CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Rwandan genocide - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"96adbdf3-9304-4b97-9165-da52faf300ce","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Rwandan_genocide","wgTitle":"Rwandan genocide","wgCurRevisionId":1258421431,"wgRevisionId":1258421431,"wgArticleId":676659,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2021","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with French-language sources (fr)","CS1 maint: others","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Use British English from February 2018","Use dmy dates from February 2021","All articles with unsourced statements", "Articles with unsourced statements from September 2024","Commons category link from Wikidata","Articles with excerpts","Rwandan genocide","1994 in Rwanda","1994 murders in Africa","20th-century mass murder in Africa","Ethnic cleansing in Africa","Genocides in Africa","Mass murder in 1994","Massacres in Rwanda","Massacres in 1994","Massacres of ethnic groups","Military scandals","Peacekeeping operations","Responsibility to protect","United Nations operations in Rwanda","April 1994 crimes","April 1994 events in Africa","May 1994 crimes","1994 disasters in Rwanda","May 1994 events in Africa","June 1994 crimes","June 1994 events in Africa","July 1994 crimes","July 1994 events in Africa"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Rwandan_genocide","wgRelevantArticleId":676659,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"], "wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q131297","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false, "wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","mediawiki.page.gallery.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.gallery","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar", "ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.page.gallery.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/1200px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="798"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/800px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="532"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/640px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="426"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Rwandan genocide - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandan_genocide"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandan_genocide"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Rwandan_genocide rootpage-Rwandan_genocide skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Rwandan+genocide" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Rwandan+genocide" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Rwandan+genocide" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Rwandan+genocide" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Background </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Background-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Background subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-independent_Rwanda_and_the_origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-independent_Rwanda_and_the_origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Pre-independent Rwanda and the origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa groups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-independent_Rwanda_and_the_origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolution_and_Hutu–Tutsi_relations_after_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolution_and_Hutu–Tutsi_relations_after_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Revolution and Hutu–Tutsi relations after independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolution_and_Hutu–Tutsi_relations_after_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rwandan_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rwandan_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Rwandan Civil War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rwandan_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hutu_Power_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hutu_Power_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Hutu Power movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hutu_Power_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prelude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prelude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Prelude </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prelude-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prelude subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prelude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Timeline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_station_RTLM" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_station_RTLM"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Radio station RTLM </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_station_RTLM-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assassination_of_Habyarimana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assassination_of_Habyarimana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Assassination of Habyarimana </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assassination_of_Habyarimana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Killing_of_moderate_leaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Killing_of_moderate_leaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Killing of moderate leaders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Killing_of_moderate_leaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genocide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genocide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Genocide </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genocide-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Genocide subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Genocide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Planning_and_organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planning_and_organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Planning and organization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planning_and_organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_toll_and_timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_toll_and_timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Death toll and timeline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_toll_and_timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Means_of_killing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Means_of_killing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Means of killing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Means_of_killing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Sexual violence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Killing_of_the_Twa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Killing_of_the_Twa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Killing of the Twa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Killing_of_the_Twa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rwandan_Patriotic_Front's_military_campaign_and_victory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rwandan_Patriotic_Front's_military_campaign_and_victory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Rwandan Patriotic Front's military campaign and victory </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rwandan_Patriotic_Front's_military_campaign_and_victory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Rwandan Patriotic Front's military campaign and victory subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Rwandan_Patriotic_Front's_military_campaign_and_victory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Killings_by_the_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Killings_by_the_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Killings by the Rwandan Patriotic Front </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Killings_by_the_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 International involvement </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-International_involvement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle International involvement subsection </button> <ul id="toc-International_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 United Nations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France_and_Opération_Turquoise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France_and_Opération_Turquoise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 France and Opération Turquoise </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France_and_Opération_Turquoise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arms_sales_to_Rwanda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arms_sales_to_Rwanda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Arms sales to Rwanda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arms_sales_to_Rwanda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catholic_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Catholic Church </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholic_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Aftermath </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Aftermath subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Refugee_crisis,_insurgency,_and_two_Congo_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refugee_crisis,_insurgency,_and_two_Congo_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Refugee crisis, insurgency, and two Congo Wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refugee_crisis,_insurgency,_and_two_Congo_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domestic_situation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_situation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Domestic situation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_situation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Justice_system_after_genocide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justice_system_after_genocide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Justice system after genocide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justice_system_after_genocide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gacaca_courts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gacaca_courts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Gacaca courts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gacaca_courts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Censorship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Censorship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Censorship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Censorship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Survivors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Survivors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Survivors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Survivors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media_and_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media_and_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Media and popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media_and_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commemoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commemoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Commemoration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commemoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maps_of_Rwanda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maps_of_Rwanda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Maps of Rwanda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maps_of_Rwanda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Rwandan genocide</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 76 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-76" aria-hidden="true" > 76 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%A9%E1%8B%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%B3_%E1%8B%A8%E1%8B%98%E1%88%AD_%E1%88%9B%E1%8C%A5%E1%8D%8B%E1%89%B5_%E1%8B%88%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%80%E1%88%8D" title="የሩዋንዳ የዘር ማጥፋት ወንጀል – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የሩዋንዳ የዘር ማጥፋት ወንጀል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="الإبادة الجماعية في رواندا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإبادة الجماعية في رواندا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D6%81%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A8" title="Ռուանտայի ցեղասպանութիւնը – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ռուանտայի ցեղասպանութիւնը" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenocidiu_de_Ruanda" title="Xenocidiu de Ruanda – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xenocidiu de Ruanda" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rru%C3%A1nda_ret%C3%A3yguaku%C3%A9ra_jejuka_heta" title="Rruánda retãyguakuéra jejuka heta – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Rruánda retãyguakuéra jejuka heta" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruanda_soyq%C4%B1r%C4%B1m%C4%B1" title="Ruanda soyqırımı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ruanda soyqırımı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="রুয়ান্ডার গণহত্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রুয়ান্ডার গণহত্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B4_%D1%83_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5" title="Генацыд у Руандзе – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Генацыд у Руандзе" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%B2_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Геноцид в Руанда – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Геноцид в Руанда" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruandski_genocid" title="Ruandski genocid – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ruandski genocid" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidi_de_Ruanda" title="Genocidi de Ruanda – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Genocidi de Ruanda" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandsk%C3%A1_genocida" title="Rwandská genocida – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rwandská genocida" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hil-laddiad_Rwanda" title="Hil-laddiad Rwanda – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hil-laddiad Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkedrabet_i_Rwanda" title="Folkedrabet i Rwanda – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Folkedrabet i Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda_%C3%A1lbmotgoddin" title="Rwanda álbmotgoddin – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Rwanda álbmotgoddin" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lkermord_in_Ruanda" title="Völkermord in Ruanda – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Völkermord in Ruanda" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda_genotsiid" title="Rwanda genotsiid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rwanda genotsiid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Γενοκτονία της Ρουάντα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γενοκτονία της Ρουάντα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidio_de_Ruanda" title="Genocidio de Ruanda – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Genocidio de Ruanda" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruanda_genocido" title="Ruanda genocido – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ruanda genocido" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruandako_genozidioa" title="Ruandako genozidioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ruandako genozidioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%84%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="نسل‌کشی رواندا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نسل‌کشی رواندا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9nocide_des_Tutsis_au_Rwanda" title="Génocide des Tutsis au Rwanda – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Génocide des Tutsis au Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjenocidi_dal_Ruande" title="Gjenocidi dal Ruande – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Gjenocidi dal Ruande" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinedh%C3%ADoth%C3%BA_na_Ruandach" title="Cinedhíothú na Ruandach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cinedhíothú na Ruandach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenocidio_de_Ruanda" title="Xenocidio de Ruanda – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xenocidio de Ruanda" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A5%B4%EC%99%84%EB%8B%A4_%EC%A7%91%EB%8B%A8%ED%95%99%EC%82%B4" title="르완다 집단학살 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="르완다 집단학살" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisan_%C6%99are_dangi_na_Rwandan" title="Kisan ƙare dangi na Rwandan – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kisan ƙare dangi na Rwandan" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D6%81%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ռուանդայի ցեղասպանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռուանդայի ցեղասպանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="रवांडा जनसंहार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रवांडा जनसंहार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocid_u_Ruandi" title="Genocid u Ruandi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Genocid u Ruandi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genosida_Rwanda" title="Genosida Rwanda – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Genosida Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Ej%C3%B3%C3%B0armor%C3%B0i%C3%B0_%C3%AD_R%C3%BAanda" title="Þjóðarmorðið í Rúanda – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þjóðarmorðið í Rúanda" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidio_del_Ruanda" title="Genocidio del Ruanda – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Genocidio del Ruanda" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%97_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%9D_%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%94" title="רצח העם ברואנדה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רצח העם ברואנדה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda_az%C9%9By%CA%8B%CA%8B_t%C9%94m" title="Rwanda azɛyʋʋ tɔm – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Rwanda azɛyʋʋ tɔm" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="რუანდის გენოციდი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რუანდის გენოციდი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsembabwoko_ry%E2%80%99u_Rwanda_ry%E2%80%991994" title="Itsembabwoko ry’u Rwanda ry’1994 – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Itsembabwoko ry’u Rwanda ry’1994" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauaji_ya_kimbari_ya_Rwanda" title="Mauaji ya kimbari ya Rwanda – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mauaji ya kimbari ya Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruandas_genoc%C4%ABds" title="Ruandas genocīds – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ruandas genocīds" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruandos_genocidas" title="Ruandos genocidas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ruandos genocidas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruandai_n%C3%A9pirt%C3%A1s" title="Ruandai népirtás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ruandai népirtás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famongoran-taranaka_nahazo_ny_Totsy_tao_Roanda" title="Famongoran-taranaka nahazo ny Totsy tao Roanda – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Famongoran-taranaka nahazo ny Totsy tao Roanda" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF" title="റുവാണ്ടൻ വംശഹത്യ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റുവാണ്ടൻ വംശഹത്യ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="რუანდაშ გენოციდი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რუანდაშ გენოციდი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genosid_Rwanda" title="Genosid Rwanda – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Genosid Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandese_genocide" title="Rwandese genocide – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rwandese genocide" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="रुवान्डा नरसंहार – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रुवान्डा नरसंहार" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AB%E3%83%AF%E3%83%B3%E3%83%80%E8%99%90%E6%AE%BA" title="ルワンダ虐殺 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ルワンダ虐殺" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkemordet_i_Rwanda" title="Folkemordet i Rwanda – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Folkemordet i Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruandadagi_genotsid" title="Ruandadagi genotsid – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ruandadagi genotsid" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88_%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80" title="ਰਵਾਂਡਾਈ ਨਸਲਕੁਸ਼ੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰਵਾਂਡਾਈ ਨਸਲਕੁਸ਼ੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%88%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="روانڈائی نسل کشی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="روانڈائی نسل کشی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludob%C3%B3jstwo_w_Rwandzie" title="Ludobójstwo w Rwandzie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ludobójstwo w Rwandzie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoc%C3%ADdio_em_Ruanda" title="Genocídio em Ruanda – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Genocídio em Ruanda" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidul_din_Rwanda" title="Genocidul din Rwanda – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Genocidul din Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%B2_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5" title="Геноцид в Руанде – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геноцид в Руанде" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotz%C3%ACdiu_de_Ruanda" title="Genotzìdiu de Ruanda – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Genotzìdiu de Ruanda" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandan_Genocide" title="Rwandan Genocide – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Rwandan Genocide" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Rwandan genocide" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandsk%C3%A1_genoc%C3%ADda" title="Rwandská genocída – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rwandská genocída" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruandski_genocid" title="Ruandski genocid – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ruandski genocid" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D1%83_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Геноцид у Руанди – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Геноцид у Руанди" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocid_u_Ruandi" title="Genocid u Ruandi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Genocid u Ruandi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruandan_kansanmurha" title="Ruandan kansanmurha – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ruandan kansanmurha" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkmordet_i_Rwanda" title="Folkmordet i Rwanda – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Folkmordet i Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88" title="உருவாண்டா இனப்படுகொலை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உருவாண்டா இனப்படுகொலை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%86%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9C%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2" title="การฆ่าล้างเผ่าพันธุ์รวันดา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การฆ่าล้างเผ่าพันธุ์รวันดา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruanda_Soyk%C4%B1r%C4%B1m%C4%B1" title="Ruanda Soykırımı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ruanda Soykırımı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D1%83_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96" title="Геноцид у Руанді – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Геноцид у Руанді" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%88%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="روانڈیائی نسل کشی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="روانڈیائی نسل کشی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%E1%BA%A1n_di%E1%BB%87t_ch%E1%BB%A7ng_Rwanda" title="Nạn diệt chủng Rwanda – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nạn diệt chủng Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%A7%E6%97%BA%E9%81%94%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%AE%BA" title="盧旺達大屠殺 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="盧旺達大屠殺" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%A7%E6%97%BA%E9%81%94%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%AE%BA" title="盧旺達大屠殺 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="盧旺達大屠殺" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terteley_Rwanda" title="Terteley Rwanda – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Terteley Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%A2%E6%97%BA%E8%BE%BE%E7%A7%8D%E6%97%8F%E7%81%AD%E7%BB%9D" title="卢旺达种族灭绝 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="卢旺达种族灭绝" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q131297#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Rwandan_genocide" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide">Read</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rwandan_genocide&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rwandan_genocide&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rwandan_genocide&action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rwandan_genocide&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Rwandan_genocide" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Rwandan_genocide" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rwandan_genocide&oldid=1258421431" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rwandan_genocide&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Rwandan_genocide&id=1258421431&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRwandan_genocide">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRwandan_genocide">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Rwandan_genocide&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rwandan_genocide&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rwandan_genocide" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikinews mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Rwandan_Genocide" hreflang="en">Wikinews</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiversity mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Rwandan_Genocide" hreflang="en">Wikiversity</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q131297" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1994 genocide of Tutsis in Rwanda</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Tutsi Genocide" redirects here. For the killings of Tutsi in Burundi, see <a href="/wiki/1993_ethnic_violence_in_Burundi" title="1993 ethnic violence in Burundi">1993 ethnic violence in Burundi</a>. For the 1963/1964 killings, see <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan Revolution</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:125%;">Rwandan genocide</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/250px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/375px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/500px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Human skulls at the <a href="/wiki/Nyamata_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Nyamata Genocide Memorial Centre">Nyamata Genocide Memorial Centre</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location"><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">7 April – 19 July 1994</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Target</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsi</a>, moderate <a href="/wiki/Hutu" title="Hutu">Hutu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Twa" title="Twa">Twa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Attack type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">mass murder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genocidal_rape" title="Genocidal rape">genocidal rape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">Estimated: 500,000 to 800,000 <a href="/wiki/Tutsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutsis">Tutsis</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> & 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Twa" title="Twa">Twa</a><a href="#cite_note-AmericanUniversity-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Victims</th><td class="infobox-data">250,000 to 500,000 <a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsi</a> women raped during the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowrojee1996-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrators</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hutu" title="Hutu">Hutu</a>-led government (led by <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9oneste_Bagosora" title="Théoneste Bagosora">Théoneste Bagosora</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Interahamwe" title="Interahamwe">Interahamwe</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kajuga_(Interahamwe)" title="Robert Kajuga (Interahamwe)">Robert Kajuga</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Impuzamugambi" title="Impuzamugambi">Impuzamugambi</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Bosco_Barayagwiza" title="Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza">Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Ngeze" title="Hassan Ngeze">Hassan Ngeze</a>)</li><li>Other militias and gangs financed by <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licien_Kabuga" title="Félicien Kabuga">Félicien Kabuga</a></li><li>local Hutu extremists</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Motive</th><td class="infobox-data">Anti-Tutsi sentiment, <a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu Power</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJ-DrA5ksiA">Coming To Terms With The Rwandan Genocide (2003), Journeyman Pictures</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/180px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/270px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg/360px-Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><div class="sidebar-top-caption">Human skulls at the <a href="/wiki/Nyamata_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Nyamata Genocide Memorial Centre">Nyamata Genocide Memorial Centre</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Rwandan_genocide" title="Category:Rwandan genocide">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rwandan genocide</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rwanda" title="History of Rwanda">History of Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa" title="Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa">Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwanda" title="Kingdom of Rwanda">Kingdom of Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu Power</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_and_Cyprien_Ntaryamira" title="Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira">Assassination of Habyarimana and Ntaryamira</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Events</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Initial_events_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Initial events of the Rwandan genocide">Initial events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Timeline of the Rwandan genocide">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gikondo_massacre" title="Gikondo massacre">Gikondo massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musha_Church_massacre" title="Musha Church massacre">Musha Church massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyarubuye_massacre" title="Nyarubuye massacre">Nyarubuye massacre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Parties responsible</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_indicted_in_the_International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="List of people indicted in the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">People indicted</a> by the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidaires" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocidaires">Genocidaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akazu" title="Akazu">Akazu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impuzamugambi" title="Impuzamugambi">Impuzamugambi militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interahamwe" title="Interahamwe">Interahamwe militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangura" title="Kangura">Kangura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_Libre_des_Mille_Collines" title="Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines">RTLM radio</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Response</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Patriotic_Front" title="Rwandan Patriotic Front">Rwandan Patriotic Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_the_international_community_in_the_Rwandan_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Role of the international community in the Rwandan genocide">International community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Assistance_Mission_for_Rwanda" title="United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda">United Nations Mission</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_935" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 935">UN Security Council Resolution 935</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_Turquoise" title="Opération Turquoise">Opération "Turquoise"</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Aftermath</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis" title="Great Lakes refugee crisis">Great Lakes refugee crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gacaca_court" title="Gacaca court">Gacaca court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Massacres of Hutus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Resources</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_the_Rwandan_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="List of films about the Rwandan Genocide">Filmography</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rwandan_genocide_sidebar" title="Template:Rwandan genocide sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rwandan_genocide_sidebar" title="Template talk:Rwandan genocide sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rwandan_genocide_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rwandan genocide sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Rwandan genocide, also known as the genocide against the Tutsi, occurred from 7 April to 19 July 1994 during the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Over a span of around 100 days, members of the <a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsi</a> ethnic group, as well as some moderate <a href="/wiki/Hutu" title="Hutu">Hutu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Twa" title="Great Lakes Twa">Twa</a>, were systematically killed by Hutu militias. While the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Rwanda" title="Constitution of Rwanda">Rwandan Constitution</a> states that over 1 million people were killed, most scholarly estimates suggest between 500,000 and 662,000 Tutsi died.<a href="#cite_note-Reydams-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-6">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> was marked by extreme violence, with victims often murdered by neighbors, and widespread sexual violence, with between 250,000 and 500,000 women raped.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1995247-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowrojee1996-3">[3]</a> The genocide was rooted in long-standing ethnic tensions, exacerbated by the Rwandan Civil War, which began in 1990 when the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Patriotic_Front" title="Rwandan Patriotic Front">Rwandan Patriotic Front</a> (RPF), a predominantly Tutsi rebel group, invaded Rwanda from <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>. The war reached a tentative peace with the <a href="/wiki/Arusha_Accords_(Rwanda)" title="Arusha Accords (Rwanda)">Arusha Accords</a> in 1993. However, the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_and_Cyprien_Ntaryamira" title="Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira">assassination</a> of President <a href="/wiki/Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana" title="Juvénal Habyarimana">Juvénal Habyarimana</a> on 6 April 1994 ignited the genocide, as Hutu extremists used the power vacuum to target Tutsi and moderate Hutu leaders.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Despite the scale of the atrocities, the international community failed to intervene to stop the killings.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The RPF resumed military operations in response to the genocide, eventually defeating the government forces and ending the genocide by capturing all government-controlled territory. This led to the flight of the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9nocidaires" title="Génocidaires">génocidaires</a> and many Hutu refugees into <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a> (now the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>), contributing to regional instability and triggering the <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a> in 1996. The legacy of the genocide remains significant in Rwanda. The country has instituted public holidays to commemorate the event and passed laws criminalizing "<a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide_denial" title="Rwandan genocide denial">genocide ideology</a>" and "divisionism."<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-11">[11]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-independent_Rwanda_and_the_origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa_groups">Pre-independent Rwanda and the origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa groups</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa" title="Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa">Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M%C3%A9morial_Rwanda,_Gen%C3%A8ve_8_avril_2019-17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/M%C3%A9morial_Rwanda%2C_Gen%C3%A8ve_8_avril_2019-17.jpg/220px-M%C3%A9morial_Rwanda%2C_Gen%C3%A8ve_8_avril_2019-17.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/M%C3%A9morial_Rwanda%2C_Gen%C3%A8ve_8_avril_2019-17.jpg/330px-M%C3%A9morial_Rwanda%2C_Gen%C3%A8ve_8_avril_2019-17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/M%C3%A9morial_Rwanda%2C_Gen%C3%A8ve_8_avril_2019-17.jpg/440px-M%C3%A9morial_Rwanda%2C_Gen%C3%A8ve_8_avril_2019-17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1464" data-file-height="2071" /></a><figcaption>Rwandan genocide memorial in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, Switzerland</figcaption></figure> The earliest inhabitants of what is now Rwanda were the <a href="/wiki/Twa" title="Twa">Twa</a>, a group of aboriginal <a href="/wiki/Pygmy_peoples" title="Pygmy peoples">pygmy</a> hunter-gatherers who settled in the area between 8000 BC and 3000 BC and remain in Rwanda today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien200344-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani200261-13">[13]</a> Between 700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a> groups migrated into Rwanda, and began to clear forest land for agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani200261-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien200358-14">[14]</a> Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu migrations</a>: one theory is that the first settlers were <a href="/wiki/Hutu" title="Hutu">Hutu</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsi</a> migrated later and formed a distinct racial group, possibly of <a href="/wiki/Cushitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cushitic">Cushitic</a> origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199916-15">[15]</a> An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady from neighbouring regions, with incoming groups bearing high genetic similarity to the established ones,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuis2004-16">[16]</a> and integrating into rather than conquering the existing society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani200261-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani200258-17">[17]</a> Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was not a racial one, but principally a class or <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a> distinction in which the Tutsi herded cattle while the Hutu farmed the land.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien200369-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShyaka10–11-19">[19]</a> The Hutu, Tutsi and Twa of Rwanda share a common language and are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Banyarwanda" title="Banyarwanda">Banyarwanda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani200252-20">[20]</a> The population coalesced, first into <a href="/wiki/Clans_of_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Clans of Rwanda">clans</a> (ubwoko),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien200388–89-21">[21]</a> and then, by 1700, into around eight kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003482-22">[22]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwanda" title="Kingdom of Rwanda">Kingdom of Rwanda</a>, ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan, became the dominant kingdom from the mid-eighteenth century,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003160-23">[23]</a> expanding through a process of conquest and assimilation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorsey199438-24">[24]</a> and achieving its greatest extent under the reign of King <a href="/wiki/Kigeli_IV_of_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Kigeli IV of Rwanda">Kigeli Rwabugiri</a> in 1853–1895. Rwabugiri expanded the kingdom west and north,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani200269-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003160-23">[23]</a> and initiated administrative reforms which caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani200269-25">[25]</a> These included uburetwa, a system of forced labour which Hutu had to perform to regain access to land seized from them,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPottier200213-26">[26]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ubuhake" title="Ubuhake">ubuhake</a>, under which Tutsi patrons ceded cattle to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199913–14-27">[27]</a> Although Hutu and Tutsi were often treated differently, they shared the same language and culture, the same clan names, and the same customs; the symbols of kinship served as a unifying bond between them.<a href="#cite_note-Totten-28">[28]</a>: 421  Rwanda and neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a> were assigned to Germany by the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference_(1884)" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin Conference (1884)">Berlin Conference of 1884</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAppiahGates2010218-29">[29]</a> and Germany established a presence in the country in 1897 with the formation of an alliance with the king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarney201324-30">[30]</a> German policy was to rule the country through the Rwandan monarchy; this system had the added benefit of enabling colonization with small European troop numbers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199925-31">[31]</a> The colonists favoured the Tutsi over the Hutu when assigning administrative roles, believing them to be migrants from Ethiopia and racially superior.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The Rwandan king welcomed the Germans, using their military strength to widen his rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003217–18-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian forces</a> took control of Rwanda and Burundi in 1917 during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199925–26-34">[34]</a> and from 1926 began a policy of more direct colonial rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199926-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003260-36">[36]</a> The Belgians modernised the Rwandan economy, but Tutsi supremacy remained, leaving the Hutu disenfranchised.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199935-37">[37]</a> In the early 1930s, Belgium introduced a permanent division of the population by classifying Rwandans into three ethnic (ethno-racial) groups, with the Hutu representing about 84% of the population, the Tutsi about 15%, and the Twa about 1%. Compulsory identity cards were issued labeling (under the heading for "ethnicity and race") each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu, Twa, or Naturalised. While it had previously been possible for particularly wealthy Hutus to become honorary Tutsis, the identity cards prevented any further movement between the groups<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGourevitch200056–57-38">[38]</a> and made socio-economic groups into rigid ethnic groups.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> The ethnic identities of the Hutu and Tutsi were reshaped and mythologized by the colonizers.<a href="#cite_note-Totten-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Christian missionaries in Rwanda</a> promoted the theory about the "<a href="/wiki/Hamites" title="Hamites">Hamitic</a>" origins of the kingdom, and referred to the distinctively Ethiopian features and hence, foreign origins, of the Tutsi "caste".<a href="#cite_note-Totten-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> These mythologies provide the basis for anti-Tutsi propaganda in 1994.<a href="#cite_note-Totten-28">[28]</a>: 421  Starkly contrasted, the Tutsi origin myth holds that <a href="/wiki/Kanyarwanda_I_Gahima_I" title="Kanyarwanda I Gahima I">Kanyarwanda</a> had several sons, including Gatutsi and Gahutu, ancestors of the Tutsi and Hutu who are therefore brothers. The Hutu origin myth holds that <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kigwa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kigwa (page does not exist)">Kigwa</a> (patrilineal ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Ruhanga" title="Ruhanga">Ruhanga</a> and the first Tutsi) fell from the sky on an earth inhabited by Hutu.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>: 65  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolution_and_Hutu–Tutsi_relations_after_independence">Revolution and Hutu–Tutsi relations after independence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan Revolution</a></div> After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, a Hutu <a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">emancipation</a> movement began to grow in Rwanda,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199943-42">[42]</a> fuelled by increasing resentment of the inter-war social reforms, and also an increasing sympathy for the Hutu within the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199943–44-43">[43]</a> Catholic missionaries increasingly viewed themselves as responsible for empowering the underprivileged Hutu rather than the Tutsi elite, leading rapidly to the formation of a sizeable Hutu clergy and educated elite that provided a new counterbalance to the established political order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199943–44-43">[43]</a> The monarchy and prominent Tutsis sensed the growing influence of the Hutu and began to agitate for immediate independence on their own terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199943-42">[42]</a> In 1957, a group of Hutu scholars wrote the "<a href="/wiki/Bahutu_Manifesto" title="Bahutu Manifesto">Bahutu Manifesto</a>". This was the first document to label the Tutsi and Hutu as separate races, and called for the transfer of power from Tutsi to Hutu based on what it termed "statistical law".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199945–46-44">[44]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa_addio_(1966)_-_Rwandan_revolution_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Africa_addio_%281966%29_-_Rwandan_revolution_2.png/220px-Africa_addio_%281966%29_-_Rwandan_revolution_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Africa_addio_%281966%29_-_Rwandan_revolution_2.png/330px-Africa_addio_%281966%29_-_Rwandan_revolution_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Africa_addio_%281966%29_-_Rwandan_revolution_2.png/440px-Africa_addio_%281966%29_-_Rwandan_revolution_2.png 2x" data-file-width="932" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>Tutsi murdered by Hutu militia in January 1964</figcaption></figure> On 1 November 1959 <a href="/wiki/Dominique_Mbonyumutwa" title="Dominique Mbonyumutwa">Dominique Mbonyumutwa</a>, a Hutu sub-chief, was attacked close to his home in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Byimana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byimana (page does not exist)">Byimana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gitarama_Province" title="Gitarama Province">Gitarama prefecture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarney2013124-45">[45]</a> by supporters of the pro-Tutsi party. Mbonyumutwa survived, but rumours began spreading that he had been killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGourevitch200058–59-46">[46]</a> Hutu activists responded by killing Tutsis, both the elite and ordinary civilians, marking the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199948–49-47">[47]</a> The Tutsi responded with attacks of their own, but by this stage the Hutu had full backing from the Belgian administration who wanted to overturn the Tutsi domination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199951-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGourevitch200060-49">[49]</a> In early 1960, the Belgians replaced most Tutsi chiefs with Hutu and organised mid-year commune elections which returned an overwhelming Hutu majority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199951-48">[48]</a> The king was deposed, a Hutu-dominated republic created, and the country became independent in 1962.