">5 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Notes">6 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#References">7 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Citations">7.1 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Sources_used">7.2 Sources used</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Bibliography">8 Bibliography</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Introductions_and_textbooks">8.1 Introductions and textbooks</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Greco-Egyptian_alchemy">8.2 Greco-Egyptian alchemy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Texts">8.2.1 Texts</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-32"><a href="#Studies">8.2.2 Studies</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Early_modern">8.3 Early modern</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#External_links">9 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Etymology_of_chemistry" title="Etymology of chemistry">Etymology of chemistry</a></div> The word alchemy comes from <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">old French</a> alquemie, alkimie, used in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> as alchymia. This name was itself adopted from the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> word al-kīmiyā (الكيمياء). The Arabic al-kīmiyā in turn was a borrowing of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Greek" title="Late Greek">Late Greek</a> term khēmeía (χημεία), also spelled khumeia (χυμεία) and khēmía (χημία), with <a href="/wiki/Al-" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-">al-</a> being the Arabic definite article 'the'.<a href="#cite_note-OED-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of <a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus_(alchemy)" title="Magnum opus (alchemy)">transmutation</a> by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'. Several etymologies have been proposed for the Greek term. The first was proposed by Zosimos of Panopolis (3rd–4th centuries), who derived it from the name of a book, the Khemeu.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> Hermann Diels argued in 1914 that it rather derived from χύμα,<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> used to describe metallic objects formed by casting.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> Others trace its roots to the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> name kēme (hieroglyphic 𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖 kmt ), meaning 'black earth', which refers to the fertile and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/auriferous" class="extiw" title="wikt:auriferous">auriferous</a> soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand.<a href="#cite_note-OED-11">[10]</a> According to the Egyptologist <a href="/wiki/Wallis_Budge" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallis Budge">Wallis Budge</a>, the Arabic word al-kīmiyaʾ actually means "the Egyptian [science]", borrowing from the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> word for "Egypt", kēme (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval <a href="/wiki/Bohairic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohairic">Bohairic</a> dialect of Coptic, khēme). This Coptic word derives from <a href="/wiki/Demotic_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Demotic Egyptian">Demotic</a> kmỉ, itself from ancient <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> kmt. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "black Land", by contrast with the "red Land", the surrounding desert). </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and genetic relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be mostly independent, at least in their earlier stages: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">Chinese alchemy</a>, centered in China; <a href="/wiki/Rasayana" title="Rasayana">Indian alchemy</a>, centered on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean</a> and whose center shifted over the millennia from <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Greco-Roman Egypt</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a>, and finally <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval Europe</a>. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> and Indian alchemy with the <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Dharmic faiths</a>. In contrast, Western alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly independent of but influenced by various <a href="/wiki/Western_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Western religion">Western religions</a>. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_Egypt">Hellenistic Egypt</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hellenistic Egypt" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zosimosapparat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Zosimosapparat.jpg/250px-Zosimosapparat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="264" data-file-height="227"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 189px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Zosimosapparat.jpg/250px-Zosimosapparat.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="189" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Zosimosapparat.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ambix, cucurbit and retort of <a href="/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis" title="Zosimos of Panopolis">Zosimos</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Marcelin_Berthelot" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcelin Berthelot">Marcelin Berthelot</a>, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888)</figcaption></figure> The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic Egypt">Hellenistic Egypt</a>, where the city of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> Following the work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Egyptian goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the <a href="/wiki/Pseudepigraphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudepigraphic">pseudepigraphic</a> nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus. The treatises of <a href="/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis" title="Zosimos of Panopolis">Zosimos of Panopolis</a>, the earliest historically attested author (<a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">fl.</a> c. 300 AD),<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> can help in situating the other authors. Zosimus based his work on that of older alchemical authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Mary_the_Jewess" title="Mary the Jewess">Mary the Jewess</a>,<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Democritus" title="Pseudo-Democritus">Pseudo-Democritus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Martelli,_The_Four_Books_of_Pseudo-Democritus-21">[20]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agathodaemon_(alchemist)" title="Agathodaemon (alchemist)">Agathodaimon</a>, but very little is known about any of these authors. The most complete of their works, The Four Books of <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Democritus" title="Pseudo-Democritus">Pseudo-Democritus</a>, were probably written in the first century AD.<a href="#cite_note-Martelli,_The_Four_Books_of_Pseudo-Democritus-21">[20]</a> Recent scholarship tends to emphasize the testimony of Zosimus, who traced the alchemical arts back to Egyptian metallurgical and ceremonial practices.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> It has also been argued that early alchemical writers borrowed the vocabulary of Greek philosophical schools but did not implement any of its doctrines in a systematic way.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the Final Abstinence (also known as the "Final Count").<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> Zosimos explains that the ancient practice of "tinctures" (the technical Greek name for the alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught the art only to those who offered them sacrifices. Since Zosimos also called the demons "the guardians of places" (οἱ κατὰ τόπον ἔφοροι, hoi katà tópon éphoroi) and those who offered them sacrifices "priests" (ἱερέα, hieréa), it is fairly clear that he was referring to the gods of Egypt and their priests. While critical of the kind of alchemy he associated with the Egyptian priests and their followers, Zosimos nonetheless saw the tradition's recent past as rooted in the rites of the Egyptian temples.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mythology">Mythology</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mythology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Pharaonic Egypt</a> where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris">Osiris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jason" title="Jason">Jason</a>, and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is <a href="/wiki/Hermes_Trismegistus" title="Hermes Trismegistus">Hermes Trismegistus</a> (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">god</a> <a href="/wiki/Thoth" title="Thoth">Thoth</a> and his Greek counterpart <a href="/wiki/Hermes" title="Hermes">Hermes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> Hermes and his <a href="/wiki/Caduceus" title="Caduceus">caduceus</a> or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a>, he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hermetica" title="Hermetica">Hermetica</a> of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">hermetic philosophy</a> by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Technology">Technology</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Technology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, extending back to 3500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> Many writings were lost when the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> ordered the burning of alchemical books<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (AD 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_papyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockholm papyrus">Stockholm papyrus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Leyden_papyrus_X" title="Leyden papyrus X">Leyden papyrus X</a>. Dating from AD 250 to 300, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of <a href="/wiki/Bolus_of_Mendes" title="Bolus of Mendes">Bolus of Mendes</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Democritus" title="Pseudo-Democritus">Pseudo-Democritus</a>), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the <a href="/wiki/Classical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical elements">classical elements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chemistry,_Bensaude-Vincent_1996,_p13-35">[34]</a> Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Philosophy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a> which formed the origin of alchemy's character.<a href="#cite_note-Chemistry,_Bensaude-Vincent_1996,_p13-35">[34]</a> An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: <a href="/wiki/Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)">earth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Air_(classical_element)" title="Air (classical element)">air</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)">water</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">fire</a>. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a> believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">St Augustine</a> later affirmed this in the 4th and 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as <a href="/wiki/Moses_of_Alexandria" title="Moses of Alexandria">Moses</a>, Isis, <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_the_Alchemist" title="Cleopatra the Alchemist">Cleopatra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Democritus" title="Pseudo-Democritus">Democritus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ostanes" title="Ostanes">Ostanes</a>. Others authors such as Komarios, and <a href="/wiki/Chymes" title="Chymes">Chymes</a>, we only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> It was at that time that <a href="/wiki/Khalid_Ibn_Yazid" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalid Ibn Yazid">Khalid Ibn Yazid</a> sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantium">Byzantium</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Byzantium" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Greek alchemy was preserved in medieval <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> manuscripts after the fall of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of Greek alchemy in the Byzantine period.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: India" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rasayana" title="Rasayana">Rasayana</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent</a></div> The 2nd millennium BC text <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> describe a connection between eternal life and gold.<a href="#cite_note-eb-44">[43]</a> A considerable knowledge of metallurgy has been exhibited in a third-century AD<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> text called <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a> which provides ingredients of explosives (Agniyoga) and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains (Yavakshara) such as saltpetre/<a href="/wiki/Niter" title="Niter">nitre</a>, perfume making (different qualities of perfumes are mentioned), granulated (refined) Sugar.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. According to some scholars Greek alchemy may have influenced Indian alchemy but there are no hard evidences to back this claim.<a href="#cite_note-eb-44">[43]</a> The 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam">Persian chemist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in medieval Islam">physician</a> <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī">Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī</a>, who visited Gujarat as part of the court of <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud of Ghazni</a>, reported that they <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> is called <a href="/wiki/Rasayana" title="Rasayana">Rasāyana</a> and in Persian <a href="/wiki/Rasav%C4%81tam" class="mw-redirect" title="Rasavātam">Rasavātam</a>. It means the art of obtaining/manipulating Rasa: nectar, mercury, and juice. This art was restricted to certain operations, metals, drugs, compounds, and medicines, many of which have mercury as their core element. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age.</blockquote> The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit divya-deham) and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit jīvan-mukti). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devī. Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the <a href="/wiki/Kaula_(Hinduism)" title="Kaula (Hinduism)">Kaula</a> tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of <a href="/wiki/Matsyendranath" class="mw-redirect" title="Matsyendranath">Matsyendranath</a>. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise Kalyāṇakārakam of Ugrāditya, written in South India in the early 9th century.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna_(metallurgist)" title="Nagarjuna (metallurgist)">Nāgārjuna Siddha</a> and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, Rasendramangalam, is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote Rasaratnākara, also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, rasa translates to "mercury", and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> Scholarship on Indian alchemy is in the publication of The Alchemical Body by David Gordon White.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> A modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has been written by White.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in <a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Jan_Meulenbeld" title="Gerrit Jan Meulenbeld">G. Jan Meulenbeld</a>'s History of Indian Medical Literature.<a href="#cite_note-Egbert_Forsten-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[n 2]</a> The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, Various works on rasaśāstra and ratnaśāstra (or Various works on alchemy and gems) gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles. A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_world">Islamic world</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Islamic world" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam">Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/170px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="922"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 209px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/170px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="209" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/255px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/340px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>15th-century artistic impression of <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81bir_ibn_Hayy%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Jābir ibn Hayyān">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a> (Geber), Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence</figcaption></figure> After <a href="/wiki/The_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="The Fall of the Roman Empire">the fall of the Roman Empire</a>, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations.<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> The word alchemy itself was derived from the Arabic word al-kīmiyā (الكيمياء). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Platonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> translations and scholarship. In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, the Arabic works attributed to <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81bir_ibn_Hayy%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Jābir ibn Hayyān">Jābir ibn Hayyān</a> (Latinized as "Geber" or "Geberus") introduced a new approach to alchemy. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kraus_(Arabist)" title="Paul Kraus (Arabist)">Paul Kraus</a>, who wrote the standard reference work on Jabir, put it as follows: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">To form an idea of the historical place of Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a>. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine scientists</a> from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages. The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugière and others, could make clear only few points of detail .... The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses any interpretation. It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparati, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the <a href="/wiki/Ilm_(Arabic)" title="Ilm (Arabic)">'ilm</a> and the amal. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented, for example, in the Book of Seventy.