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199953-50">[50]</a> As the revolution progressed, Tutsis began leaving the country to escape the Hutu purges, settling in the four neighbouring countries: Burundi, <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani2002160–61-51">[51]</a> These exiles, unlike the Banyarwanda who migrated during the pre-colonial and colonial era, were regarded as refugees in their host countries,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199963–64-52">[52]</a> and began almost immediately to agitate for a return to Rwanda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199955–56-53">[53]</a> They formed armed groups who launched attacks into Rwanda; these were largely unsuccessful, and led to further reprisal killings of 10,000 Tutsis and further Tutsi exiles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199955–56-53">[53]</a> By 1964, more than 300,000 Tutsis had fled, and were forced to remain in exile for the next three decades.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199962-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%A9goire_Kayibanda" title="Grégoire Kayibanda">Grégoire Kayibanda</a> presided over a Hutu republic for the next decade, imposing an autocratic rule similar to the pre-revolution feudal monarchy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199957-55">[55]</a> He was overthrown following <a href="/wiki/1973_Rwandan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Rwandan coup d'état">a coup in 1973</a>, which brought President <a href="/wiki/Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana" title="Juvénal Habyarimana">Juvénal Habyarimana</a> to power. Pro-Hutu and Anti-Tutsi discrimination continued in Rwanda itself, although the indiscriminate violence against the Tutsi did decrease somewhat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199974–76-56">[56]</a> Habyarimana founded the <a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Movement_for_Democracy_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development">National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development</a> (MRND) party in 1975,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwagilimana2007117-57">[57]</a> and promulgated a new constitution following a <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_constitutional_referendum,_1978" class="mw-redirect" title="Rwandan constitutional referendum, 1978">1978 referendum</a>, making the country a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> in which every citizen had to belong to the MRND.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwagilimana2007116-58">[58]</a> At 408 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,060/sq mi), Rwanda's <a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">population density</a> is among the highest in Africa. <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Rwanda" title="Demographics of Rwanda">Rwanda's population</a> had increased from 1.6 million people in 1934 to 7.1 million in 1989, leading to competition for land. Historians such as <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Prunier" title="Gérard Prunier">Gérard Prunier</a> believe that the 1994 genocide can be partly attributed to population density.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier19994-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rwandan_Civil_War">Rwandan Civil War</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_Kagame_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Close up profile picture of Paul Kagame, taken in 2014" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Paul_Kagame_2014.jpg/220px-Paul_Kagame_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Paul_Kagame_2014.jpg/330px-Paul_Kagame_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Paul_Kagame_2014.jpg/440px-Paul_Kagame_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1909" data-file-height="2531" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kagame" title="Paul Kagame">Paul Kagame</a>, commander of the Rwandan Patriotic Front for most of the Civil War</figcaption></figure> In the 1980s, a group of 500 Rwandan refugees in Uganda, led by <a href="/wiki/Fred_Rwigyema" title="Fred Rwigyema">Fred Rwigyema</a>, fought with the rebel <a href="/wiki/National_Resistance_Army" title="National Resistance Army">National Resistance Army</a> (NRA) in the <a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a>, which saw <a href="/wiki/Yoweri_Museveni" title="Yoweri Museveni">Yoweri Museveni</a> overthrow <a href="/wiki/Milton_Obote" title="Milton Obote">Milton Obote</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer200847-60">[60]</a> These soldiers remained in the Ugandan army following Museveni's inauguration as <a href="/wiki/President_of_Uganda" title="President of Uganda">Ugandan president</a>, but simultaneously began planning an invasion of Rwanda through a covert network within the army's ranks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer200851–52-61">[61]</a> In October 1990, Rwigyema led a force of over 4,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200414-62">[62]</a> rebels from Uganda, advancing 60 km (37 mi) into Rwanda under the banner of the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Patriotic_Front" title="Rwandan Patriotic Front">Rwandan Patriotic Front</a> (RPF).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199994–95-63">[63]</a> Rwigyema was killed on the third day of the attack,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199995–96-64">[64]</a> and France and Zaire deployed forces in support of the Rwandan army, allowing them to repel the invasion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199996-65">[65]</a> Rwigyema's deputy, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kagame" title="Paul Kagame">Paul Kagame</a>, took command of the RPF forces,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200027–30-66">[66]</a> organising a tactical retreat through Uganda to the <a href="/wiki/Virunga_Mountains" title="Virunga Mountains">Virunga Mountains</a>, a rugged area of northern Rwanda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999114–15-67">[67]</a> From there, he rearmed and reorganised the army, and carried out fundraising and recruitment from the Tutsi diaspora.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999117–18-68">[68]</a> Kagame restarted the war in January 1991, with a surprise attack on the northern town of <a href="/wiki/Ruhengeri" title="Ruhengeri">Ruhengeri</a>. The RPF captured the town, benefiting from the element of surprise, and held it for one day before retreating to the forests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999120-69">[69]</a> For the next year, the RPF waged a hit-and-run style <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla war">guerrilla war</a>, capturing some border areas but not making significant gains against the Rwandan army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999135-70">[70]</a> In June 1992, following the formation of a multiparty coalition government in <a href="/wiki/Kigali" title="Kigali">Kigali</a>, the RPF announced a ceasefire and began negotiations with the Rwandan government in <a href="/wiki/Arusha" title="Arusha">Arusha</a>, Tanzania.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999150-71">[71]</a> In early 1993, several extremist Hutu groups formed and began campaigns of large scale violence against the Tutsi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999173–74-72">[72]</a> The RPF responded by suspending peace talks and launching a major attack, gaining a large swathe of land across the north of the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999174–77-73">[73]</a> Peace negotiations eventually resumed in Arusha; the resulting set of agreements, known as the <a href="/wiki/Arusha_Accords_(Rwanda)" title="Arusha Accords (Rwanda)">Arusha Accords</a>, were signed in August 1993 and gave the RPF positions in a Broad-Based Transitional Government (BBTG) and in the national army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999190–91-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999187-75">[75]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Assistance_Mission_for_Rwanda" title="United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda">United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda</a> (UNAMIR), a peacekeeping force, arrived in the country and the RPF were given a base in the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Rwanda" title="Parliament of Rwanda">national parliament</a> building in Kigali, for use during the setting up of the BBTG.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005126–31-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hutu_Power_movement">Hutu Power movement</h3></div> In the early years of Habyarimana's regime, there was greater economic prosperity and reduced violence against Tutsis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199974–76-56">[56]</a> Many hardline anti-Tutsi figures remained, including the family of the first lady <a href="/wiki/Agathe_Habyarimana" title="Agathe Habyarimana">Agathe Habyarimana</a>, who were known as the <a href="/wiki/Akazu" title="Akazu">akazu</a> or clan de Madame,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199985-77">[77]</a> and the president relied on them to maintain his regime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200412-78">[78]</a> When the RPF invaded in October 1990, Habyarimana and the hardliners exploited the fear of the population to advance an anti-Tutsi agenda<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999108-79">[79]</a> which became known as <a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu Power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999188-80">[80]</a> Tutsi were increasingly viewed with suspicion. A <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogrom</a> was organised on 11 October 1990 in a commune in <a href="/wiki/Gisenyi_Province" title="Gisenyi Province">Gisenyi Province</a>, killing 383 Tutsi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua201534–36-81">[81]</a> A group of military officers and government members founded a magazine called <a href="/wiki/Kangura" title="Kangura">Kangura</a>, which became popular throughout the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200449-82">[82]</a> This published anti-Tutsi propaganda, including the <a href="/wiki/Hutu_Ten_Commandments" title="Hutu Ten Commandments">Hutu Ten Commandments</a>, an explicit set of racist guidelines, including labelling Hutus who married Tutsis as "traitors".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200450-83">[83]</a> In 1992, the hardliners created the <a href="/wiki/Coalition_for_the_Defence_of_the_Republic" title="Coalition for the Defence of the Republic">Coalition for the Defence of the Republic</a> (CDR) party, which was linked to the ruling party but more <a href="/wiki/Right-wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-wing">right-wing</a>, and promoted an agenda critical of the president's alleged "softness" with the RPF.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999128-84">[84]</a> To make the economic, social and political conflict look more like an ethnic conflict, the President's entourage, including the army, launched propaganda campaigns to fabricate events of ethnic crisis caused by the Tutsi and the RPF. The process was described as "mirror politics", also known as "<a href="/wiki/Accusation_in_a_mirror" title="Accusation in a mirror">accusation in a mirror</a>"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999-85">[85]</a> whereby a person accuses others of what the person himself/herself actually wants to do.<a href="#cite_note-ICTR_Judgement-86">[86]</a> Following the 1992 ceasefire agreement, a number of the extremists in the Rwandan government and army began actively plotting against the president, worried about the possibility of Tutsis being included in government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999166-87">[87]</a> Habyarimana attempted to remove the hardliners from senior army positions, but was only partially successful; akazu affiliates <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Ndindiliyimana" title="Augustin Ndindiliyimana">Augustin Ndindiliyimana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9oneste_Bagosora" title="Théoneste Bagosora">Théoneste Bagosora</a> remained in powerful posts, providing the hardline family with a link to power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999167-88">[88]</a> Throughout 1992, the hardliners carried out campaigns of localised killings of Tutsi, culminating in January 1993, in which extremists and local Hutu murdered around 300 people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999173–74-72">[72]</a> When the RPF resumed hostilities in February 1993, it cited these killings as the primary motive,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999174-89">[89]</a> but its effect was to increase support for the extremists amongst the Hutu population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999180-90">[90]</a> From mid-1993, the Hutu Power movement represented a third major force in Rwandan politics, in addition to Habyarimana's government and the traditional moderate opposition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999188-80">[80]</a> Apart from the CDR, there was no party that was exclusively part of the Power movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999181–82-91">[91]</a> Instead, almost every party was split into "moderate" and "Power" wings, with members of both camps claiming to represent the legitimate leadership of that party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999181–82-91">[91]</a> Even the ruling party contained a Power wing, consisting of those who opposed Habyarimana's intention to sign a peace deal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999182-92">[92]</a> Several radical youth militia groups emerged, attached to the Power wings of the parties; these included the <a href="/wiki/Interahamwe" title="Interahamwe">Interahamwe</a> ("those who stand together"), which was attached to the ruling party,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005129-93">[93]</a> and the CDR's <a href="/wiki/Impuzamugambi" title="Impuzamugambi">Impuzamugambi</a> ("those who have the same goal").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999165-94">[94]</a> The youth militia began actively carrying out massacres across the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200425-95">[95]</a> The army trained the militias, sometimes in conjunction with the French, who were unaware of their true purpose.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999165-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prelude">Prelude</h2></div> To what extent the Rwandan genocide was planned in advance of the assassination of Habyarimana continues to be debated by historians.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Prosecutors at the ICTR argued, but were unable to prove, that the defendants planned the genocide prior to Habyarimana's assassination.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3></div> In 1990, the army began arming civilians with weapons such as machetes, and it began training the Hutu youth in combat, officially as a programme of "civil defence" against the RPF threat,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200420-98">[98]</a> but these weapons were later used to carry out the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999243-99">[99]</a> In particular, the Hutu Power leaders organized a paramilitary or militia force known as the Interahamwe and the Impuzamugambi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2011286-100">[100]</a> These groups served to provide auxiliary slaughterhouse support to the police, the gendarmerie and the regular army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETottenParsons2009408-101">[101]</a> These militias were primarily recruited from the vast pool of Hutu internally displaced persons driven from their homes in the North, and claimed a total membership of 50,000 on the eve of genocide<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETottenParsons2009408-101">[101]</a> Rwanda also purchased large numbers of grenades and munitions from late 1990; in one deal, future UN Secretary-General <a href="/wiki/Boutros_Boutros-Ghali" title="Boutros Boutros-Ghali">Boutros Boutros-Ghali</a>, in his role as <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> foreign minister, facilitated a large sale of arms from Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200031,_32-102">[102]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Armed_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Rwandan Armed Forces">Rwandan Armed Forces</a> (FAR) expanded rapidly at this time, growing from less than 10,000 troops to almost 30,000 in one year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200420-98">[98]</a> The new recruits were often poorly disciplined;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200420-98">[98]</a> a divide grew between the elite Presidential Guard and <a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a> units, who were well trained and battle ready, and the ordinary rank and file, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire200569-103">[103]</a> In March 1993, Hutu Power began compiling lists of "traitors" whom they planned to kill, and it is possible that Habyarimana's name was on these lists;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999182-92">[92]</a> the CDR were publicly accusing the president of treason.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999182-92">[92]</a> During 1993, the hardliners imported machetes on a scale far larger than what was required for agriculture, as well as other tools which could be used as weapons, such as razor blades, saws and scissors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200456-104">[104]</a> These tools were distributed around the country, ostensibly as part of the civil defence network.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200456-104">[104]</a> In October 1993, the President of Burundi, <a href="/wiki/Melchior_Ndadaye" title="Melchior Ndadaye">Melchior Ndadaye</a>, who had been elected in June as the country's first ever Hutu president, was assassinated by extremist Tutsi army officers. The assassination sparked the <a href="/wiki/Burundi_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Burundi Civil War">Burundi Civil War</a> between Burundi's Hutu and Tutsi and the <a href="/wiki/Burundi_genocide_(1993)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burundi genocide (1993)">Burundi genocide</a>, with 50,000 to 100,000 people killed in the first year of war.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999199-106">[106]</a> The assassination caused shockwaves, reinforcing the notion among Hutus that the Tutsi were their enemy and could not be trusted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999200-107">[107]</a> The CDR and the Power wings of the other parties realised they could use this situation to their advantage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999200-107">[107]</a> The idea of a deliberate and systematic genocide, which had first been suggested in 1992 but had remained a fringe viewpoint, was now top of their agenda, and they began actively planning it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999200-107">[107]</a> They were confident of persuading the Hutu population to carry out killings, given the public anger at Ndadaye's murder, as well as RTLM propaganda and the traditional obedience of Rwandans to authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999200-107">[107]</a> The Power leaders began arming the interahamwe and other militia groups with <a href="/wiki/AK-47" title="AK-47">AK-47s</a> and other weapons; previously, they had possessed only machetes and traditional hand weapons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005143-108">[108]</a> On 11 January 1994, General <a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A9o_Dallaire" title="Roméo Dallaire">Roméo Dallaire</a>, commander of <a href="/wiki/UNAMIR" class="mw-redirect" title="UNAMIR">UNAMIR</a>, sent his "Genocide Fax" to UN Headquarters.<a href="#cite_note-huffrawanda-109">[109]</a> The fax stated that Dallaire was in contact with "a top level trainer in the cadre of Interhamwe-armed [sic] militia of <a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Movement_for_Democracy_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development">MRND</a>." The informant—now known to be <a href="/wiki/Mathieu_Ngirumpatse" title="Mathieu Ngirumpatse">Mathieu Ngirumpatse</a>'s chauffeur, Kassim Turatsinze,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015141,_127-110">[110]</a> a.k.a. "Jean-Pierre"—claimed to have been ordered to register all Tutsi in Kigali. According to the memo, Turatsinze suspected that a genocide against the Tutsis was being planned, and he said that "in 20 minutes his personnel could kill up to 1000 Tutsis".<a href="#cite_note-GenocideFax-111">[111]</a> Dallaire's request to protect the informant and his family and to raid the weapons caches he revealed was denied.<a href="#cite_note-GenocideFax-111">[111]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">ICTR</a> prosecution was unable to prove that a conspiracy to commit genocide existed prior to 7 April 1994.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The supposed mastermind, <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9oneste_Bagosora" title="Théoneste Bagosora">Théoneste Bagosora</a>, was acquitted of that charge in 2008, although he was convicted of genocide.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> André Guichaoua, an expert witness for the ICTR prosecution, noted in 2010: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">What the Office of the Prosecutor has consistently failed to demonstrate is the alleged existence of a "conspiracy" among the accused—presuming an association or a preexisting plan to commit genocide. This is the central argument at the core of its prosecution strategy, borrowing from the contentions initially put forth by academics and human rights defenders. With the exception of two judgements, confirmed on appeal, the Trial Chambers have uniformly found the prosecution's proof of a conspiracy wanting, regardless of the case.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015303-115">[115]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radio_station_RTLM">Radio station RTLM</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radio_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_Libre_des_Mille_Collines" title="Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines">Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines</a></div> The Power groups believed that the national radio station, <a href="/wiki/Radio_Rwanda" title="Radio Rwanda">Radio Rwanda</a>, had become too liberal and supportive of the opposition; they founded a new radio station, <a href="/wiki/Radio_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_Libre_des_Mille_Collines" title="Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines">Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines</a> (RTLM). The RTLM was designed to appeal to the young adults in Rwanda and had extensive reach. Unlike newspapers that could only be found in cities, the radio broadcasts were accessible to Rwanda's largely rural population of farmers. The format of the broadcasts mirrored Western-style radio talk shows that played popular music, hosted interviews, and encouraged audience participation. The broadcasters told crude jokes and used offensive language that contrasted strongly with Radio Rwanda's more formal news reports.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Just 1.52% of RTLM's airtime was dedicated to news, while 66.29% of airtime featured the journalists discussing their thoughts on different subjects.<a href="#cite_note-Kimani_110–124-117">[117]</a> As the start of the genocide approached, the RTLM broadcasts focused on anti-Tutsi propaganda. They characterized the Tutsi as a dangerous enemy who wanted to seize the political power at the expense of Hutus. By linking the Rwandan Patriotic Army with the Tutsi political party and ordinary Tutsi citizens, they classified the entire ethnic group as one homogeneous threat to Rwandans. The RTLM went further than amplifying ethnic and political division; it also labeled the Tutsi as inyenzi, meaning non-human pests or cockroaches, which must be exterminated.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Leading up to the genocide, there were 294 instances of the RTLM accusing the Rwandan Patriotic Army of atrocities against the Hutu, along with 252 broadcasts that called for Hutus to kill the Tutsis.<a href="#cite_note-Kimani_110–124-117">[117]</a> One such broadcast stated, "Someone must ... make them disappear for good ... to wipe them from human memory ... to exterminate the Tutsi from the surface of the earth."<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> By the time the violence began, the young Hutu population had absorbed months of racist propaganda that characterized all Tutsis as dangerous enemies that must be killed before they seized control of the country. The RTLM's role in the genocide earned it the nickname "Radio Machete" as it related to their incitement to genocide.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> A 2014 study by <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School" title="Harvard Kennedy School">Harvard Kennedy School</a> researcher David Yanagizawa-Drott found that approximately 10% of the overall violence during the Rwandan genocide can be attributed to this new radio station.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Gordon Danning, a researcher with the <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a> advocacy group <a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Individual_Rights_in_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundation for Individual Rights in Education">Foundation for Individual Rights in Education</a> questioned the assumption of that paper that media availability correlated with media consumption.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assassination_of_Habyarimana">Assassination of Habyarimana</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_and_Cyprien_Ntaryamira" title="Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira">Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_(1980).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_%281980%29.jpg/220px-Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_%281980%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_%281980%29.jpg/330px-Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_%281980%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_%281980%29.jpg/440px-Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_%281980%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="916" data-file-height="1287" /></a><figcaption>Juvénal Habyarimana in 1980</figcaption></figure> On 6 April 1994, the airplane carrying Rwandan President <a href="/wiki/Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana" title="Juvénal Habyarimana">Juvénal Habyarimana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyprien_Ntaryamira" title="Cyprien Ntaryamira">Cyprien Ntaryamira</a>, the Hutu president of <a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a>, was shot down as it prepared to land in <a href="/wiki/Kigali" title="Kigali">Kigali</a>, killing everyone on board. Responsibility for the attack was disputed, with both the RPF and Hutu extremists being blamed. In 2006, an eight-year investigation by the French judge <a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Brugui%C3%A8re" title="Jean-Louis Bruguière">Jean-Louis Bruguière</a> concluded that Paul Kagame had ordered the assassination.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> An investigation by the Rwandan government made public in 2010 blamed Hutu extremists in the Rwandan army.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In January 2012, a French investigation<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> was widely published as exonerating the RPF,<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> but according to <a href="/wiki/Filip_Reyntjens" title="Filip Reyntjens">Filip Reyntjens</a>, the report did not exonerate the RPF.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> In November 2014, Emmanuel Mughisa (also known as Emile Gafarita), a former Rwandan soldier who said he had evidence that Kagame had ordered Habyarimana's plane shot down, was abducted in Nairobi hours after he was called to testify at the French inquiry. He was reportedly "join[ing] a long list of Mr Kagame's opponents who have disappeared or died".<a href="#cite_note-Times_abduction-129">[129]</a> Despite disagreements about the perpetrators, many observers believe the attack and deaths of the two Hutu presidents served as the catalyst for the genocide. Following Habyarimana's death, on the evening of 6 April, a crisis committee was formed; it consisted of Major General <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Ndindiliyimana" title="Augustin Ndindiliyimana">Augustin Ndindiliyimana</a>, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9oneste_Bagosora" title="Théoneste Bagosora">Théoneste Bagosora</a>, and a number of other senior army staff officers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005222–23-130">[130]</a> The committee was headed by Bagosora, despite the presence of the more senior Ndindiliyimana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004137-131">[131]</a> Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Agathe_Uwilingiyimana" title="Agathe Uwilingiyimana">Agathe Uwilingiyimana</a> was legally next in the line of political succession,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005224-132">[132]</a> but the committee refused to recognise her authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005224-132">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A9o_Dallaire" title="Roméo Dallaire">Roméo Dallaire</a> met with the committee that night and insisted that Uwilingiyimana be placed in charge, but Bagosora refused, saying Uwilingiyimana did not "enjoy the confidence of the Rwandan people" and was "incapable of governing the nation".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005224-132">[132]</a> The committee also justified its existence as being essential to avoid uncertainty following the president's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005224-132">[132]</a> Bagosora sought to convince UNAMIR and the RPF<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005225-133">[133]</a> that the committee was acting to contain the presidential guard, which he described as "out of control",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005223-134">[134]</a> and that it would abide by the Arusha agreement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005224-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Killing_of_moderate_leaders">Killing of moderate leaders</h3></div> UNAMIR sent an escort of ten Belgian soldiers to Prime Minister Uwilingiyimana, with the intention of transporting her to the <a href="/wiki/Radio_Rwanda" title="Radio Rwanda">Radio Rwanda</a> offices to address the nation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005230-135">[135]</a> This plan was canceled because the presidential guard took over the radio station shortly afterward and would not permit Uwilingiyimana to speak on air.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005230-135">[135]</a> Later in the morning, a number of soldiers and a crowd of civilians overwhelmed the Belgians guarding Uwilingiyimana, forcing them to surrender their weapons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999230-136">[136]</a> Uwilingiyimana and her husband were killed, although their children survived by hiding behind furniture and were rescued by Senegalese UNAMIR officer <a href="/wiki/Mbaye_Diagne" title="Mbaye Diagne">Mbaye Diagne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005245-137">[137]</a> The ten Belgians were taken to the <a href="/wiki/Camp_Kigali" title="Camp Kigali">Camp Kigali</a> military base, where they were tortured and killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGourevitch2000114-138">[138]</a> Major <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Ntuyahaga" title="Bernard Ntuyahaga">Bernard Ntuyahaga</a>, the commanding officer of the presidential guard unit which carried out the murders, was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment by a court in Belgium in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> In addition to assassinating Uwilingiyimana, the extremists spent the night of 6–7 April moving around the houses of Kigali with lists of prominent moderate politicians and journalists, on a mission to kill them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005231-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999230-136">[136]</a> Fatalities that evening included President of the Constitutional Court <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kavaruganda" title="Joseph Kavaruganda">Joseph Kavaruganda</a>, Minister of Agriculture Frederic Nzamurambaho, Parti Liberal leader <a href="/wiki/Landwald_Ndasingwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Landwald Ndasingwa">Landwald Ndasingwa</a> and his Canadian wife, and chief Arusha negotiator Boniface Ngulinzira.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005230-135">[135]</a> A few moderates survived, including prime minister-designate <a href="/wiki/Faustin_Twagiramungu" title="Faustin Twagiramungu">Faustin Twagiramungu</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999231-141">[141]</a> but the plot was largely successful. According to Dallaire, "by noon on 7 April, the moderate political leadership of Rwanda was dead or in hiding, the potential for a future moderate government utterly lost."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005232-142">[142]</a> An exception to this was the new army chief of staff, <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Gatsinzi" title="Marcel Gatsinzi">Marcel Gatsinzi</a>; Bagosora's preferred candidate <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Bizimungu" title="Augustin Bizimungu">Augustin Bizimungu</a> was rejected by the crisis committee, forcing Bagosora to agree to Gatsinzi's appointment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004139-143">[143]</a> Gatsinzi attempted to keep the army out of the genocide,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999229-144">[144]</a> and to negotiate a ceasefire with the RPF,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005292-145">[145]</a> but he had only limited control over his troops and was replaced by the hardline Bizimungu after just ten days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999229-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genocide">Genocide</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: left; float:left;margin:0 1.5em 1.5em 0;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:60_Minutes_logo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="CBS 60 Minutes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/60_Minutes_logo.png/63px-60_Minutes_logo.png" decoding="async" width="63" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/60_Minutes_logo.png/95px-60_Minutes_logo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/60_Minutes_logo.png/126px-60_Minutes_logo.png 2x" data-file-width="222" data-file-height="141" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> via YouTube</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-H4TG50ppw">Rwandan genocide: Hiding from death</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Genocidal killings began the following day. Soldiers, police, and militia quickly executed key Tutsi and moderate Hutu military and political leaders who could have assumed control in the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Power_vacuum" title="Power vacuum">power vacuum</a>. Checkpoints and barricades were erected to screen all holders of the national <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Rwanda#Ethnic_identity_cards_in_contemporary_Rwanda" title="Ethnic groups in Rwanda">ID card of Rwanda</a>, which contained ethnic classifications. This enabled government forces to systematically identify and kill Tutsi. They also recruited and pressured Hutu civilians to arm themselves with machetes, clubs, blunt objects, and other weapons and encouraged them to rape, maim, and kill their Tutsi neighbors and to destroy or steal their property. The RPF restarted its offensive soon after Habyarimana's assassination. It rapidly seized control of the northern part of the country and captured Kigali about 100 days later in mid-July, bringing an end to the genocide. During these events and in the aftermath, the United Nations (UN) and countries including the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> were criticized for their inaction and failure to strengthen the force and mandate of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Assistance_Mission_for_Rwanda" title="United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda">UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda</a> (UNAMIR) peacekeepers. In December 2017, media reported revelations that the government of <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> had allegedly supported the Hutu government after the genocide had begun.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planning_and_organization">Planning and organization</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ntrama_Church_Altar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ntrama_Church_Altar.jpg/220px-Ntrama_Church_Altar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ntrama_Church_Altar.jpg/330px-Ntrama_Church_Altar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ntrama_Church_Altar.jpg/440px-Ntrama_Church_Altar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1066" /></a><figcaption>Over 5,000 people seeking refuge in <a href="/wiki/Ntarama_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Ntarama Genocide Memorial Centre">Ntarama church</a> were killed by grenade, machete, rifle, or burnt alive</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Administrative_divisions_of_Rwanda_in_1994.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Administrative_divisions_of_Rwanda_in_1994.svg/220px-Administrative_divisions_of_Rwanda_in_1994.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Administrative_divisions_of_Rwanda_in_1994.svg/330px-Administrative_divisions_of_Rwanda_in_1994.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Administrative_divisions_of_Rwanda_in_1994.svg/440px-Administrative_divisions_of_Rwanda_in_1994.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>Rwanda was divided into 11 prefectures and 145 communes in 1994<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></figcaption></figure> The large-scale killing of Tutsi on the grounds of ethnicity<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> began within a few hours of Habyarimana's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004165-152">[152]</a> The crisis committee, headed by <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9oneste_Bagosora" title="Théoneste Bagosora">Théoneste Bagosora</a>, took power in the country following Habyarimana's death,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004172-153">[153]</a> and was the principal authority coordinating the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999240-154">[154]</a> Following the assassination of Habyarimana, Bagosora immediately began issuing orders to kill Tutsi, addressing groups of interahamwe in person in Kigali,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004146–47-155">[155]</a> and making telephone calls to leaders in the prefectures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004163-156">[156]</a> Other leading organisers on a national level were defence minister <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Bizimana" title="Augustin Bizimana">Augustin Bizimana</a>; commander of the paratroopers <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aloys_Ntabakuze&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aloys Ntabakuze (page does not exist)">Aloys Ntabakuze</a>; and the head of the Presidential Guard, <a href="/wiki/Protais_Mpiranya" title="Protais Mpiranya">Protais Mpiranya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999240-154">[154]</a> Businessman <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licien_Kabuga" title="Félicien Kabuga">Félicien Kabuga</a> funded the RTLM and the Interahamwe, while Pascal Musabe and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Nzirorera" title="Joseph Nzirorera">Joseph Nzirorera</a> were responsible for coordinating the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi militia activities nationally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999240-154">[154]</a> Military leaders in <a href="/wiki/Gisenyi_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Gisenyi province">Gisenyi prefecture</a>, the heartland of the akazu, were initially the most organized, convening a gathering of the Interahamwe and civilian Hutus; the commanders announced the president's death, blaming the RPF, and then ordered the crowd to "begin your work" and to "spare no one", including infants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004164-157">[157]</a> The killing spread to <a href="/wiki/Ruhengeri_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruhengeri province">Ruhengeri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kibuye_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Kibuye province">Kibuye</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kigali_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Kigali province">Kigali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kibungo_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Kibungo province">Kibungo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gikongoro_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Gikongoro province">Gikongoro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyangugu_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyangugu province">Cyangugu</a> prefectures on 7 April;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999236-158">[158]</a> in each case, local officials, responding to orders from Kigali, spread rumours that the RPF had killed the president, followed by a command to kill Tutsi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004169-159">[159]</a> The Hutu population, which had been prepared and armed during the preceding months, and maintained the Rwandan tradition of obedience to authority, carried out the orders without question.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999244–45-160">[160]</a> On the other hand, there are views that the genocide was not sudden, irresistible or uniformly orchestrated, but "a cascade of tipping points, and each tipping point was the outcome of local, intra-ethnic contests for dominance (among Hutu)".<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETottenParsons2009411-162">[162]</a> The protracted struggles for supremacy in local communes meant that a more determined stance from the international community would likely have prevented the worst from happening.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETottenParsons2009427-164">[164]</a> In Kigali, the genocide was led by the Presidential Guard, the elite unit of the army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999242–43-165">[165]</a> They were assisted by the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999243-99">[99]</a> who set up roadblocks throughout the capital; each person passing the roadblock was required to show the national identity card, which included ethnicity, and any with Tutsi cards were killed immediately.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> The militias also initiated searches of houses in the city, killing Tutsi and looting their property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999243-99">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tharcisse_Renzaho" title="Tharcisse Renzaho">Tharcisse Renzaho</a>, the prefect of Kigali-ville, played a leading role, touring the roadblocks to ensure their effectiveness and using his position at the top of the Kigali provincial government to disseminate orders and dismiss officials who were not sufficiently active in the killings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004204-167">[167]</a> In rural areas, the local government hierarchy was also in most cases the chain of command for the execution of the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999244-168">[168]</a> The prefect of each prefecture, acting on orders from Kigali, disseminated instructions to the <a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Rwanda#Communes_of_Rwanda_(pre-2002)" title="Districts of Rwanda">commune</a> leaders (bourgmestres), who in turn issued directions to the leaders of the sectors, cells and villages within their communes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999244-168">[168]</a> The majority of the actual killings in the countryside were carried out by ordinary civilians, under orders from the leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999247-169">[169]</a> Tutsi and Hutu lived side by side in their villages, and families all knew each other, making it easy for Hutu to identify and target their Tutsi neighbours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> Gerard Prunier ascribes this mass complicity of the population to a combination of the "democratic majority" ideology,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999247-169">[169]</a> in which Hutu had been taught to regard Tutsi as dangerous enemies,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999247-169">[169]</a> the culture of unbending obedience to authority,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999245-170">[170]</a> and the duress factor—villagers who refused to carry out orders to kill were often branded as Tutsi sympathisers and they themselves killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999247-169">[169]</a> There were few killings in the prefectures of <a href="/wiki/Gitarama_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Gitarama province">Gitarama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Butare_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Butare province">Butare</a> during the early phase, as the prefects of those areas were moderates opposed to the violence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004169-159">[159]</a> The genocide began in Gitarama after the interim government relocated to the prefecture on 12 April.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004195-171">[171]</a> Butare was ruled by the only Tutsi prefect in the country, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Habyalimana" title="Jean-Baptiste Habyalimana">Jean-Baptiste Habyalimana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004209–10-172">[172]</a> Habyalimana refused to authorise any killings in his territory, and for a while Butare became a sanctuary for Tutsi refugees from elsewhere in the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004209–210-173">[173]</a> This lasted until 18 April, when the interim government dismissed him from his post and replaced him with government loyalist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sylvain_Nsabimana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sylvain Nsabimana (page does not exist)">Sylvain Nsabimana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> The crisis committee appointed an interim government on 8 April; using the terms of the 1991 constitution instead of the Arusha Accords, the committee designated <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Sindikubwabo" title="Théodore Sindikubwabo">Théodore Sindikubwabo</a> as interim president of Rwanda, while <a href="/wiki/Jean_Kambanda" title="Jean Kambanda">Jean Kambanda</a> was the new prime minister.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004171-174">[174]</a> All political parties were represented in the government, but most members were from the "Hutu Power" wings of their respective parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999233-175">[175]</a> The interim government was sworn in on 9 April, but relocated from Kigali to <a href="/wiki/Gitarama" class="mw-redirect" title="Gitarama">Gitarama</a> on 12 April, ostensibly fleeing RPF's advance on the capital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015212-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004193-177">[177]</a> The crisis committee was officially dissolved, but Bagosora and the senior officers remained the de facto rulers of the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004213–14-178">[178]</a> The government played its part in mobilising the population, giving the regime an air of legitimacy, but was effectively a puppet regime with no ability to halt the army or the Interahamwe's activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004213–14-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005278-179">[179]</a> When Roméo Dallaire visited the government's headquarters a week after its formation, he found most officials at leisure, describing their activities as "sorting out the seating plan for a meeting that was not about to convene any time soon".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005329-180">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_toll_and_timeline">Death toll and timeline</h3></div> During the remainder of April and early May, the Presidential Guard, gendarmerie and the youth militia, aided by local populations, continued killing at a very high rate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> The goal was to kill every Tutsi living in Rwanda<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999248-181">[181]</a> and, with the exception of the advancing rebel RPF army, there was no opposition force to prevent or slow the killings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> The domestic opposition had already been eliminated, and UNAMIR were expressly forbidden to use force except in self-defence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005233-182">[182]</a> In rural areas, where Tutsi and Hutu lived side by side and families knew each other, it was easy for Hutu to identify and target their Tutsi neighbours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> In urban areas, where residents were more anonymous, identification was facilitated using roadblocks manned by military and interahamwe; each person passing the roadblock was required to show the national identity card, which included ethnicity, and any with Tutsi cards were killed immediately.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> Many Hutu were also killed for a variety of reasons, including alleged sympathy for the moderate opposition parties, being a journalist or simply having a "Tutsi appearance".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> Thousands of bodies were dumped into the <a href="/wiki/Kagera_River" title="Kagera River">Kagera River</a>, which ran along the northern border between Rwanda and Uganda and flowed into <a href="/wiki/Lake_Victoria" title="Lake Victoria">Lake Victoria</a>. This disposal of bodies caused significant damage to the Ugandan fishing industry, as consumers refused to buy fish caught in Lake Victoria for fear that they were tainted by decomposing corpses. The Ugandan government responded by dispatching teams to retrieve the bodies from the Kagera River before they entered the lake.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> The RPF was making slow but steady gains in the north and east of the country, ending the killings in each area occupied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> The genocide was effectively ended during April in areas of Ruhengeri, Byumba, Kibungo and Kigali prefectures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> The killings ceased during April in the akazu heartlands of western Ruhengeri and Gisenyi, as almost every Tutsi had been eliminated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> Large numbers of Hutu in the RPF-conquered areas fled, fearing retribution for the genocide;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999312-184">[184]</a> 500,000 Kibungo residents walked over the <a href="/wiki/Rusumo_Bridge" title="Rusumo Bridge">bridge</a> at <a href="/wiki/Rusumo_Falls" title="Rusumo Falls">Rusumo Falls</a> into Tanzania in a few days at the end of April,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005336-185">[185]</a> and were accommodated in United Nations camps effectively controlled by ousted leaders of the Hutu regime,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999313–14-186">[186]</a> with the former prefect of Kibungo prefecture in overall control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005337-187">[187]</a> In the remaining prefectures, killings continued throughout May and June, although they became increasingly low-key and sporadic;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> most Tutsi were already dead, and the interim government wished to rein in the growing anarchy and engage the population in fighting the RPF.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004236-188">[188]</a> On 23 June, around 2,500 soldiers entered southwestern Rwanda as part of the French-led United Nations <a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_Turquoise" title="Opération Turquoise">Opération Turquoise</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999291-189">[189]</a> This was intended as a humanitarian mission, but the soldiers were not able to save significant numbers of lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999292-190">[190]</a> The genocidal authorities were overtly welcoming of the French, displaying the French flag on their own vehicles, but killing Tutsi who came out of hiding seeking protection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999292-190">[190]</a> In July, the RPF completed their conquest of the country, with the exception of the zone occupied by Operation Turquoise. The RPF took Kigali on 4 July,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005459-191">[191]</a> and Gisenyi and the rest of the northwest on 18 July.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999298–99-192">[192]</a> The genocide was over, but as had occurred in Kibungo, the Hutu population fled en masse across the border, this time into Zaire, with Bagosora and the other leaders accompanying them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999316-193">[193]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Life_expectancy_development_in_Rwanda.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Life_expectancy_development_in_Rwanda.svg/220px-Life_expectancy_development_in_Rwanda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Life_expectancy_development_in_Rwanda.svg/330px-Life_expectancy_development_in_Rwanda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Life_expectancy_development_in_Rwanda.svg/440px-Life_expectancy_development_in_Rwanda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Impact of the genocide on average life expectancy</figcaption></figure> The succeeding RPF government claims that 1,074,017 people were killed in the genocide, 94% of whom were Tutsi.<a href="#cite_note-lemarchand-194">[194]</a> In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>, following on-the-ground research, estimated the casualties at 507,000 people. According to a 2020 symposium of the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Genocide_Research" title="Journal of Genocide Research">Journal of Genocide Research</a>, the official figure is not credible as it overestimates the number of Tutsi in Rwanda prior to the genocide. Using different methodologies, the scholars in the symposium estimated 500,000 to 600,000 deaths in the genocide—around two-thirds of the Tutsis in Rwanda at the time.<a href="#cite_note-McDoom-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-Meierhenrich-196">[196]</a> Thousands of widows, many of whom were subjected to rape, became HIV-positive. There were about 400,000 orphans and nearly 85,000 of them were forced to become heads of families.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> An estimated 2,000,000 Rwandans, mostly Hutu, were displaced and became refugees.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> Additionally, 30% of the <a href="/wiki/Pygmy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pygmy">Pygmy</a> <a href="/wiki/Batwa_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Batwa people">Batwa</a> were killed.<a href="#cite_note-AmericanUniversity-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-SurvivalInternational-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Means_of_killing">Means of killing</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg/220px-Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg/330px-Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg/440px-Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="298" /></a><figcaption>Skulls and other bones kept at <a href="/wiki/Murambi_Technical_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Murambi Technical School">Murambi Technical School</a></figcaption></figure> On 9 April, UN observers witnessed the <a href="/wiki/Gikondo_massacre" title="Gikondo massacre">massacre of children at a Polish church in Gikondo</a>. The same day, 1,000 heavily armed and well-trained European troops arrived to escort European civilian personnel out of the country. The troops did not stay to assist UNAMIR.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> Media coverage picked up on the 9th, as <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> reported the execution of Rwandan employees of relief agencies in front of their expatriate colleagues. <a href="/wiki/Butare_Province" title="Butare Province">Butare prefecture</a> was an exception to the local violence. Jean-Baptiste Habyalimana was the only Tutsi prefect, and the prefecture was the only one dominated by an opposition party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1998244-202">[202]</a> Opposing the genocide, Habyalimana was able to keep relative calm in the prefecture, until he was deposed by the extremist Sylvain Nsabimana. Finding the population of Butare resistant to murdering their citizens, the government flew in militia from Kigali by helicopter, and they readily killed the Tutsi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1998244-202">[202]</a> Most of the victims were killed in their own villages or in towns, often by their neighbors and fellow villagers. The militia typically murdered victims with <a href="/wiki/Machete" title="Machete">machetes</a>, although some army units used rifles. The Hutu gangs searched out victims hiding in churches and school buildings and <a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">massacred</a> them. Local officials and government-sponsored radio incited ordinary citizens to kill their neighbors, and those who refused to kill were often murdered on the spot: "Either you took part in the massacres or you were massacred yourself."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1995247-7">[7]</a> One such massacre <a href="/wiki/Nyarubuye_massacre" title="Nyarubuye massacre">occurred at Nyarubuye</a>. On 12 April, more than 1,500 Tutsi sought refuge in a Catholic church in Nyange, then in Kivumu commune. Local Interahamwe, acting in concert with the authorities, used bulldozers to knock down the church building.<a href="#cite_note-appeals01-203">[203]</a> The militia used machetes and rifles to kill every person who tried to escape. Local priest <a href="/wiki/Athanase_Seromba" title="Athanase Seromba">Athanase Seromba</a> was later found guilty and sentenced to life in prison by the ICTR for his role in the demolition of his church; he was convicted of the crime of genocide and <a href="/wiki/Crime_against_humanity" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-appeals01-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> In another case, thousands sought refuge in the Official Technical School (École technique officielle) in Kigali where Belgian UNAMIR soldiers were stationed. On 11 April, the Belgian soldiers withdrew, and Rwandan armed forces and militia killed all the Tutsi.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_violence">Sexual violence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Rape during the Rwandan genocide">Rape during the Rwandan genocide</a></div> Rape was <a href="/wiki/Genocidal_rape" title="Genocidal rape">used as a tool</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Interahamwe" title="Interahamwe">Interahamwe</a>, the chief perpetrators, to separate the consciously heterogeneous population and to drastically exhaust the opposing group.<a href="#cite_note-Hayden-207">[207]</a> The use of propaganda played an important role in both the genocide and the gender specific violence. The <a href="/wiki/Hutu" title="Hutu">Hutu</a> propaganda depicted Tutsi women as "a sexually seductive '<a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">fifth column</a>' in league with the Hutus' enemies". The exceptional brutality of the sexual violence, as well as the complicity of Hutu women in the attacks, suggests that the use of propaganda had been effective in the exploitation of gendered needs which had mobilized both females and males to participate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2010138–41-208">[208]</a> Soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Army_for_the_Liberation_of_Rwanda" title="Army for the Liberation of Rwanda">Army for the Liberation of Rwanda</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Defence_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Rwandan Defence Forces">Rwandan Defence Forces</a>, including the Presidential Guard, and civilians also committed rape against mostly Tutsi women.<a href="#cite_note-de_Brouwer_2005_13-209">[209]</a> Although Tutsi women were the main targets, moderate Hutu women were also raped.<a href="#cite_note-de_Brouwer_2005_13-209">[209]</a> Along with the Hutu moderates, Hutu women who were married to or who hid Tutsis were also targeted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowrojee1996-3">[3]</a> In his 1996 report on Rwanda, the UN Special Rapporteur Rene Degni-Segui stated, "Rape was the rule and its absence was the exception."<a href="#cite_note-Sandra-210">[210]</a> He also noted, "Rape was systematic and was used as a weapon." With this thought and using methods of force and threat, the <a href="/wiki/Genocidaires" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocidaires">genocidaires</a> forced others to stand by during rapes. A testimonial by a woman of the name Marie Louise Niyobuhungiro recalled seeing local peoples, other generals and Hutu men watching her get raped about five times a day. Even when she was kept under watch of a woman, the woman would give no sympathy or help and furthermore forced her to farm land in between rapes.<a href="#cite_note-Sandra-210">[210]</a> Many of the survivors became infected with <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> from the HIV-infected men recruited by the genocidaires.<a href="#cite_note-Elbe-211">[211]</a> During the conflict, Hutu extremists released hundreds of patients suffering from AIDS from hospitals, and formed them into "rape squads". The intent was to infect and cause a "slow, inexorable death" for their future Tutsi rape victims.<a href="#cite_note-Drumbl_2012-212">[212]</a> Tutsi women were also targeted with the intent of destroying their reproductive capabilities. <a href="/wiki/Sexual_mutilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual mutilation">Sexual mutilation</a> sometimes occurred after the rape and included mutilation of the vagina with machetes, knives, sharpened sticks, boiling water, and acid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowrojee1996-3">[3]</a> Men were also the victims of sexual violation,<a href="#cite_note-de_Brouwer_2005_13-209">[209]</a> including public mutilation of the genitals.<a href="#cite_note-de_Brouwer_2005_13-209">[209]</a> Some experts have estimated that between 250,000 and 500,000 women were raped during the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowrojee1996-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Killing_of_the_Twa">Killing of the Twa</h2></div> The <a href="/wiki/Pygmy_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pygmy people">pygmy people</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Twa" title="Great Lakes Twa">Batwa</a> (or "Twa") made up about 1% of Rwanda's population. A report shows that the group has been described as people who lived in forests and off lands, but currently the Twa are dispersed in the country in smaller groups while integrating into society.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> Although the Twa were not directly targeted by the genocidaires,<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> an estimated 10,000 of a population of 30,000 were nonetheless killed. They are sometimes referred to as the "forgotten victims" of the Rwandan genocide.<a href="#cite_note-AmericanUniversity-2">[2]</a> In the months leading up to the genocide, Hutu radio stations accused the Batwa of aiding the RPF and Twa survivors describe Hutu fighters as threatening to kill them all.<a href="#cite_note-NewsAfrica-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rwandan_Patriotic_Front's_military_campaign_and_victory">Rwandan Patriotic Front's military campaign and victory</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RPF_advance_Rwandan_genocide_with_Zone_Turquise.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/RPF_advance_Rwandan_genocide_with_Zone_Turquise.png/300px-RPF_advance_Rwandan_genocide_with_Zone_Turquise.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/RPF_advance_Rwandan_genocide_with_Zone_Turquise.png/450px-RPF_advance_Rwandan_genocide_with_Zone_Turquise.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/RPF_advance_Rwandan_genocide_with_Zone_Turquise.png/600px-RPF_advance_Rwandan_genocide_with_Zone_Turquise.png 2x" data-file-width="1047" data-file-height="778" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the advance of the RPF during the Rwandan genocide of 1994</figcaption></figure> On 7 April, as the genocide started, RPF commander Paul Kagame warned the crisis committee and UNAMIR that he would resume the civil war if the killing did not stop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005247-216">[216]</a> The next day, Rwandan government forces attacked the national parliament building from several directions, but RPF troops stationed there successfully fought back.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005264–65-217">[217]</a> The RPF then began an attack from the north on three fronts, seeking to link up quickly with the isolated troops in Kigali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005269-218">[218]</a> Kagame refused to talk to the interim government, believing that it was just a cover for Bagosora's rule and not committed to ending the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999268-219">[219]</a> Over the next few days, the RPF advanced steadily south, capturing <a href="/wiki/Gabiro" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabiro">Gabiro</a> and large areas of the countryside to the north and east of Kigali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005288-220">[220]</a> They avoided attacking the capital city Kigali or <a href="/wiki/Byumba" title="Byumba">Byumba</a>, but conducted manoeuvres designed to encircle the cities and cut off supply routes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005299-221">[221]</a> The RPF also allowed Tutsi refugees from Uganda to settle behind the front line in the RPF controlled areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005299-221">[221]</a> Throughout April, there were numerous attempts by UNAMIR to establish a ceasefire, but Kagame insisted each time that the RPF would not stop fighting unless the killings stopped.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005300-222">[222]</a> In late April, the RPF secured the whole of the Tanzanian border area and began to move west from Kibungo, to the south of Kigali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005326–27-223">[223]</a> They encountered little resistance, except around Kigali and Ruhengeri.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999268-219">[219]</a> By 16 May, they had cut the road between Kigali and <a href="/wiki/Gitarama" class="mw-redirect" title="Gitarama">Gitarama</a>, the temporary home of the interim government, and by 13 June, had taken Gitarama itself, following an unsuccessful attempt by the Rwandan government forces to reopen the road; the interim government was forced to relocate to <a href="/wiki/Gisenyi" title="Gisenyi">Gisenyi</a> in the far north west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005410-224">[224]</a> As well as fighting the war, Kagame was recruiting heavily to expand the army. The new recruits included Tutsi survivors of the genocide and refugees from <a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a>, but were less well trained and disciplined than the earlier recruits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999270-225">[225]</a> Having completed the encirclement of Kigali, the RPF spent the latter half of June fighting for the city itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005421-226">[226]</a> The government forces had superior manpower and weapons, but the RPF steadily gained territory as well as conducting raids to rescue civilians from behind enemy lines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005421-226">[226]</a> According to Dallaire, this success was due to Kagame's being a "master of psychological warfare";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005421-226">[226]</a> he exploited the fact that the government forces were concentrating on the genocide rather than the fight for Kigali, and capitalised on the government's loss of morale as it lost territory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005421-226">[226]</a> The RPF finally defeated the Rwandan government forces in Kigali on 4 July,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005459-191">[191]</a> and on 18 July took Gisenyi and the rest of the northwest, forcing the interim government to flee into Zaire and finally ending the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999298–99-192">[192]</a> At the end of July 1994, Kagame's forces held the whole of Rwanda except for the zone in the south-west which had been occupied by a French-led United Nations force as part of <a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_Turquoise" title="Opération Turquoise">Opération Turquoise</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005474–75-227">[227]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Liberation_Day" title="Liberation Day">Liberation Day</a> for Rwanda would come to be marked as 4 July and is commemorated as <a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Rwanda" title="Public holidays in Rwanda">a public holiday</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Killings_by_the_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front">Killings by the Rwandan Patriotic Front</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">Double genocide theory (Rwanda)</a></div> During the genocide and in the months following the RPF victory, RPF soldiers killed many people, although the number of casualties is disputed. <a href="/wiki/Alison_Des_Forges" title="Alison Des Forges">Alison Des Forges</a> was one of the first researchers to conclude that RPF committed atrocities in a systematic fashion that were directed by officers with a high level of authority. She estimated that RPF killed around 30,000 people considered enemies of the Tutsi.<a href="#cite_note-Meierhenrich-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-03htm_"The_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front"]-229">[229]</a> Some witnesses blamed Kagame himself for ordering killings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyntjens201398–101-230">[230]</a> After ICTR investigators reportedly discovered two layers of bodies in a mass grave in <a href="/wiki/Kibuye,_Rwanda" title="Kibuye, Rwanda">Kibuye</a> in early 1996—one of Tutsi victims of the genocide and another left by RPF killings of Hutu civilians—further forensic investigations were prohibited by the Rwandan government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReydams2020-231">[231]</a> French scholar <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Guichaoua" title="André Guichaoua">André Guichaoua</a> charged the post-genocide government with deliberate <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_evidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of evidence">destruction of evidence</a> regarding killings of Hutu in order to avoid prosecution by the ICTR.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2020-232">[232]</a> Some critics have suggested that these crimes should have been prosecuted by the ICTR,<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">amounted to genocide under international law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERever2018228-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> In contrast, the post-genocide regime maintains that killings by RPF soldiers were perpetrated by undisciplined recruits seeking revenge and that all such transgressions were promptly punished.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008189-237">[237]</a> The first rumours of RPF killings emerged after 250,000 mostly Hutu refugees streamed into Tanzania at the border crossing of <a href="/wiki/Rusumo,_Rwanda" title="Rusumo, Rwanda">Rusumo</a> on 28 April 1994.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> The refugees had fled before the Tutsi rebels arrived because they believed the RPF were committing atrocities. A spokesperson for the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a> (UNHCR) observed that "There's a lot of propaganda by the Government radio aimed at the Hutu" which "makes them feel very anti-Tutsi."<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> After the RPF took control of the border crossing at Rusumo on 30 April,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015xlvi-240">[240]</a> refugees continued to cross the <a href="/wiki/Kagera_River" title="Kagera River">Kagera River</a>, ending up in remote areas of Tanzania.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> In early May, the UNHCR began hearing concrete accounts of atrocities and made this information public on 17 May.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-03htmP987_304596_"The_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front"]-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyntjens2013100-244">[244]</a> After the RPF took power in Rwanda, UNHCR sent a team led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gersony" title="Robert Gersony">Robert Gersony</a> to investigate the prospects for a speedy return of the nearly two million refugees that had fled Rwanda since April. After interviewing 300 people, Gersony concluded that "clearly systematic murders and persecution of the Hutu population in certain parts of the country" had taken place. Gersony's findings were suppressed by the United Nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-03htmP1002_309600_"The_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front]-245">[245]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gersony_Report" title="Gersony Report">Gersony Report</a> did not technically exist because Gersony did not complete it,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009466n111-246">[246]</a> but a summary of an oral presentation of his findings was leaked in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> Gersony's personal conclusion was that between April and August 1994, the RPF had killed "between 25,000 and 45,000 persons, between 5,000 and 10,000 persons each month from April through July and 5,000 for the month of August."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999-85">[85]</a> The new authorities categorically denied the allegations of Gersony,<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> details of which leaked to the press.<a href="#cite_note-Bonner1994-250">[250]</a> According to an RPA officer, "There was not time to do proper screening. ... We needed a force, and some of those recruited were thieves and criminals. Those people have been responsible for much of our trouble today."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008189-237">[237]</a> In an interview with journalist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kinzer" title="Stephen Kinzer">Stephen Kinzer</a>, Kagame acknowledged that killings had occurred but stated that they were carried out by rogue soldiers and had been impossible to control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008191-251">[251]</a> The RPF killings gained international attention with the 1995 <a href="/wiki/Kibeho_massacre" title="Kibeho massacre">Kibeho massacre</a>, in which soldiers opened fire on a camp for <a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced_persons" class="mw-redirect" title="Internally displaced persons">internally displaced persons</a> in <a href="/wiki/Butare_Province" title="Butare Province">Butare prefecture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> Australian soldiers serving as part of UNAMIR estimated at least 4,000 people were killed,<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> while the Rwandan government claimed that the death toll was 338.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier200942-254">[254]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_involvement">International involvement</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Role_of_the_international_community_in_the_Rwandan_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Role of the international community in the Rwandan genocide">Role of the international community in the Rwandan genocide</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Nations">United Nations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/UNAMIR" class="mw-redirect" title="UNAMIR">UNAMIR</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgian_Soldier_Memorial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Belgian_Soldier_Memorial.jpg/220px-Belgian_Soldier_Memorial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Belgian_Soldier_Memorial.jpg/330px-Belgian_Soldier_Memorial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Belgian_Soldier_Memorial.jpg/440px-Belgian_Soldier_Memorial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>The building in which ten Belgian UNAMIR soldiers were massacred and mutilated. Today the site is preserved as a memorial for the soldiers.</figcaption></figure> The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Assistance_Mission_for_Rwanda" title="United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda">UNAMIR</a>) had been in Rwanda since October 1993,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire200598-255">[255]</a> with a mandate to oversee the implementation of the Arusha Accords.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999194-256">[256]</a> UNAMIR commander <a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A9o_Dallaire" title="Roméo Dallaire">Roméo Dallaire</a> learned of the Hutu Power movement during the mission's deployment,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005146-257">[257]</a> as well as plans for the mass extermination of Tutsi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005150-258">[258]</a> He also became aware of secret weapons caches through an informant, but his request to raid them was turned down by the UN <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Peacekeeping_Operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Peacekeeping Operations">Department of Peacekeeping Operations</a> (DPKO),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005146-257">[257]</a> which felt that Dallaire was exceeding his mandate and had to be kept "on a leash".<a href="#cite_note-GenocideFax-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-pogge-259">[259]</a> Seizing the weapons was argued to be squarely within UNAMIR's mandate; both sides had requested UNAMIR and it had been authorized by the UN Security Council in <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_872" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 872">Resolution 872</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pogge-259">[259]</a> UNAMIR's effectiveness in peacekeeping was also hampered by President Habyarimana and Hutu hardliners,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999205-260">[260]</a> and by April 1994, the Security Council threatened to terminate UNAMIR's mandate if it did not make progress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005219–20-261">[261]</a> Following the death of Habyarimana, and the start of the genocide, Dallaire liaised repeatedly with both the Crisis Committee and the RPF, attempting to re-establish peace and prevent the resumption of the civil war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999236–37-262">[262]</a> Neither side was interested in a ceasefire, the government because it was controlled by the genocidaires, and the RPF because it considered it necessary to fight to stop the killings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005247-216">[216]</a> UNAMIR's <a href="/wiki/Chapter_VI_of_the_United_Nations_Charter" title="Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter">Chapter VI mandate</a> rendered it powerless to intervene militarily,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">[166]</a> and most of its Rwandan staff were killed in the early days of the genocide, severely limiting its ability to operate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005247-216">[216]</a> UNAMIR was therefore largely reduced to a bystander role, and Dallaire later labelled it a "failure".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire20056-263">[263]</a> Its most significant contribution was to provide refuge for thousands of Tutsi and moderate Hutu at its headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Amahoro_Stadium" title="Amahoro Stadium">Amahoro Stadium</a>, as well as other secure UN sites,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005270-264">[264]</a> and to assist with the evacuation of foreign nationals. On 12 April, the Belgian government, which was one of the largest troop contributors to UNAMIR,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999204-265">[265]</a> and had lost ten soldiers protecting Prime Minister Uwilingiliyimana, announced that it was withdrawing, reducing the force's effectiveness even further.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004197-266">[266]</a> On 17 May 1994, the UN passed <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_918" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 918">Resolution 918</a>, which imposed an arms embargo and reinforced UNAMIR, which would be known as UNAMIR II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004229-267">[267]</a> The new soldiers did not start arriving until June,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004411-268">[268]</a> and following the end of the genocide in July, the role of UNAMIR II was largely confined to maintaining security and stability, until its termination in 1996.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_Nations-269">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France_and_Opération_Turquoise">France and Opération Turquoise</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Role_of_France_in_the_Rwandan_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Role of France in the Rwandan genocide">Role of France in the Rwandan genocide</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_milouf_DF-ST-99-05514.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/French_milouf_DF-ST-99-05514.JPEG/170px-French_milouf_DF-ST-99-05514.JPEG" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/French_milouf_DF-ST-99-05514.JPEG/255px-French_milouf_DF-ST-99-05514.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/French_milouf_DF-ST-99-05514.JPEG/340px-French_milouf_DF-ST-99-05514.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="1870" data-file-height="2820" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/French_marine" class="mw-redirect" title="French marine">French marine</a> parachutists stand guard at the airport, August 1994</figcaption></figure> During President Habyarimana's years in power, France maintained close relations with him, as part of its <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7afrique" title="Françafrique">Françafrique</a> policy,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199989-270">[270]</a> and assisted Rwanda militarily against the RPF during the Civil War;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999100–01-271">[271]</a> France considered the RPF, along with Uganda, as part of a "plot" to increase Anglophone influence at the expense of French influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2008-272">[272]</a> During the first few days of the genocide, France launched Amaryllis, a military operation assisted by the Belgian army and UNAMIR, to evacuate expatriates from Rwanda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999234-273">[273]</a> The French and Belgians refused to allow any Tutsi to accompany them, and those who boarded the evacuation trucks were forced off at Rwandan government checkpoints, where they were killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999235-274">[274]</a> The French also separated several expatriates and children from their Tutsi spouses, rescuing the foreigners but leaving the Rwandans to likely death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999235-274">[274]</a> They rescued several high-profile members of Habyarimana's government, as well as his wife, Agathe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999235-274">[274]</a> In late June 1994, France launched <a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_Turquoise" title="Opération Turquoise">Opération Turquoise</a>, a UN-mandated mission to create safe humanitarian areas for <a href="/wiki/Displaced_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Displaced person">displaced persons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugees</a>, and civilians in danger. From bases in the Zairian cities of <a href="/wiki/Goma" title="Goma">Goma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukavu" title="Bukavu">Bukavu</a>, the French entered southwestern Rwanda and established the zone Turquoise, within the <a href="/wiki/Cyangugu" title="Cyangugu">Cyangugu</a>–<a href="/wiki/Kibuye,_Rwanda" title="Kibuye, Rwanda">Kibuye</a>–<a href="/wiki/Gikongoro" title="Gikongoro">Gikongoro</a> triangle, an area occupying approximately a fifth of Rwanda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_Nations-269">[269]</a> Radio France International estimates that Turquoise saved around 15,000 lives,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERFI2014-275">[275]</a> but with the genocide coming to an end and the RPF's ascendancy, many Rwandans interpreted Turquoise as a mission to protect Hutu from the RPF, including some who had participated in the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFassbender201127-276">[276]</a> The French remained hostile to the RPF, and their presence temporarily stalled the RPF's advance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGreal2007-277">[277]</a> A number of inquiries have been held into French involvement in Rwanda, including the 1998 <a href="/wiki/French_Parliamentary_Commission_on_Rwanda" title="French Parliamentary Commission on Rwanda">French Parliamentary Commission on Rwanda</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(I)1998-278">[278]</a> which accused France of errors of judgement, including "military cooperation against a background of ethnic tensions, massacres and violence",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitney1998-279">[279]</a> but did not accuse France of direct responsibility for the genocide itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitney1998-279">[279]</a> A 2008 report by the Rwandan government-sponsored <a href="/wiki/Mucyo_Commission" title="Mucyo Commission">Mucyo Commission</a> accused the French government of knowing of preparations for the genocide and helping to train Hutu militia members.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(III)2008-280">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsiimwe2008-281">[281]</a> In 2019, President Macron decided to reopen the issue of French involvement in the genocide by commissioning a new team to sort through the state archives.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> In April 2021, the Rwandan government announced the study they had commissioned alleged France "did nothing" to prevent what they deemed the "foreseeable" April and May 1994 massacres in the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG/220px-SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG/330px-SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG/440px-SETAF_HISTORY_0004.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="2840" data-file-height="1850" /></a><figcaption>Convoy of American military vehicles bring fresh water from Goma to <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis" title="Great Lakes refugee crisis">Rwandan refugees</a> located at camp Kimbumba, Zaire in August 1994</figcaption></figure> Intelligence reports indicate that <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> president <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_(government)" title="Cabinet (government)">cabinet</a> were aware before the height of the massacre that a deliberate and systematic genocide to eliminate all Tutsis was planned.<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> Fear of a repeat of the events in <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> shaped US policy at the time, with many commentators identifying the graphic consequences of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">Battle of Mogadishu</a> as the key reason behind the US's failure to intervene in later conflicts such as the Rwandan genocide. After the battle, the bodies of several US casualties of the conflict were dragged through the streets of Mogadishu by crowds of local civilians and members of <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Aidid</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a>. According to the former US deputy special envoy to Somalia, Walter Clarke: "The ghosts of Somalia continue to haunt US policy. Our lack of response in Rwanda was a fear of getting involved in something like a Somalia all over again."<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> President Clinton has referred to the failure of the U.S. government to intervene in the genocide as one of his main foreign policy failings, saying "I don't think we could have ended the violence, but I think we could have cut it down. And I regret it."<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> Eighty percent of the discussion in Washington concerned the evacuation of American citizens.<a href="#cite_note-Rwanda_Revisited-287">[287]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arms_sales_to_Rwanda">Arms sales to Rwanda</h3></div> In her 2004 book, Linda Melvern documented that "in the three years from October 1990, Rwanda, one of the poorest countries in the world, became the third largest importer of weapons in Africa, spending an estimated $US 112 million." She cited a significant contract with <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in 1992, and with <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, the next year.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> Before the international embargo against Rwanda on 17 May 1994, South Africa and France were two of the main suppliers of arms to Rwanda. According to <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>, after the embargo, they diverted their arms trade through <a href="/wiki/Goma" title="Goma">Goma</a> airport in <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a>. Zaire played a key role in supplying arms and facilitating arms flows to the Rwandan army. Some officials also encouraged arms trafficking by private dealers.<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> In 2017, according to <a href="/wiki/Haaretz" title="Haaretz">Haaretz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> or Israeli private arms dealers had sold arms to the Rwandan government.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> Israeli officials repeatedly denied this allegation.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> In 2016, a petition was submitted to the <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli Supreme Court">Israeli Supreme Court</a>, which ruled that the records which document Israel's arms sales, notably to Rwanda, will remain sealed, citing section nine of Israel's Freedom of Information Act which allows for non-disclosure if in releasing "the information there is a concern over harming national security, its foreign relations, the security of its public or the security or well-being of an individual".<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catholic_Church">Catholic Church</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bouquets_on_Mass_Grave_-_Catholic_Church_Memorial_-_Nyamata_-_Rwanda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Bouquets_on_Mass_Grave_-_Catholic_Church_Memorial_-_Nyamata_-_Rwanda.jpg/220px-Bouquets_on_Mass_Grave_-_Catholic_Church_Memorial_-_Nyamata_-_Rwanda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Bouquets_on_Mass_Grave_-_Catholic_Church_Memorial_-_Nyamata_-_Rwanda.jpg/330px-Bouquets_on_Mass_Grave_-_Catholic_Church_Memorial_-_Nyamata_-_Rwanda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Bouquets_on_Mass_Grave_-_Catholic_Church_Memorial_-_Nyamata_-_Rwanda.jpg/440px-Bouquets_on_Mass_Grave_-_Catholic_Church_Memorial_-_Nyamata_-_Rwanda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>A memorial in a Catholic Church</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> expressed his deep concern about what was happening in April 1994. On 9 April, in a message to Rwandan Catholics he urged them "not to give way to feelings of hatred and revenge but to courageously practice dialogue and forgiveness".<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> affirms that genocide took place but states that those who took part in it did so without the permission of the Church.<a href="#cite_note-wf-295">[295]</a> Though religious factors were not prominent, in its 1999 report <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> faulted a number of religious authorities in Rwanda, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Rwanda" title="Catholic Church in Rwanda">including Catholics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Church_of_Rwanda" title="Anglican Church of Rwanda">Anglicans</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant denominations</a>, for failing to condemn the genocide, though that accusation was belied over time.<a href="#cite_note-ADF_1999_Orgnztn_Clergy-296">[296]</a> Many other clergymen gave their lives to prevent Tutsis from being killed.<a href="#cite_note-ADF_1999_Orgnztn_Clergy-296">[296]</a> Some clergy participated in the massacres. Catholic nuns <a href="/wiki/Maria_Kisito" title="Maria Kisito">Maria Kisito</a> and Gertrude Mukangango were convicted in 2001 of involvement in the murders of 500-700 Tutsis who had sought refuge at their convent in <a href="/wiki/Sovu,_Rwanda" title="Sovu, Rwanda">Sovu</a>. Witnesses testified that they had directed a death squad to the victims' hiding place and had given them petrol with which to burn down the building.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> In 2006, Father <a href="/wiki/Athanase_Seromba" title="Athanase Seromba">Athanase Seromba</a> was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment (increased on appeal to life imprisonment) by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda for his role in the massacre of 2,000 Tutsis. The court heard that Seromba lured the Tutsis to the church, where they believed they would find refuge. When they arrived, he ordered that bulldozers should be used to crush the refugees who were hiding inside the church and if any of them were still alive, Hutu militias should kill them all.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> Some in the Catholic Church's religious hierarchy were later tried and convicted for their participation in the genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda.<a href="#cite_note-wf-295">[295]</a> Bishop Misago was accused of <a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">corruption</a> and complicity in the genocide, but he was cleared of all charges in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> On 20 March 2017, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a> acknowledged that while some Catholic nuns and priests in the country were killed during the genocide, others were complicit in it and took part in preparing and executing the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rwandan_refugees_at_the_Kitali_refugee_camp_DF-ST-99-05606.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rwandan_refugees_at_the_Kitali_refugee_camp_DF-ST-99-05606.jpg/220px-Rwandan_refugees_at_the_Kitali_refugee_camp_DF-ST-99-05606.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rwandan_refugees_at_the_Kitali_refugee_camp_DF-ST-99-05606.jpg/330px-Rwandan_refugees_at_the_Kitali_refugee_camp_DF-ST-99-05606.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rwandan_refugees_at_the_Kitali_refugee_camp_DF-ST-99-05606.jpg/440px-Rwandan_refugees_at_the_Kitali_refugee_camp_DF-ST-99-05606.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2890" data-file-height="1880" /></a><figcaption>Kitali <a href="/wiki/Refugee_camp" title="Refugee camp">refugee camp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a> (1994)</figcaption></figure> Hutu refugees particularly entered the eastern portion of <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a> (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, or DRC). Hutu genocidaires began to regroup in refugee camps along the border with Rwanda. Declaring a need to avert further genocide, the RPF-led government made military incursions into Zaire, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First</a> (1996–97) and <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second</a> (1998–2003) Congo Wars. Armed struggles between the Rwandan government and their opponents in the DRC have continued through battles of proxy militias in the <a href="/wiki/Goma" title="Goma">Goma</a> region, including the <a href="/wiki/M23_rebellion" title="M23 rebellion">M23 rebellion</a> (2012–2013). Large Rwandan Hutu and Tutsi populations continue to live as refugees throughout the region. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Refugee_crisis,_insurgency,_and_two_Congo_Wars">Refugee crisis, insurgency, and two Congo Wars</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis" title="Great Lakes refugee crisis">Great Lakes refugee crisis</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="View of refugee camp on foggy day, showing tents of various colours and the refugees" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg/220px-Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg/330px-Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg/440px-Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_east_Zaire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="335" /></a><figcaption>Kimbumba refugee camp in <a href="/wiki/Goma" title="Goma">Goma</a>, Zaire (1994)</figcaption></figure> Following the RPF victory, approximately two million Hutu fled to refugee camps in neighbouring countries, particularly <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> fearing RPF reprisals for the Rwandan genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999312-184">[184]</a> The camps were crowded and squalid, and thousands of refugees died in disease epidemics, including <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> The camps were set up by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a> (UNHCR), but were effectively controlled by the army and government of the former Hutu regime, including many leaders of the genocide,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999313–14-186">[186]</a> who began rearming in a bid to return to power in Rwanda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999381–382-304">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pomfret1997-305">[305]</a> By late 1996, Hutu militants from the camps were launching regular cross-border incursions, and the RPF-led Rwandan government launched a counteroffensive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999382-306">[306]</a> Rwanda provided troops and military training to the <a href="/wiki/Banyamulenge" title="Banyamulenge">Banyamulenge</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Pomfret1997-305">[305]</a> a Tutsi group in the Zairian <a href="/wiki/South_Kivu" title="South Kivu">South Kivu</a> province,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999384–85-307">[307]</a> helping them to defeat Zairian security forces. Rwandan forces, the Banyamulenge, and other Zairian Tutsi, then attacked the refugee camps, targeting the Hutu militia.