<a href="#cite_note-Kraus-56">[54]</a></blockquote> Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was <a href="/wiki/Takwin" title="Takwin">Takwin</a>, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analysed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness.<a href="#cite_note-burckhardt29-57">[55]</a> According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.<a href="#cite_note-burckhardt29-57">[55]</a> By this reasoning, the search for the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">philosopher's stone</a> was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate <a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">numerology</a> whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">classical elements</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">aether</a>, <a href="/wiki/Air_(classical_element)" title="Air (classical element)">air</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)">earth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">fire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)">water</a>) in addition to two <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> representing the metals: <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulphur</a>, "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salt</a> giving solidity.<a href="#cite_note-r8-58">[56]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Corpuscularianism" title="Corpuscularianism">corpuscularianism</a>, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Alkindus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_al-Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī">Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a>,<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">transmutation of metals</a>. From the 14th century onwards, many materials and practices originally belonging to Indian alchemy (<a href="/wiki/Rasayana" title="Rasayana">Rasayana</a>) were assimilated in the Persian texts written by Muslim scholars.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: East Asia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">Chinese alchemy</a></div> Researchers have found evidence that Chinese alchemists and philosophers discovered complex mathematical phenomena that were shared with Arab alchemists during the medieval period. Discovered in BC China, the "magic square of three" was propagated to followers of <a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān</a> at some point over the proceeding several hundred years.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> Other commonalities shared between the two alchemical schools of thought include discrete naming for ingredients and heavy influence from the natural elements. The silk road provided a clear path for the exchange of goods, ideas, ingredients, religion, and many other aspects of life with which alchemy is intertwined.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Esoteric_Taijitu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Esoteric_Taijitu.svg/250px-Esoteric_Taijitu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 170px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Esoteric_Taijitu.svg/250px-Esoteric_Taijitu.svg.png" data-width="170" data-height="170" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Esoteric_Taijitu.svg/330px-Esoteric_Taijitu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Esoteric_Taijitu.svg/500px-Esoteric_Taijitu.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Taoist alchemists often use this alternate version of the <a href="/wiki/Taijitu" title="Taijitu">taijitu</a>.</figcaption></figure> Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine.<a href="#cite_note-ASOCA-66">[64]</a> The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the <a href="/wiki/Elixir_of_life" title="Elixir of life">Grand Elixir of Immortality</a> sought by Chinese alchemists. In the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the <a href="/wiki/Panacea_(medicine)" title="Panacea (medicine)">universal panacea</a>; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. As early as 317 AD, <a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a> documented the use of metals, minerals, and elixirs in early Chinese medicine. Hong identified three ancient Chinese documents, titled Scripture of Great Clarity, Scripture of the Nine Elixirs, and Scripture of the Golden Liquor, as texts containing fundamental alchemical information.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> He also described alchemy, along with meditation, as the sole spiritual practices that could allow one to gain immortality or to transcend.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> In his work Inner Chapters of the Book of the Master Who Embraces Spontaneous Nature (317 AD), Hong argued that alchemical solutions such as elixirs were preferable to traditional medicinal treatment due to the spiritual protection they could provide.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> In the centuries following Ge Hong's death, the emphasis placed on alchemy as a spiritual practice among Chinese <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Daoists</a> was reduced.<a href="#cite_note-:5-70">[68]</a> In 499 AD, <a href="/wiki/Tao_Hongjing" title="Tao Hongjing">Tao Hongjing</a> refuted Hong's statement that alchemy is as important a spiritual practice as Shangqing meditation.<a href="#cite_note-:5-70">[68]</a> While Hongjing did not deny the power of alchemical elixirs to grant immortality or provide divine protection, he ultimately found the Scripture of the Nine Elixirs to be ambiguous and spiritually unfulfilling, aiming to implement more accessible practising techniques.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> In the early 700s, <a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">Neidan</a> (also known as internal alchemy) was adopted by Daoists as a new form of alchemy. Neidan emphasized appeasing the inner gods that inhabit the human body by practising alchemy with compounds found in the body, rather than the mixing of natural resources that was emphasized in early Dao alchemy.<a href="#cite_note-:6-72">[70]</a> For example, saliva was often considered nourishment for the inner gods and did not require any conscious alchemical reaction to produce. The inner gods were not thought of as physical presences occupying each person, but rather a collection of deities that are each said to represent and protect a specific body part or region.<a href="#cite_note-:6-72">[70]</a> Although those who practised Neidan prioritized meditation over external alchemical strategies, many of the same elixirs and constituents from previous Daoist alchemical schools of thought continued to be utilized in tandem with meditation. Eternal life remained a consideration for Neidan alchemists, as it was believed that one would become immortal if an inner god were to be immortalized within them through spiritual fulfilment.<a href="#cite_note-:6-72">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Black_powder" class="mw-redirect" title="Black powder">Black powder</a> may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a <a href="/wiki/Potion" title="Potion">potion</a> for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and used in <a href="/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">fireworks</a> in China by the 10th century,<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> it was used in <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a> by 1290.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] From China, the use of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> spread to Japan, the <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongols</a>, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to <a href="/wiki/Taoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist">Taoist</a> forms of <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moxibustion" title="Moxibustion">Moxibustion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ASOCA-66">[64]</a> In the early <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest <a href="/wiki/Cinnabar" title="Cinnabar">mercuric sulfide</a>, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favour of external sources[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] mastering of the <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] etc.) Chinese alchemy was introduced to the West by <a href="/wiki/Obed_Simon_Johnson" title="Obed Simon Johnson">Obed Simon Johnson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ASOCA-66">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Europe">Medieval Europe</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Medieval Europe" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WMS_446,_R._Lullius,_Ymage_de_Vie,_late_15th_Wellcome_L0031726.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/WMS_446%2C_R._Lullius%2C_Ymage_de_Vie%2C_late_15th_Wellcome_L0031726.jpg/250px-WMS_446%2C_R._Lullius%2C_Ymage_de_Vie%2C_late_15th_Wellcome_L0031726.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3988" data-file-height="2788"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 154px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/WMS_446%2C_R._Lullius%2C_Ymage_de_Vie%2C_late_15th_Wellcome_L0031726.jpg/250px-WMS_446%2C_R._Lullius%2C_Ymage_de_Vie%2C_late_15th_Wellcome_L0031726.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="154" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/WMS_446%2C_R._Lullius%2C_Ymage_de_Vie%2C_late_15th_Wellcome_L0031726.jpg/330px-WMS_446%2C_R._Lullius%2C_Ymage_de_Vie%2C_late_15th_Wellcome_L0031726.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/WMS_446%2C_R._Lullius%2C_Ymage_de_Vie%2C_late_15th_Wellcome_L0031726.jpg/500px-WMS_446%2C_R._Lullius%2C_Ymage_de_Vie%2C_late_15th_Wellcome_L0031726.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>"An illuminated page from a book on alchemical processes and receipts", ca. 15th century</figcaption></figure> The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Chester" title="Robert of Chester">Robert of Chester</a>'s translation of the <a href="/wiki/Liber_de_compositione_alchemiae" title="Liber de compositione alchemiae">Liber de compositione alchemiae</a> ("Book on the Composition of Alchemy") from an Arabic work attributed to <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Yazid" title="Khalid ibn Yazid">Khalid ibn Yazid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> Although European craftsmen and technicians pre-existed, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy (here still referring to the <a href="/wiki/Philosophers%27_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers' stone">elixir</a> rather than to the art itself)<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo, Spain</a>, through contributors like <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adelard_of_Bath" title="Adelard of Bath">Adelard of Bath</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> Translations of the time included the <a href="/wiki/Turba_Philosophorum" title="Turba Philosophorum">Turba Philosophorum</a>, and the works of <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi</a>. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, <a href="/wiki/Carboy" title="Carboy">carboy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elixir" title="Elixir">elixir</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Athanor" title="Athanor">athanor</a> are examples.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">St Anselm</a> put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a> followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a> used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.<a href="#cite_note-hollister294f-78">[76]</a> Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> Albertus Magnus, a <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican friar</a>, is known to have written works such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like <a href="/wiki/Hermes_Trismegistus" title="Hermes Trismegistus">Hermes Trismegistus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Democritus" title="Pseudo-Democritus">pseudo-Democritus</a> and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>. Roger Bacon, a <a href="/wiki/Franciscan_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan Order">Franciscan friar</a> who wrote on a wide variety of topics including <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistics</a>, and medicine, composed his <a href="/wiki/Opus_Majus" title="Opus Majus">Great Work</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Opus Majus) for <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_IV" title="Pope Clement IV">Pope Clement IV</a> as part of a project towards rebuilding the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">medieval university</a> curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriology</a> and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical confirmed the theoretical, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> In later European legend, he became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a <a href="/wiki/Brazen_head" title="Brazen head">brazen head</a> capable of answering its owner's questions. Soon after Bacon, the influential work of <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Geber" title="Pseudo-Geber">Pseudo-Geber</a> (sometimes identified as <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Taranto" title="Paul of Taranto">Paul of Taranto</a>) appeared. His Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">human soul</a>). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded <a href="/wiki/Jargon" title="Jargon">jargon</a> set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practised their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theories</a> about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:100%">Gold and Silver Act 1403</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;">Act of Parliament</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Coat_of_Arms_of_Edward_III_of_England_%281327-1377%29_%28Attributed%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Edward_III_of_England_%281327-1377%29_%28Attributed%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="131" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1450"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 140px;height: 131px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Coat_of_Arms_of_Edward_III_of_England_%281327-1377%29_%28Attributed%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Edward_III_of_England_%281327-1377%29_%28Attributed%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="140" data-height="131" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Coat_of_Arms_of_Edward_III_of_England_%281327-1377%29_%28Attributed%29.svg/210px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Edward_III_of_England_%281327-1377%29_%28Attributed%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Coat_of_Arms_of_Edward_III_of_England_%281327-1377%29_%28Attributed%29.svg/280px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Edward_III_of_England_%281327-1377%29_%28Attributed%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament of England</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Short_and_long_titles" title="Short and long titles">Long title</a></th><td class="infobox-data description">It shall be felony to use the craft of multiplication of gold or silver.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Citation_of_United_Kingdom_legislation" title="Citation of United Kingdom legislation">Citation</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/5_Hen._4" class="mw-redirect" title="5 Hen. 4">5 Hen. 4</a>. c. 4</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Dates</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">Royal assent</a></th><td class="infobox-data">20 March 1404</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Coming_into_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Coming into force">Commencement</a></th><td class="infobox-data dtstart">14 January 1404</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Other legislation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repealed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Mines_Act_1688" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Mines Act 1688">Royal Mines Act 1688</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"><div style="background-color: #ffcccc;">Status: Repealed</div></th></tr></tbody></table> In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin-speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piers_Plowman" title="Piers Plowman">Piers Plowman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chaucer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaucer">Chaucer</a> all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXII" title="Pope John XXII">Pope John XXII</a>'s 1317 edict, <a href="/wiki/Spondent_quas_non-exhibent" class="mw-redirect" title="Spondent quas non-exhibent">Spondent quas non-exhibent</a> forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists.<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> Roman Catholic Inquisitor General <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Eymerich" title="Nicholas Eymerich">Nicholas Eymerich</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Directorium_Inquisitorum" title="Directorium Inquisitorum">Directorium Inquisitorum</a>, written in 1376, associated alchemy with the performance of demonic rituals, which Eymerich differentiated from magic performed in accordance with scripture.<a href="#cite_note-:7-87">[85]</a> This did not, however, lead to any change in the Inquisition's monitoring or prosecution of alchemists.<a href="#cite_note-:7-87">[85]</a> In 1404, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals by the passing of the <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style>Gold and Silver Act 1403 (<a href="/wiki/5_Hen._4" class="mw-redirect" title="5 Hen. 4">5 Hen. 4</a>. c. 4) (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV).<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Bonus" title="Petrus Bonus">Petrus Bonus</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_of_Rupescissa" class="mw-redirect" title="John of Rupescissa">John of Rupescissa</a>, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg/170px-Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4724" data-file-height="6126"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 220px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg/170px-Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="220" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg/255px-Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg/340px-Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Alchemist_in_Search_of_the_Philosopher%27s_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone">The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone</a>, by Joseph Wright, 1771</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Flamel" title="Nicolas Flamel">Nicolas Flamel</a> is a well-known alchemist to the point where he had many <a href="/wiki/Pseudepigraphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudepigraphy">pseudepigraphic</a> imitators. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> A common idea in European alchemy in the medieval era was a metaphysical "<a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homeric</a> chain of wise men that link[ed] heaven and earth"<a href="#cite_note-:32-92">[90]</a> that included ancient pagan <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophers</a> and other important historical figures. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance_and_early_modern_Europe">Renaissance and early modern Europe</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Renaissance and early modern Europe" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Renaissance magic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_magic" title="Natural magic">natural magic</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:211px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg/152px-Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="212" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="1743"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 152px;height: 212px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg/152px-Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="152" data-height="212" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg/228px-Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg/304px-Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Page from alchemic treatise of <a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a>, 16th century</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:134px;max-width:134px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:211px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Splendor_Solis_22_sun_rising_over_city.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Splendor_Solis_22_sun_rising_over_city.jpg/250px-Splendor_Solis_22_sun_rising_over_city.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="211" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1638"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 132px;height: 211px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Splendor_Solis_22_sun_rising_over_city.jpg/250px-Splendor_Solis_22_sun_rising_over_city.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="132" data-height="211" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Splendor_Solis_22_sun_rising_over_city.jpg/330px-Splendor_Solis_22_sun_rising_over_city.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The red sun rising over the city, the final illustration of 16th-century alchemical text, <a href="/wiki/Splendor_Solis" title="Splendor Solis">Splendor Solis</a>. The word <a href="/wiki/Rubedo" title="Rubedo">rubedo</a>, meaning "redness", was adopted by alchemists and signalled alchemical success, and the end of the great work.</div></div></div></div></div> During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. In the late 15th century, <a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a> translated the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Hermeticum" title="Corpus Hermeticum">Corpus Hermeticum</a> and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Neoplatonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Neoplatonism">Renaissance Neoplatonism</a> guided alchemists away from <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel. Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> A key figure in this development was German <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Cornelius_Agrippa" title="Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa">Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa</a> (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occulta Philosophia, he attempted to merge <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a> (Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from <a href="/wiki/Chrysopoeia" title="Chrysopoeia">chrysopoeia</a>. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Iatrochemistry" title="Iatrochemistry">Iatrochemistry</a> refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. <a href="/wiki/John_Dee" title="John Dee">John Dee</a> (13 July 1527 – December 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as <a href="/wiki/Astrologer" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrologer">astrologer</a>, cryptographer, and consultant to <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Queen Elizabeth I</a>, Dee's alchemical<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> Monas Hieroglyphica, written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom As above so below.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elias_Ashmole" title="Elias Ashmole">Elias Ashmole</a>. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels.<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor">Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate <a href="/wiki/Edward_Kelley" title="Edward Kelley">Edward Kelley</a>. <a href="/wiki/James_IV_of_Scotland" title="James IV of Scotland">King James IV of Scotland</a>,<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/Julius,_Duke_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" title="Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg">Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_V,_Duke_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" title="Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg">Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustus,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Augustus, Elector of Saxony">Augustus, Elector of Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Echter_von_Mespelbrunn" title="Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn">Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maurice,_Landgrave_of_Hesse-Kassel" title="Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel">Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel</a> all contracted alchemists.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> John's son <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Dee" title="Arthur Dee">Arthur Dee</a> worked as a court physician to <a href="/wiki/Michael_I_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael I of Russia">Michael I of Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I of England</a> but also compiled the alchemical book <a href="/wiki/Fasciculus_Chemicus" title="Fasciculus Chemicus">Fasciculus Chemicus</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG/250px-Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5554" data-file-height="3095"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 123px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG/250px-Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="123" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG/330px-Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG/500px-Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Alchemist <a href="/wiki/Sendivogius" class="mw-redirect" title="Sendivogius">Sendivogius</a> (1566–1636) by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Matejko" title="Jan Matejko">Jan Matejko</a>, 1867</figcaption></figure> Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. Betrüger would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as <a href="/wiki/Michael_Maier" title="Michael Maier">Michael Maier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Khunrath" title="Heinrich Khunrath">Heinrich Khunrath</a> wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the <a href="/wiki/Con_artist" class="mw-redirect" title="Con artist">con artists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his <a href="/wiki/Astronomical" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical">astronomical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrological" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrological">astrological</a> investigations, had a laboratory built at his <a href="/wiki/Uraniborg" title="Uraniborg">Uraniborg</a> observatory/research institute. <a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_S%C4%99dziw%C3%B3j" class="mw-redirect" title="Michał Sędziwój">Michael Sendivogius</a> (Michał Sędziwój, 1566–1636), a <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Polish</a> alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Drebbel" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornelius Drebbel">Cornelius Drebbel</a> who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton%27s_occult_studies" title="Isaac Newton's occult studies">Isaac Newton's occult studies</a>) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a>. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_modern_period">Later modern period</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Later modern period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg/250px-The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3327" data-file-height="4200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 215px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg/250px-The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="215" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg/330px-The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg/500px-The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alchemist.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Alchemist.png/250px-Alchemist.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2417" data-file-height="1935"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 176px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Alchemist.png/250px-Alchemist.png" data-width="220" data-height="176" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Alchemist.png/330px-Alchemist.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Alchemist.png/500px-Alchemist.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An alchemist, pictured in Charles Mackay's <a href="/wiki/Extraordinary_Popular_Delusions_and_the_Madness_of_Crowds" title="Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds">Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds</a></figcaption></figure> The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 <a href="/wiki/James_Price_(chemist)" title="James Price (chemist)">James Price</a> claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: "Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof."<a href="#cite_note-Alchemy_Restored-106">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries and ideas of <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a>. Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction began to be drawn for the first time between "alchemy" and "chemistry".<a href="#cite_note-NewmanPrincipe2002p37-108">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-PrincipeNewmanp386-109">[107]</a> By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.<a href="#cite_note-Alchemy_Restored-106">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-PrincipeNewmanp386-109">[107]</a> In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure to which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the 18th-century scientific Enlightenment attempted to divorce and separate the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries.<a href="#cite_note-PrincipeNewmanpp386%E2%80%937-110">[108]</a> During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science.<a href="#cite_note-PrincipeNewmanp387-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-KripalShuck2005p27-112">[110]</a> The esoteric or occultist school that arose during the 19th century held the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, less than as a practical tradition or protoscience.<a href="#cite_note-NewmanPrincipe2002p37-108">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-PrincipeNewmanp388-114">[112]</a> This interpretation claimed that the obscure language of the alchemical texts, which 19th century practitioners were not always able to decipher, were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.<a href="#cite_note-PrincipeNewmanp388-114">[112]</a> Two seminal figures during this period were <a href="/wiki/Mary_Anne_Atwood" title="Mary Anne Atwood">Mary Anne Atwood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethan_A._Hitchcock_(general)" title="Ethan A. Hitchcock (general)">Ethan Allen Hitchcock</a>, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both rebuffed the growing successes of chemistry, developing a completely esoteric view of alchemy. Atwood wrote: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy."<a href="#cite_note-PrincipeNewmanp391-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rutkin2001p143-116">[114]</a> Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including <a href="/wiki/Eliphas_Levi" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliphas Levi">Eliphas Levi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Edward_Waite" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Edward Waite">Arthur Edward Waite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a>. Hitchcock, in his Remarks Upon Alchymists (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron <a href="/wiki/Carl_Reichenbach" title="Carl Reichenbach">Carl Reichenbach</a>, published his studies on <a href="/wiki/Odic_force" title="Odic force">Odic force</a>, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> In 1946, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Cattiaux" title="Louis Cattiaux">Louis Cattiaux</a> published the Message Retrouvé, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alchemical studies in France and Belgium.<a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women">Women</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Women" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Maier" title="Michael Maier">Michael Maier</a> names four women who were able to make the philosophers' stone: <a href="/wiki/Mary_the_Jewess" title="Mary the Jewess">Mary the Jewess</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_the_Alchemist" title="Cleopatra the Alchemist">Cleopatra the Alchemist</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medera (page does not exist)">Medera</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paphnutia_the_Virgin" title="Paphnutia the Virgin">Taphnutia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> Zosimos's sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Isis_the_Prophetess&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isis the Prophetess (page does not exist)">Isis the Prophetess</a> also played roles in early alchemical texts. The first alchemist whose name we know was Mary the Jewess (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 A.D.).<a href="#cite_note-:0-120">[118]</a> Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry.<a href="#cite_note-:0-120">[118]</a> Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-bath, known eponymously (especially in France) as the <a href="/wiki/Bain-marie" title="Bain-marie">bain-marie</a>, is said to have been invented or at least improved by her.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> Essentially a double-boiler, it was (and is) used in chemistry for processes that required gentle heating. The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus) and the kerotakis (a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of <a href="/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis" title="Zosimos of Panopolis">Zosimos of Panopolis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a> After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently in alchemical literature. Towards the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of the Renaissance, due to the emergence of print, women were able to access the alchemical knowledge from texts of the preceding centuries.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Caterina_Sforza" title="Caterina Sforza">Caterina Sforza</a>, the Countess of Forlì and Lady of Imola, is one of the few confirmed female alchemists after Mary the Jewess. As she owned an apothecary, she would practice science and conduct experiments in her botanic gardens and laboratories.<a href="#cite_note-:3-125">[123]</a> Being knowledgeable in alchemy and pharmacology, she recorded all of her alchemical ventures in a manuscript named Experimenti ('Experiments').<a href="#cite_note-:3-125">[123]</a> The manuscript contained more than four hundred recipes covering alchemy as well as cosmetics and medicine.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> One of these recipes was for the water of talc.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Talc" title="Talc">Talc</a>, which makes up talcum powder, is a mineral which, when combined with water and distilled, was said to produce a solution which yielded many benefits.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> These supposed benefits included turning silver to gold and rejuvenation.<a href="#cite_note-:4-126">[124]</a> When combined with white wine, its powder form could be ingested to counteract poison.<a href="#cite_note-:4-126">[124]</a> Furthermore, if that powder was mixed and drunk with white wine, it was said to be a source of protection from any poison, sickness, or plague.<a href="#cite_note-:4-126">[124]</a> Other recipes were for making hair dyes, lotions, lip colours.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> There was also information on how to treat a variety of ailments from fevers and coughs to epilepsy and cancer.<a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a> In addition, there were instructions on producing the quintessence (or <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">aether</a>), an elixir which was believed to be able to heal all sicknesses, defend against diseases, and perpetuate youthfulness.<a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a> She also wrote about creating the illustrious <a href="/wiki/Philosophers%27_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers' stone">philosophers' stone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a> Some women known for their interest in alchemy were <a href="/wiki/Catherine_de%27_Medici" title="Catherine de' Medici">Catherine de' Medici</a>, the Queen of France, and <a href="/wiki/Marie_de%27_Medici" title="Marie de' Medici">Marie de' Medici</a>, the following Queen of France, who carried out experiments in her personal laboratory.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> Also, <a href="/wiki/Isabella_d%27Este" title="Isabella d'Este">Isabella d'Este</a>, the Marchioness of Mantua, made perfumes herself to serve as gifts.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> Due to the proliferation in alchemical literature of <a href="/wiki/Pseudepigrapha" title="Pseudepigrapha">pseudepigrapha</a> and anonymous works, however, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. This contributed to a broader pattern in which male authors credited prominent noblewomen for beauty products with the purpose of appealing to a female audience. For example, in Ricettario galante ("Gallant Recipe-Book"), the distillation of lemons and roses was attributed to <a href="/wiki/Elisabetta_Gonzaga" title="Elisabetta Gonzaga">Elisabetta Gonzaga</a>, the duchess of Urbino.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> In the same book, <a href="/wiki/Isabella_d%27Aragona" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella d'Aragona">Isabella d'Aragona</a>, the daughter of Alfonso II of Naples, is accredited for recipes involving <a href="/wiki/Alum" title="Alum">alum</a> and mercury.