<a href="#cite_note-Pomfret1997-305">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999384–85-307">[307]</a> These attacks caused hundreds of thousands of refugees to flee;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009118-308">[308]</a> many returned to Rwanda despite the presence of the RPF, while others ventured further west into Zaire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009122–23-309">[309]</a> The refugees fleeing further into Zaire were <a href="/wiki/Hutu_Genocide_in_Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Hutu Genocide in Democratic Republic of Congo">relentlessly pursued by the RPA</a> under the cover of the <a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Democratic_Forces_for_the_Liberation_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo">AFDL</a> rebellion<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyntjens2013110–15-310">[310]</a> and 232,000 Hutu refugees were killed, according to one estimate.<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> The defeated forces of the former regime continued a cross-border insurgency campaign,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008209-312">[312]</a> supported initially by the predominantly Hutu population of Rwanda's northwestern prefectures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008216-313">[313]</a> By 1999,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrittain1999-314">[314]</a> a programme of propaganda and Hutu integration into the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Defence_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Rwandan Defence Forces">national army</a> succeeded in bringing the Hutu to the government side and the insurgency was defeated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008215–18-315">[315]</a> In addition to dismantling the refugee camps, Kagame began planning a war to remove long-time dictator <a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Mobutu Sese Seko</a> from power.<a href="#cite_note-Pomfret1997-305">[305]</a> Mobutu had supported the genocidaires based in the camps, and was also accused of allowing attacks on Tutsi people within Zaire.<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> Together with Uganda, the Rwandan government supported an alliance of four rebel groups headed by <a href="/wiki/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a>, which began waging the <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a> in 1996.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009113–16-317">[317]</a> The rebels quickly took control of the <a href="/wiki/North_Kivu" title="North Kivu">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Kivu" title="South Kivu">South Kivu</a> provinces and later advanced west, gaining territory from the poorly organised and demotivated Zairian army with little fighting,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009128–33-318">[318]</a> and controlling the whole country by 1997.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009136-319">[319]</a> Mobutu fled into exile, and Zaire was renamed the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> (DRC).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(II)2006-320">[320]</a> Rwanda fell out with the new Congolese government in 1998, and Kagame supported a fresh rebellion, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a>, which would last up until 2003 and caused millions of deaths and massive damage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(II)2006-320">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009182–83-321">[321]</a> In 2010, a <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN) report accused the Rwandan army of committing wide-scale human rights violations and crimes against humanity in the Congo during those wars, charges denied by the Rwandan government.<a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_situation">Domestic situation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rwanda-demography.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Rwanda-demography.png/220px-Rwanda-demography.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Rwanda-demography.png/330px-Rwanda-demography.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Rwanda-demography.png/440px-Rwanda-demography.png 2x" data-file-width="725" data-file-height="426" /></a><figcaption>Graph showing the population of Rwanda from 1961 to 2003<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a></figcaption></figure> The infrastructure and economy of the country had suffered greatly during the genocide. Many buildings were uninhabitable, and the former regime had carried with them all currency and moveable assets when they fled the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008181-324">[324]</a> Human resources were also severely depleted, with over 40% of the population having been killed or fled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008181-324">[324]</a> Many of the remainder were traumatised:<a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a> most had lost relatives, witnessed killings or participated in the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a> The long-term effects of <a href="/wiki/War_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="War rape">war rape</a> in Rwanda for the victims include social isolation, <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted diseases">sexually transmitted diseases</a>, unwanted pregnancies and babies, with some women resorting to self-induced abortions.<a href="#cite_note-de_Brouwer_2005_14-327">[327]</a> The army, led by Paul Kagame, maintained law and order while the government began the work of rebuilding the country's structures.<a href="#cite_note-Bonner1994-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008187-328">[328]</a> <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">Non-governmental organisations</a> began to move back into the country, but the <a href="/wiki/International_community" title="International community">international community</a> did not provide significant assistance to the new government, and most <a href="/wiki/Aid" title="Aid">international aid</a> was routed to the refugee camps which had formed in Zaire following the exodus of Hutu from Rwanda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999327–28-329">[329]</a> Kagame strove to portray the new government as inclusive and not Tutsi-dominated. He directed the removal of ethnicity from Rwandan citizens' national identity cards, and the government began a policy of downplaying the distinctions between Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.<a href="#cite_note-Bonner1994-250">[250]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Justice_system_after_genocide">Justice system after genocide</h3></div> The systematic destruction of the judicial system during the genocide and civil war was a major problem. After the genocide, over one million people (nearly one-fifth of the population remaining after the summer of 1994) were potentially culpable for a role in the genocide. The RPF pursued a policy of mass arrests for those responsible and for those persons who took part in the genocide, jailing over 100,000 people in the two years after the genocide. The pace of arrests overwhelmed the physical capacity of the Rwandan prison system, leading to what Amnesty International deemed "<a href="/wiki/Cruel,_inhuman_or_degrading_treatment" title="Cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment">cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment</a>".<a href="#cite_note-:0-330">[330]</a> The country's 19 prisons were designed to hold about 18,000 inmates total, but at their peak in 1998 there were over 100,000 people in crowded detention facilities across the country.<a href="#cite_note-:0-330">[330]</a> Government institutions, including judicial courts, were destroyed, and many judges, prosecutors, and employees were murdered during the genocide. Of Rwanda's 750 judges, 506 did not remain after the genocide—many were murdered and most of the survivors fled Rwanda. By 1997, Rwanda only had 50 lawyers in its judicial system.<a href="#cite_note-Alana-331">[331]</a> These barriers caused the trials to proceed very slowly: with 130,000 suspects held in Rwandan prisons after the genocide,<a href="#cite_note-Alana-331">[331]</a> 3,343 cases were handled between 1996 and the end of 2000.<a href="#cite_note-Sarkin-332">[332]</a> Of those defendants, 20% received death sentences, 32% received life in prison, and 20% were acquitted.<a href="#cite_note-Sarkin-332">[332]</a> It was calculated that it would take over 200 years to conduct the trials of the suspects in prison—not including the ones who remained at large.<a href="#cite_note-Powers-333">[333]</a> The RPF government began the long-awaited genocide trials, which had an uncertain start at the end of 1996 and inched forward in 1997. It was not until 1996 that courts finally began trials for genocide cases with the enactment of Organic Law No. 08/96 of 30 on 30 August 1996.<a href="#cite_note-Summary-334">[334]</a> This law initiated the prosecution of genocide crimes committed during the genocide and of crimes against humanity from October 1990.<a href="#cite_note-Summary-334">[334]</a> This law established the regular domestic courts as the core mechanism for responding to genocide until it was amended in 2001 to include the Gacaca courts. The Organic Law established four categories for those who were involved in the genocide, specifying the limits of punishment for members of each category. The first category was reserved those who were "planners, organizers, instigators, supervisors and leaders" of the genocide and any who used positions of state authority to promote the genocide. This category also applied to murderers who distinguished themselves on the basis of their zeal or cruelty, or who engaged in sexual torture. Members of this first category were eligible for the death sentence.<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> While Rwanda had the death penalty prior to the 1996 Organic law, in practice no executions had taken place since 1982. Twenty-two individuals, including <a href="/wiki/Froduald_Karamira" title="Froduald Karamira">Froduald Karamira</a>, were executed by firing squad in public executions in April 1998. After this, Rwanda conducted no further executions, albeit it continued to issue death sentences until 2003. On 25 July 2007 the Organic Law Relating to the Abolition of the Death Penalty came into law, abolishing capital punishment and converting all existing death sentences to life in prison under solitary confinement.<a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a> In parallel, the 2007 UN resolution presented and campaigns continued for a global moratorium on capital punishment.<a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gacaca_courts">Gacaca courts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gacaca_court" title="Gacaca court">Gacaca court</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gacaca_trial_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Gacaca_trial_2.jpg/220px-Gacaca_trial_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Gacaca_trial_2.jpg/330px-Gacaca_trial_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Gacaca_trial_2.jpg/440px-Gacaca_trial_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1066" /></a><figcaption>Gacaca</figcaption></figure> In response to the overwhelming number of potentially culpable individuals and the slow pace of the traditional judicial system, the government of Rwanda passed Organic Law No. 40/2000 in 2001.<a href="#cite_note-Tully-339">[339]</a> This law established Gacaca Courts at all administrative levels of Rwanda and in Kigali.<a href="#cite_note-Summary-334">[334]</a> It was mainly created to lessen the burden on normal courts and provide assistance in the justice system to run trials for those already in prison.<a href="#cite_note-Sarkin-332">[332]</a> The least severe cases, according to the terms of Organic Law No. 08/96 of 30, would be handled by these Gacaca Courts.<a href="#cite_note-Summary-334">[334]</a> With this law, the government began implementing a participatory justice system, known as <a href="/wiki/Gacaca" class="mw-redirect" title="Gacaca">Gacaca</a>, in order to address the enormous backlog of cases.<a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a> The Gacaca court system traditionally dealt with conflicts within communities, but it was adapted to deal with genocide crimes. Among the principal objectives of the courts were identification of the truth about what happened during the genocide, speeding up the process of trying genocide suspects, national unity and reconciliation, and demonstrating the capacity of the Rwandan people to resolve their own problems.<a href="#cite_note-Summary-334">[334]</a> The Gacaca court system faced many controversies and challenges; they were accused of being puppets of the RPF-dominated government.<a href="#cite_note-Max-341">[341]</a> The judges (known as Inyangamugayo, which means "those who detest dishonesty" in <a href="/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda">Kinyarwanda</a>) who preside over the genocide trials were elected by the public.<a href="#cite_note-Max-341">[341]</a> After election, the judges received training, but there was concern that the training was not adequate for serious legal questions or complex proceedings.<a href="#cite_note-Max-341">[341]</a> Furthermore, many judges resigned after facing accusations of participating in the genocide;<a href="#cite_note-Max-341">[341]</a> 27% of them were so accused.<a href="#cite_note-Summary-334">[334]</a> There was also a lack of defense counsel and protections for the accused,<a href="#cite_note-Max-341">[341]</a> who were denied the right to appeal to ordinary courts.<a href="#cite_note-Max-341">[341]</a> Most trials were open to the public, but there were issues with witness intimidation.<a href="#cite_note-Max-341">[341]</a> The Gacaca courts did not try those responsible for massacres of Hutu civilians committed by members of the RPF, which controlled the Gacaca Court system.<a href="#cite_note-Max-341">[341]</a> On 18 June 2012, the Gacaca court system was officially closed after facing criticism.<a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> It is estimated that the Gacaca court system tried 1,958,634 cases during its lifetime and that 1,003,227 persons stood trial.<a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></div> Meanwhile, the UN established the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a> (ICTR), based in <a href="/wiki/Arusha" title="Arusha">Arusha</a>, Tanzania. The UN Tribunal tried high-level members of the government and armed forces, while Rwanda prosecuted lower-level leaders and local people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-05htmP1081_336018_"Justice_and_Responsibility_»_The_International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda"]_344-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-05htmP1081_336018_"Justice_and_Responsibility_»_The_International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda"]-344">[344]</a> Since the ICTR was established as an <a href="/wiki/Ad_hoc" title="Ad hoc">ad hoc</a> international jurisdiction,<a href="#cite_note-Akhavan-345">[345]</a> the ICTR was scheduled to close by the end of 2014,<a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a> after it would complete trials by 2009 and appeals by 2010 or 2011. Initially, the U.N. Security Council established the ICTR in 1994 with an original mandate of four years without a fixed deadline and set on addressing the crimes committed during the Rwandan genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAptel2008-347">[347]</a> As the years passed, it became apparent that the ICTR would exist long past its original mandate. With the announcement of its closing, there was a concern over how residual issues would be handled, because "The nature of criminal judicial work ... is such that it never really ends."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAptel2008-347">[347]</a> The ICTR officially closed on 31 December 2015,<a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a> and its remaining functions were handed over to the <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_for_International_Criminal_Tribunals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals">Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Censorship">Censorship</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Rwanda" title="Censorship in Rwanda">Censorship in Rwanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide_denial" title="Rwandan genocide denial">Rwandan genocide denial</a></div> Article 38 of the Constitution of Rwanda 2003 guarantees "the freedom of expression and freedom of access to information where it does not prejudice public order, good morals, the protection of the youth and children, the right of every citizen to honour and dignity and protection of personal and family privacy".<a href="#cite_note-349">[349]</a> This has not guaranteed freedom of speech or expression given that the government has declared many forms of speech fall into the exceptions. Under these exceptions, longtime Rwandan president, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kagame" title="Paul Kagame">Paul Kagame</a>, asserted that any acknowledgment of the separate people was detrimental to the unification of post-Genocide Rwanda and has created numerous laws to prevent Rwandans from promoting a "genocide ideology" and "divisionism".<a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a> The law does not explicitly define such terms, nor does it state that one's beliefs must be spoken.<a href="#cite_note-351">[351]</a> For example, the law defines divisionism as "the use of any speech, written statement, or action that divides people, that is likely to spark conflicts among people, or that causes an uprising which might degenerate into strife among people based on discrimination".<a href="#cite_note-:02-352">[352]</a> Fear of the possible ramifications from breaking these laws have caused a culture of self-censorship within the population. Both civilians and the press typically avoid anything that could be construed as critical of the government/military or promoting "divisionism".<a href="#cite_note-:12-353">[353]</a> Under the Rwandan constitution, "revisionism, negationism and trivialisation of genocide" are criminal offences.<a href="#cite_note-muscara-354">[354]</a> Hundreds of people have been tried and convicted for "genocide ideology", "revisionism", and other laws ostensibly related to the genocide. According to Amnesty International, of the 489 individuals convicted of "genocide revisionism and other related crimes" in 2009, five were sentenced to life imprisonment, five were sentenced to more than 20 years in jail, 99 were sentenced to 10–20 years in jail, 211 received a custodial sentence of 5–10 years, and the remaining 169 received jail terms of less than five years.<a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a> <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> has criticized the Rwandan government for using these laws to "criminalize legitimate dissent and criticism of the government".<a href="#cite_note-356">[356]</a> In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Erlinder" title="Peter Erlinder">Peter Erlinder</a>, an American law professor and attorney, was arrested in Kigali and charged with genocide denial while serving as defense counsel for presidential candidate <a href="/wiki/Victoire_Ingabire" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoire Ingabire">Victoire Ingabire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-357">[357]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Survivors">Survivors</h3></div> The number of Tutsi survivors of the genocide has been debated. Different figures between 150,000 and 309,368 have been offered.<a href="#cite_note-Meierhenrich-196">[196]</a> There are a number of organizations representing and supporting these survivors of the genocide. These include the <a href="/wiki/Survivors_Fund" title="Survivors Fund">Survivors Fund</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibuka_(organisation)" title="Ibuka (organisation)">IBUKA</a> and <a href="/wiki/AVEGA" class="mw-redirect" title="AVEGA">AVEGA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a> The 2007 report on the living conditions of survivors conducted by the Ministry in charge of Social Affairs in Rwanda reported the following situation of survivors in the country:<a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a> <table class="wikitable plainrowheaders"> <caption>Survivors of the Rwandan genocide </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Category </th> <th scope="col">Number of survivors </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Very vulnerable survivors </th> <td align="right">120,080 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Shelterless </th> <td align="right">39,685 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Orphans living in households headed by children </th> <td align="right">28,904 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Widows </th> <td align="right">49,656 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Disabled during the genocide </th> <td align="right">27,498 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Children and youth with no access to school </th> <td align="right">15,438 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Graduates from high school with no access to higher education </th> <td align="right">8,000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media_and_popular_culture">Media and popular culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="List of films about the Rwandan genocide">List of films about the Rwandan genocide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide">Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deborah_Scranton_Paul_Kagame_Shankbone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Deborah_Scranton_Paul_Kagame_Shankbone.jpg/220px-Deborah_Scranton_Paul_Kagame_Shankbone.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Deborah_Scranton_Paul_Kagame_Shankbone.jpg/330px-Deborah_Scranton_Paul_Kagame_Shankbone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Deborah_Scranton_Paul_Kagame_Shankbone.jpg/440px-Deborah_Scranton_Paul_Kagame_Shankbone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2707" data-file-height="2092" /></a><figcaption>At the Earth Made of Glass premiere, Rwandan President <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kagame" title="Paul Kagame">Paul Kagame</a> stands with, from left, <a href="/wiki/Jenna_Dewan" title="Jenna Dewan">Jenna Dewan</a>, director <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Scranton" title="Deborah Scranton">Deborah Scranton</a>, documentary subject Jean Pierre Sagahutu, producer <a href="/wiki/Reid_Carolin" title="Reid Carolin">Reid Carolin</a> and executive producer <a href="/wiki/Channing_Tatum" title="Channing Tatum">Channing Tatum</a>.</figcaption></figure> Canadian Lieutenant-General Roméo Dallaire became the best-known eyewitness to the <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> after co-writing the book <a href="/wiki/Shake_Hands_with_the_Devil:_The_Failure_of_Humanity_in_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda">Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda</a> (2003) describing his experiences with depression and <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a> Dallaire's book was made into the movie <a href="/wiki/Shake_Hands_with_the_Devil_(2007_film)" title="Shake Hands with the Devil (2007 film)">Shake Hands with the Devil</a> (2007).<a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a> Former journalist and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_the_United_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to the United Nations">United States Ambassador to the United Nations</a> <a href="/wiki/Samantha_Power" title="Samantha Power">Samantha Power</a> is interviewed about the Rwandan genocide in <a href="/wiki/Watchers_of_the_Sky" title="Watchers of the Sky">Watchers of the Sky</a> (2014), a documentary by <a href="/wiki/Edet_Belzberg" title="Edet Belzberg">Edet Belzberg</a> about genocide throughout history and its eventual inclusion in <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a><a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a><a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a> The critically acclaimed and multiple <a href="/wiki/77th_Academy_Awards" title="77th Academy Awards">Academy Award</a>-nominated film <a href="/wiki/Hotel_Rwanda" title="Hotel Rwanda">Hotel Rwanda</a> (2004) is based on the experiences of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Rusesabagina" title="Paul Rusesabagina">Paul Rusesabagina</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Kigali" title="Kigali">Kigali</a> hotelier at the <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_des_Mille_Collines" title="Hôtel des Mille Collines">Hôtel des Mille Collines</a> who sheltered over a thousand refugees during the genocide.<a href="#cite_note-365">[365]</a> The independent documentary film <a href="/wiki/Earth_Made_of_Glass_(film)" title="Earth Made of Glass (film)">Earth Made of Glass</a> (2010), which addresses the personal and political costs of the genocide, focusing on Rwandan President <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kagame" title="Paul Kagame">Paul Kagame</a> and genocide survivor Jean-Pierre Sagahutu, premiered at the 2010 <a href="/wiki/Tribeca_Film_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribeca Film Festival">Tribeca Film Festival</a>.<a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a> <a href="/wiki/HBO_Films" title="HBO Films">HBO Films</a> released the <a href="/wiki/Made-for-television" class="mw-redirect" title="Made-for-television">made-for-television</a> <a href="/wiki/Historical_drama_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical drama film">historical drama film</a> titled <a href="/wiki/Sometimes_in_April" title="Sometimes in April">Sometimes in April</a> in <a href="/wiki/2005" title="2005">2005</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 2005, Alison Des Forges wrote that eleven years after the genocide, films for popular audiences on the subject greatly increased the "widespread realization of the horror that had taken the lives of more than half a million Tutsi".<a href="#cite_note-idrc.ca-367">[367]</a> In 2007, Charlie Beckett, Director of POLIS, said: "How many people saw the movie <a href="/wiki/Hotel_Rwanda" title="Hotel Rwanda">Hotel Rwanda</a>? [It is] ironically the way that most people now relate to Rwanda."<a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a> Pierre Rutare, the Tutsi father of Belgian-Rwandan singer <a href="/wiki/Stromae" title="Stromae">Stromae</a>, was killed in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commemoration">Commemoration</h2></div> In March 2019, President <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Tshisekedi" title="Félix Tshisekedi">Félix Tshisekedi</a> of the Democratic Republic of the Congo visited Rwanda to sign the Kigali Genocide Memorial Book, saying, "The collateral effects of these horrors have not spared my country, which has also lost millions of lives."<a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a> On 7 April the Rwandan Government initiated 100 days of mourning in observation of the 25th anniversary of the genocide by lighting a flame at the Kigali Genocide Memorial. Dignitaries from Chad, the Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Niger, Belgium, Canada, Ethiopia, the African Union and the European Union attended.<a href="#cite_note-370">[370]</a> At the national level, the annual commemoration programs are known as Kwibuka and commence with an official week of mourning observed from 7 to 13 April, known as Icyunamo. During this period, work is suspended, and various events take place locally, nationally, and among the Rwandan diaspora across the globe. These events provide opportunities for survivors to share their testimonies, fostering remembrance and reflection on the tragic events that occurred.<a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maps_of_Rwanda">Maps of Rwanda</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 228.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Percentage_of_Tutsi_population_in_Rwandan_communes_in_1983.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ethnic distribution of Tutsis in 1983.   0% Tutsi •   45.5% Tutsi"><img alt="Ethnic distribution of Tutsis in 1983.   0% Tutsi •   45.5% Tutsi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Percentage_of_Tutsi_population_in_Rwandan_communes_in_1983.svg/343px-Percentage_of_Tutsi_population_in_Rwandan_communes_in_1983.svg.png" decoding="async" width="229" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Percentage_of_Tutsi_population_in_Rwandan_communes_in_1983.svg/514px-Percentage_of_Tutsi_population_in_Rwandan_communes_in_1983.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Percentage_of_Tutsi_population_in_Rwandan_communes_in_1983.svg/686px-Percentage_of_Tutsi_population_in_Rwandan_communes_in_1983.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1400" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ethnic distribution of Tutsis in 1983. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style>  0% Tutsi • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  45.5% Tutsi</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 228.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Political_allegiance_of_burgomasters_in_Rwanda_at_the_beginning_of_April_1994.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map showing the geographical strongholds of the Rwandan political parties at the beginning of April 1994.  Unknown / vacant / partyless •   MRND •   MDR •   PSD •   PL • ★ Tutsi burgomaster • ★  Unclear / complicated"><img alt="Map showing the geographical strongholds of the Rwandan political parties at the beginning of April 1994.  Unknown / vacant / partyless •   MRND •   MDR •   PSD •   PL • ★ Tutsi burgomaster • ★  Unclear / complicated" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Political_allegiance_of_burgomasters_in_Rwanda_at_the_beginning_of_April_1994.svg/343px-Political_allegiance_of_burgomasters_in_Rwanda_at_the_beginning_of_April_1994.svg.png" decoding="async" width="229" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Political_allegiance_of_burgomasters_in_Rwanda_at_the_beginning_of_April_1994.svg/514px-Political_allegiance_of_burgomasters_in_Rwanda_at_the_beginning_of_April_1994.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Political_allegiance_of_burgomasters_in_Rwanda_at_the_beginning_of_April_1994.svg/686px-Political_allegiance_of_burgomasters_in_Rwanda_at_the_beginning_of_April_1994.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1400" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map showing the geographical strongholds of the Rwandan political parties at the beginning of April 1994.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  Unknown / vacant / partyless • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  MRND • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  MDR • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  PSD • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  PL • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">★ Tutsi burgomaster • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">★  Unclear / complicated</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genocide_studies" title="Outline of genocide studies">Outline of genocide studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinsangani_battle_(1997)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinsangani battle (1997)">Kinsangani battle (1997)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandese_National_Union" title="Rwandese National Union">Rwandese National Union</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Additional French and German-language sources have been found. They may have been relied on in the references below; please see the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Rwandan_genocide" title="Talk:Rwandan genocide">talk page</a> (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Rwandan_genocide/to_do" title="Talk:Rwandan genocide/to do">mobile link</a>) for details.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMeierhenrich2020" class="citation journal cs1">Meierhenrich, Jens (2020). "How Many Victims Were There in the Rwandan Genocide? A Statistical Debate". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 72–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623528.2019.1709611">10.1080/14623528.2019.1709611</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1462-3528">1462-3528</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213046710">213046710</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=How+Many+Victims+Were+There+in+the+Rwandan+Genocide%3F+A+Statistical+Debate&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=72-82&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213046710%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1462-3528&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623528.2019.1709611&rft.aulast=Meierhenrich&rft.aufirst=Jens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> The lower bound for Tutsi deaths is 491,000 (McDoom), see page 75 mention </li> <li id="cite_note-AmericanUniversity-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AmericanUniversity_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AmericanUniversity_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AmericanUniversity_2-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheshadri" class="citation web cs1">Sheshadri, Raja. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025741/http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/pygmy.htm">"Pygmies in the Congo Basin and Conflict"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_University" title="American University">American University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/pygmy.htm">the original</a> on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 22 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+University&rft.atitle=Pygmies+in+the+Congo+Basin+and+Conflict&rft.aulast=Sheshadri&rft.aufirst=Raja&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.american.edu%2Fted%2Fice%2Fpygmy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENowrojee1996-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENowrojee1996_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENowrojee1996_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENowrojee1996_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENowrojee1996_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENowrojee1996_3-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFNowrojee1996">Nowrojee 1996</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett2015" class="citation book cs1">Barnett, Michael (2015). Eyewitness to a Genocide: The United Nations and Rwanda (Afterword ed.). Cornell University Press. pp. 1, 15, 131–132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3883-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3883-7"><bdi>978-0-8014-3883-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eyewitness+to+a+Genocide%3A+The+United+Nations+and+Rwanda&rft.pages=1%2C+15%2C+131-132&rft.edition=Afterword&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-3883-7&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reydams-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Reydams_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReydams2020" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luc_Reydams" title="Luc Reydams">Reydams, Luc</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03056244.2020.1796320">"'More than a million': the politics of accounting for the dead of the Rwandan genocide"</a>. Review of African Political Economy. 48 (168): 235–256. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03056244.2020.1796320">10.1080/03056244.2020.1796320</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225356374">225356374</a>. <q>The government eventually settled on 'more than a million', a claim which few outside Rwanda have taken seriously.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+African+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=%27More+than+a+million%27%3A+the+politics+of+accounting+for+the+dead+of+the+Rwandan+genocide&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=168&rft.pages=235-256&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03056244.2020.1796320&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225356374%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Reydams&rft.aufirst=Luc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F03056244.2020.1796320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-6"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuichaoua2020" class="citation journal cs1">Guichaoua, André (2 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329">"Counting the Rwandan Victims of War and Genocide: Concluding Reflections"</a>. Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 125–141. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623528.2019.1703329">10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1462-3528">1462-3528</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213471539">213471539</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217170428/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=Counting+the+Rwandan+Victims+of+War+and+Genocide%3A+Concluding+Reflections&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=125-141&rft.date=2020-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213471539%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1462-3528&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623528.2019.1703329&rft.aulast=Guichaoua&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F14623528.2019.1703329&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1995247-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1995247_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1995247_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1995">Prunier 1995</a>, p. 247. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan1994" class="citation news cs1">Sullivan, Ronald (7 April 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/07/obituaries/juvenal-habyarimana-57-ruled-rwanda-for-21-years.html">"Juvenal Habyarimana, 57, Ruled Rwanda for 21 Years"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230613184943/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/07/obituaries/juvenal-habyarimana-57-ruled-rwanda-for-21-years.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Juvenal+Habyarimana%2C+57%2C+Ruled+Rwanda+for+21+Years&rft.date=1994-04-07&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F04%2F07%2Fobituaries%2Fjuvenal-habyarimana-57-ruled-rwanda-for-21-years.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-01.htm">"Ignoring Genocide (HRW Report – Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda, March 1999)"</a>. www.hrw.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231028003802/https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-01.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hrw.org&rft.atitle=Ignoring+Genocide+%28HRW+Report+%E2%80%93+Leave+None+to+Tell+the+Story%3A+Genocide+in+Rwanda%2C+March+1999%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Freports%2F1999%2Frwanda%2FGeno15-8-01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullo2018" class="citation book cs1">Sullo, Pietro (2018). "Writing History Through Criminal Law: State-Sponsored Memory in Rwanda". The Palgrave Handbook of State-Sponsored History After 1945. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 69–85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-95306-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-95306-6"><bdi>978-1-349-95306-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Writing+History+Through+Criminal+Law%3A+State-Sponsored+Memory+in+Rwanda&rft.btitle=The+Palgrave+Handbook+of+State-Sponsored+History+After+1945&rft.pages=69-85&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-349-95306-6&rft.aulast=Sullo&rft.aufirst=Pietro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-11"><a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYakaré-Oulé2014" class="citation journal cs1">Yakaré-Oulé, Jansen (11 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njihr/vol12/iss2/3/">"Denying Genocide or Denying Free Speech? A Case Study of the Application of Rwanda's Genocide Denial Laws"</a>. Northwestern Journal of Human Rights. 12 (2): 192. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190616173200/https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njihr/vol12/iss2/3/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2019. Retrieved 16 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Northwestern+Journal+of+Human+Rights&rft.atitle=Denying+Genocide+or+Denying+Free+Speech%3F+A+Case+Study+of+the+Application+of+Rwanda%27s+Genocide+Denial+Laws&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=192&rft.date=2014-04-11&rft.aulast=Yakar%C3%A9-Oul%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Jansen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu%2Fnjihr%2Fvol12%2Fiss2%2F3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien200344-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrétien200344_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrétien2003">Chrétien 2003</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani200261-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMamdani200261_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMamdani200261_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMamdani200261_13-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMamdani2002">Mamdani 2002</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien200358-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrétien200358_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrétien2003">Chrétien 2003</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199916-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199916_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELuis2004-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuis2004_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLuis2004">Luis 2004</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani200258-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMamdani200258_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMamdani2002">Mamdani 2002</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien200369-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrétien200369_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrétien2003">Chrétien 2003</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShyaka10–11-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShyaka10–11_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShyaka">Shyaka</a>, pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani200252-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMamdani200252_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMamdani2002">Mamdani 2002</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien200388–89-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrétien200388–89_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrétien2003">Chrétien 2003</a>, pp. 88–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003482-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003482_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrétien2003">Chrétien 2003</a>, p. 482. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003160-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003160_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003160_23-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrétien2003">Chrétien 2003</a>, p. 160. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorsey199438-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorsey199438_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDorsey1994">Dorsey 1994</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani200269-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMamdani200269_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMamdani200269_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMamdani2002">Mamdani 2002</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPottier200213-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPottier200213_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPottier2002">Pottier 2002</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199913–14-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199913–14_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-Totten-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Totten_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Totten_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Totten_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Totten_28-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel_TottenWilliam_S._Parsons2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Totten" title="Samuel Totten">Samuel Totten</a>; William S. Parsons (2009). Century of Genocide, Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. New York: RoutledgeFalmer. p. 421. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-99085-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-99085-1"><bdi>978-0-415-99085-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Century+of+Genocide%2C+Critical+Essays+and+Eyewitness+Accounts&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=421&rft.pub=RoutledgeFalmer&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-99085-1&rft.au=Samuel+Totten&rft.au=William+S.+Parsons&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAppiahGates2010218-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAppiahGates2010218_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAppiahGates2010">Appiah & Gates 2010</a>, p. 218. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarney201324-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarney201324_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCarney2013">Carney 2013</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199925-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199925_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Bruce D. Jones, Peacemaking, S. 17 f; Carsten Heeger, Die Erfindung, S. 23–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003217–18-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003217–18_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrétien2003">Chrétien 2003</a>, pp. 217–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199925–26-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199925–26_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 25–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199926-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199926_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003260-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrétien2003260_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrétien2003">Chrétien 2003</a>, p. 260. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199935-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199935_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGourevitch200056–57-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourevitch200056–57_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGourevitch2000">Gourevitch 2000</a>, pp. 56–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamusella2022" class="citation journal cs1">Kamusella, Tomasz (19 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/ethnicity-and-estate-the-galician-jacquerie-and-the-rwandan-genocide-compared/6BE393A65E77C1E2BECC4D17ACF8E3D8">"Ethnicity and Estate: The Galician Jacquerie and the Rwandan Genocide Compared"</a>. Nationalities Papers. 50 (4): 684–703. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fnps.2021.12">10.1017/nps.2021.12</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10023%2F23154">10023/23154</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235573417">235573417</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210606082928/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/ethnicity-and-estate-the-galician-jacquerie-and-the-rwandan-genocide-compared/6BE393A65E77C1E2BECC4D17ACF8E3D8">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2021 – via Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nationalities+Papers&rft.atitle=Ethnicity+and+Estate%3A+The+Galician+Jacquerie+and+the+Rwandan+Genocide+Compared&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=684-703&rft.date=2022-07-19&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10023%2F23154&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A235573417%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fnps.2021.12&rft.aulast=Kamusella&rft.aufirst=Tomasz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fnationalities-papers%2Farticle%2Fethnicity-and-estate-the-galician-jacquerie-and-the-rwandan-genocide-compared%2F6BE393A65E77C1E2BECC4D17ACF8E3D8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinden1977" class="citation book cs1">Linden, Ian (1977). Church and Revolution in Rwanda. Manchester: Manchester University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Church+and+Revolution+in+Rwanda&rft.pub=Manchester%3A+Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Linden&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVansina1985" class="citation book cs1">Vansina, Jan (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oraltraditionash0000vans/mode/2up?q=tutsi">Oral tradition as history</a>. Internet Archive. Madison, Wis. : University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-10213-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-10213-5"><bdi>978-0-299-10213-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oral+tradition+as+history&rft.pub=Madison%2C+Wis.+%3A+University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-299-10213-5&rft.aulast=Vansina&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foraltraditionash0000vans%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dtutsi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199943-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199943_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199943_42-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199943–44-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199943–44_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199943–44_43-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 43–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199945–46-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199945–46_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 45–46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarney2013124-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarney2013124_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCarney2013">Carney 2013</a>, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGourevitch200058–59-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourevitch200058–59_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGourevitch2000">Gourevitch 2000</a>, pp. 58–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199948–49-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199948–49_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 48–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199951-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199951_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199951_48-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGourevitch200060-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourevitch200060_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGourevitch2000">Gourevitch 2000</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199953-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199953_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMamdani2002160–61-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMamdani2002160–61_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMamdani2002">Mamdani 2002</a>, pp. 160–61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199963–64-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199963–64_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 63–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199955–56-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199955–56_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199955–56_53-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 55–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199962-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199962_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199957-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199957_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199974–76-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199974–76_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199974–76_56-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 74–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETwagilimana2007117-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETwagilimana2007117_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTwagilimana2007">Twagilimana 2007</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETwagilimana2007116-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETwagilimana2007116_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTwagilimana2007">Twagilimana 2007</a>, p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier19994-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier19994_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer200847-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinzer200847_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinzer2008">Kinzer 2008</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer200851–52-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinzer200851–52_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinzer2008">Kinzer 2008</a>, pp. 51–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200414-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200414_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199994–95-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199994–95_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 94–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199995–96-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199995–96_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 95–96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199996-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199996_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200027–30-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200027–30_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2000">Melvern 2000</a>, pp. 27–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999114–15-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999114–15_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 114–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999117–18-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999117–18_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 117–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999120-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999120_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999135-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999135_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999150-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999150_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999173–74-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999173–74_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999173–74_72-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 173–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999174–77-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999174–77_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 174–77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999190–91-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999190–91_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 190–91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999187-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999187_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005126–31-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005126–31_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, pp. 126–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199985-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199985_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200412-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200412_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999108-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999108_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999188-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999188_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999188_80-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 188. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua201534–36-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua201534–36_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuichaoua2015">Guichaoua 2015</a>, pp. 34–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200449-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200449_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200450-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200450_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999128-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999128_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999_85-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDes_Forges1999">Des Forges 1999</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-ICTR_Judgement-86"><a href="#cite_ref-ICTR_Judgement_86-0">^</a> THE PROSECUTOR VERSUS JEAN-PAUL AKAYESU Case No. ICTR-96-4-T at paras. 99–100 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999166-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999166_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 166. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999167-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999167_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999174-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999174_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999180-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999180_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999181–82-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999181–82_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999181–82_91-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 181–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999182-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999182_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999182_92-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999182_92-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 182. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005129-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005129_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999165-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999165_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999165_94-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200425-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200425_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research">"Rwanda: the state of Research | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network"</a>. www.sciencespo.fr. 26 January 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119173416/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.sciencespo.fr&rft.atitle=Rwanda%3A+the+state+of+Research+%7C+Sciences+Po+Mass+Violence+and+Resistance+-+Research+Network&rft.date=2016-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Fen%2Fdocument%2Frwanda-state-research&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSander2021" class="citation book cs1">Sander, Barrie (2021). Doing Justice to History: Confronting the Past in International Criminal Courts. Oxford University Press. p. 281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884687-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884687-1"><bdi>978-0-19-884687-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doing+Justice+to+History%3A+Confronting+the+Past+in+International+Criminal+Courts&rft.pages=281&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-884687-1&rft.aulast=Sander&rft.aufirst=Barrie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200420-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200420_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200420_98-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200420_98-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999243-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999243_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999243_99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999243_99-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2011286-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2011286_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPowell2011">Powell 2011</a>, p. 286. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETottenParsons2009408-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETottenParsons2009408_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETottenParsons2009408_101-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTottenParsons2009">Totten & Parsons 2009</a>, p. 408. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200031,_32-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200031,_32_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2000">Melvern 2000</a>, pp. 31, 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire200569-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire200569_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern200456-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200456_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern200456_104-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090716020747/http://www.usip.org/files/file/resources/collections/commissions/Burundi-Report.pdf">"Part V: Recommendations – II. Genocide"</a> (PDF). International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usip.org/files/file/resources/collections/commissions/Burundi-Report.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 July 2009. Retrieved 29 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Commission+of+Inquiry+for+Burundi&rft.atitle=Part+V%3A+Recommendations+%E2%80%93+II.+Genocide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usip.org%2Ffiles%2Ffile%2Fresources%2Fcollections%2Fcommissions%2FBurundi-Report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999199-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999199_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 199. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999200-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999200_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999200_107-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999200_107-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999200_107-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 200. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005143-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005143_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-huffrawanda-109"><a href="#cite_ref-huffrawanda_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2014" class="citation web cs1">Adams, Smin (21 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/simon-adams/rwanda-genocide-anniversary_b_4613571.html">"The UN, Rwanda and the "Genocide Fax" – 20 Years Later"</a>. Huffington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925010333/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/simon-adams/rwanda-genocide-anniversary_b_4613571.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=The+UN%2C+Rwanda+and+the+%22Genocide+Fax%22+%E2%80%93+20+Years+Later&rft.date=2014-01-21&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Smin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fsimon-adams%2Frwanda-genocide-anniversary_b_4613571.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015141,_127-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015141,_127_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuichaoua2015">Guichaoua 2015</a>, pp. 141, 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-GenocideFax-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GenocideFax_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GenocideFax_111-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GenocideFax_111-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB452/">"The Rwanda "Genocide Fax": What We Know Now"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Archive" title="National Security Archive">National Security Archive</a>. 9 January 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181219044038/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB452/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 December 2018. Retrieved 18 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Security+Archive&rft.atitle=The+Rwanda+%22Genocide+Fax%22%3A+What+We+Know+Now&rft.date=2014-01-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnsarchive2.gwu.edu%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB452%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReydams2016" class="citation journal cs1">Reydams, Luc (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/r35223.pdf#page=36">"NGO Justice: African Rights as Pseudo-Prosecutor of the Rwandan Genocide"</a> (PDF). Human Rights Quarterly. 38 (3): 582. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fhrq.2016.0041">10.1353/hrq.2016.0041</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151351680">151351680</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190218220616/http://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/r35223.pdf#page=36">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 16 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Quarterly&rft.atitle=NGO+Justice%3A+African+Rights+as+Pseudo-Prosecutor+of+the+Rwandan+Genocide&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=582&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fhrq.2016.0041&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151351680%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Reydams&rft.aufirst=Luc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.corteidh.or.cr%2Ftablas%2Fr35223.pdf%23page%3D36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolgreen2008" class="citation news cs1">Polgreen, Lydia (18 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/19/world/africa/19rwanda.html?hp">"Rwandan Officer Found Guilty of 1994 Genocide"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190130063949/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/19/world/africa/19rwanda.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 January 2019. Retrieved 16 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Rwandan+Officer+Found+Guilty+of+1994+Genocide&rft.date=2008-12-18&rft.aulast=Polgreen&rft.aufirst=Lydia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F12%2F19%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2F19rwanda.html%3Fhp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-16185659">"Rwandan genocide sentence reduced"</a>. BBC News. 14 December 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180814041404/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-16185659">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2018. Retrieved 16 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Rwandan+genocide+sentence+reduced&rft.date=2011-12-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-16185659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015303-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015303_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuichaoua2015">Guichaoua 2015</a>, p. 303: "The two judgments are the convictions of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Kambanda" title="Jean Kambanda">Jean Kambanda</a>, ex-prime minister, and <a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Niyitegeka" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliezer Niyitegeka">Eliezer Niyitegeka</a>, ex-minister of information of the Interim Government." </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirschke1996" class="citation book cs1">Kirschke, Linda (1996). Broadcasting Genocide: Censorship, Propaganda & State-sponsored Violence in Rwanda 1990–1994. Article 19. pp. 71, 84–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2210-7975_HRD-2210-0154">10.1163/2210-7975_HRD-2210-0154</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-870798-33-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-870798-33-4"><bdi>978-1-870798-33-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Broadcasting+Genocide%3A+Censorship%2C+Propaganda+%26+State-sponsored+Violence+in+Rwanda+1990%E2%80%931994&rft.pages=71%2C+84-85&rft.pub=Article+19&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2210-7975_HRD-2210-0154&rft.isbn=978-1-870798-33-4&rft.aulast=Kirschke&rft.aufirst=Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kimani_110–124-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kimani_110–124_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kimani_110–124_117-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimani2007" class="citation book cs1">Kimani, Mary (2007). "RTLM: the Medium That Became a Tool for Mass Murder". In Thompson, Allan (ed.). The Media and the Rwanda Genocide. Pluto Press. pp. 110–124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt18fs550.14">10.2307/j.ctt18fs550.14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-2625-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-2625-2"><bdi>978-0-7453-2625-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt18fs550.14">j.ctt18fs550.14</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=RTLM%3A+the+Medium+That+Became+a+Tool+for+Mass+Murder&rft.btitle=The+Media+and+the+Rwanda+Genocide&rft.pages=110-124&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt18fs550.14%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt18fs550.14&rft.isbn=978-0-7453-2625-2&rft.aulast=Kimani&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFujii2007" class="citation journal cs1">Fujii, Lee Ann (April 2007). "Jean Hatzfeld. Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005/Picador, 2006. Translated by Linda Coverdale. Preface by Susan Sontag. xiv + 253 pp. Maps. Chronology of Events. Photograph. Index. $24.00. Cloth. $14.00. Paper". African Studies Review. 50 (1): 155–156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Farw.2005.0101">10.1353/arw.2005.0101</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142781769">142781769</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Studies+Review&rft.atitle=Jean+Hatzfeld.+Machete+Season%3A+The+Killers+in+Rwanda+Speak.+New+York%3A+Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux%2C+2005%2FPicador%2C+2006.+Translated+by+Linda+Coverdale.+Preface+by+Susan+Sontag.+xiv+%2B+253+pp.+Maps.+Chronology+of+Events.+Photograph.+Index.+%2424.00.+Cloth.+%2414.00.+Paper.&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=155-156&rft.date=2007-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Farw.2005.0101&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142781769%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Fujii&rft.aufirst=Lee+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Bibliography on ICTR, ICTY and IRMCT 2018. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) Special Bibliography. 2018. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18356%2F59527281-en-fr">10.18356/59527281-en-fr</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-1-047319-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-1-047319-4"><bdi>978-92-1-047319-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239791188">239791188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bibliography+on+ICTR%2C+ICTY+and+IRMCT+2018&rft.series=International+Criminal+Tribunal+for+Rwanda+%28ICTR%29+Special+Bibliography&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A239791188%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18356%2F59527281-en-fr&rft.isbn=978-92-1-047319-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStraus2007" class="citation journal cs1">Straus, Scott (December 2007). "What Is the Relationship between Hate Radio and Violence? Rethinking Rwanda's "Radio Machete"". Politics & Society. 35 (4): 609–637. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0032329207308181">10.1177/0032329207308181</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154402375">154402375</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politics+%26+Society&rft.atitle=What+Is+the+Relationship+between+Hate+Radio+and+Violence%3F+Rethinking+Rwanda%27s+%22Radio+Machete%22&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=609-637&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0032329207308181&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154402375%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Straus&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYanagizawa-Drott2014" class="citation journal cs1">Yanagizawa-Drott, David (1 November 2014). "Propaganda and Conflict: Evidence from the Rwandan Genocide *". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 129 (4): 1947–1994. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fqje%2Fqju020">10.1093/qje/qju020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Propaganda+and+Conflict%3A+Evidence+from+the+Rwandan+Genocide+%2A&rft.volume=129&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1947-1994&rft.date=2014-11-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fqje%2Fqju020&rft.aulast=Yanagizawa-Drott&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanning2018" class="citation journal cs1">Danning, Gordon (2 October 2018). "Did Radio RTLM Really Contribute Meaningfully to the Rwandan Genocide?: Using Qualitative Information to Improve Causal Inference from Measures of Media Availability". Civil Wars. 20 (4): 529–554. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13698249.2018.1525677">10.1080/13698249.2018.1525677</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150075267">150075267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+Wars&rft.atitle=Did+Radio+RTLM+Really+Contribute+Meaningfully+to+the+Rwandan+Genocide%3F%3A+Using+Qualitative+Information+to+Improve+Causal+Inference+from+Measures+of+Media+Availability&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=529-554&rft.date=2018-10-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13698249.2018.1525677&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150075267%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Danning&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGreal2006" class="citation news cs1">McGreal, Chris (22 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/nov/22/france.rwanda">"French judge accuses Rwandan president of assassination"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181222082224/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/nov/22/france.rwanda">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2018. Retrieved 22 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=French+judge+accuses+Rwandan+president+of+assassination&rft.date=2006-11-22&rft.aulast=McGreal&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2006%2Fnov%2F22%2Ffrance.rwanda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mutsinzireport.com/">"The Mutsinzi Report"</a>. mutsinzireport.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190218220739/http://mutsinzireport.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 22 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mutsinzireport.com&rft.atitle=The+Mutsinzi+Report&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmutsinzireport.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTribunal_de_Grande_Instance_de_Paris2012" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tribunal de Grande Instance de Paris (5 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://francegenocidetutsi.org/rapport-balstique-attentat-contre-habyarimana-6-4-1994.pdf">"Rapport d'expertise. Destruction en vol du Falcon 50 Kigali"</a> (PDF) (in French). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181110080358/http://francegenocidetutsi.org/rapport-balstique-attentat-contre-habyarimana-6-4-1994.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 10 November 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rapport+d%27expertise.+Destruction+en+vol+du+Falcon+50+Kigali&rft.date=2012-01-05&rft.au=Tribunal+de+Grande+Instance+de+Paris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffrancegenocidetutsi.org%2Frapport-balstique-attentat-contre-habyarimana-6-4-1994.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-rwanda-genocide-report-idUSTRE80924720120110?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews">Reuters: French probe exonerates Rwanda leader in genocide</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230401073828/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-rwanda-genocide-report-idUSTRE80924720120110?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews">Archived</a> 1 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 10 January 2012 </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelvern2012" class="citation news cs1">Melvern, Linda (10 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jan/10/rwanda-at-last-we-know-truth">"Rwanda: at last we know the truth"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171230171919/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jan/10/rwanda-at-last-we-know-truth">Archived</a> from the original on 30 December 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Rwanda%3A+at+last+we+know+the+truth&rft.date=2012-01-10&rft.aulast=Melvern&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2012%2Fjan%2F10%2Frwanda-at-last-we-know-truth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReyntjens2014" class="citation web cs1">Reyntjens, Filip (21 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://africanarguments.org/2014/10/21/rwandas-untold-story-a-reply-to-38-scholars-scientists-researchers-journalists-and-historians-by-filip-reyntjens/">"Rwanda's Untold Story. A reply to '38 scholars, scientists, researchers, journalists and historians'"</a>. African Arguments. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180725222106/http://africanarguments.org/2014/10/21/rwandas-untold-story-a-reply-to-38-scholars-scientists-researchers-journalists-and-historians-by-filip-reyntjens/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 13 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=African+Arguments&rft.atitle=Rwanda%27s+Untold+Story.+A+reply+to+%2738+scholars%2C+scientists%2C+researchers%2C+journalists+and+historians%27&rft.date=2014-10-21&rft.aulast=Reyntjens&rft.aufirst=Filip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fafricanarguments.org%2F2014%2F10%2F21%2Frwandas-untold-story-a-reply-to-38-scholars-scientists-researchers-journalists-and-historians-by-filip-reyntjens%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Times_abduction-129"><a href="#cite_ref-Times_abduction_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarkey2014" class="citation news cs1">Starkey, Jerome (25 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/africa/article4277015.ece">"Soldier who accused Kagame of triggering genocide is abducted"</a>. thetimes.co.uk. The Times (UK). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141125200701/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/africa/article4277015.ece">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2014. Retrieved 26 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=thetimes.co.uk&rft.atitle=Soldier+who+accused+Kagame+of+triggering+genocide+is+abducted&rft.date=2014-11-25&rft.aulast=Starkey&rft.aufirst=Jerome&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Ftto%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2Farticle4277015.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005222–23-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005222–23_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, pp. 222–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004137-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004137_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005224-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005224_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005224_132-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005224_132-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005224_132-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005224_132-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 224. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005225-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005225_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 225. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005223-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005223_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 223. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005230-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005230_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005230_135-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005230_135-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999230-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999230_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999230_136-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005245-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005245_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 245. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGourevitch2000114-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourevitch2000114_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGourevitch2000">Gourevitch 2000</a>, p. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-rwanda-genocide-belgium-idUSL0469900520070704">"Rwandan convicted of killing Belgian peacekeepers"</a>. Reuters. 4 July 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131105120136/http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/07/04/us-rwanda-genocide-belgium-idUSL0469900520070704">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Rwandan+convicted+of+killing+Belgian+peacekeepers&rft.date=2007-07-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-rwanda-genocide-belgium-idUSL0469900520070704&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005231-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005231_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999231-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999231_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005232-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005232_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 232. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004139-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004139_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999229-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999229_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999229_144-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 229. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005292-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005292_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 292. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/13/world/africa/rwanda-france-genocide.html">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181210152843/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/13/world/africa/rwanda-france-genocide.html">Archived</a> 10 December 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, New York Times, 13 December 2017 </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2017/12/13/africa/french-officials-rwanda-genocide/index.html">"French Officials Aided Rwanda Genocide"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180914203746/https://www.cnn.com/2017/12/13/africa/french-officials-rwanda-genocide/index.html">Archived</a> 14 September 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, CNN, 13 December 2017 </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/rwanda-genocide-french-connection-508940">"Rwanda Genocide: French Connection"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190129025545/https://www.newsweek.com/rwanda-genocide-french-connection-508940">Archived</a> 29 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Newsweek, </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2017/06/27/genocide-au-rwanda-des-revelations-sur-le-role-de-la-france_5151690_3212.html">"Genocide au Rwanda: des revelations sur le rôle de la France"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190119132252/https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2017/06/27/genocide-au-rwanda-des-revelations-sur-le-role-de-la-france_5151690_3212.html">Archived</a> 19 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Le Monde, 27 June 2017 (in French) </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuichaoua1998" class="citation report cs1">Guichaoua, André (August 1998). Local government in Rwanda: Expert report prepared at the request of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (Report). Arusha: ICTR. p. 14. Record Number: 13685, Exhibit Number: P31B in ICTR-01-74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Local+government+in+Rwanda%3A+Expert+report+prepared+at+the+request+of+the+International+Criminal+Tribunal+for+Rwanda&rft.place=Arusha&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=ICTR&rft.date=1998-08&rft.aulast=Guichaoua&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2015" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_James_(academic)" title="Paul James (academic)">James, Paul</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/riij20/17/2#.VR03CzuUdPM">"Despite the Terrors of Typologies: The Importance of Understanding Categories of Difference and Identity"</a>. Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies. 17 (2): 174–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1369801x.2014.993332">10.1080/1369801x.2014.993332</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142378403">142378403</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151017111914/http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/riij20/17/2#.VR03CzuUdPM">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Interventions%3A+International+Journal+of+Postcolonial+Studies&rft.atitle=Despite+the+Terrors+of+Typologies%3A+The+Importance+of+Understanding+Categories+of+Difference+and+Identity&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=174-95&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F1369801x.2014.993332&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142378403%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Ftoc%2Friij20%2F17%2F2%23.VR03CzuUdPM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004165-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004165_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004172-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004172_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999240-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999240_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999240_154-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999240_154-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 240. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004146–47-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004146–47_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, pp. 146–47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004163-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004163_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004164-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004164_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999236-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999236_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004169-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004169_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004169_159-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999244–45-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999244–45_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 244–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStraus2013">Straus 2013</a>, p. 93 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETottenParsons2009411-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETottenParsons2009411_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTottenParsons2009">Totten & Parsons 2009</a>, p. 411. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStraus2013">Straus 2013</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETottenParsons2009427-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETottenParsons2009427_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTottenParsons2009">Totten & Parsons 2009</a>, p. 427. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999242–43-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999242–43_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 242–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261-166">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999261_166-12">m</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 261. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004204-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004204_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999244-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999244_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999244_168-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999247-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999247_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999247_169-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999247_169-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999247_169-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 247. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999245-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999245_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 245. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004195-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004195_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004209–10-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004209–10_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, pp. 209–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004209–210-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004209–210_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, pp. 209–210. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004171-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004171_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 171. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999233-175"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999233_175-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015212-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015212_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuichaoua2015">Guichaoua 2015</a>, p. 212. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004193-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004193_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004213–14-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004213–14_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004213–14_178-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, pp. 213–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005278-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005278_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 278. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005329-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005329_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 329. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999248-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999248_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005233-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005233_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Pauw, Jacques (reporter) (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytxQmbNqiXo">1994 special report on the Rwandan genocide</a> (Television production). <a href="/wiki/South_African_Broadcasting_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="South African Broadcasting Corporation">South African Broadcasting Corporation</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201001131833/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytxQmbNqiXo&gl=US&hl=en">Archived</a> from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1994+special+report+on+the+Rwandan+genocide&rft.pub=South+African+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DytxQmbNqiXo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999312-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999312_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999312_184-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 312. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005336-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005336_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 336. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999313–14-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999313–14_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999313–14_186-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 313–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005337-187"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005337_187-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 337. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004236-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004236_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999291-189"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999291_189-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 291. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999292-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999292_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999292_190-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 292. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005459-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005459_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005459_191-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 459. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999298–99-192">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999298–99_192-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999298–99_192-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 298–99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999316-193"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999316_193-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 316. </li> <li id="cite_note-lemarchand-194"><a href="#cite_ref-lemarchand_194-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemarchand2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Lemarchand" title="René Lemarchand">Lemarchand, René</a> (25 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research">"Rwanda: the state of Research | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance – Réseau de recherche"</a>. www.sciencespo.fr. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1961-9898">1961-9898</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119173416/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 13 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=www.sciencespo.fr&rft.atitle=Rwanda%3A+the+state+of+Research+%7C+Sciences+Po+Violence+de+masse+et+R%C3%A9sistance+%E2%80%93+R%C3%A9seau+de+recherche&rft.date=2018-06-25&rft.issn=1961-9898&rft.aulast=Lemarchand&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Fen%2Fdocument%2Frwanda-state-research&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McDoom-195"><a href="#cite_ref-McDoom_195-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDoom2020" class="citation journal cs1">McDoom, Omar Shahabudin (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/103205/1/McDoom_Contested_Counting_accepted_version.pdf">"Contested Counting: Toward a Rigorous Estimate of the Death Toll in the Rwandan Genocide"</a> (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 83–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623528.2019.1703252">10.1080/14623528.2019.1703252</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214032255">214032255</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210731105754/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/103205/1/McDoom_Contested_Counting_accepted_version.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 6 July 2021. <q>If one examines the claims for the overall number killed, at the higher end lies the figure of 1,074,017 Rwandan dead. This number originates with the Rwandan government which conducted a nationwide census in July 2000, six years after the genocide. Toward the lower end lies an estimate from Human Rights Watch, one of the first organizations on the ground to investigate the genocide, of 507,000 Tutsi killed... I have estimated between 491,000 and 522,000 Tutsi, nearly two thirds of Rwanda's pre-genocide Tutsi population, were killed between 6 April and 19 July 1994. I calculated this death toll by subtracting my estimate of between 278,000 and 309,000 Tutsi survivors from my estimate of a baseline Tutsi population of almost exactly 800,000, or 10.8% of the overall population, on the eve of the genocide... In comparison with estimates at the higher and lower ends, my estimate is significantly lower than the Government of Rwanda's genocide census figure of 1,006,031 Tutsi killed. I believe this number is not credible.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=Contested+Counting%3A+Toward+a+Rigorous+Estimate+of+the+Death+Toll+in+the+Rwandan+Genocide&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83-93&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623528.2019.1703252&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A214032255%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=McDoom&rft.aufirst=Omar+Shahabudin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.lse.ac.uk%2F103205%2F1%2FMcDoom_Contested_Counting_accepted_version.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meierhenrich-196">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meierhenrich_196-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meierhenrich_196-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meierhenrich_196-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeierhenrich2020" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jens_Meierhenrich" title="Jens Meierhenrich">Meierhenrich, Jens</a> (2020). "How Many Victims Were There in the Rwandan Genocide? A Statistical Debate". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 72–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623528.2019.1709611">10.1080/14623528.2019.1709611</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213046710">213046710</a>. <q>Despite the various methodological disagreements among them, none of the scholars who participated in this forum gives credence to the official figure of 1,074,107 victims... Given the rigour of the various quantitative methodologies involved, this forum's overarching finding that the death toll of 1994 is nowhere near the one-million-mark is – scientifically speaking – incontrovertible.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=How+Many+Victims+Were+There+in+the+Rwandan+Genocide%3F+A+Statistical+Debate&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=72-82&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623528.2019.1709611&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213046710%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Meierhenrich&rft.aufirst=Jens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Maximo, Dady De (2012). "A Genocide that could have been avoided". New Times. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/topics/rwandan-genocide">Rwandan Genocide</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160325012529/http://www.history.com/topics/rwandan-genocide">Archived</a> 25 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, History.com </li> <li id="cite_note-SurvivalInternational-199"><a href="#cite_ref-SurvivalInternational_199-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/pygmies">"The 'Pygmies'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Survival_International" title="Survival International">Survival International</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170331170845/http://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/pygmies">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 22 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Survival+International&rft.atitle=The+%27Pygmies%27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.survivalinternational.org%2Ftribes%2Fpygmies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-01.htm">"IGNORING GENOCIDE"</a>. Human Rights Watch. 