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ippolita_Maria_Sforza" title="Ippolita Maria Sforza">Ippolita Maria Sforza</a> is even referred to in an anonymous manuscript about a hand lotion created with rose powder and crushed bones.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> As the sixteenth century went on, scientific culture flourished and people began collecting "secrets". During this period "secrets" referred to experiments, and the most coveted ones were not those which were bizarre, but the ones which had been proven to yield the desired outcome.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> In this period, the only book of secrets ascribed to a woman was I secreti della signora Isabella Cortese ('The Secrets of Signora Isabella Cortese').<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> This book contained information on how to turn base metals into gold, medicine, and cosmetics.<a href="#cite_note-:2-124">[122]</a> However, it is rumoured that a man, <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Ruscelli" title="Girolamo Ruscelli">Girolamo Ruscelli</a>, was the real author and only used a female voice to attract female readers.<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> In the nineteenth-century, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Anne_Atwood" title="Mary Anne Atwood">Mary Anne Atwood</a>'s A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery (1850) marked the return of women during the <a href="/wiki/Occult_revival" class="mw-redirect" title="Occult revival">occult revival</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_historical_research">Modern historical research</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Modern historical research" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The history of alchemy has become a recognized subject of academic study.<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> As the language of the alchemists is analysed, historians are becoming more aware of the connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">kabbalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">spiritualism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rosicrucianism" title="Rosicrucianism">Rosicrucianism</a>, and other mystic movements.<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Exeter" title="University of Exeter">University of Exeter</a> Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the <a href="/wiki/European_Society_for_the_Study_of_Western_Esotericism" title="European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism">European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism</a> (ESSWE), and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Amsterdam" title="University of Amsterdam">University of Amsterdam</a>'s Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the <a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_Philosophica_Hermetica" title="Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica">Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica</a> in Amsterdam. Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include <a href="/wiki/Ambix" title="Ambix">Ambix</a>, published by the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Alchemy_and_Chemistry" title="Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry">Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)" title="Isis (journal)">Isis</a>, published by the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Science_Society" title="History of Science Society">History of Science Society</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Core_concepts">Core concepts</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Core concepts" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_tg_0006104_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie_%5E_Judentum_%5E_Kabbala.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Fotothek_df_tg_0006104_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie_%5E_Judentum_%5E_Kabbala.jpg/250px-Fotothek_df_tg_0006104_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie_%5E_Judentum_%5E_Kabbala.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="820"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 307px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Fotothek_df_tg_0006104_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie_%5E_Judentum_%5E_Kabbala.jpg/250px-Fotothek_df_tg_0006104_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie_%5E_Judentum_%5E_Kabbala.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="307" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Fotothek_df_tg_0006104_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie_%5E_Judentum_%5E_Kabbala.jpg/330px-Fotothek_df_tg_0006104_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie_%5E_Judentum_%5E_Kabbala.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Fotothek_df_tg_0006104_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie_%5E_Judentum_%5E_Kabbala.jpg/500px-Fotothek_df_tg_0006104_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie_%5E_Judentum_%5E_Kabbala.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mandala illustrating common alchemical concepts, symbols, and processes. From Spiegel der Kunst und Natur.</figcaption></figure> Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> and earlier Greek <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>. As such, the <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">classical elements</a> appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven <a href="/wiki/Classical_planet" title="Classical planet">classical planets</a> and the corresponding seven <a href="/wiki/Metals_of_antiquity" title="Metals of antiquity">metals of antiquity</a>. Similarly, the gods of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Roman pantheon</a> who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of <a href="/wiki/Prima_materia" title="Prima materia">prima materia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">anima mundi</a> are central to the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">philosopher's stone</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnum_opus">Magnum opus</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Magnum opus" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus_(alchemy)" title="Magnum opus (alchemy)">Magnum opus (alchemy)</a></div> The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colours. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigredo" title="Nigredo">nigredo</a>, a blackening or melanosis</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albedo_(alchemy)" title="Albedo (alchemy)">albedo</a>, a whitening or leucosis</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrinitas" title="Citrinitas">citrinitas</a>, a yellowing or xanthosis</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubedo" title="Rubedo">rubedo</a>, a reddening, purpling, or iosis<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Modernity">Modernity</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Modernity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century diffusion of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, the general understanding of alchemy in the 19th and 20th centuries was influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> Those focusing on the <a href="/wiki/Exoteric" title="Exoteric">exoteric</a>, such as historians of science <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Principe" title="Lawrence M. Principe">Lawrence M. Principe</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_R._Newman" title="William R. Newman">William R. Newman</a>, have interpreted the 'Decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the <a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">esoteric</a>, scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Florin_George_C%C4%83lian" title="Florin George Călian">Florin George Călian</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anna_Marie_Roos" title="Anna Marie Roos">Anna Marie Roos</a>,<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same Decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> or radical environmentalism movements.<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> Groups like the <a href="/wiki/Rosicrucianism" title="Rosicrucianism">Rosicrucians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasons</a> have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "<a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">occultists</a> reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances",<a href="#cite_note-Alchemy_Restored-106">[104]</a> which has contributed to a merger of <a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">magic</a> and alchemy in popular thought. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Esoteric_interpretations_of_historical_texts">Esoteric interpretations of historical texts</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Esoteric interpretations of historical texts" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the eyes of a variety of modern <a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">esoteric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn" title="Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn">Neo-Hermetic</a> practitioners, alchemy is primarily spiritual. In this interpretation, transmutation of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> into <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.<a href="#cite_note-Antoine_Faivre_1995._p.96-136">[134]</a> According to this view, early alchemists such as <a href="/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis" title="Zosimos of Panopolis">Zosimos of Panopolis</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300 AD) highlighted the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> This approach is held to have continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes are supposed to have been used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' hid a <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_philosophy" title="Spiritual philosophy">spiritual philosophy</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Neo-Hermeticist</a> interpretation, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal <a href="/wiki/Panacea" title="Panacea">panacea</a> are held to symbolize evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">philosopher's stone</a> then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist, the twin goal symbolized their evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are believed to have been written according to this view, the cryptic <a href="/wiki/Alchemical_symbol" title="Alchemical symbol">alchemical symbols</a>, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works are supposed to contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; which must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 Alchemical Catechism, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Th%C3%A9odore_Henri_de_Tschudi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Théodore Henri de Tschudi (page does not exist)">Théodore Henri de Tschudi</a> suggested that the usage of the metals was symbolic: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver? A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> </div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Psychology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Alchemical_symbol" title="Alchemical symbol">Alchemical symbolism</a> has been important in <a href="/wiki/Analytical_psychology" title="Analytical psychology">analytical psychology</a> and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Gustav Jung</a>. Jung was initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images but after being given a copy of <a href="/wiki/The_Secret_of_the_Golden_Flower" title="The Secret of the Golden Flower">The Secret of the Golden Flower</a>, a Chinese alchemical text translated by his friend <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wilhelm_(sinologist)" title="Richard Wilhelm (sinologist)">Richard Wilhelm</a>, he discovered a direct correlation or parallel between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in his patients' dreams, visions, or fantasies. He observed these alchemical images occurring during the psychic process of transformation, a process that Jung called "<a href="/wiki/Individuation" title="Individuation">individuation</a>". Specifically, he regarded the conjuring up of images of <a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">gold or Lapis</a> as symbolic expressions of the origin and goal of this "process of individuation".<a href="#cite_note-Jung,_C._G._1944-139">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eisendrath-Dawson-140">[138]</a> Together with his alchemical mystica soror (mystical sister) Jungian Swiss analyst <a href="/wiki/Marie-Louise_von_Franz" title="Marie-Louise von Franz">Marie-Louise von Franz</a>, Jung began collecting old alchemical texts, compiled a <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> of key phrases with cross-references,<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote shed new light onto understanding the art of <a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">transubstantiation</a> and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites are brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the <a href="/wiki/Hieros_gamos" title="Hieros gamos">hieros gamos</a>, or divine marriage. His writings are influential in general <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, but especially to those who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols, and the unconscious archetypal forces (<a href="/wiki/Jungian_archetypes" title="Jungian archetypes">archetypes</a>) that comprise all psychic life.<a href="#cite_note-Eisendrath-Dawson-140">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> Both <a href="/wiki/Marie-Louise_von_Franz" title="Marie-Louise von Franz">von Franz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Jung</a> have contributed significantly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Among the volumes Jung wrote on alchemy, his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, <a href="/wiki/Mysterium_Coniunctionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mysterium Coniunctionis">Mysterium Coniunctionis</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Literature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_in_art_and_entertainment" title="Alchemy in art and entertainment">Alchemy in art and entertainment</a></div> Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> to <a href="/wiki/J._K._Rowling" title="J. K. Rowling">J. K. Rowling</a>, and also the popular Japanese manga <a href="/wiki/Fullmetal_Alchemist" title="Fullmetal Alchemist">Fullmetal Alchemist</a>. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of the late Sir <a href="/wiki/Terry_Pratchett" title="Terry Pratchett">Terry Pratchett</a>. Another literary work taking inspiration from the alchemical tradition is the 1988 novel <a href="/wiki/The_Alchemist_(novel)" title="The Alchemist (novel)">The Alchemist</a> by Brazilian writer <a href="/wiki/Paulo_Coelho" title="Paulo Coelho">Paulo Coelho</a>. Visual artists have had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some used it as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and <a href="/wiki/Paracelsianism" title="Paracelsianism">spagyric</a> role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Science" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Nuclear transmutation</a></div> One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by means of traditional chemistry, but possible by other physical means. Although not financially worthwhile, <a href="/wiki/Synthesis_of_precious_metals#Gold" title="Synthesis of precious metals">gold was synthesized</a> in <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a> as early as 1941.<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemical_symbol" title="Alchemical symbol">Alchemical symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corentin_Louis_Kervran#Biological_transmutation" title="Corentin Louis Kervran">Corentin Louis Kervran § Biological transmutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupellation" title="Cupellation">Cupellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances" title="List of alchemical substances">List of alchemical substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alchemists" title="List of alchemists">List of alchemists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_obsolete_occupations" title="List of obsolete occupations">List of obsolete occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Nuclear transmutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_alchemy" title="Outline of alchemy">Outline of alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Alchemica" title="Porta Alchemica">Porta Alchemica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Renaissance magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spagyric" class="mw-redirect" title="Spagyric">Spagyric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superseded_theories_in_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Superseded theories in science">Superseded theories in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthesis_of_precious_metals" title="Synthesis of precious metals">Synthesis of precious metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaumaturgy" title="Thaumaturgy">Thaumaturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Western esotericism</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy, see <a href="#CITEREFLinden1996">Linden 1996</a>, pp. 6–36 </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> To wit, the Ānandakanda, Āyurvedaprakāśa, Gorakṣasaṃhitā, Kākacaṇḍeśvarīmatatantra, Kākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra, Kūpīpakvarasanirmāṇavijñāna, Pāradasaṃhitā, Rasabhaiṣajyakalpanāvijñāna, Rasādhyāya, Rasahṛdayatantra, Rasajalanidhi, Rasakāmadhenu, Rasakaumudī, Rasamañjarī, Rasamitra, Rasāmṛta, Rasapaddhati, Rasapradīpa, Rasaprakāśasudhākara, Rasarājalakṣmī, Rasaratnadīpikā, Rasaratnākara, Rasaratnasamuccaya, Rasārṇava, Rasārṇavakalpa, Rasasaṃketakalikā, Rasasāra, Rasataraṅgiṇī, Rasāyanasāra, Rasayogasāgara, Rasayogaśataka, Rasendracintāmaṇi, Rasendracūḍāmaṇi, Rasendramaṅgala, Rasendrapurāṇa, Rasendrasambhava, Rasendrasārasaṅgraha, Rasoddhāratantra or Rasasaṃhitā, and Rasopaniṣad.<a href="#cite_note-Egbert_Forsten-53">[52]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid 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"Alchemy". In <a href="/wiki/Edward_Craig_(philosopher)" title="Edward Craig (philosopher)">Craig, Edward</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-Q001-1">10.4324/9780415249126-Q001-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6"><bdi>978-0-415-25069-6</bdi></a>. <q>Alchemy is the quest for an agent of material perfection, produced through a creative activity (opus), in which humans and nature collaborate. It exists in many cultures (China, India, Islam; in the Western world since Hellenistic times) under different specifications: aiming at the production of gold and/or other perfect substances from baser ones, or of the elixir that prolongs life, or even of life itself. Because of its purpose, the alchemists' quest is always strictly linked to the religious doctrine of redemption current in each civilization where alchemy is practised. In the Western world alchemy presented itself at its advent as a sacred art. But when, after a long detour via Byzantium and Islamic culture, it came back again to Europe in the twelfth century, adepts designated themselves philosophers. Since then alchemy has confronted natural philosophy for several centuries.