17 May 2023. Retrieved 27 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.atitle=IGNORING+GENOCIDE&rft.date=2023-05-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Freports%2F1999%2Frwanda%2FGeno15-8-01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmmanuel2010" class="citation web cs1">Emmanuel, Viret (10 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-chronology-1867-1994.html">"RWANDA - A CHRONOLOGY (1867-1994)"</a>. Sciences Po University. Retrieved 27 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sciences+Po+University&rft.atitle=RWANDA+-+A+CHRONOLOGY+%281867-1994%29&rft.date=2010-03-10&rft.aulast=Emmanuel&rft.aufirst=Viret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Fen%2Fdocument%2Frwanda-chronology-1867-1994.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1998244-202">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1998244_202-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1998244_202-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1998">Prunier 1998</a>, p. 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-appeals01-203">^ <a href="#cite_ref-appeals01_203-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-appeals01_203-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140814074058/http://www.unictr.org/tabid/155/Default.aspx?ID=91">"Appeals Chamber Decisions"</a>. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unictr.org/tabid/155/Default.aspx?ID=91">the original</a> on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Appeals+Chamber+Decisions&rft.pub=International+Criminal+Tribunal+for+Rwanda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unictr.org%2Ftabid%2F155%2FDefault.aspx%3FID%3D91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unictr.org/Cases/tabid/127/PID/42/default.aspx?id=5&mnid=4">"Catholic Priest Athanase Seromba Sentenced to Fifteen Years"</a> (Press release). International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. 13 December 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141001004940/http://www.unictr.org/Cases/tabid/127/PID/42/default.aspx?id=5&mnid=4">Archived</a> from the original on 1 October 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catholic+Priest+Athanase+Seromba+Sentenced+to+Fifteen+Years&rft.pub=International+Criminal+Tribunal+for+Rwanda&rft.date=2006-12-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unictr.org%2FCases%2Ftabid%2F127%2FPID%2F42%2Fdefault.aspx%3Fid%3D5%26mnid%3D4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070505122707/http://69.94.11.53/ENGLISH/PRESSREL/2006/507.htm">"Prosecutor to Appeal Against Seromba's Sentence"</a> (Press release). International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. 22 December 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://69.94.11.53/ENGLISH/PRESSREL/2006/507.htm">the original</a> on 5 May 2007. Retrieved 7 January 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prosecutor+to+Appeal+Against+Seromba%27s+Sentence&rft.pub=International+Criminal+Tribunal+for+Rwanda&rft.date=2006-12-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F69.94.11.53%2FENGLISH%2FPRESSREL%2F2006%2F507.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030627030034/http://129.194.252.80/catfiles/0714.pdf">ICTR Yearbook 1994–1996</a> (PDF). International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. pp. 77–78. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://129.194.252.80/catfiles/0714.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 27 June 2003. Retrieved 7 January 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ICTR+Yearbook+1994%E2%80%931996&rft.pages=77-78&rft.pub=International+Criminal+Tribunal+for+Rwanda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F129.194.252.80%2Fcatfiles%2F0714.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hayden-207"><a href="#cite_ref-Hayden_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHayden2000">Hayden 2000</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2010138–41-208"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2010138–41_208-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones2010">Jones 2010</a>, pp. 138–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-de_Brouwer_2005_13-209">^ <a href="#cite_ref-de_Brouwer_2005_13_209-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-de_Brouwer_2005_13_209-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-de_Brouwer_2005_13_209-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-de_Brouwer_2005_13_209-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Brouwer2005">de Brouwer 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JhY8ROsA39kC&pg=PA13">13</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sandra-210">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sandra_210-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sandra_210-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChude_Brouwer2009" class="citation journal cs1">Chu, S. Ka Hon; de Brouwer, A.M. (Spring 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210211034805/http://www.herizons.ca/node/263">"Rwanda's Rape Victims Speak Out"</a>. Herizons. 22 (4): 16. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.herizons.ca/node/263">the original</a> on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 20 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Herizons&rft.atitle=Rwanda%27s+Rape+Victims+Speak+Out&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=16&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Chu&rft.aufirst=S.+Ka+Hon&rft.au=de+Brouwer%2C+A.M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.herizons.ca%2Fnode%2F263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elbe-211"><a href="#cite_ref-Elbe_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFElbe2002">Elbe 2002</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Drumbl_2012-212"><a href="#cite_ref-Drumbl_2012_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrumbl2012">Drumbl 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://minorityrights.org/minorities/twa-2/">"TWA"</a>. Minority Rights Group International. 19 June 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221116163337/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/twa-2/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2022. Retrieved 25 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TWA&rft.pub=Minority+Rights+Group+International&rft.date=2015-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fminorityrights.org%2Fminorities%2Ftwa-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnrepresented_Nations_and_Peoples_Organization_(UNPO)2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/UNPO" class="mw-redirect" title="UNPO">Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO)</a> (25 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140402134444/http://unpo.org/members/7861">"Batwa"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unpo.org/members/7861">the original</a> on 2 April 2014. Retrieved 19 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Batwa&rft.date=2008-03-25&rft.au=Unrepresented+Nations+and+Peoples+Organization+%28UNPO%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unpo.org%2Fmembers%2F7861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NewsAfrica-215"><a href="#cite_ref-NewsAfrica_215-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newsafrica.co.uk/rwandas-forgotten-tribe-which-was-nearly-wiped-off-by-genocide-the-twa/">"Rwanda's forgotten tribe which was nearly wiped off by genocide"</a>. News Africa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170323144044/http://newsafrica.co.uk/rwandas-forgotten-tribe-which-was-nearly-wiped-off-by-genocide-the-twa/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 22 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=News+Africa&rft.atitle=Rwanda%27s+forgotten+tribe+which+was+nearly+wiped+off+by+genocide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewsafrica.co.uk%2Frwandas-forgotten-tribe-which-was-nearly-wiped-off-by-genocide-the-twa%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005247-216">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005247_216-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005247_216-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005247_216-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 247. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005264–65-217"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005264–65_217-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, pp. 264–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005269-218"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005269_218-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 269. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999268-219">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999268_219-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999268_219-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 268. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005288-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005288_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 288. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005299-221">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005299_221-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005299_221-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 299. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005300-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005300_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 300. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005326–27-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005326–27_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, pp. 326–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005410-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005410_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 410. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999270-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999270_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 270. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005421-226">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005421_226-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005421_226-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005421_226-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005421_226-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 421. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005474–75-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005474–75_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, pp. 474–75. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130911035627/http://www.gov.rw/Official-holidays">"Official holidays"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Rwanda">gov.rw</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gov.rw/Official-holidays">the original</a> on 11 September 2013. Retrieved 12 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Official+holidays&rft.pub=gov.rw&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.rw%2FOfficial-holidays&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-03htm_"The_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front"]-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-03htm_"The_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front"]_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDes_Forges1999">Des Forges 1999</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-03.htm">"The Rwandan Patriotic Front"</a>: "certain kinds of RPF abuses occurred so often and in such similar ways that they must have been directed by officers at a high level of responsibility." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyntjens201398–101-230"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReyntjens201398–101_230-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReyntjens2013">Reyntjens 2013</a>, pp. 98–101: "In a number of cases, witnesses from within the RPA interviewed by the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) of the ICTR declared that Kagame himself ordered some of the killings." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReydams2020-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReydams2020_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReydams2020">Reydams 2020</a>. In March 1996, the ICTR chief prosecutor requested funding to hire forensic investigators and a statistical/demographic advisor. 'Forensic analysis is critical to the investigation of the Tribunal. It is proposed to establish a Forensic Unit to undertake scientific analysis relating to the mass murders' (United Nations 1996, para. 40, emphasis added). A month later, the Tribunal's registrar announced: "Acting on the advice of the Government of Rwanda and with due respect to the wishes of the families of the deceased, no further mass graves will be exhumed by the Office of the Prosecutor" (Adede 1996, emphasis added). What happened? An ICTR excavation in January–February 1996 of a mass grave in Kibuye, the first of its kind, had met with a street protest in the capital and disapproval from the government. According to a former tribunal official, excavations were "not something that the Rwandan government was happy with" (quoted in O'Brien 2011, 168; see also Korman 2015, 203–220). Investigators reportedly had discovered "two layers" of bodies, one of Tutsi genocide victims and one of Hutu civilians killed by the RPF (Guichaoua 2020, 132). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2020-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2020_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuichaoua2020">Guichaoua 2020</a>. Hutu victims: deliberate destruction of evidence Concerning this second aspect of the remembrance policy, the political barriers to counting victims have been ongoing and systematic since the war had begun in 1990 RPF offensive. Each major period and event mentioned above corresponds to significant numbers of Hutu, military and civilian victims, none of whom were ever counted. The only obstacle weighing on RPF leaders were, if necessary, eliminating or fighting off the threat of an ICTR prosecution. While only theoretical, the threat could have become real at any time. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldorf2011" class="citation journal cs1">Waldorf, Lars (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ilj/vol33/iss4/3/">""A Mere Pretense of Justice": Complementarity, Sham Trials, and Victor's Justice at the Rwanda Tribunal"</a>. Fordham International Law Journal. 33 (4): 1221. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190119121058/https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ilj/vol33/iss4/3/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fordham+International+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=%22A+Mere+Pretense+of+Justice%22%3A+Complementarity%2C+Sham+Trials%2C+and+Victor%27s+Justice+at+the+Rwanda+Tribunal&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1221&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Waldorf&rft.aufirst=Lars&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fir.lawnet.fordham.edu%2Filj%2Fvol33%2Fiss4%2F3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERever2018228-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERever2018228_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRever2018">Rever 2018</a>, p. 228: "The legal definition of genocide has nothing to do with numbers killed. It defines genocide as the 'intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such.'" </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemarchand2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Lemarchand" title="René Lemarchand">Lemarchand, René</a> (25 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research">"Rwanda: the state of Research | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance – Réseau de recherche"</a>. www.sciencespo.fr. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1961-9898">1961-9898</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119173416/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 13 December 2018. <q>The double genocide thesis cannot be dismissed out of hand. After the publication of Judi Rever's expose of the crimes of the RPF, there appears to be considerable evidence to justify the use of the g-word to describe such atrocities.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=www.sciencespo.fr&rft.atitle=Rwanda%3A+the+state+of+Research+%7C+Sciences+Po+Violence+de+masse+et+R%C3%A9sistance+%E2%80%93+R%C3%A9seau+de+recherche&rft.date=2018-06-25&rft.issn=1961-9898&rft.aulast=Lemarchand&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Fen%2Fdocument%2Frwanda-state-research&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReyntjens2018" class="citation web cs1">Reyntjens, Filip (26 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.france-rwanda.info/2018/05/kagame-should-be-in-court-prof-filip-reyntjens.html">"Kagame should be in court"</a>. La Tribune Franco-Rwandaise. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190119121157/http://www.france-rwanda.info/2018/05/kagame-should-be-in-court-prof-filip-reyntjens.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kagame+should+be+in+court&rft.pub=La+Tribune+Franco-Rwandaise&rft.date=2018-05-26&rft.aulast=Reyntjens&rft.aufirst=Filip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.france-rwanda.info%2F2018%2F05%2Fkagame-should-be-in-court-prof-filip-reyntjens.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008189-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008189_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008189_237-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinzer2008">Kinzer 2008</a>, p. 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamair1994" class="citation web cs1">Lamair, Philippe (1 September 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unhcr.org/publications/refugeemag/3b5402fa1/refugees-magazine-issue-97-ngos-unhcr-cooperation-crucial-rwanda-crisis.html">"Refugees Magazine Issue 97 (NGOs and UNHCR) – Cooperation crucial in Rwanda crisis"</a>. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190106153247/https://www.unhcr.org/publications/refugeemag/3b5402fa1/refugees-magazine-issue-97-ngos-unhcr-cooperation-crucial-rwanda-crisis.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Refugees+Magazine+Issue+97+%28NGOs+and+UNHCR%29+%E2%80%93+Cooperation+crucial+in+Rwanda+crisis&rft.pub=United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Refugees&rft.date=1994-09-01&rft.aulast=Lamair&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhcr.org%2Fpublications%2Frefugeemag%2F3b5402fa1%2Frefugees-magazine-issue-97-ngos-unhcr-cooperation-crucial-rwanda-crisis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLorch1994" class="citation news cs1">Lorch, Donatella (8 May 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/08/world/out-of-rwanda-s-horrors-into-a-sickening-squalor.html">"Out of Rwanda's Horrors into a Sickening Squalor"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190106010417/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/08/world/out-of-rwanda-s-horrors-into-a-sickening-squalor.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Out+of+Rwanda%27s+Horrors+into+a+Sickening+Squalor&rft.date=1994-05-08&rft.aulast=Lorch&rft.aufirst=Donatella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F05%2F08%2Fworld%2Fout-of-rwanda-s-horrors-into-a-sickening-squalor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015xlvi-240"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuichaoua2015xlvi_240-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuichaoua2015">Guichaoua 2015</a>, p. xlvi. </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLorch1994" class="citation news cs1">Lorch, Donatella (19 May 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/19/world/thousands-of-fleeing-rwandans-huddle-at-remote-tanzania-site.html">"Thousands of Fleeing Rwandans Huddle at Remote Tanzania Site"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190106010234/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/19/world/thousands-of-fleeing-rwandans-huddle-at-remote-tanzania-site.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Thousands+of+Fleeing+Rwandans+Huddle+at+Remote+Tanzania+Site&rft.date=1994-05-19&rft.aulast=Lorch&rft.aufirst=Donatella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F05%2F19%2Fworld%2Fthousands-of-fleeing-rwandans-huddle-at-remote-tanzania-site.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-03htmP987_304596_"The_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front"]-242"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-03htmP987_304596_"The_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front"]_242-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDes_Forges1999">Des Forges 1999</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-03.htm#P987_304596">"The Rwandan Patriotic Front"</a>: "[The UNHCR] began hearing accounts of RPF killings from refugees in early May and became sufficiently concerned to make public the allegations on May 17." </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrutsalis1994" class="citation web cs1">Prutsalis, Mark (17 May 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rwandadok.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/1994-05-17-rwandan-refugees-in-tanzania-new-arrivals-report.pdf">"Rwandan Refugees in Tanzania, New Arrivals Report"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Refugees_International" title="Refugees International">Refugees International</a>. Sitrep #10. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170930222855/https://rwandadok.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/1994-05-17-rwandan-refugees-in-tanzania-new-arrivals-report.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 30 September 2017. Retrieved 5 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Refugees+International&rft.atitle=Rwandan+Refugees+in+Tanzania%2C+New+Arrivals+Report&rft.date=1994-05-17&rft.aulast=Prutsalis&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frwandadok.files.wordpress.com%2F2013%2F06%2F1994-05-17-rwandan-refugees-in-tanzania-new-arrivals-report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyntjens2013100-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReyntjens2013100_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReyntjens2013">Reyntjens 2013</a>, p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-03htmP1002_309600_"The_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front]-245"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-03htmP1002_309600_"The_Rwandan_Patriotic_Front]_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDes_Forges1999">Des Forges 1999</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-03.htm#P1002_309600">"The Rwandan Patriotic Front</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009466n111-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009466n111_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, p. 466n111: "[That the Gersony Report did not exist] was technically true because there were only field notes. Robert Gersony later told me that knowing full well that it would never be published, he had never done the work of writing out a fully developed version, keeping it only in synthetic documentary form." </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGersony1994" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gersony" title="Robert Gersony">Gersony, Robert</a> (10 October 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://speakingout.msf.org/sites/default/files/47-19941010UNHCRGersonyreport.pdf">"Summary of UNHCR presentation before commission of experts, 10 October 1994 – Prospects for early repatriation of Rwandan refugees currently in Burundi, Tanzania and Zaïre"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190119121209/http://speakingout.msf.org/sites/default/files/47-19941010UNHCRGersonyreport.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Summary+of+UNHCR+presentation+before+commission+of+experts%2C+10+October+1994+%E2%80%93+Prospects+for+early+repatriation+of+Rwandan+refugees+currently+in+Burundi%2C+Tanzania+and+Za%C3%AFre&rft.date=1994-10-10&rft.aulast=Gersony&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspeakingout.msf.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F47-19941010UNHCRGersonyreport.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRever2018" class="citation news cs1">Rever, Judi (9 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.opencanada.org/features/why-we-must-listen-those-who-have-fled-kagames-rwanda/">"Why we must listen to those who have fled Kagame's Rwanda"</a>. <a href="/wiki/OpenCanada" class="mw-redirect" title="OpenCanada">OpenCanada</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190322205855/https://www.opencanada.org/features/why-we-must-listen-those-who-have-fled-kagames-rwanda/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OpenCanada&rft.atitle=Why+we+must+listen+to+those+who+have+fled+Kagame%27s+Rwanda&rft.date=2018-04-09&rft.aulast=Rever&rft.aufirst=Judi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.opencanada.org%2Ffeatures%2Fwhy-we-must-listen-those-who-have-fled-kagames-rwanda%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakuramutsa1994" class="citation web cs1">Bakuramutsa, Manzi (29 September 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undocs.org/S/1994/1115">"Letter Dated 28 September 1994 From the Permanent Representative of Rwanda to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. S/1994/1115. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190117013437/https://undocs.org/S/1994/1115">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2019. <q>We categorically deny the following unfounded allegations made by the officials of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): (a) That there are systematic and organized killings by the Government causing insecurity in the country; (b) That there is a mass exodus of people fleeing the country to the neighbouring United Republic of Tanzania; (c) That refugees do not return because of the alleged insecurity in the country.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+Dated+28+September+1994+From+the+Permanent+Representative+of+Rwanda+to+the+United+Nations+Addressed+to+the+President+of+the+Security+Council&rft.pub=United+Nations&rft.date=1994-09-29&rft.aulast=Bakuramutsa&rft.aufirst=Manzi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fundocs.org%2FS%2F1994%2F1115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bonner1994-250">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bonner1994_250-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bonner1994_250-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bonner1994_250-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonner1994" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Bonner" title="Raymond Bonner">Bonner, Raymond</a> (28 September 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/09/28/world/un-stops-returning-rwandan-refugees.html">"U.N. Stops Returning Rwandan Refugees"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190119121209/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/09/28/world/un-stops-returning-rwandan-refugees.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=U.N.+Stops+Returning+Rwandan+Refugees&rft.date=1994-09-28&rft.aulast=Bonner&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F09%2F28%2Fworld%2Fun-stops-returning-rwandan-refugees.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008191-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008191_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinzer2008">Kinzer 2008</a>, p. 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLorch1995" class="citation news cs1">Lorch, Donatella (25 April 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/25/world/mood-grim-at-camp-in-rwanda.html">"Mood Grim at Camp in Rwanda"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. New York. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120810024836/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/25/world/mood-grim-at-camp-in-rwanda.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 August 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Mood+Grim+at+Camp+in+Rwanda&rft.date=1995-04-25&rft.aulast=Lorch&rft.aufirst=Donatella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F04%2F25%2Fworld%2Fmood-grim-at-camp-in-rwanda.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustralian_War_Memorial" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Australian_War_Memorial" title="Australian War Memorial">Australian War Memorial</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/U60680/">"Rwanda (UNAMIR), 1993 – 1996"</a>. War history. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200629135459/https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/U60680/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=War+history&rft.atitle=Rwanda+%28UNAMIR%29%2C+1993+%E2%80%93+1996&rft.au=Australian+War+Memorial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awm.gov.au%2Fcollection%2FU60680%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier200942-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier200942_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire200598-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire200598_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999194-256"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999194_256-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005146-257">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005146_257-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005146_257-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005150-258"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005150_258-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-pogge-259">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pogge_259-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pogge_259-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPogge2010" class="citation book cs1">Pogge, Thomas (2010). Politics as Usual. Polity. pp. 168–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3892-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3892-8"><bdi>978-0-7456-3892-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+as+Usual&rft.pages=168-70&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-3892-8&rft.aulast=Pogge&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999205-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999205_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005219–20-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005219–20_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, pp. 219–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999236–37-262"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999236–37_262-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 236–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire20056-263"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire20056_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005270-264"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallaire2005270_264-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallaire2005">Dallaire 2005</a>, p. 270. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999204-265"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999204_265-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004197-266"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004197_266-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 197. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004229-267"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004229_267-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 229. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004411-268"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2004411_268-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2004">Melvern 2004</a>, p. 411. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_Nations-269">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUnited_Nations_269-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUnited_Nations_269-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFUnited_Nations">United Nations</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier199989-270"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier199989_270-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999100–01-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999100–01_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 100–01. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelvern2008-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelvern2008_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelvern2008">Melvern 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999234-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999234_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999235-274">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999235_274-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999235_274-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999235_274-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 235. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERFI2014-275"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERFI2014_275-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRFI2014">RFI 2014</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFassbender201127-276"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFassbender201127_276-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFassbender2011">Fassbender 2011</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGreal2007-277"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGreal2007_277-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcGreal2007">McGreal 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(I)1998-278"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(I)1998_278-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBBC_News_(I)1998">BBC News (I) 1998</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitney1998-279">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney1998_279-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney1998_279-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhitney1998">Whitney 1998</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(III)2008-280"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(III)2008_280-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBBC_News_(III)2008">BBC News (III) 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsiimwe2008-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsiimwe2008_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAsiimwe2008">Asiimwe 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGenin2019" class="citation web cs1">Genin, Aaron (30 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/">"France Resets African Relations: a Potential Lesson for President Trump"</a>. The California Review. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190501003400/https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+California+Review&rft.atitle=France+Resets+African+Relations%3A+a+Potential+Lesson+for+President+Trump&rft.date=2019-04-30&rft.aulast=Genin&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcalrev.org%2F2019%2F04%2F30%2Ffrench-soft-power-resetting-african-relations%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/19/france-enabled-1994-rwanda-genocide-report-says">"France "enabled" 1994 Rwanda genocide, report says"</a>. Al Jazeera. 19 April 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210503221619/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/19/france-enabled-1994-rwanda-genocide-report-says">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=France+%22enabled%22+1994+Rwanda+genocide%2C+report+says&rft.date=2021-04-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2021%2F4%2F19%2Ffrance-enabled-1994-rwanda-genocide-report-says&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrol2004" class="citation news cs1">Carrol, Rory (1 April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/mar/31/usa.rwanda">"US chose to ignore Rwandan genocide"</a>. London: theguardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171228191139/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/mar/31/usa.rwanda">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=US+chose+to+ignore+Rwandan+genocide&rft.date=2004-04-01&rft.aulast=Carrol&rft.aufirst=Rory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2004%2Fmar%2F31%2Fusa.rwanda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ambush/etc/script.html">"Ambush in Mogadishu: Transcript"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090506142008/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ambush/etc/script.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2009. Retrieved 27 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ambush+in+Mogadishu%3A+Transcript&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fpages%2Ffrontline%2Fshows%2Fambush%2Fetc%2Fscript.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChozick2012" class="citation news cs1">Chozick, Amy (4 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/05/us/politics/in-africa-bill-clinton-works-to-leave-a-charitable-legacy.html">"In Africa, Bill Clinton Toils for a Charitable Legacy"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121022022004/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/05/us/politics/in-africa-bill-clinton-works-to-leave-a-charitable-legacy.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 18 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Africa%2C+Bill+Clinton+Toils+for+a+Charitable+Legacy&rft.date=2012-09-04&rft.aulast=Chozick&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F09%2F05%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fin-africa-bill-clinton-works-to-leave-a-charitable-legacy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rwanda_Revisited-287"><a href="#cite_ref-Rwanda_Revisited_287-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch2015" class="citation web cs1">Lynch, Colum (5 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/04/05/rwanda-revisited-genocide-united-states-state-department/">"Exclusive: Rwanda Revisited"</a>. foreignpolicy.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150408050432/http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/04/05/rwanda-revisited-genocide-united-states-state-department/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2015. Retrieved 8 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=foreignpolicy.com&rft.atitle=Exclusive%3A+Rwanda+Revisited&rft.date=2015-04-05&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=Colum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2F2015%2F04%2F05%2Frwanda-revisited-genocide-united-states-state-department%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallimore2014" class="citation web cs1">Gallimore, Tim (11 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://m.huffpost.com/us/entry/5135559?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAABJKuaNTOxlYWbhsLlgPMEXAXdgcbv2XcAr5B84Hhvv009MaZ20vA2__90WowDyO5-z1Q0suv0C23fhXs9IrnLOG6xVb9vsmyR6VXW5MOFonfMGgajuG1QM8lwihbu9ar0AjlrXLPS10ct26hWoYq35ux3wT-6CHhk0CtD7Dxvm9">"A Closer Look at Where Rwanda's Lethal Weapons Came From"</a>. Huffington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240116051251/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/a-closer-look-at-where-rw_b_5135559?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAABJKuaNTOxlYWbhsLlgPMEXAXdgcbv2XcAr5B84Hhvv009MaZ20vA2__90WowDyO5-z1Q0suv0C23fhXs9IrnLOG6xVb9vsmyR6VXW5MOFonfMGgajuG1QM8lwihbu9ar0AjlrXLPS10ct26hWoYq35ux3wT-6CHhk0CtD7Dxvm9">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 15 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=A+Closer+Look+at+Where+Rwanda%27s+Lethal+Weapons+Came+From&rft.date=2014-04-11&rft.aulast=Gallimore&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fm.huffpost.com%2Fus%2Fentry%2F5135559%3Fguccounter%3D1%26guce_referrer%3DaHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8%26guce_referrer_sig%3DAQAAABJKuaNTOxlYWbhsLlgPMEXAXdgcbv2XcAr5B84Hhvv009MaZ20vA2__90WowDyO5-z1Q0suv0C23fhXs9IrnLOG6xVb9vsmyR6VXW5MOFonfMGgajuG1QM8lwihbu9ar0AjlrXLPS10ct26hWoYq35ux3wT-6CHhk0CtD7Dxvm9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a7fc8.html">"Arming Rwanda - the Arms Trade and Human Rights Abuses in the Rwandan War"</a>. Human Rights Watch. 1 January 1994. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814202808/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a7fc8.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2021 – via refworld.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.atitle=Arming+Rwanda+-+the+Arms+Trade+and+Human+Rights+Abuses+in+the+Rwandan+War&rft.date=1994-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.refworld.org%2Fdocid%2F3ae6a7fc8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Rwanda1.htm">"RWANDA/ZAIRE Rearming with Impunity International Support for the Perpetrators of the Rwandan Genocide"</a>. Human Rights Watch. May 1995. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210426155415/https://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Rwanda1.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.atitle=RWANDA%2FZAIRE+Rearming+with+Impunity+International+Support+for+the+Perpetrators+of+the+Rwandan+Genocide&rft.date=1995-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Freports%2F1995%2FRwanda1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMisgav2015" class="citation web cs1">Misgav, Uri (3 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-1.635058">"The Israeli Guns That Took Part in the Rwanda Genocide"</a>. Haaretz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171002164844/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-1.635058">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=The+Israeli+Guns+That+Took+Part+in+the+Rwanda+Genocide&rft.date=2015-01-03&rft.aulast=Misgav&rft.aufirst=Uri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fisrael-news%2F.premium-1.635058&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/international/africa/1556826403-israel-was-aware-of-violence-against-hutus-before-rwandan-genocide-new-documents-show">"Israel was aware of violence against Hutus before Rwandan genocide, new documents show"</a>. i24news.tv. 2 May 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210523223431/https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/international/africa/1556826403-israel-was-aware-of-violence-against-hutus-before-rwandan-genocide-new-documents-show">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=i24news.tv&rft.atitle=Israel+was+aware+of+violence+against+Hutus+before+Rwandan+genocide%2C+new+documents+show&rft.date=2019-05-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.i24news.tv%2Fen%2Fnews%2Finternational%2Fafrica%2F1556826403-israel-was-aware-of-violence-against-hutus-before-rwandan-genocide-new-documents-show&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross2016" class="citation web cs1">Gross, Judah Ari (12 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/records-of-israeli-arms-sales-during-rwandan-genocide-to-remain-sealed/">"Records of Israeli arms sales during Rwandan genocide to remain sealed"</a>. The Times of Israel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180112202315/https://www.timesofisrael.com/records-of-israeli-arms-sales-during-rwandan-genocide-to-remain-sealed/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+Israel&rft.atitle=Records+of+Israeli+arms+sales+during+Rwandan+genocide+to+remain+sealed&rft.date=2016-04-12&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=Judah+Ari&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesofisrael.com%2Frecords-of-israeli-arms-sales-during-rwandan-genocide-to-remain-sealed%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fides.org/en/news/2156-VATICAN_The_Pope_s_anguished_and_repeated_calls_during_the_genocide_in_Rwanda_Do_not_give_in_to_the_temptation_of_hatred_and_revenge_At_this_tragic_stage_of_the_life_of_your_country_be_builders_of_peace_and_love">"VATICAN - The Pope's anguished and repeated calls during the genocide in Rwanda: "Do not give in to the temptation of hatred and revenge. At this tragic stage of the life of your country, be builders of peace and love""</a>. agenzia fides. Information service of the Pontifical Mission Societies. 6 April 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220603204453/http://www.fides.org/en/news/2156-VATICAN_The_Pope_s_anguished_and_repeated_calls_during_the_genocide_in_Rwanda_Do_not_give_in_to_the_temptation_of_hatred_and_revenge_At_this_tragic_stage_of_the_life_of_your_country_be_builders_of_peace_and_love">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=agenzia+fides&rft.atitle=VATICAN+-+The+Pope%27s+anguished+and+repeated+calls+during+the+genocide+in+Rwanda%3A+%22Do+not+give+in+to+the+temptation+of+hatred+and+revenge.+At+this+tragic+stage+of+the+life+of+your+country%2C+be+builders+of+peace+and+love%22&rft.date=2004-04-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fides.org%2Fen%2Fnews%2F2156-VATICAN_The_Pope_s_anguished_and_repeated_calls_during_the_genocide_in_Rwanda_Do_not_give_in_to_the_temptation_of_hatred_and_revenge_At_this_tragic_stage_of_the_life_of_your_country_be_builders_of_peace_and_love&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wf-295">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wf_295-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wf_295-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTottenBartropJacobs2008">Totten, Bartrop & Jacobs 2008</a>, p. 380. </li> <li id="cite_note-ADF_1999_Orgnztn_Clergy-296">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ADF_1999_Orgnztn_Clergy_296-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ADF_1999_Orgnztn_Clergy_296-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDes_Forges1999">Des Forges 1999</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno4-7-03.htm#P893_245534">"The Organization » The Clergy"</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1376692.stm">"Nuns jailed for genocide role"</a>. 8 June 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221110183310/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1376692.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nuns+jailed+for+genocide+role&rft.date=2001-06-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Feurope%2F1376692.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna16189347">"Ex-priest jailed for Rwanda genocide"</a>. NBC News. 13 December 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019104905/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/16189347/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Ex-priest+jailed+for+Rwanda+genocide&rft.date=2006-12-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna16189347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimani2010" class="citation news cs1">Kimani, Martin (29 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2010/mar/29/pope-catholics-rwanda-genocide-church">"For Rwandans, the pope's apology must be unbearable"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130909151415/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2010/mar/29/pope-catholics-rwanda-genocide-church">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=For+Rwandans%2C+the+pope%27s+apology+must+be+unbearable&rft.date=2010-03-29&rft.aulast=Kimani&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2Fbelief%2F2010%2Fmar%2F29%2Fpope-catholics-rwanda-genocide-church&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/791907.stm">"Rwandan bishop cleared of genocide"</a>. BBC News. 15 June 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051222040414/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/791907.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2005. Retrieved 23 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Rwandan+bishop+cleared+of+genocide&rft.date=2000-06-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2F791907.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmatulli2017" class="citation news cs1">Amatulli, Jenna (20 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/pope-francis-asks-for-catholic-church-to-be-forgiven-for-role-in-rwandan-genocide_us_58cff7cee4b0ec9d29dda49e">"Pope Francis Asks For Catholic Church To Be Forgiven For Role in Rwandan Genocide"</a>. Huffington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010043248/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/pope-francis-asks-for-catholic-church-to-be-forgiven-for-role-in-rwandan-genocide_us_58cff7cee4b0ec9d29dda49e">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=Pope+Francis+Asks+For+Catholic+Church+To+Be+Forgiven+For+Role+in+Rwandan+Genocide&rft.date=2017-03-20&rft.aulast=Amatulli&rft.aufirst=Jenna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fentry%2Fpope-francis-asks-for-catholic-church-to-be-forgiven-for-role-in-rwandan-genocide_us_58cff7cee4b0ec9d29dda49e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/the-long-wait-the-rwandan-refugees-in-zaire/">"The long wait: The Rwandan refugees in Zaire"</a>. 13 November 1995. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210726023133/https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/the-long-wait-the-rwandan-refugees-in-zaire/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+long+wait%3A+The+Rwandan+refugees+in+Zaire&rft.date=1995-11-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.radionetherlandsarchives.org%2Fthe-long-wait-the-rwandan-refugees-in-zaire%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3ebf9bb60.pdf">"Ch. 10: "The Rwandan genocide and its aftermath""</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070925211343/http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3ebf9bb60.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 25 September 2007. Retrieved 13 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ch.+10%3A+%22The+Rwandan+genocide+and+its+aftermath%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhcr.org%2Fpubl%2FPUBL%2F3ebf9bb60.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> in State of the World's Refugees 2000, <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999381–382-304"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999381–382_304-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 381–382. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pomfret1997-305">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pomfret1997_305-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pomfret1997_305-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pomfret1997_305-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pomfret1997_305-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPomfret1997" class="citation news cs1">Pomfret, John (9 July 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/congo/stories/070997.htm">"Rwandans Led Revolt in Congo"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151030193237/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/congo/stories/070997.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2015. Retrieved 16 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Rwandans+Led+Revolt+in+Congo&rft.date=1997-07-09&rft.aulast=Pomfret&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-srv%2Finatl%2Flongterm%2Fcongo%2Fstories%2F070997.