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alchemy&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780415249126-Q001-1&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25069-6&rft.aulast=Pereira&rft.aufirst=Michela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-3">d</a> <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Principe" title="Lawrence M. Principe">Principe, Lawrence M.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sR2qKWpO-ssC&q=egypt&pg=PR5">The secrets of alchemy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164814/https://books.google.com/books?id=sR2qKWpO-ssC&q=egypt&pg=PR5">Archived</a> 26 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. University of Chicago Press, 2012, pp. 9–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeyser1990" class="citation journal cs1">Keyser, Paul T. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2142/12197">"Alchemy in the Ancient World: From Science to Magic"</a>. Illinois Classical Studies. 15 (2): 353–378. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2142%2F12197">2142/12197</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0363-1923">0363-1923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Illinois+Classical+Studies&rft.atitle=Alchemy+in+the+Ancient+World%3A+From+Science+to+Magic&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E353-%3C%2Fspan%3E378&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2142%2F12197&rft.issn=0363-1923&rft.aulast=Keyser&rft.aufirst=Paul+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2142%2F12197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalouin1751" class="citation book cs1">Malouin, Paul-Jacques (1751). "Alchimie [Alchemy]". <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers</a>. Vol. I. Translated by Lauren Yoder. Paris. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fspo.did2222.0000.057">2027/spo.did2222.0000.057</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alchimie+%5BAlchemy%5D&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A9die+ou+Dictionnaire+Raisonn%C3%A9+des+Sciences%2C+des+Arts%2C+et+des+M%C3%A9tiers&rft.place=Paris&rft.date=1751&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fspo.did2222.0000.057&rft.aulast=Malouin&rft.aufirst=Paul-Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-lindy-5"><a href="#cite_ref-lindy_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLinden1996">Linden 1996</a>, pp. 7 & 11 </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/alchemy">"Alchemy"</a>. Dictionary.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070818081308/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Alchemy">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2007. Retrieved 21 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dictionary.com&rft.atitle=Alchemy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Falchemy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCKEMW2014" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_R._Newman" title="William R. Newman">Newman, William R.</a>; Mauskopf, Seymour H.; Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6629576">"Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World"</a>. Osiris. 29: 1–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F678110">10.1086/678110</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0369-7827">0369-7827</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26103744">26103744</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29035688">29035688</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730040038/https://www.academia.edu/6629576">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 23 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Osiris&rft.atitle=Chemical+Knowledge+in+the+Early+Modern+World&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=0369-7827&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29035688%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26103744&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F678110&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rft.au=Mauskopf%2C+Seymour+H.&rft.au=Eddy%2C+Matthew+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F6629576&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolmyard1957">Holmyard 1957</a>, p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-FRAALC97-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FRAALC97_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvon_Franz1997">von Franz 1997</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-OED-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OED_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OED_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-alchemy" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=alchemy">"alchemy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=alchemy&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dalchemy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScottJones1940" class="citation book cs1">Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; Jones, Henry Stuart (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=xumei/a">A Greek-English Lexicon</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191112060839/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dxumei%2Fa">Archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2021;</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Liddell&rft.aufirst=Henry+George&rft.au=Scott%2C+Robert&rft.au=Jones%2C+Henry+Stuart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dxumei%2Fa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161223133900/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/alchemy">"alchemy"</a>. Oxford Dictionaries | English. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/alchemy">the original</a> on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Dictionaries+%7C+English&rft.atitle=alchemy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Falchemy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> George Syncellus, Chronography, 18–9 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> On the ancient definitions of alchemy in ancient Greek and Syriac texts see Matteo Martelli. 2014. "The Alchemical Art of Dyeing: The Fourfold Division of Alchemy and the Enochian Tradition", In: Dupré S. (eds) Laboratories of Art, Springer, Cham. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Hermann Diels, Antike Technik, Leipzig: Teubner, 1914, pp. 108–109. <a href="//archive.org/details/bub_gb_LoEAAAAAMAAJ/page/n125/mode/2up" class="extiw" title="iarchive:bub gb LoEAAAAAMAAJ/page/n125/mode/2up">Read online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=xeiw&la=greek#lexicon">"Greek Word Study Tool"</a>. perseus.tufts.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201107084344/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=xeiw&la=greek#lexicon">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 14 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Greek+Word+Study+Tool&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Fmorph%3Fl%3Dxeiw%26la%3Dgreek%23lexicon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> New Scientist, 24–31 December 1987 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFestugière2006" class="citation book cs1">Festugière, André-Jean (2006). La révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Vol.1. Paris: Les Belles Lettres. pp. 218–219.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+r%C3%A9v%C3%A9lation+d%27Herm%C3%A8s+Trism%C3%A9giste%2C+Vol.1&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E218-%3C%2Fspan%3E219&rft.pub=Les+Belles+Lettres&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Festugi%C3%A8re&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9-Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartelli2019" class="citation book cs1">Martelli, Matteo (2019). L'alchimista antico. Editrice Bibliografica. pp. 73–86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7075-979-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-7075-979-2"><bdi>978-88-7075-979-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27alchimista+antico&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E73-%3C%2Fspan%3E86&rft.pub=Editrice+Bibliografica&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-88-7075-979-2&rft.aulast=Martelli&rft.aufirst=Matteo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatai1995" class="citation book cs1">Patai, Raphael (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LorvA_5Ex_UC&pg=PA60">The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book</a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 60–91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00642-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00642-0"><bdi>978-0-691-00642-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Alchemists%3A+A+History+and+Source+Book&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E60-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00642-0&rft.aulast=Patai&rft.aufirst=Raphael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLorvA_5Ex_UC%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Martelli,_The_Four_Books_of_Pseudo-Democritus-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Martelli,_The_Four_Books_of_Pseudo-Democritus_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Martelli,_The_Four_Books_of_Pseudo-Democritus_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartelli2014" class="citation book cs1">Martelli, Matteo (2014). The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus. Leeds: Maney.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Four+Books+of+Pseudo-Democritus&rft.place=Leeds&rft.pub=Maney&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Martelli&rft.aufirst=Matteo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartelli2019" class="citation book cs1">Martelli, Matteo (2019). L'alchimista antico. Editrice Bibliografica. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7075-979-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-7075-979-2"><bdi>978-88-7075-979-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27alchimista+antico&rft.pub=Editrice+Bibliografica&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-88-7075-979-2&rft.aulast=Martelli&rft.aufirst=Matteo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimes2018" class="citation book cs1">Grimes, Shannon (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rubedo.press/becoming-gold">Becoming Gold</a>. Auckland: Rubedo Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200212203123/https://rubedo.press/becoming-gold">Archived</a> from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Becoming+Gold&rft.place=Auckland&rft.pub=Rubedo+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Grimes&rft.aufirst=Shannon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frubedo.press%2Fbecoming-gold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDufault2019" class="citation book cs1">Dufault, Olivier (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x">Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity</a>. Berkeley: California Classical Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-939926-12-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-939926-12-8"><bdi>978-1-939926-12-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200212203119/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x">Archived</a> from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Greek+Alchemy%2C+Patronage+and+Innovation+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=California+Classical+Studies&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-939926-12-8&rft.aulast=Dufault&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F2ks0g83x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDufault2015" class="citation journal cs1">Dufault, Olivier (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hcommons.org/deposits/download/hc:24472/CONTENT/dufault-transmutation-theory-in-the-greek-alchemical-corpus.pdf/">"Transmutation Theory in the Greek Alchemical Corpus"</a>. Ambix. 62 (3): 215–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F1745823415Y.0000000003">10.1179/1745823415Y.0000000003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26307909">26307909</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10823051">10823051</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://hcommons.org/deposits/download/hc:24472/CONTENT/dufault-transmutation-theory-in-the-greek-alchemical-corpus.pdf/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ambix&rft.atitle=Transmutation+Theory+in+the+Greek+Alchemical+Corpus&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E215-%3C%2Fspan%3E244&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10823051%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26307909&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F1745823415Y.0000000003&rft.aulast=Dufault&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhcommons.org%2Fdeposits%2Fdownload%2Fhc%3A24472%2FCONTENT%2Fdufault-transmutation-theory-in-the-greek-alchemical-corpus.pdf%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> The title of the τελευταὶα ἀποχή is traditionally translated as the "Final Count". Considering that the treatise does not mention any count nor counting and that it makes a case against the use of sacrifice in the practice of alchemy, a preferable translation would be "the Final Abstinence". See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDufault2019" class="citation book cs1">Dufault, Olivier (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x">Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation</a>. Berkeley: California Classical Studies. pp. 127–131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-939926-12-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-939926-12-8"><bdi>978-1-939926-12-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200212203119/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x">Archived</a> from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Greek+Alchemy%2C+Patronage+and+Innovation&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E127-%3C%2Fspan%3E131&rft.pub=California+Classical+Studies&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-939926-12-8&rft.aulast=Dufault&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F2ks0g83x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDufault2019" class="citation book cs1">Dufault, Olivier (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x">Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation</a>. Berkeley: California Classical Studies. pp. 118–141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-939926-12-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-939926-12-8"><bdi>978-1-939926-12-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200212203119/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x">Archived</a> from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Greek+Alchemy%2C+Patronage+and+Innovation&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E118-%3C%2Fspan%3E141&rft.pub=California+Classical+Studies&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-939926-12-8&rft.aulast=Dufault&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F2ks0g83x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarfinkel1986" class="citation book cs1">Garfinkel, Harold (1986). Ethnomethodological Studies of Work. Routledge &Kegan Paul. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11965-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11965-8"><bdi>978-0-415-11965-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnomethodological+Studies+of+Work&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Routledge+%26Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-415-11965-8&rft.aulast=Garfinkel&rft.aufirst=Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Yves Bonnefoy. 'Roman and European Mythologies'. University of Chicago Press, 1992. pp. 211–213 </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> A survey of the literary and archaeological evidence for the background of Hermes Trismegistus in the Greek Hermes and the Egyptian Thoth may be found in Bull, Christian H. 2018. The Tradition of Hermes Trismegistus: The Egyptian Priestly Figure as a Teacher of Hellenized Wisdom. Leiden: Brill, pp. 33–96. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Fathers/Volume_II/CLEMENT_OF_ALEXANDRIA/The_Stromata,_or_Miscellanies/Book_VI/Chapter_IV." class="extiw" title="s:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume II/CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA/The Stromata, or Miscellanies/Book VI/Chapter IV.">Clement, Stromata, vi. 4.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLinden1996">Linden 1996</a>, p. 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartington1989" class="citation book cs1">Partington, James Riddick (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofch0000part_q6h4">A Short History of Chemistry</a>. New York: Dover Publications. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofch0000part_q6h4/page/20">20</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65977-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65977-0"><bdi>978-0-486-65977-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Chemistry&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-486-65977-0&rft.aulast=Partington&rft.aufirst=James+Riddick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshorthistoryofch0000part_q6h4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Caley, E. R. (1927) "The Stockholm Papyrus : An English Translation with brief notes" Journal of Chemical Education IV:8 : 979–1002. </li> <li id="cite_note-Chemistry,_Bensaude-Vincent_1996,_p13-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chemistry,_Bensaude-Vincent_1996,_p13_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chemistry,_Bensaude-Vincent_1996,_p13_35-1">b</a> A History of Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent, Isabelle Stengers, Harvard University Press, 1996, p13 </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLinden1996">Linden 1996</a>, p. 14 </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsay,_Jack1970" class="citation book cs1">Lindsay, Jack (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116301348557/page/16">The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt</a>. London: Muller. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116301348557/page/16">16</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-389-01006-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-389-01006-7"><bdi>978-0-389-01006-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Alchemy+in+Graeco-Roman+Egypt&rft.place=London&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Muller&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-389-01006-7&rft.au=Lindsay%2C+Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftrent_0116301348557%2Fpage%2F16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurckhardt1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Titus_Burckhardt" title="Titus Burckhardt">Burckhardt, Titus</a> (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-906540-96-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-906540-96-1"><bdi>978-0-906540-96-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alchemy%3A+Science+of+the+Cosmos%2C+Science+of+the+Soul&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-906540-96-1&rft.aulast=Burckhardt&rft.aufirst=Titus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Fanning, Philip Ashley. Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternative View of the Scientific Revolution. 2009. p.6 </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> F. Sherwood Taylor. Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry. p.26. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Allen_G._Debus" title="Allen G. Debus">Allen G. Debus</a>. Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix. p. 36 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world. pp. 284–285 </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2019" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, Alexandre M. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hcommons.org/deposits/item/hc:31587/">"Framing a Middle Byzantine Alchemical Codex"</a>. Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 73: 69–70. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210118131404/https://hcommons.org/deposits/item/hc:31587/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dumbarton+Oaks+Papers&rft.atitle=Framing+a+Middle+Byzantine+Alchemical+Codex&rft.volume=73&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E70&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Alexandre+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhcommons.org%2Fdeposits%2Fitem%2Fhc%3A31587%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eb-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eb_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb_44-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Multhauf" title="Robert P. Multhauf">Multhauf, Robert P.</a> & Gilbert, Robert Andrew (2008). Alchemy. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlivelle2013" class="citation book cs1">Olivelle, Patrick (31 January 2013). "Introduction". King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aosobl%2F9780199891825.003.0001">10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199891825.003.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989182-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989182-5"><bdi>978-0-19-989182-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=King%2C+Governance%2C+and+Law+in+Ancient+India&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013-01-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aosobl%2F9780199891825.003.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-989182-5&rft.aulast=Olivelle&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|access-date=</code> requires <code class="cs1-code">|url=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#accessdate_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Arthasastra_English_Translation">"Arthasastra_English_Translation : R Shamasastry: Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming"</a>. Internet Archive. p. 171. Retrieved 11 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Arthasastra_English_Translation+%3A+R+Shamasastry%3A+Free+Download%2C+Borrow%2C+and+Streaming&rft.pages=171&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FArthasastra_English_Translation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartington1999" class="citation book cs1">Partington, J. R. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fNZBSqd2cToC&q=sanskrit+word+for+saltpetre&pg=PA214">A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder</a>. JHU Press. pp. 209–211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5954-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5954-0"><bdi>978-0-8018-5954-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Greek+Fire+and+Gunpowder&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E209-%3C%2Fspan%3E211&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5954-0&rft.aulast=Partington&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfNZBSqd2cToC%26q%3Dsanskrit%2Bword%2Bfor%2Bsaltpetre%26pg%3DPA214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKauṭalya1992" class="citation book cs1">Kauṭalya (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FFJz72h5qjUC&q=arthashastra+perfume&pg=PA43">The Arthashastra</a>. Penguin Books India. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044603-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044603-6"><bdi>978-0-14-044603-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arthashastra&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+India&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044603-6&rft.au=Kau%E1%B9%ADalya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFFJz72h5qjUC%26q%3Darthashastra%2Bperfume%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="HIML" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Jan_Meulenbeld" title="Gerrit Jan Meulenbeld">Meulenbeld, G. Jan</a> (1999–2002). History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. pp. IIA, 151–155.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Indian+Medical+Literature&rft.place=Groningen&rft.pages=IIA%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E151-%3C%2Fspan%3E155&rft.pub=Egbert+Forsten&rft.date=1999%2F2002&rft.aulast=Meulenbeld&rft.aufirst=G.+Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWujastyk1984" class="citation journal cs1">Wujastyk, Dominik (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://univie.academia.edu/DominikWujastyk/Papers/152766/">"An Alchemical Ghost: The Rasaratnākara of Nāgarjuna"</a>. Ambix. 31 (2): 70–83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Famb.1984.31.2.70">10.1179/amb.1984.31.2.70</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11615977">11615977</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200511080759/https://www.academia.edu/221269/An_Alchemical_Ghost_The_Rasaratn%C4%81kara_by_N%C4%81g%C4%81rjuna">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2020. Retrieved 28 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ambix&rft.atitle=An+Alchemical+Ghost%3A+The+Rasaratn%C4%81kara+of+N%C4%81garjuna&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E70-%3C%2Fspan%3E83&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2Famb.1984.31.2.70&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11615977&rft.aulast=Wujastyk&rft.aufirst=Dominik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funivie.academia.edu%2FDominikWujastyk%2FPapers%2F152766%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> See bibliographical details and links at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body">https://openlibrary.org/works/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230709172936/https://openlibrary.org/works/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body">Archived</a> 9 July 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2011" class="citation web cs1">White, David Gordon (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0046.xml?rskey=skoSqW&result=1&q=rasayana#firstMatch">"Rasāyana (Alchemy)"</a>. Oxford Bibliographies Online. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOBO%2F9780195399318-0046">10.1093/OBO/9780195399318-0046</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200422082736/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0046.xml?rskey=skoSqW&result=1&q=rasayana#firstMatch">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2020. 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Baltimore: Penguin. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-906540-96-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-906540-96-1"><bdi>978-0-906540-96-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alchemy%3A+Science+of+the+Cosmos%2C+Science+of+the+Soul&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-906540-96-1&rft.aulast=Burckhardt&rft.aufirst=Titus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tara_Nummedal" title="Tara Nummedal">Tara E. Nummedal</a>. Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire. University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49 </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition. Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170 </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_87-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarrant2018" class="citation journal cs1">Tarrant, Neil (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00026980.2018.1512779">"Between Aquinas and Eymerich: The Roman Inquisition's Use of Dominican Thought in the Censorship of Alchemy"</a>. Ambix. 65 (3): 210–231. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00026980.2018.1512779">10.1080/00026980.2018.1512779</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-6980">0002-6980</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30134775">30134775</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52070616">52070616</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221216012751/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00026980.2018.1512779">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2022. 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Chemical Heritage Foundation. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womeninchemistry0000rayn/page/2">2–4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-941901-27-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-941901-27-7"><bdi>978-0-941901-27-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Chemistry%3A+Their+Changing+Roles+from+Alchemical+Times+to+the+Mid-Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=2-4&rft.pub=Chemical+Heritage+Foundation&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-941901-27-7&rft.au=Rayner-Canham%2C+M&rft.au=Rayner-Canham%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwomeninchemistry0000rayn%2Fpage%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatai1995" class="citation book cs1">Patai, R (1995). 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Princeton University Press. pp. 81–93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00642-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00642-0"><bdi>978-0-691-00642-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Alchemists%3A+A+History+and+Source+Book&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E93&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00642-0&rft.aulast=Patai&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_124-12">m</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay2015" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Meredith K. 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Rome: Loescher. pp. 617–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-147-83327-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-147-83327-0"><bdi>978-1-147-83327-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3&rft.btitle=Experimenti+de+la+Ex%5Bellentissi%5Dma+S%5Bigno%5Dra+Caterina+da+Furlj+Matre+de+lo+inllux%5Btrissi%5Dmo+S%5Bignor%5D+Giovanni+de+Medici&rft.place=Rome&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E617-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.pub=Loescher&rft.date=1893&rft.isbn=978-1-147-83327-0&rft.aulast=Sforza&rft.aufirst=Caterina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSacco2016" class="citation journal cs1">Sacco, Francesco G. (March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-for-the-history-of-science/article/abs/meredith-k-ray-daughters-of-alchemy-women-and-scientific-culture-in-early-modern-italy-cambridge-ma-harvard-university-press-2015-pp-291-isbn-9780674504233-4500-3395-hardback/81117AA39C92F6F86BACF185AD15262F">"Meredith K. Ray, Daughters of Alchemy: Women and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015. pp. 291. ISBN 978-0-674-50423-3"</a>. 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Retrieved 6 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Meredith+K.+Ray%2C+Daughters+of+Alchemy%3A+Women+and+Scientific+Culture+in+Early+Modern+Italy.+Cambridge%2C+MA%3A+Harvard+University+Press%2C+2015.+pp.+291.+ISBN+978-0-674-50423-3&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E122-%3C%2Fspan%3E123&rft.date=2016-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146847844%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0007-0874&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087416000078&rft.aulast=Sacco&rft.aufirst=Francesco+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fbritish-journal-for-the-history-of-science%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fmeredith-k-ray-daughters-of-alchemy-women-and-scientific-culture-in-early-modern-italy-cambridge-ma-harvard-university-press-2015-pp-291-isbn-9780674504233-4500-3395-hardback%2F81117AA39C92F6F86BACF185AD15262F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Principe" title="Lawrence M. 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Nature. 135 (3423): 967–968. 1 June 1935. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935Natur.135..967.">1935Natur.135..967.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F135967a0">10.1038/135967a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240111200919/https://www.nature.com/articles/135967a0">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2024. 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(1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3JUfBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Kentucky" title="University Press of Kentucky">University Press of Kentucky</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-5017-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-5017-8"><bdi>978-0-8131-5017-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darke+Hierogliphicks%3A+Alchemy+in+English+literature+from+Chaucer+to+the+Restoration&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-5017-8&rft.aulast=Linden&rft.aufirst=Stanton+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3JUfBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinden2003" class="citation book cs1">Linden, Stanton J. (2003). The Alchemy Reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Alchemy+Reader%3A+from+Hermes+Trismegistus+to+Isaac+Newton&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Linden&rft.aufirst=Stanton+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewmanPrincipe2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_R._Newman" title="William R. Newman">Newman, William R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Principe" title="Lawrence M. Principe">Principe, Lawrence M.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eQERmMdykZEC&q=alchemy&pg=PP1">Alchemy Tried in the Fire</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-57702-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-57702-9"><bdi>978-0-226-57702-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alchemy+Tried+in+the+Fire&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-226-57702-9&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rft.au=Principe%2C+Lawrence+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeQERmMdykZEC%26q%3Dalchemy%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Franz1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marie-Louise_von_Franz" title="Marie-Louise von Franz">von Franz, Marie Louise</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wOVUUMirSnEC&q=alchemy&pg=PP1">Alchemical Active Imagination</a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Shambhala_Publications" title="Shambhala Publications">Shambhala Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87773-589-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87773-589-2"><bdi>978-0-87773-589-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alchemical+Active+Imagination&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Shambhala+Publications&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-87773-589-2&rft.aulast=von+Franz&rft.aufirst=Marie+Louise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwOVUUMirSnEC%26q%3Dalchemy%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKripalShuck2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_John_Kripal" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeffrey John Kripal">Kripal, Jeffrey John</a>; <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Shuck" title="Glenn Shuck">Shuck, Glenn W.</a> (July 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onedgeoffuture00indi">On the Edge of the Future</a>. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34556-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34556-1"><bdi>978-0-253-34556-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Edge+of+the+Future&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2005-07&rft.isbn=978-0-253-34556-1&rft.aulast=Kripal&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+John&rft.au=Shuck%2C+Glenn+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonedgeoffuture00indi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrincipe2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Principe" title="Lawrence M. Principe">Principe, Lawrence M.</a> (2013). The secrets of alchemy. Chicago &London: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-68295-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-68295-2"><bdi>978-0-226-68295-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+secrets+of+alchemy&rft.place=Chicago+%26London&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-226-68295-2&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrincipeNewman2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Principe" title="Lawrence M. Principe">Principe, Lawrence M.</a>; <a href="/wiki/William_R._Newman" title="William R. Newman">Newman, William R.</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC">"Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy"</a>. In Newman, William R.; <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Grafton" title="Anthony Grafton">Grafton, Anthony</a> (eds.). Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. pp. 385–432. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-14075-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-14075-1"><bdi>978-0-262-14075-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Some+Problems+with+the+Historiography+of+Alchemy&rft.btitle=Secrets+of+Nature%2C+Astrology+and+Alchemy+in+Modern+Europe&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E385-%3C%2Fspan%3E432&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-262-14075-1&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rft.au=Newman%2C+William+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCMuJGpztRFMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutkin2001" class="citation book cs1">Rutkin, H. Darrel (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC">"Celestial Offerings: Astrological Motifs in the Dedicatory Letters of Kepler's Astronomia Nova and Galileo's Sidereus Nuncius"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/William_R._Newman" title="William R. Newman">Newman, William R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Grafton" title="Anthony Grafton">Grafton, Anthony</a> (eds.). Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. pp. 133–172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-14075-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-14075-1"><bdi>978-0-262-14075-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Celestial+Offerings%3A+Astrological+Motifs+in+the+Dedicatory+Letters+of+Kepler%27s+Astronomia+Nova+and+Galileo%27s+Sidereus+Nuncius&rft.btitle=Secrets+of+Nature%2C+Astrology+and+Alchemy+in+Modern+Europe&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E133-%3C%2Fspan%3E172&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-262-14075-1&rft.aulast=Rutkin&rft.aufirst=H.+Darrel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCMuJGpztRFMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeziale2019" class="citation journal cs1">Speziale, Fabrizio (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18732%2Fhssa.v7i0.40">"Rasāyana and Rasaśāstra in the Persian Medical Culture of South Asia"</a>. History of Science in South Asia. 7: 1–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18732%2Fhssa.v7i0.40">10.18732/hssa.v7i0.40</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:166469086">166469086</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Science+in+South+Asia&rft.atitle=Ras%C4%81yana+and+Rasa%C5%9B%C4%81stra+in+the+Persian+Medical+Culture+of+South+Asia&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18732%2Fhssa.v7i0.40&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A166469086%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Speziale&rft.aufirst=Fabrizio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.18732%252Fhssa.v7i0.40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introductions_and_textbooks">Introductions and textbooks</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Introductions and textbooks" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeretta2022" class="citation book cs1">Beretta, Marco, ed. (2022). A Cultural History Of Chemistry in Antiquity. London: Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9781474203746">10.5040/9781474203746</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-9453-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-9453-9"><bdi>978-1-4742-9453-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+Of+Chemistry+in+Antiquity&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5040%2F9781474203746&rft.isbn=978-1-4742-9453-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> (focus on technical aspects)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnettMoureau2022" class="citation book cs1">Burnett, Charles; Moureau, Sébastien, eds. (2022). A Cultural History Of Chemistry in the Middle Ages. London: Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-9454-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-9454-6"><bdi>978-1-4742-9454-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+Of+Chemistry+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-4742-9454-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> (focus on technical aspects)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalleux1979" class="citation book cs1">Halleux, Robert (1979). Les textes alchimiques. Turnhout: Brepols. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-36032-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-36032-4"><bdi>978-2-503-36032-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+textes+alchimiques&rft.place=Turnhout&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-2-503-36032-4&rft.aulast=Halleux&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoly2013" class="citation book cs1">Joly, Bernard (2013). Histoire de l'alchimie. Paris: Vuibert-Adapt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-311-01248-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-311-01248-4"><bdi>978-2-311-01248-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+l%27alchimie&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Vuibert-Adapt&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-2-311-01248-4&rft.aulast=Joly&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> (general overview)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartelli2019" class="citation book cs1">Martelli, Matteo (2019). L'alchimista antico: Dall'Egitto greco-romano a Bisanzio. Milano: Editrice Bibliografica. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7075-979-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-7075-979-2"><bdi>978-88-7075-979-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27alchimista+antico%3A+Dall%27Egitto+greco-romano+a+Bisanzio&rft.place=Milano&rft.pub=Editrice+Bibliografica&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-88-7075-979-2&rft.aulast=Martelli&rft.aufirst=Matteo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> (Greek and Byzantine alchemy)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoran2022" class="citation book cs1">Moran, Bruce, ed. (2022). A Cultural History Of Chemistry in the Early Modern Age. London: Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-9459-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-9459-1"><bdi>978-1-4742-9459-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+Of+Chemistry+in+the+Early+Modern+Age&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-4742-9459-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> (focus on technical aspects)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulthauf1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Multhauf" title="Robert P. Multhauf">Multhauf, Robert P.</a> (1966). The Origins of Chemistry. London: Oldbourne. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/977570829">977570829</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Chemistry&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oldbourne&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F977570829&rft.aulast=Multhauf&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolaïdis2018" class="citation book cs1">Nicolaïdis, Efthymios, ed. (2018). Greek Alchemy from Late Antiquity to Early Modernity. De Diversis Artibus. Vol. 104. Turnhout: Brepols. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1484%2FM.DDA-EB.5.116173">10.1484/M.DDA-EB.5.116173</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-58191-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-58191-0"><bdi>978-2-503-58191-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Alchemy+from+Late+Antiquity+to+Early+Modernity&rft.place=Turnhout&rft.series=De+Diversis+Artibus&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1484%2FM.DDA-EB.5.116173&rft.isbn=978-2-503-58191-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> (Greek and Byzantine alchemy)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartington1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._R._Partington" title="J. R. Partington">Partington, James R.</a> (1970) [1961]. A History of Chemistry. Volume 1, Part I. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-03490-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-03490-3"><bdi>978-0-333-03490-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chemistry.+Volume+1%2C+Part+I&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-333-03490-3&rft.aulast=Partington&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> (the second part of volume 1 was never published; the other volumes deal with the modern period and are not relevant for alchemy)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPereira2001" class="citation book cs1">Pereira, Michela (2001). Arcana Sapienza: Storia dell'alchimia occidentale dalle origini a Jung. Rome: Carocci. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-430-9647-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-430-9647-3"><bdi>978-88-430-9647-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arcana+Sapienza%3A+Storia+dell%27alchimia+occidentale+dalle+origini+a+Jung&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Carocci&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-88-430-9647-3&rft.aulast=Pereira&rft.aufirst=Michela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> (general overview, focus on esoteric aspects)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrincipe2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Principe" title="Lawrence M. Principe">Principe, Lawrence M.</a> (2013). The Secrets of Alchemy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-10379-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-10379-2"><bdi>978-0-226-10379-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secrets+of+Alchemy&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-226-10379-2&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"> (general overview, written in a highly accessible style)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRampling2020" class="citation book cs1">Rampling, Jennifer M. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/E/bo50462000.html">The Experimental Fire: Inventing English Alchemy, 1300–1700</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-82654-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-82654-7"><bdi>978-0-226-82654-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Experimental+Fire%3A+Inventing+English+Alchemy%2C+1300%E2%80%931700&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-226-82654-7&rft.aulast=Rampling&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.uchicago.edu%2Fucp%2Fbooks%2Fbook%2Fchicago%2FE%2Fbo50462000.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViano2005" class="citation book cs1">Viano, Cristina, ed. (2005). L'alchimie et ses racines philosophiques. La tradition grecque et la tradition arabe. Paris: Vrin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7116-1754-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7116-1754-8"><bdi>978-2-7116-1754-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27alchimie+et+ses+racines+philosophiques.+La+tradition+grecque+et+la+tradition+arabe&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Vrin&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-2-7116-1754-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greco-Egyptian_alchemy">Greco-Egyptian alchemy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Greco-Egyptian alchemy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Texts">Texts</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Texts" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcellin_Berthelot" title="Marcellin Berthelot">Marcellin Berthelot</a> and Charles-Émile Ruelle (eds.), Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (CAAG), 3 vols., 1887–1888, Vol 1: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96492923">https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96492923</a>, Vol 2: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9680734p">https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9680734p</a>, Vol. 3: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9634942s">https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9634942s</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Jean_Festugi%C3%A8re" title="André-Jean Festugière">André-Jean Festugière</a>, La Révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-251-32674-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-251-32674-0">978-2-251-32674-0</a>, OCLC 897235256).</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Halleux&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Halleux (page does not exist)">Robert Halleux</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Halleux" class="extiw" title="de:Robert Halleux">de</a>; <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Halleux" class="extiw" title="fr:Robert Halleux">fr</a>] and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri-Dominique_Saffrey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henri-Dominique Saffrey (page does not exist)">Henri-Dominique Saffrey</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri-Dominique_Saffrey" class="extiw" title="fr:Henri-Dominique Saffrey">fr</a>] (<abbr>eds.</abbr>), Les alchimistes grecs, <abbr>t.</abbr> 1 : Papyrus de Leyde – Papyrus de Stockholm – Recettes, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1981.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Lagercrantz" title="Otto Lagercrantz">Otto Lagercrantz</a> (ed), Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis, Uppsala, A.B. <a href="/wiki/The_Academic_Bookstore" class="mw-redirect" title="The Academic Bookstore">Akademiska Bokhandeln</a>, 1913, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/papyrusgraecusho00lage/page/n8">Papyrus graecus holmiensis (P. holm.); Recepte für Silber, Steine und Purpur, bearb. von Otto Lagercrantz. Hrsg. mit Unterstützung des Vilh. Ekman'schen Universitätsfonds</a>.</li> <li>Michèle Mertens and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri-Dominique_Saffrey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henri-Dominique Saffrey (page does not exist)">Henri-Dominique Saffrey</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri-Dominique_Saffrey" class="extiw" title="fr:Henri-Dominique Saffrey">fr</a>] (<abbr>ed.</abbr>), Les alchimistes grecs, <abbr>t.</abbr> 4.1 : Zosime de Panopolis. Mémoires authentiques, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1995.</li> <li>Andrée Collinet and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri-Dominique_Saffrey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henri-Dominique Saffrey (page does not exist)">Henri-Dominique Saffrey</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri-Dominique_Saffrey" class="extiw" title="fr:Henri-Dominique Saffrey">fr</a>] (<abbr>ed.</abbr>), Les alchimistes grecs, <abbr>t.</abbr> 10 : L'Anonyme de Zuretti ou l'Art sacré and divin de la chrysopée par un anonyme, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000.</li> <li>Andrée Collinet (ed), Les alchimistes grecs, <abbr>t.</abbr> 11 : Recettes alchimiques (Par. Gr. 2419; Holkhamicus 109) – Cosmas le Hiéromoine – Chrysopée, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000.</li> <li>Matteo Martelli (ed), The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus, Maney Publishing, 2014.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Studies">Studies</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Studies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li>Dylan M. Burns, " μίξεώς τινι τέχνῃ κρείττονι : Alchemical Metaphor in the Paraphrase of Shem (NHC VII,1) ", Aries 15 (2015), p. 79–106.</li> <li>Alberto Camplani, " Procedimenti magico-alchemici e discorso filosofico ermetico " in Giuliana Lanata (ed.), Il Tardoantico alle soglie del Duemila, ETS, 2000, p. 73–98.</li> <li>Alberto Camplani and Marco Zambon, " Il sacrificio come problema in alcune correnti filosofice di età imperiale ", Annali di storia dell'esegesi 19 (2002), p. 59–99.</li> <li>Régine Charron and Louis Painchaud, " 'God is a Dyer,' The Background and Significance of a Puzzling Motif in the Coptic Gospel According to Philip (CG II, 3), Le Muséon 114 (2001), p. 41-50.</li> <li>Régine Charron, " The Apocryphon of John (NHC II,1) and the Greco-Egyptian Alchemical Literature ", Vigiliae Christinae 59 (2005), p. 438-456.</li> <li>Philippe Derchain, "L'Atelier des Orfèvres à Dendara et les origines de l'alchimie," Chronique d'Égypte, <abbr>vol.</abbr> 65, <abbr>no</abbr> 130, 1990, <abbr>p.</abbr> 219–242.</li> <li>Korshi Dosoo, " A History of the Theban Magical Library ", Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 53 (2016), p. 251–274.</li> <li>Olivier Dufault, Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity, California Classical Studies, 2019, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x">Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity</a>.</li> <li>Sergio Knipe, " Sacrifice and self-transformation in the alchemical writings of Zosimus of Panopolis ", in Christopher Kelly, Richard Flower, Michael Stuart Williams (eds.), Unclassical Traditions. Volume II: Perspectives from East and West in Late Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2011, p. 59–69.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Jean_Festugi%C3%A8re" title="André-Jean Festugière">André-Jean Festugière</a>, La Révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-251-32674-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-251-32674-0">978-2-251-32674-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/897235256">897235256</a>.</li> <li>Kyle A. Fraser, " Zosimos of Panopolis and the Book of Enoch: Alchemy as Forbidden Knowledge ", Aries 4.2 (2004), p. 125–147.</li> <li>Kyle A. Fraser, " Baptized in Gnosis: The Spiritual Alchemy of Zosimos of Panopolis ", Dionysius 25 (2007), p. 33–54.</li> <li>Kyle A. Fraser, " Distilling Nature's Secrets: The Sacred Art of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 721–742. 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734146.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199734146-e-76">[1]</a>.</li> <li>Shannon Grimes, Becoming Gold: Zosimos of Panopolis and the Alchemical Arts in Roman Egypt, Auckland, Rubedo Press, 2018, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-473-40775-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-473-40775-9">978-0-473-40775-9</a></li> <li>Paul T. Keyser, " Greco-Roman Alchemy and Coins of Imitation Silver ", American Journal of Numismatics 7–8 (1995–1996), p. 209–234.</li> <li>Paul Keyser, " The Longue Durée of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 409–430.</li> <li>Jean Letrouit, "Chronologie des alchimistes grecs," in Didier Kahn and Sylvain Matton, Alchimie: art, histoire et mythes, SEHA-Archè, 1995, <abbr>p.</abbr> 11–93.</li> <li>Lindsay, Jack. The Origins of Alchemy in Greco-Roman Egypt. Barnes & Noble, 1970.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Magdalino" title="Paul Magdalino">Paul Magdalino</a> and Maria Mavroudi (eds.), The Occult Sciences in Byzantium, La Pomme d'or, 2006.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartelli2014" class="citation book cs1">Martelli, Matteo (2014). "The Alchemical Art of Dyeing: The Fourfold Division of Alchemy and the Enochian Tradition". Laboratories of Art. Archimedes. Vol. 37. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-05065-2_1">10.1007/978-3-319-05065-2_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-05064-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-05064-5"><bdi>978-3-319-05064-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Alchemical+Art+of+Dyeing%3A+The+Fourfold+Division+of+Alchemy+and+the+Enochian+Tradition&rft.btitle=Laboratories+of+Art&rft.place=Cham&rft.series=Archimedes&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-05065-2_1&rft.isbn=978-3-319-05064-5&rft.aulast=Martelli&rft.aufirst=Matteo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Matteo Martelli, " Alchemy, Medicine and Religion: Zosimus of Panopolis and the Egyptian Priests ", Religion in the Roman Empire 3.2 (2017), p. 202–220.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerianos2017" class="citation book cs1">Merianos, Gerasimos (2017). "Alchemy". The Cambridge Intellectual History of Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. pp. 234–251. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781107300859.015">10.1017/9781107300859.015</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-30085-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-30085-9"><bdi>978-1-107-30085-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alchemy&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Intellectual+History+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E234-%3C%2Fspan%3E251&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781107300859.015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-30085-9&rft.aulast=Merianos&rft.aufirst=Gerasimos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Greek Alchemy from Late Antiquity to Early Modernity. De Diversis Artibus. Vol. 104. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. 2018. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1484%2Fm.dda-eb.5.116173">10.1484/m.dda-eb.5.116173</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-58191-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-58191-0"><bdi>978-2-503-58191-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Alchemy+from+Late+Antiquity+to+Early+Modernity&rft.place=Turnhout&rft.series=De+Diversis+Artibus&rft.pub=Brepols+Publishers&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1484%2Fm.dda-eb.5.116173&rft.isbn=978-2-503-58191-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Daniel Stolzenberg, " Unpropitious Tinctures: Alchemy, Astrology & Gnosis According to Zosimos of Panopolis ", Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences 49 (1999), p. 3–31.</li> <li>Cristina Viano, " Byzantine Alchemy, or the Era of Systematization ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 943–964.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVlachouMcDonnellJanaway2002" class="citation journal cs1">Vlachou, C.; McDonnell, J.G.; Janaway, R.C. (2002). "Experimental investigation of silvering in late Roman coinage". MRS Proceedings. 712. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1557%2FPROC-712-II9.2">10.1557/PROC-712-II9.2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0272-9172">0272-9172</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MRS+Proceedings&rft.atitle=Experimental+investigation+of+silvering+in+late+Roman+coinage&rft.volume=712&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1557%2FPROC-712-II9.2&rft.issn=0272-9172&rft.aulast=Vlachou&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=McDonnell%2C+J.G.&rft.au=Janaway%2C+R.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern">Early modern</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Early modern" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li>Principe, Lawrence and <a href="/wiki/William_R._Newman" title="William R. Newman">William Newman</a>. Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry. University of Chicago Press, 2002.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output 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<div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemie" title="Alchemie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Alchemie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemie" title="Alchemie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Alchemie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%8D%E1%8A%A8%E1%88%9A" title="አልከሚ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አልከሚ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="خيمياء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خيمياء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alquimia" title="Alquimia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Alquimia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alquimia" title="Alquimia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Alquimia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Flkimya" title="Əlkimya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əlkimya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF" title="আলকেমি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আলকেমি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Алхимия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Алхимия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Алхімія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Алхімія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Альхімія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Альхімія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimiya" title="Alkimiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Alkimiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Алхимия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Алхимия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%99%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%A9%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8D" title="གསེར་བཙོ་རྩལ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="གསེར་བཙོ་རྩལ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhemija" title="Alhemija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Alhemija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimiezh" title="Alkimiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Alkimiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alqu%C3%ADmia" title="Alquímia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Alquímia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchymie" title="Alchymie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Alchymie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchimia" title="Alchimia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Alchimia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcemi" title="Alcemi – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Alcemi" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkymi" title="Alkymi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Alkymi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="خيميا – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="خيميا" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemie" title="Alchemie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Alchemie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkeemia" title="Alkeemia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Alkeemia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Αλχημεία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλχημεία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alquimia" title="Alquimia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alquimia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkemio" title="Alkemio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Alkemio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimia" title="Alkimia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Alkimia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="کیمیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کیمیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchimie" title="Alchimie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Alchimie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algemy" title="Algemy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Algemy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ailceimic" title="Ailceimic – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ailceimic" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alquimia" title="Alquimia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Alquimia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B0%EA%B8%88%EC%88%A0" title="연금술 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="연금술" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AC%D6%84%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Ալքիմիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ալքիմիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="कीमिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कीमिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkemija" title="Alkemija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Alkemija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkemio" title="Alkemio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Alkemio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimia" title="Alkimia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Alkimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchimia" title="Alchimia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Alchimia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gullger%C3%B0arlist" title="Gullgerðarlist – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gullgerðarlist" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchimia" title="Alchimia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Alchimia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94" title="אלכימיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלכימיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimiya" title="Alkimiya – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Alkimiya" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%86" title="ರಸವಿದ್ಯೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರಸವಿದ್ಯೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ალქიმია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ალქიმია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Алхимия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Алхимия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Алхимия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Алхимия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemia" title="Alchemia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Alchemia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C4%B7%C4%ABmija" title="Alķīmija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Alķīmija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemija" title="Alchemija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Alchemija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsjemie" title="Alsjemie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Alsjemie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alk%C3%ADmia" title="Alkímia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Alkímia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Алхемија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Алхемија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF" title="ആൽകെമി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആൽകെമി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="अल्केमी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अल्केमी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ალქიმია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ალქიმია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%82%E1%80%B9%E1%80%82%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9B%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="အဂ္ဂိရတ် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="အဂ္ဂိရတ်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimia" title="Alkimia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Alkimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Алхими – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Алхими" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemie" title="Alchemie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Alchemie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8C%AC%E9%87%91%E8%A1%93" title="錬金術 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="錬金術" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkymi" title="Alkymi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Alkymi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkymi" title="Alkymi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Alkymi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alquimia" title="Alquimia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Alquimia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimyo" title="Alkimyo – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Alkimyo" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%AB%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="کیمیاګري – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کیمیاګري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A" title="រសសាស្ត្រ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រសសាស្ត្រ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemia" title="Alchemia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Alchemia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alquimia" title="Alquimia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Alquimia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchimie" title="Alchimie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Alchimie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Алхимия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Алхимия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimia" title="Alkimia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Alkimia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archim%C3%ACa" title="Archimìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Archimìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Alchemy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alch%C3%BDmia" title="Alchýmia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Alchýmia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimija" title="Alkimija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Alkimija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="کیمیاگەری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کیمیاگەری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Алхемија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Алхемија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhemija" title="Alhemija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Alhemija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alk%C3%A9mi" title="Alkémi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Alkémi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkemia" title="Alkemia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Alkemia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkemi" title="Alkemi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Alkemi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimiya" title="Alkimiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Alkimiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="இரசவாதம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இரசவாதம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%82" title="రసవాదం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="రసవాదం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%88%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B8" title="การเล่นแร่แปรธาตุ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การเล่นแร่แปรธาตุ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simya" title="Simya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Simya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Алхімія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Алхімія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%E1%BA%A3_kim_thu%E1%BA%ADt" title="Giả kim thuật – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Giả kim thuật" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimiya" title="Alkimiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Alkimiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%82%BC%E9%87%91%E6%9C%AF" title="炼金术 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="炼金术" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%85%89%E9%87%91%E8%A1%93" title="煉金術 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="煉金術" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simya" title="Simya – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Simya" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkem%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Alkemėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Alkemėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%82%BC%E9%87%91%E6%9C%AF" title="炼金术 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="炼金术" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> <ul id="footer-icons" class="footer-icons"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://www.wikimedia.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-65585cc8dc-k58zc","wgBackendResponseTime":437,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.602","walltime":"1.857","ppvisitednodes":{"value":13777,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":383990,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":14589,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":27,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":448593,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1527.075 1 -total"," 32.19% 491.544 2 Template:Reflist"," 18.45% 281.678 71 Template:Cite_book"," 7.40% 112.983 20 Template:Lang"," 7.12% 108.791 25 Template:Harvnb"," 6.65% 101.507 2 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 6.62% 101.070 19 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.40% 97.743 2 Template:Refn"," 6.17% 94.225 1 Template:Esotericism"," 4.97% 75.892 2 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[\"CITEREFHollister,_C._Warren1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmyard1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmyard1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoly2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKauṭalya1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeyser1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKripalShuck2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiddellScottJones1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinden1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinden2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindsay,_Jack1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindsay1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalouin1751\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarmura1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartelli2014\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMartelli2019\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFMerianos2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeulenbeld1999–2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoran2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoran2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoureau2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMulthauf1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedham1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewmanPrincipe2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicolaïdis2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlivelle2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPartington1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPartington1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPartington1999\"] = 1,\n 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source\"] = 1,\n [\"Visible anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n [\"Wikibooks\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisource\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-684955989f-67gkm","timestamp":"20250331174236","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Alchemy","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alchemy","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q39689","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q39689","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, 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