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999382-306"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999382_306-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, p. 382. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999384–85-307">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999384–85_307-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999384–85_307-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 384–85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009118-308"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009118_308-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009122–23-309"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009122–23_309-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, pp. 122–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyntjens2013110–15-310"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReyntjens2013110–15_310-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReyntjens2013">Reyntjens 2013</a>, pp. 110–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmizet2000" class="citation journal cs1">Emizet, Kisangani N. F. (July 2000). "The Massacre of Refugees in Congo: A Case of UN Peacekeeping Failure and International Law". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Modern_African_Studies" title="Journal of Modern African Studies">Journal of Modern African Studies</a>. 38 (2): 163–202. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022278X0000330X">10.1017/S0022278X0000330X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/161648">161648</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154818651">154818651</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+African+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Massacre+of+Refugees+in+Congo%3A+A+Case+of+UN+Peacekeeping+Failure+and+International+Law&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=163-202&rft.date=2000-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154818651%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F161648%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022278X0000330X&rft.aulast=Emizet&rft.aufirst=Kisangani+N.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008209-312"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008209_312-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinzer2008">Kinzer 2008</a>, p. 209. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008216-313"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008216_313-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinzer2008">Kinzer 2008</a>, p. 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrittain1999-314"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrittain1999_314-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrittain1999">Brittain 1999</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008215–18-315"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008215–18_315-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinzer2008">Kinzer 2008</a>, pp. 215–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBymanChalkHoffmanRosenau2001" class="citation book cs1">Byman, Daniel; Chalk, Peter; Hoffman, Bruce; Rosenau, William; Brannan, David (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R0a11NarYXcC">Trends in Outside Support for Insurgent Movements</a>. Rand Corporation. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-3232-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-3232-4"><bdi>978-0-8330-3232-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240116051253/https://books.google.com/books?id=R0a11NarYXcC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 22 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trends+in+Outside+Support+for+Insurgent+Movements&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Rand+Corporation&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8330-3232-4&rft.aulast=Byman&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Chalk%2C+Peter&rft.au=Hoffman%2C+Bruce&rft.au=Rosenau%2C+William&rft.au=Brannan%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR0a11NarYXcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009113–16-317"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009113–16_317-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, pp. 113–16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009128–33-318"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009128–33_318-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, pp. 128–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009136-319"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009136_319-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(II)2006-320">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(II)2006_320-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(II)2006_320-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBBC_News_(II)2006">BBC News (II) 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009182–83-321"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier2009182–83_321-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier2009">Prunier 2009</a>, pp. 182–83. </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGreal2010" class="citation news cs1">McGreal, Chris (1 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/01/un-report-rwanda-congo-genocide">"Delayed UN report links Rwanda to Congo genocide"</a>. The Guardian. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160821165059/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/01/un-report-rwanda-congo-genocide">Archived</a> from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Delayed+UN+report+links+Rwanda+to+Congo+genocide&rft.date=2010-10-01&rft.aulast=McGreal&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2010%2Foct%2F01%2Fun-report-rwanda-congo-genocide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> UN <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008181-324">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008181_324-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008181_324-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinzer2008">Kinzer 2008</a>, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/burying-the-machete-in-rwanda/">"Burying the machete in Rwanda"</a>. 1 March 1995. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210723230835/https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/burying-the-machete-in-rwanda/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Burying+the+machete+in+Rwanda&rft.date=1995-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.radionetherlandsarchives.org%2Fburying-the-machete-in-rwanda%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" title="United States Holocaust Memorial Museum">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121202235012/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007216">"Rwanda"</a>. Holocaust Encyclopedia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007216">the original</a> on 2 December 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rwanda&rft.btitle=Holocaust+Encyclopedia&rft.au=United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fwlc%2Fen%2Farticle.php%3FModuleId%3D10007216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-de_Brouwer_2005_14-327"><a href="#cite_ref-de_Brouwer_2005_14_327-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Brouwer2005">de Brouwer 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JhY8ROsA39kC&pg=PA14">14</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008187-328"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinzer2008187_328-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinzer2008">Kinzer 2008</a>, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999327–28-329"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrunier1999327–28_329-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrunier1999">Prunier 1999</a>, pp. 327–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-330">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_330-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_330-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"The Abolition of the Death Penalty in Rwanda". Human Rights Review. 10 (99).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Review&rft.atitle=The+Abolition+of+the+Death+Penalty+in+Rwanda.&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alana-331">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alana_331-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alana_331-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTiemessen2004">Tiemessen 2004</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sarkin-332">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkin_332-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkin_332-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkin_332-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSarkin2001">Sarkin 2001</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Powers-333"><a href="#cite_ref-Powers_333-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPowers2011">Powers 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Summary-334">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Summary_334-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Summary_334-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Summary_334-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Summary_334-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Summary_334-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Summary_334-5">f</a> "Summary of the Report Presented at the Closing of Gacaca Courts Activities". Republic of Rwanda: National Service of Gacaca Courts. Kigali, 2012 </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> "Organic Law No. 08/96 of 303 August on the Organization of Prosecutions for Offences Constituting the Crimes of Genocide or Crimes against Humanity Committed since 1 October 1990". </li> <li id="cite_note-336"><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a> Organic Law N° 31/2007 of 25 July 2007 Relating to the Abolition of the Death Penalty </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/afr470102007en.pdf">"Rwanda: Abolition of the death penalty"</a> (PDF). Amnesty International. 27 July 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220929075824/https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/afr470102007en.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rwanda%3A+Abolition+of+the+death+penalty&rft.pub=Amnesty+International&rft.date=2007-07-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org%2Fen%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F07%2Fafr470102007en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3896434?ln=en#record-files-collapse-header">"Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 16 December 2020"</a>. United Nations. 28 December 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220728181843/https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3896434?ln=en#record-files-collapse-header">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Resolution+adopted+by+the+General+Assembly+on+16+December+2020&rft.pub=United+Nations&rft.date=2020-12-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitallibrary.un.org%2Frecord%2F3896434%3Fln%3Den%23record-files-collapse-header&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tully-339"><a href="#cite_ref-Tully_339-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTully2003">Tully 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2004" class="citation news cs1">Walker, Robert (30 March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3557753.stm">"Rwanda still searching for justice"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070826050047/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3557753.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 August 2007. Retrieved 1 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Rwanda+still+searching+for+justice&rft.date=2004-03-30&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2F3557753.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Max-341">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Max_341-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Max_341-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Max_341-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Max_341-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Max_341-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Max_341-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Max_341-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Max_341-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFRettig2008">Rettig 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18490348">"Rwanda "gacaca" genocide courts finish work"</a>. BBC News. 18 June 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150308072112/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18490348">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2015. Retrieved 1 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Rwanda+%22gacaca%22+genocide+courts+finish+work&rft.date=2012-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-18490348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-343"><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tBmfDQAAQBAJ&q=ingelaere+gacaca">Ingelaere, B. 2016. Inside Rwanda's Gacaca Courts: Searching Justice after Genocide.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240116051252/https://books.google.com/books?id=tBmfDQAAQBAJ&q=ingelaere+gacaca#v=snippet&q=ingelaere%20gacaca&f=false">Archived</a> 16 January 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Madison: University of Wisconsin Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-30970-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-30970-1">978-0-299-30970-1</a>), pp. 28 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-05htmP1081_336018_"Justice_and_Responsibility_»_The_International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda"]-344"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDes_Forges1999[httpswwwhrworglegacyreports1999rwandaGeno15-8-05htmP1081_336018_"Justice_and_Responsibility_»_The_International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda"]_344-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDes_Forges1999">Des Forges 1999</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-05.htm#P1081_336018">"Justice and Responsibility » The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda"</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Akhavan-345"><a href="#cite_ref-Akhavan_345-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAkhavan1996">Akhavan 1996</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-346"><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=41938">"UN genocide tribunal in Rwanda swears-in judges selected to finish its work"</a>. UN News Centre. 7 May 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160107171800/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=41938">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UN+News+Centre&rft.atitle=UN+genocide+tribunal+in+Rwanda+swears-in+judges+selected+to+finish+its+work&rft.date=2012-05-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fapps%2Fnews%2Fstory.asp%3FNewsID%3D41938&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAptel2008-347">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAptel2008_347-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAptel2008_347-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAptel2008">Aptel 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/12/23/rwanda-international-tribunal-closing-its-doors">"Rwanda: International Tribunal Closing Its Doors"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>. 23 December 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170428131227/https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/12/23/rwanda-international-tribunal-closing-its-doors">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.atitle=Rwanda%3A+International+Tribunal+Closing+Its+Doors&rft.date=2015-12-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fnews%2F2015%2F12%2F23%2Frwanda-international-tribunal-closing-its-doors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-349"><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/doi/10.1163/2213-2996_flg_COM_161034">"Rwanda - Constitution & Politics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2213-2996_flg_COM_161034">10.1163/2213-2996_flg_COM_161034</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rwanda+-+Constitution+%26+Politics&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2213-2996_flg_COM_161034&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1163%2F2213-2996_flg_COM_161034&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/reports/2008/rwanda0708/7.htm">"Human Rights Watch"</a>. Human Rights Watch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190218220207/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2008/rwanda0708/7.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.atitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Freports%2F2008%2Frwanda0708%2F7.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRefugees" class="citation news cs1">Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/4acc9a4e2.html">"Refworld | Rwanda: Law No. 18/2008 of 2008 Relating to the Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Ideology"</a>. Refworld. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181210063352/https://www.refworld.org/docid/4acc9a4e2.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Refworld&rft.atitle=Refworld+%7C+Rwanda%3A+Law+No.+18%2F2008+of+2008+Relating+to+the+Punishment+of+the+Crime+of+Genocide+Ideology&rft.aulast=Refugees&rft.aufirst=United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.refworld.org%2Fdocid%2F4acc9a4e2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-352"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_352-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The media and the Rwanda genocide. Thompson, Allan ([IDRC ed.] ed.). London: Pluto. 2007. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1552503386" title="Special:BookSources/978-1552503386"><bdi>978-1552503386</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/93789421">93789421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+media+and+the+Rwanda+genocide&rft.place=London&rft.edition=%5BIDRC+ed.%5D&rft.pub=Pluto&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F93789421&rft.isbn=978-1552503386&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-353"><a href="#cite_ref-:12_353-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cpj.org/reports/2014/12/legacy-of-rwanda-genocide-includes-media-restricti.php">"Legacy of Rwanda genocide includes media restrictions, self-censorship"</a>. cpj.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181210064229/https://cpj.org/reports/2014/12/legacy-of-rwanda-genocide-includes-media-restricti.php">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2018. Retrieved 2 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cpj.org&rft.atitle=Legacy+of+Rwanda+genocide+includes+media+restrictions%2C+self-censorship&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcpj.org%2Freports%2F2014%2F12%2Flegacy-of-rwanda-genocide-includes-media-restricti.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-muscara-354"><a href="#cite_ref-muscara_354-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAprille_Muscara2010" class="citation news cs1">Aprille Muscara (31 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipsnews.net/2010/08/rwanda-genocide-ideology-and-sectarianism-laws-silencing-critics/">"RWANDA: Genocide Ideology and Sectarianism Laws Silencing Critics?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Inter_Press_Service" title="Inter Press Service">Inter Press Service</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131112021614/http://www.ipsnews.net/2010/08/rwanda-genocide-ideology-and-sectarianism-laws-silencing-critics/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 9 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=RWANDA%3A+Genocide+Ideology+and+Sectarianism+Laws+Silencing+Critics%3F&rft.date=2010-08-31&rft.au=Aprille+Muscara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipsnews.net%2F2010%2F08%2Frwanda-genocide-ideology-and-sectarianism-laws-silencing-critics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmnesty_International2010" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr47/005/2010/en/">"Safer to Stay Silent: The chilling effect of Rwanda's laws on "genocide ideology" and "sectarianism""</a>. p. 19. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150312042720/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr47/005/2010/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 18 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Safer+to+Stay+Silent%3A+The+chilling+effect+of+Rwanda%27s+laws+on+%22genocide+ideology%22+and+%22sectarianism%22&rft.pages=19&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Amnesty+International&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Fafr47%2F005%2F2010%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmnesty_International2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/region/rwanda/report-2013">"Annual Report 2013: Rwanda"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131230120943/http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/rwanda/report-2013">Archived</a> from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Annual+Report+2013%3A+Rwanda&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Amnesty+International&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org%2Fen%2Fregion%2Frwanda%2Freport-2013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2010" class="citation journal cs1">Gibson, Kate (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asil.org/sites/default/files/insight100811pdf.pdf">"The Arrest of ICTR Defense Counsel Peter Erlinder in Rwanda"</a> (PDF). ASIL Insight. 14 (25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131112023903/http://www.asil.org/sites/default/files/insight100811pdf.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 12 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ASIL+Insight&rft.atitle=The+Arrest+of+ICTR+Defense+Counsel+Peter+Erlinder+in+Rwanda&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=25&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asil.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Finsight100811pdf.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSam_Munderere2014" class="citation web cs1">Sam Munderere (10 February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://survivors-fund.org.uk/awareness-raising/come-together/">"Come Together"</a>. Survivors Fund. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200713062833/https://survivors-fund.org.uk/awareness-raising/come-together/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2020. Retrieved 5 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Survivors+Fund&rft.atitle=Come+Together&rft.date=2014-02-10&rft.au=Sam+Munderere&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsurvivors-fund.org.uk%2Fawareness-raising%2Fcome-together%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-359"><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090501203037/http://www.miraclecorners.org/programs_partner_jacqueline.htm">"Jacqueline's Human Rights Corner"</a>. Jacqueline's Human Rights Corner. 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.miraclecorners.org/programs_partner_jacqueline.htm">the original</a> on 1 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jacqueline%27s+Human+Rights+Corner&rft.pub=Jacqueline%27s+Human+Rights+Corner&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.miraclecorners.org%2Fprograms_partner_jacqueline.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-360"><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/168/9/1164">"Camouflage and exposure"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070814165039/http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/168/9/1164">Archived</a> 14 August 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Medical_Association_Journal" title="Canadian Medical Association Journal">Canadian Medical Association Journal</a>, 29 April 2003; 168 (9) </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins2010" class="citation news cs1">Jenkins, Mark (28 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130813823&t=1604658022052">"'Shake Hands,' Struggle On: A Genocide Revisited"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Public_Radio" class="mw-redirect" title="National Public Radio">National Public Radio</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220415231025/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130813823&t=1604658022052">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2022. Retrieved 6 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Public+Radio&rft.atitle=%27Shake+Hands%2C%27+Struggle+On%3A+A+Genocide+Revisited&rft.date=2010-10-28&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D130813823%26t%3D1604658022052&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.popmatters.com/review/187147-watchers-of-the-sky-defining-genocide/">""Watchers of the Sky" and the Full Cruelty of Consciousness"</a>. PopMatters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151012235701/http://www.popmatters.com/review/187147-watchers-of-the-sky-defining-genocide/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2015. Retrieved 22 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PopMatters&rft.atitle=%22Watchers+of+the+Sky%22+and+the+Full+Cruelty+of+Consciousness&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.popmatters.com%2Freview%2F187147-watchers-of-the-sky-defining-genocide%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slantmagazine.com/film/review/watchers-of-the-sky">"Watchers of the Sky | Film Review | Slant Magazine"</a>. Slant Magazine. 13 October 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150101232010/http://www.slantmagazine.com/film/review/watchers-of-the-sky">Archived</a> from the original on 1 January 2015. Retrieved 22 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Slant+Magazine&rft.atitle=Watchers+of+the+Sky+%7C+Film+Review+%7C+Slant+Magazine&rft.date=2014-10-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slantmagazine.com%2Ffilm%2Freview%2Fwatchers-of-the-sky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ff.hrw.org/film/watchers-sky">"Watchers of the Sky | Human Rights Watch Film Festival"</a>. ff.hrw.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151122194312/https://ff.hrw.org/film/watchers-sky">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2015. Retrieved 22 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ff.hrw.org&rft.atitle=Watchers+of+the+Sky+%7C+Human+Rights+Watch+Film+Festival&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fff.hrw.org%2Ffilm%2Fwatchers-sky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-365"><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081219024752/http://www.unitedartists.com/hotelrwanda/main.html">"MGM Studios"</a>. MGM Studios. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mgm.com/">the original</a> on 19 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MGM+Studios&rft.atitle=MGM+Studios&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mgm.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-366"><a href="#cite_ref-366">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tribecafilm.com/filmguide/earth_made_of_glass-film26314.html">Earth Made of Glass</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100903110056/http://www.tribecafilm.com/filmguide/earth_made_of_glass-film26314.html">Archived</a> 3 September 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Tribeca Film Festival guide. Retrieved 30 November 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-idrc.ca-367"><a href="#cite_ref-idrc.ca_367-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100210180655/http://www.idrc.ca/rwandagenocide/ev-108178-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html">"Part 1: Hate media in Rwanda• Call to genocide: radio in Rwanda, 1994: International Development Research Centre"</a>. Idrc.ca. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idrc.ca/rwandagenocide/ev-108178-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html">the original</a> on 10 February 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Part+1%3A+Hate+media+in+Rwanda%E2%80%A2+Call+to+genocide%3A+radio+in+Rwanda%2C+1994%3A+International+Development+Research+Centre&rft.pub=Idrc.ca&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.idrc.ca%2Frwandagenocide%2Fev-108178-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-368"><a href="#cite_ref-368">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090923181542/http://www.polismedia.org/rwandatranscript.aspx">"The Media and the Rwanda Genocide"</a>. POLISMedia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polismedia.org/rwandatranscript.aspx">the original</a> on 23 September 2009. Retrieved 30 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Media+and+the+Rwanda+Genocide&rft.pub=POLISMedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.polismedia.org%2Frwandatranscript.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-369"><a href="#cite_ref-369">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalcongo.net/article/5cab13d0d47a140004d09695/">"Génocide rwandais : vingt-cinq ans de chaos collatéral en République démocratique du Congo"</a>. Digital Congo (in French). 8 April 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190408211449/https://www.digitalcongo.net/article/5cab13d0d47a140004d09695/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Congo&rft.atitle=G%C3%A9nocide+rwandais+%3A+vingt-cinq+ans+de+chaos+collat%C3%A9ral+en+R%C3%A9publique+d%C3%A9mocratique+du+Congo&rft.date=2019-04-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalcongo.net%2Farticle%2F5cab13d0d47a140004d09695%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParis2019" class="citation web cs1">Paris, Francesca (7 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2019/04/07/710821937/rwandas-genocide-victims-remembered-25-years-later">"Rwanda's Genocide Victims Remembered 25 Years Later"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Public_Radio" class="mw-redirect" title="National Public Radio">National Public Radio</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190408003105/https://www.npr.org/2019/04/07/710821937/rwandas-genocide-victims-remembered-25-years-later">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rwanda%27s+Genocide+Victims+Remembered+25+Years+Later&rft.pub=National+Public+Radio&rft.date=2019-04-07&rft.aulast=Paris&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2019%2F04%2F07%2F710821937%2Frwandas-genocide-victims-remembered-25-years-later&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-371"><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraysonHitchcott2019" class="citation book cs1">Grayson, Hannah; Hitchcott, Nicki (2019). Rwanda since 1994: stories of change. Francophone postcolonial studies. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78694-344-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78694-344-6"><bdi>978-1-78694-344-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rwanda+since+1994%3A+stories+of+change&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.series=Francophone+postcolonial+studies&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Liverpool+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-78694-344-6&rft.aulast=Grayson&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft.au=Hitchcott%2C+Nicki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Genocide_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of Genocide studies">Bibliography of Genocide studies</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppiahGates2010" class="citation book cs1">Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC">Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1</a> (Illustrated ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533770-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533770-9"><bdi>978-0-19-533770-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210158/https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 25 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Africa%2C+Volume+1&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533770-9&rft.aulast=Appiah&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Gates%2C+Henry+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA0XNvklcqbwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkhavan1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Payam_Akhavan" title="Payam Akhavan">Akhavan, Payam</a> (1996). "The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: The Politics and Pragmatics of Punishment". <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_International_Law" title="American Journal of International Law">American Journal of International Law</a>. 90 (3): 501–10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2204076">10.2307/2204076</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2204076">2204076</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147317048">147317048</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=The+International+Criminal+Tribunal+for+Rwanda%3A+The+Politics+and+Pragmatics+of+Punishment&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=501-10&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147317048%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2204076%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2204076&rft.aulast=Akhavan&rft.aufirst=Payam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsiimwe2008" class="citation news cs1">Asiimwe, Arthur (5 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/newsMaps/idUSL568658520080805">"Rwanda accuses France directly over 1994 genocide"</a>. Reuters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081220061639/http://www.reuters.com/article/newsMaps/idUSL568658520080805">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 13 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Rwanda+accuses+France+directly+over+1994+genocide&rft.date=2008-08-05&rft.aulast=Asiimwe&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FnewsMaps%2FidUSL568658520080805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/06/world/africa/06briefs-FRENCHACCUSE_BRF.html">"Rwanda: French accused in genocide"</a>. The New York Times. Associated Press. 6 August 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150611010257/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/06/world/africa/06briefs-FRENCHACCUSE_BRF.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 June 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Rwanda%3A+French+accused+in+genocide&rft.date=2008-08-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F08%2F06%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2F06briefs-FRENCHACCUSE_BRF.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAptel2008" class="citation journal cs1">Aptel, Cicile (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/newenjic14&i=177">"Closing the U.N. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Completion Strategy and Residual Issues"</a>. New England Journal of International and Comparative Law. 14 (2): 169–88. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190119174356/https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/newenjic14&i=177">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 19 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+England+Journal+of+International+and+Comparative+Law&rft.atitle=Closing+the+U.N.+International+Criminal+Tribunal+for+Rwanda%3A+Completion+Strategy+and+Residual+Issues&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=169-88&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Aptel&rft.aufirst=Cicile&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FP%3Fh%3Dhein.journals%2Fnewenjic14%26i%3D177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBBC_News_(I)1998" class="citation news cs1">BBC News (I) (4 March 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/61860.stm">"French parliament inquiry into Rwandan genocide"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210218062322/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/61860.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2021. Retrieved 12 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=French+parliament+inquiry+into+Rwandan+genocide&rft.date=1998-03-04&rft.au=BBC+News+%28I%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Feurope%2F61860.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBBC_News_(II)2006" class="citation news cs1">BBC News (II) (23 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6177370.stm">"France issues Rwanda warrants"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210218062322/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6177370.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=France+issues+Rwanda+warrants&rft.date=2006-11-23&rft.au=BBC+News+%28II%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2F6177370.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBBC_News_(III)2008" class="citation news cs1">BBC News (III) (5 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7542418.stm">"France accused in Rwanda genocide"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140712071142/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7542418.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 12 July 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=France+accused+in+Rwanda+genocide&rft.date=2008-08-05&rft.au=BBC+News+%28III%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fafrica%2F7542418.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrittain1999" class="citation news cs1">Brittain, Victoria (5 April 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/apr/05/5">"Rwanda makes its way to regeneration"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160506175120/http://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/apr/05/5">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2016. Retrieved 16 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Rwanda+makes+its+way+to+regeneration&rft.date=1999-04-05&rft.aulast=Brittain&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F1999%2Fapr%2F05%2F5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarney2013" class="citation book cs1">Carney, J.J. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lKFpAgAAQBAJ">Rwanda Before the Genocide: Catholic Politics and Ethnic Discourse in the Late Colonial Era</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199982288" title="Special:BookSources/9780199982288"><bdi>9780199982288</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230701074114/https://books.google.com/books?id=lKFpAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rwanda+Before+the+Genocide%3A+Catholic+Politics+and+Ethnic+Discourse+in+the+Late+Colonial+Era&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780199982288&rft.aulast=Carney&rft.aufirst=J.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlKFpAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChrétien2003" class="citation book cs1">Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ezo5PQAACAAJ">The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History</a>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-890951-34-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-890951-34-4"><bdi>978-1-890951-34-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210159/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ezo5PQAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 25 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Lakes+of+Africa%3A+Two+Thousand+Years+of+History&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-890951-34-4&rft.aulast=Chr%C3%A9tien&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEzo5PQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDallaire2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A9o_Dallaire" title="Roméo Dallaire">Dallaire, Roméo</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ja2hQgAACAAJ">Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Arrow_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrow Books">Arrow Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-947893-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-947893-5"><bdi>978-0-09-947893-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230701074114/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ja2hQgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 25 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shake+Hands+with+the+Devil%3A+The+Failure+of+Humanity+in+Rwanda&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Arrow+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-09-947893-5&rft.aulast=Dallaire&rft.aufirst=Rom%C3%A9o&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJa2hQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Brouwer2005" class="citation book cs1">de Brouwer, Anne-Marie L. M. (2005). Supranational Criminal Prosecution of Sexual Violence: The ICC and the Practice of the ICTY and the ICTR. Antwerp and Oxford: Intersentia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5095-533-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5095-533-1"><bdi>978-90-5095-533-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supranational+Criminal+Prosecution+of+Sexual+Violence%3A+The+ICC+and+the+Practice+of+the+ICTY+and+the+ICTR&rft.place=Antwerp+and+Oxford&rft.pub=Intersentia&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-5095-533-1&rft.aulast=de+Brouwer&rft.aufirst=Anne-Marie+L.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDes_Forges1999" class="citation report cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alison_Des_Forges" title="Alison Des Forges">Des Forges, Alison</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/rwanda0399.htm">Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda</a> (Report). New York: <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56432-171-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-56432-171-1"><bdi>1-56432-171-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190218220713/https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/rwanda0399.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Leave+None+to+Tell+the+Story%3A+Genocide+in+Rwanda&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-56432-171-1&rft.aulast=Des+Forges&rft.aufirst=Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Flegacy%2Freports%2F1999%2Frwanda%2Frwanda0399.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorsey1994" class="citation book cs1">Dorsey, Learthen (1994). Historical Dictionary of Rwanda. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-2820-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-2820-9"><bdi>978-0-8108-2820-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Rwanda&rft.place=Metuchen%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-2820-9&rft.aulast=Dorsey&rft.aufirst=Learthen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Diamond, Jared</a> (2005). <a href="/wiki/Collapse:_How_Societies_Choose_to_Fail_or_Succeed" title="Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed">Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Viking_Press" title="Viking Press">Viking</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-03337-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-03337-9"><bdi>978-0-670-03337-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collapse%3A+How+Societies+Choose+to+Fail+or+Succeed&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-670-03337-9&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Jared&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"> (Chapter 10: "Malthus in Africa: Rwanda's Genocide", pp. 311–28).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrumbl2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_A._Drumbl" title="Mark A. Drumbl">Drumbl, Mark A.</a> (2012). "'She makes me ashamed to be a woman': The Genocide Conviction of Pauline Nyiramasuhuko, 2011". Michigan Journal of International Law. 2013. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2155937">2155937</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Michigan+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=%27She+makes+me+ashamed+to+be+a+woman%27%3A+The+Genocide+Conviction+of+Pauline+Nyiramasuhuko%2C+2011&rft.volume=2013&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2155937%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Drumbl&rft.aufirst=Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElbe2002" class="citation journal cs1">Elbe, Stefan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019133615/http://www.stefanelbe.com/resources/ISElbeAIDS2.pdf">"HIV/AIDS and the Changing Landscape of War in Africa"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/International_Security" class="mw-redirect" title="International Security">International Security</a>. 27 (2): 159–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F016228802760987851">10.1162/016228802760987851</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3092146">3092146</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57560544">57560544</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stefanelbe.com/resources/ISElbeAIDS2.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Security&rft.atitle=HIV%2FAIDS+and+the+Changing+Landscape+of+War+in+Africa&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=159-77&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57560544%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3092146%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F016228802760987851&rft.aulast=Elbe&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stefanelbe.com%2Fresources%2FISElbeAIDS2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFassbender2011" class="citation book cs1">Fassbender, Bardo (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N8Tp8dWRtscC">Securing Human Rights?: Achievements and Challenges of the UN Security Council</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964149-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964149-9"><bdi>978-0-19-964149-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117234815/https://books.google.com/books?id=N8Tp8dWRtscC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 5 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Securing+Human+Rights%3F%3A+Achievements+and+Challenges+of+the+UN+Security+Council&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-964149-9&rft.aulast=Fassbender&rft.aufirst=Bardo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN8Tp8dWRtscC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerroggiaro2001" class="citation book cs1">Ferroggiaro, William, ed. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB53/index.html">The US and the Genocide in Rwanda 1994: Evidence of Inaction</a>. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Archive" title="National Security Archive">National Security Archive</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321054844/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB53/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+US+and+the+Genocide+in+Rwanda+1994%3A+Evidence+of+Inaction&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=National+Security+Archive&rft.date=2001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwu.edu%2F~nsarchiv%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB53%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Gordon_(lawyer)" title="Gregory Gordon (lawyer)">Gordon, Gregory S.</a> (2017). Atrocity Speech Law: Foundation, Fragmentation, Fruition. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-061270-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-061270-2"><bdi>978-0-19-061270-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atrocity+Speech+Law%3A+Foundation%2C+Fragmentation%2C+Fruition&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-061270-2&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Gregory+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuichaoua2015" class="citation book cs1">Guichaoua, André (2015). From War to Genocide: Criminal Politics in Rwanda, 1990–1994. University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0299298203" title="Special:BookSources/978-0299298203"><bdi>978-0299298203</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+War+to+Genocide%3A+Criminal+Politics+in+Rwanda%2C+1990%E2%80%931994&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0299298203&rft.aulast=Guichaoua&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGourevitch2000" class="citation book cs1">Gourevitch, Philip (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8OiMfpTiApQC">We Wish To Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families</a> (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Picador. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-330-37120-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-330-37120-9"><bdi>978-0-330-37120-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210200/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OiMfpTiApQC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 25 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+Wish+To+Inform+You+That+Tomorrow+We+Will+Be+Killed+With+Our+Families&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Picador&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-330-37120-9&rft.aulast=Gourevitch&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8OiMfpTiApQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayden2000" class="citation journal cs1">Hayden, Robert M. (2000). "Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts: Sexual Violence in Liminalized States". <a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a>. 102 (1): 27–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.2000.102.1.27">10.1525/aa.2000.102.1.27</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/683536">683536</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Rape+and+Rape+Avoidance+in+Ethno-National+Conflicts%3A+Sexual+Violence+in+Liminalized+States&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-41&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.2000.102.1.27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F683536%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hayden&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngelaere2016" class="citation book cs1">Ingelaere, Bert (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tBmfDQAAQBAJ&q=ingelaere+gacaca">Inside Rwanda's Gacaca Courts: Seeking Justice After Genocide</a>. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-30970-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-30970-1"><bdi>978-0-299-30970-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240116051252/https://books.google.com/books?id=tBmfDQAAQBAJ&q=ingelaere+gacaca#v=snippet&q=ingelaere%20gacaca&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 28 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+Rwanda%27s+Gacaca+Courts%3A+Seeking+Justice+After+Genocide&rft.place=Madison&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-299-30970-1&rft.aulast=Ingelaere&rft.aufirst=Bert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtBmfDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dingelaere%2Bgacaca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2015" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_James_(academic)" title="Paul James (academic)">James, Paul</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/riij20/17/2#.VR03CzuUdPM">"Despite the Terrors of Typologies: The Importance of Understanding Categories of Difference and Identity"</a>. Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies. 17 (2): 174–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1369801x.2014.993332">10.1080/1369801x.2014.993332</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142378403">142378403</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151017111914/http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/riij20/17/2#.VR03CzuUdPM">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Interventions%3A+International+Journal+of+Postcolonial+Studies&rft.atitle=Despite+the+Terrors+of+Typologies%3A+The+Importance+of+Understanding+Categories+of+Difference+and+Identity&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=174-95&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F1369801x.2014.993332&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142378403%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Ftoc%2Friij20%2F17%2F2%23.VR03CzuUdPM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2010" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Adam (2010). "Genocide and Mass Violence". In Laura J. Shepherd (ed.). Gender Matters in Global Politics. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 127–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-86494-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-86494-4"><bdi>978-0-203-86494-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genocide+and+Mass+Violence&rft.btitle=Gender+Matters+in+Global+Politics&rft.pages=127-47&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-203-86494-4&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinzer2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kinzer" title="Stephen Kinzer">Kinzer, Stephen</a> (2008). A Thousand Hills: Rwanda's Rebirth and the Man Who Dreamed It. London: Wiley Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-12015-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-12015-6"><bdi>978-0-470-12015-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Thousand+Hills%3A+Rwanda%27s+Rebirth+and+the+Man+Who+Dreamed+It&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Wiley+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-470-12015-6&rft.aulast=Kinzer&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongman2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Longman" title="Timothy Longman">Longman, Timothy</a> (2010). <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Genocide_in_Rwanda" title="Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda">Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda</a>. New York: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+and+Genocide+in+Rwanda&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Longman&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuis2004" class="citation journal cs1">Luis, J. R.; et al. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182266">"The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations"</a>. American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (3): 532–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F382286">10.1086/382286</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182266">1182266</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14973781">14973781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+Levant+versus+the+Horn+of+Africa%3A+Evidence+for+Bidirectional+Corridors+of+Human+Migrations&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=532-44&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182266%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14973781&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F382286&rft.aulast=Luis&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMamdani2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mahmood_Mamdani" title="Mahmood Mamdani">Mamdani, Mahmood</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QUEamxb89JcC">When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda</a>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-10280-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-10280-1"><bdi>978-0-691-10280-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210201/https://books.google.com/books?id=QUEamxb89JcC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 25 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Victims+Become+Killers%3A+Colonialism%2C+Nativism%2C+and+the+Genocide+in+Rwanda&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-691-10280-1&rft.aulast=Mamdani&rft.aufirst=Mahmood&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQUEamxb89JcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGreal2007" class="citation news cs1">McGreal, Chris (11 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jan/11/rwanda.insideafrica">"France's shame?"</a>. The Guardian. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181004021232/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jan/11/rwanda.insideafrica">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=France%27s+shame%3F&rft.date=2007-01-11&rft.aulast=McGreal&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2007%2Fjan%2F11%2Frwanda.insideafrica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelvern2000" class="citation book cs1">Melvern, Linda (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rhsRrxZtJwMC">A people betrayed: the role of the West in Rwanda's genocide</a> (8, illustrated, reprint ed.). London; New York: Zed Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85649-831-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85649-831-9"><bdi>978-1-85649-831-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210202/https://books.google.com/books?id=rhsRrxZtJwMC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 25 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+people+betrayed%3A+the+role+of+the+West+in+Rwanda%27s+genocide&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.edition=8%2C+illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=Zed+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-85649-831-9&rft.aulast=Melvern&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrhsRrxZtJwMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelvern2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Melvern" title="Linda Melvern">Melvern, Linda</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conspiracytomurd00melv">Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide</a>. London and New York: <a href="/wiki/Verso_Books" title="Verso Books">Verso</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-588-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-588-2"><bdi>978-1-85984-588-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conspiracy+to+Murder%3A+The+Rwandan+Genocide&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-85984-588-2&rft.aulast=Melvern&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconspiracytomurd00melv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelvern2006" class="citation news cs1">Melvern, Linda (5 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140715000618/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/french-accused-of-complicity-in-genocide-that-killed-a-million-in-rwanda-423029.html">"French accused of complicity in genocide that killed a million in Rwanda"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>. London. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/french-accused-of-complicity-in-genocide-that-killed-a-million-in-rwanda-423029.html">the original</a> on 15 July 2014. Retrieved 13 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=French+accused+of+complicity+in+genocide+that+killed+a+million+in+Rwanda&rft.date=2006-11-05&rft.aulast=Melvern&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2Ffrench-accused-of-complicity-in-genocide-that-killed-a-million-in-rwanda-423029.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelvern2008" class="citation news cs1">Melvern, Linda (11 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714201715/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/news/index.php?i=13619&a=8617&icon=Results&id=2">"France and genocide: the murky truth"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Times_(Rwanda)" title="The New Times (Rwanda)">The New Times</a>. Kigali. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newtimes.co.rw/news/index.php?i=13619&a=8617&icon=Results&id=2">the original</a> on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 7 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Times&rft.atitle=France+and+genocide%3A+the+murky+truth&rft.date=2008-08-11&rft.aulast=Melvern&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newtimes.co.rw%2Fnews%2Findex.php%3Fi%3D13619%26a%3D8617%26icon%3DResults%26id%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNowrojee1996" class="citation book cs1">Nowrojee, Binaifer (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1996/Rwanda.htm">Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence during the Rwandan Genocide and its Aftermath</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56432-208-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56432-208-1"><bdi>978-1-56432-208-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161218190358/https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1996/Rwanda.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 18 December 2016. Retrieved 4 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shattered+Lives%3A+Sexual+Violence+during+the+Rwandan+Genocide+and+its+Aftermath&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-56432-208-1&rft.aulast=Nowrojee&rft.aufirst=Binaifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Flegacy%2Freports%2F1996%2FRwanda.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPBS" class="citation news cs1">PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/evil/interviews/gourevitch.html">"Interviews – Philip Gourevitch"</a>. The triumph of Evil. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171116015057/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/evil/interviews/gourevitch.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2017. Retrieved 11 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+triumph+of+Evil&rft.atitle=Interviews+%E2%80%93+Philip+Gourevitch&rft.au=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fpages%2Ffrontline%2Fshows%2Fevil%2Finterviews%2Fgourevitch.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPottier2002" class="citation book cs1">Pottier, Johan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iRz_QzoVdJcC">Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-2873-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-2873-3"><bdi>978-0-5215-2873-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240116051404/https://books.google.com/books?id=iRz_QzoVdJcC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 15 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Re-Imagining+Rwanda%3A+Conflict%2C+Survival+and+Disinformation+in+the+Late+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-5215-2873-3&rft.aulast=Pottier&rft.aufirst=Johan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiRz_QzoVdJcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPower2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Samantha_Power" title="Samantha Power">Power, Samantha</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/09/bystanders-to-genocide/4571/">"Bystanders to Genocide"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="The Atlantic Monthly">The Atlantic Monthly</a> (September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120626120005/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/09/bystanders-to-genocide/4571/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic+Monthly&rft.atitle=Bystanders+to+Genocide&rft.issue=September+2001&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Power&rft.aufirst=Samantha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2001%2F09%2Fbystanders-to-genocide%2F4571%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowers2011" class="citation journal cs1">Powers, Shannon E. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/15/issue/17/rwanda%E2%80%99s-gacaca-courts-implications-international-criminal-law-and">"Rwanda's Gacaca Courts: Implications for International Criminal Law and Transitional Justice"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_International_Law" title="American Society of International Law">Insights</a>. 15 (17): 1–6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170412050310/https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/15/issue/17/rwanda%E2%80%99s-gacaca-courts-implications-international-criminal-law-and">Archived</a> from the original on 12 April 2017. Retrieved 11 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Insights&rft.atitle=Rwanda%27s+Gacaca+Courts%3A+Implications+for+International+Criminal+Law+and+Transitional+Justice&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=1-6&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Powers&rft.aufirst=Shannon+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asil.org%2Finsights%2Fvolume%2F15%2Fissue%2F17%2Frwanda%25E2%2580%2599s-gacaca-courts-implications-international-criminal-law-and&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrunier1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Prunier" title="Gérard Prunier">Prunier, Gérard</a> (1995). The Rwanda Crisis, 1959–1994: History of a Genocide (1st ed.). London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1850652434" title="Special:BookSources/978-1850652434"><bdi>978-1850652434</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rwanda+Crisis%2C+1959%E2%80%931994%3A+History+of+a+Genocide&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co.+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1850652434&rft.aulast=Prunier&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrunier1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Prunier" title="Gérard Prunier">Prunier, Gérard</a> (1998). The Rwanda Crisis, 1959–1994: History of a Genocide (2nd ed.). London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-372-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-372-1"><bdi>978-1-85065-372-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rwanda+Crisis%2C+1959%E2%80%931994%3A+History+of+a+Genocide&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co.+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-85065-372-1&rft.aulast=Prunier&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrunier1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Prunier" title="Gérard Prunier">Prunier, Gérard</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O3aNPwAACAAJ">The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide</a> (2nd ed.). Kampala: Fountain Publishers Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9970-02-089-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-9970-02-089-8"><bdi>978-9970-02-089-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210201/https://books.google.com/books?id=O3aNPwAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 25 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rwanda+Crisis%3A+History+of+a+Genocide&rft.place=Kampala&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Fountain+Publishers+Limited&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-9970-02-089-8&rft.aulast=Prunier&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO3aNPwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrunier2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Prunier" title="Gérard Prunier">Prunier, Gérard</a> (2009). Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-970583-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-970583-2"><bdi>978-0-19-970583-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa%27s+World+War%3A+Congo%2C+the+Rwandan+Genocide%2C+and+the+Making+of+a+Continental+Catastrophe&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-970583-2&rft.aulast=Prunier&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRFI2014" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Radio_France_International" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio France International">Radio France International (RFI)</a> (10 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.english.rfi.fr/africa/20140410-twenty-years-after-genocide-france-and-rwanda-give-different-versions-history">"Twenty years after genocide France and Rwanda give different versions of history"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081248/http://www.english.rfi.fr/africa/20140410-twenty-years-after-genocide-france-and-rwanda-give-different-versions-history">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Twenty+years+after+genocide+France+and+Rwanda+give+different+versions+of+history&rft.date=2014-04-10&rft.au=Radio+France+International+%28RFI%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.english.rfi.fr%2Fafrica%2F20140410-twenty-years-after-genocide-france-and-rwanda-give-different-versions-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRettig2008" class="citation journal cs1">Rettig, Max (2008). "Gacaca: Truth, Justice, and Reconciliation in Post-conflict in Rwanda?". <a href="/wiki/African_Studies_Review" title="African Studies Review">African Studies Review</a>. 51 (3): 25–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Farw.0.0091">10.1353/arw.0.0091</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27667378">27667378</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144438458">144438458</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Studies+Review&rft.atitle=Gacaca%3A+Truth%2C+Justice%2C+and+Reconciliation+in+Post-conflict+in+Rwanda%3F&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=25-50&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144438458%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27667378%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Farw.0.0091&rft.aulast=Rettig&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/ozatp-france-rwanda-relations-idAFJOE5AS09920091129">"France and Rwanda agree to restore relations"</a>. Reuters. 29 November 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160107171801/http://www.reuters.com/article/ozatp-france-rwanda-relations-idAFJOE5AS09920091129">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=France+and+Rwanda+agree+to+restore+relations&rft.date=2009-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fozatp-france-rwanda-relations-idAFJOE5AS09920091129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReyntjens2013" class="citation book cs1">Reyntjens, Filip (2013). Political Governance in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-67879-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-67879-8"><bdi>978-1-107-67879-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Governance+in+Post-Genocide+Rwanda&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-67879-8&rft.aulast=Reyntjens&rft.aufirst=Filip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRittner2009" class="citation book cs1">Rittner, Carol (2009). "Rape, Religion, and Genocide: An Unholy Silence". <a href="/wiki/Steven_L._Jacobs" title="Steven L. Jacobs">In Steven Leonard Jacobs, ed., Confronting Genocide: Judaism, Christianity, Islam (pp. 291–305)</a>. Lanham, MD: <a href="/wiki/Lexington_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexington Books">Lexington Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3588-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3588-4"><bdi>978-0-7391-3588-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rape%2C+Religion%2C+and+Genocide%3A+An+Unholy+Silence&rft.btitle=In+Steven+Leonard+Jacobs%2C+ed.%2C+Confronting+Genocide%3A+Judaism%2C+Christianity%2C+Islam+%28pp.+291%E2%80%93305%29&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-3588-4&rft.aulast=Rittner&rft.aufirst=Carol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarkin2001" class="citation journal cs1">Sarkin, Jeremy (2001). "The Tension between Justice and Reconciliation in Rwanda: Politics, Human Rights, Due Process, and the Role of the Gacaca Courts in Dealing with the Genocide". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_African_Law" title="Journal of African Law">Journal of African Law</a>. 45 (2): 143–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0221855301001675">10.1017/s0221855301001675</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3558953">3558953</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145601527">145601527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+Law&rft.atitle=The+Tension+between+Justice+and+Reconciliation+in+Rwanda%3A+Politics%2C+Human+Rights%2C+Due+Process%2C+and+the+Role+of+the+Gacaca+Courts+in+Dealing+with+the+Genocide&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=143-72&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145601527%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3558953%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0221855301001675&rft.aulast=Sarkin&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShyaka" class="citation web cs1">Shyaka, Anastase. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4746/3833.pdf?sequence=1">"The Rwandan Conflict: Origin, Development, Exit Strategies"</a> (PDF). National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, Republic of Rwanda. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190503190158/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4746/3833.pdf?sequence=1">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 16 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Rwandan+Conflict%3A+Origin%2C+Development%2C+Exit+Strategies&rft.pub=National+Unity+and+Reconciliation+Commission%2C+Republic+of+Rwanda&rft.aulast=Shyaka&rft.aufirst=Anastase&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepositories.lib.utexas.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F2152%2F4746%2F3833.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilva-Leander2008" class="citation journal cs1">Silva-Leander, Sebastian (2008). "On the Danger and Necessity of Democratisation: trade-offs between short-term stability and long-term peace in post-genocide Rwanda". <a href="/wiki/Third_World_Quarterly" title="Third World Quarterly">Third World Quarterly</a>. 29 (8): 1601–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01436590802528754">10.1080/01436590802528754</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153736296">153736296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Third+World+Quarterly&rft.atitle=On+the+Danger+and+Necessity+of+Democratisation%3A+trade-offs+between+short-term+stability+and+long-term+peace+in+post-genocide+Rwanda&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1601-20&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01436590802528754&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153736296%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Silva-Leander&rft.aufirst=Sebastian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiemessen2004" class="citation journal cs1">Tiemessen, Alana Erin (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121216203838/http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v8/v8i1a4.pdf">"After Arusha: Gacaca Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/African_Studies_Quarterly" title="African Studies Quarterly">African Studies Quarterly</a>. 8 (1): 57–76. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v8/v8i1a4.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=After+Arusha%3A+Gacaca+Justice+in+Post-Genocide+Rwanda&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=57-76&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Tiemessen&rft.aufirst=Alana+Erin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.africa.ufl.edu%2Fasq%2Fv8%2Fv8i1a4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTottenBartropJacobs2008" class="citation book cs1">Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul Robert; Jacobs, Steven L. (2008). Dictionary of Genocide, Volume 2: M–Z. Westport, CT: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34644-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34644-6"><bdi>978-0-313-34644-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Genocide%2C+Volume+2%3A+M%E2%80%93Z&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-313-34644-6&rft.aulast=Totten&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=Bartrop%2C+Paul+Robert&rft.au=Jacobs%2C+Steven+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTully2003" class="citation journal cs1">Tully, L. Danielle (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/iclr/vol26/iss2/10">"Human Rights Compliance and the Gacaca Jurisdictions in Rwanda"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Boston_College_International_and_Comparative_Law_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston College International and Comparative Law Review">Boston College International and Comparative Law Review</a>. 26 (2): 385–411. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160923204814/http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/iclr/vol26/iss2/10/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+College+International+and+Comparative+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Human+Rights+Compliance+and+the+Gacaca+Jurisdictions+in+Rwanda&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=385-411&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Tully&rft.aufirst=L.+Danielle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flawdigitalcommons.bc.edu%2Ficlr%2Fvol26%2Fiss2%2F10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwagilimana2007" class="citation book cs1">Twagilimana, Aimable (2007). Historical dictionary of Rwanda. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5313-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5313-3"><bdi>978-0-8108-5313-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/141852090">141852090</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+dictionary+of+Rwanda&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F141852090&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-5313-3&rft.aulast=Twagilimana&rft.aufirst=Aimable&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_Nations" class="citation web cs1">United Nations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/unamir_b.htm">"Rwanda-UNAMIR Background"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181023091614/http://www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/unamir_b.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rwanda-UNAMIR+Background&rft.au=United+Nations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2FDepts%2FDPKO%2FMissions%2Funamir_b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUN2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080819214105/http://pbpu.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf">United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines</a> (PDF). New York: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Secretariat" title="United Nations Secretariat">United Nations Secretariat</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pbpu.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 23 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=United+Nations+Peacekeeping+Operations%3A+Principles+and+Guidelines&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=United+Nations+Secretariat&rft.date=2008&rft.au=United+Nations+Department+of+Peacekeeping+Operations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpbpu.unlb.org%2Fpbps%2FLibrary%2FCapstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitney1998" class="citation news cs1">Whitney, Craig R. (20 December 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/20/world/panel-finds-french-errors-in-judgment-on-rwanda.html">"Panel Finds French Errors in Judgment on Rwanda"</a>. The New York Times. New York. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140716161358/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/20/world/panel-finds-french-errors-in-judgment-on-rwanda.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Panel+Finds+French+Errors+in+Judgment+on+Rwanda&rft.date=1998-12-20&rft.aulast=Whitney&rft.aufirst=Craig+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1998%2F12%2F20%2Fworld%2Fpanel-finds-french-errors-in-judgment-on-rwanda.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2011" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Christopher (2011). Barbaric Civilization. Montreal & Kingston, London, Ithaca: <a href="/wiki/McGill-Queen%27s_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="McGill-Queen's University Press">McGill-Queen's University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-3856-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-3856-6"><bdi>978-0-7735-3856-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barbaric+Civilization&rft.place=Montreal+%26+Kingston%2C+London%2C+Ithaca&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7735-3856-6&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTottenParsons2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Totten" title="Samuel Totten">Totten, Samuel</a>; Parsons, William S (2009). Century of Genocide. New York and Londo: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-89043-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-89043-1"><bdi>978-0-203-89043-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Century+of+Genocide&rft.place=New+York+and+Londo&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-203-89043-1&rft.aulast=Totten&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=Parsons%2C+William+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide">Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide</a></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett2002" class="citation book cs1">Barnett, Michael N. (2002). Eyewitness to a genocide: the United Nations and Rwanda. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3883-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3883-7"><bdi>978-0-8014-3883-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt7zhf0">10.7591/j.ctt7zhf0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eyewitness+to+a+genocide%3A+the+United+Nations+and+Rwanda&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7591%2Fj.ctt7zhf0%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-3883-7&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Michael+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFujii2011" class="citation book cs1">Fujii, Lee Ann (2011). Killing neighbors: webs of violence in Rwanda. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-5737-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-5737-1"><bdi>978-0-8014-5737-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Killing+neighbors%3A+webs+of+violence+in+Rwanda&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-5737-1&rft.aulast=Fujii&rft.aufirst=Lee+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGourevitch1999" class="citation book cs1">Gourevitch, Philip (1999). We wish to inform you that tomorrow we will be killed with our families: stories from Rwanda. New York: Picador/Farrar, Straus, and Giroux : Distributed by Holtzbrinck Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-24335-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-24335-7"><bdi>978-0-312-24335-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+wish+to+inform+you+that+tomorrow+we+will+be+killed+with+our+families%3A+stories+from+Rwanda&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Picador%2FFarrar%2C+Straus%2C+and+Giroux+%3A+Distributed+by+Holtzbrinck+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-312-24335-7&rft.aulast=Gourevitch&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamusella2022" class="citation journal cs1">Kamusella, Tomasz (July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fnps.2021.12">"Ethnicity and Estate: The Galician Jacquerie and the Rwandan Genocide Compared"</a>. Nationalities Papers. 50 (4): 684–703. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fnps.2021.12">10.1017/nps.2021.12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0090-5992">0090-5992</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nationalities+Papers&rft.atitle=Ethnicity+and+Estate%3A+The+Galician+Jacquerie+and+the+Rwandan+Genocide+Compared&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=684-703&rft.date=2022-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fnps.2021.12&rft.issn=0090-5992&rft.aulast=Kamusella&rft.aufirst=Tomasz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fnps.2021.12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDoom2020" class="citation book cs1">McDoom, Omar Shahabudin (2020). The path to genocide in Rwanda: security, opportunity, and authority in an ethnocratic state. African studies series. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-86883-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-86883-9"><bdi>978-1-108-86883-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+path+to+genocide+in+Rwanda%3A+security%2C+opportunity%2C+and+authority+in+an+ethnocratic+state&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=African+studies+series&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-108-86883-9&rft.aulast=McDoom&rft.aufirst=Omar+Shahabudin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStraus2013" class="citation book cs1">Straus, Scott (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WyIdXtnTe7EC">The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda</a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-6714-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-6714-1"><bdi>978-0-8014-6714-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Order+of+Genocide%3A+Race%2C+Power%2C+and+War+in+Rwanda&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-6714-1&rft.aulast=Straus&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWyIdXtnTe7EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARwandan+genocide" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rwandan_genocide" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Rwandan_genocide" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unictr.irmct.org/">United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rwandan_genocide" style="width:auto;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rwandan_genocide_footer" title="Template:Rwandan genocide footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rwandan_genocide_footer" title="Template talk:Rwandan genocide footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rwandan_genocide_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rwandan genocide footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rwandan_genocide" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rwandan genocide</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rwanda" title="History of Rwanda">History of Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa" title="Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa">Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwanda" title="Kingdom of Rwanda">Kingdom of Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian colonial empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arusha_Accords_(Rwanda)" title="Arusha Accords (Rwanda)">Arusha Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_and_Cyprien_Ntaryamira" title="Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira">Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Initial_events_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Initial events of the Rwandan genocide">Initial events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Timeline of the Rwandan genocide">Chronology</a></li> <li>Massacres <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gikondo_massacre" title="Gikondo massacre">Gikondo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musha_Church_massacre" title="Musha Church massacre">Musha Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyarubuye_massacre" title="Nyarubuye massacre">Nyarubuye</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Rape during the Rwandan genocide">Rape</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perpetrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_indicted_in_the_International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="List of people indicted in the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">People indicted</a> by the <a href="/wiki/ICTR" class="mw-redirect" title="ICTR">ICTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidaires" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocidaires">Genocidaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akazu" title="Akazu">Akazu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impuzamugambi" title="Impuzamugambi">Impuzamugambi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interahamwe" title="Interahamwe">Interahamwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangura" title="Kangura">Kangura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_Libre_des_Mille_Collines" title="Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines">Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Response</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Patriotic_Front" title="Rwandan Patriotic Front">Rwandan Patriotic Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="International response to the Rwandan genocide">International response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_and_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="France and the Rwandan genocide">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_Turquoise" title="Opération Turquoise">Opération Turquoise</a></li></ul></li> <li>United States <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Support_Hope" title="Operation Support Hope">Operation Support Hope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Assistance_Mission_for_Rwanda" title="United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda">UNAMIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_935" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 935">UNSC Resolution 935</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aftermath</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_refugee_crisis" title="Great Lakes refugee crisis">Great Lakes refugee crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kibeho_massacre" title="Kibeho massacre">Kibeho massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Massacres of Hutus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide_denial" title="Rwandan genocide denial">Rwandan genocide denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gacaca_court" title="Gacaca court">Gacaca court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Unity_and_Reconciliation_Commission_(Rwanda)" title="National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (Rwanda)">National Unity and Reconciliation Commission</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commemoration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Genocide memorials <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bisesero_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Bisesero Genocide Memorial Centre">Bisesero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kigali_Genocide_Memorial" title="Kigali Genocide Memorial">Kigali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murambi_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Murambi Genocide Memorial Centre">Murambi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ntarama_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Ntarama Genocide Memorial Centre">Ntarama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyamata_Genocide_Memorial_Centre" title="Nyamata Genocide Memorial Centre">Nyamata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwibuka_T20_Tournament" title="Kwibuka T20 Tournament">Kwibuka T20 Tournament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivors_Fund" title="Survivors Fund">Survivors Fund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historigraphy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">Double genocide theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_the_Rwandan_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="List of films about the Rwandan Genocide">Filmography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rwanda_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rwanda_topics" title="Template:Rwanda topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rwanda_topics" title="Template talk:Rwanda topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rwanda_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rwanda topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rwanda_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Rwanda-related_articles" title="Index of Rwanda-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rwanda" title="History of Rwanda">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Rwandan_history" title="Timeline of Rwandan history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa" title="Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa">Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwanda" title="Kingdom of Rwanda">Kingdom of Rwanda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Rwanda" title="List of kings of Rwanda">kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_East_Africa" title="German East Africa">German East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruanda-Urundi" title="Ruanda-Urundi">Ruanda-Urundi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_residents_of_Rwanda" title="List of colonial residents of Rwanda">Colonial residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruzagayura_famine" title="Ruzagayura famine">Ruzagayura famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_Gitarama" title="Coup of Gitarama">Coup of Gitarama</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bugesera_invasion" title="Bugesera invasion">Bugesera invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rwandan genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Initial_events_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Initial events of the Rwandan genocide">Initial events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Rwanda" title="Geography of Rwanda">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Rwanda" title="List of cities in Rwanda">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Rwanda" title="List of ecoregions in Rwanda">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Rwanda" title="List of lakes of Rwanda">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Rwanda" title="National parks of Rwanda">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Rwanda" title="List of volcanoes in Rwanda">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Rwanda" title="Wildlife of Rwanda">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Rwanda" title="Politics of Rwanda">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Rwanda" title="Constitution of Rwanda">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Rwanda" title="Elections in Rwanda">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Rwanda" title="Foreign relations of Rwanda">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Rwanda" title="Human rights in Rwanda">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Rwanda">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Rwanda" title="Law enforcement in Rwanda">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwanda_Defence_Force" title="Rwanda Defence Force">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Rwanda" title="Parliament of Rwanda">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_(Rwanda)" title="Senate (Rwanda)">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Rwanda)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Rwanda)">Chamber of Deputies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization_in_Rwanda" title="Decentralization in Rwanda">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Rwanda" title="List of political parties in Rwanda">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Rwanda" title="List of presidents of Rwanda">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Rwanda" title="Vice President of Rwanda">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Rwanda" title="Prime Minister of Rwanda">Prime Minister</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Rwanda" title="Economy of Rwanda">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Bank_of_Rwanda" title="National Bank of Rwanda">National Bank</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_franc" title="Rwandan franc">Franc (currency)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Rwanda" title="Mining in Rwanda">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwanda_Stock_Exchange" title="Rwanda Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Rwanda" title="Telecommunications in Rwanda">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Rwanda" title="Tourism in Rwanda">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Rwanda" title="Transport in Rwanda">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Rwanda" title="Category:Society of Rwanda">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Rwanda" title="Demographics of Rwanda">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Rwanda" title="Education in Rwanda">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Rwanda" title="Ethnic groups in Rwanda">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality_in_Rwanda" title="Gender equality in Rwanda">Gender equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Rwanda" title="Health in Rwanda">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Rwanda" title="Healthcare in Rwanda">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Rwanda" title="Human trafficking in Rwanda">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Rwanda" title="Prostitution in Rwanda">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Rwanda" title="Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Rwanda" title="Culture of Rwanda">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_cuisine" title="Rwandan cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Rwanda" title="Flag of Rwanda">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Rwanda" title="Languages of Rwanda">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_literature" title="Rwandan literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Rwanda">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Rwanda" title="Music of Rwanda">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Rwanda" title="Public holidays in Rwanda">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Rwanda" title="Sport in Rwanda">Sport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Rwanda" title="Outline of Rwanda">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Rwanda-related_articles" title="Index of Rwanda-related articles">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rwanda" title="Category:Rwanda">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Post–Cold_War_conflicts_in_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Post-Cold_War_African_conflicts" title="Template:Post-Cold War African conflicts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Post-Cold_War_African_conflicts" title="Template talk:Post-Cold War African conflicts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Post-Cold_War_African_conflicts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Post-Cold War African conflicts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Post–Cold_War_conflicts_in_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Post–<a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">conflicts in Africa</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Egypt</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Crisis_(2011%E2%80%932014)" title="Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)">Egyptian Crisis</a> (2011–2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Egyptian_revolution" title="2011 Egyptian revolution">2011 revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_insurgency" title="Sinai insurgency">Sinai insurgency</a> (2011–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-coup_unrest_in_Egypt_(2013%E2%80%932014)" title="Post-coup unrest in Egypt (2013–2014)">Post-coup unrest</a> (2013–2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_terrorism_in_Egypt_(2013%E2%80%93present)" title="Timeline of terrorism in Egypt (2013–present)">Terrorism in Egypt</a> (2013–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Libya</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2008_Kufra_conflict" title="2008 Kufra conflict">2008 Kufra conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_crisis_(2011%E2%80%93present)" title="Libyan crisis (2011–present)">Libyan crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_civil_war_(2011)" title="Libyan civil war (2011)">2011 civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factional_violence_in_Libya_(2011%E2%80%932014)" title="Factional violence in Libya (2011–2014)">2011–2014 factional violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_civil_war_(2014%E2%80%932020)" title="Libyan civil war (2014–2020)">2014–2020 civil war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Western Sahara</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a> (1970–present) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">War, 1975–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Saharan_clashes_(2020%E2%80%93present)" title="Western Saharan clashes (2020–present)">Clashes, 2020–present</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Civil_War" title="Algerian Civil War">Algerian Civil War</a> (1991–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_the_Maghreb_(2002%E2%80%93present)" title="Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present)">Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_revolution" title="Tunisian revolution">Tunisian revolution</a> (2010–2011)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Nigeria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communal_conflicts_in_Nigeria" title="Communal conflicts in Nigeria">Communal conflicts in Nigeria</a> (1998–present) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herder%E2%80%93farmer_conflicts_in_Nigeria" title="Herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria">Herder–farmer conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_Nigeria" title="Religious violence in Nigeria">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency" title="Boko Haram insurgency">Boko Haram insurgency</a> (2009–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta" title="Conflict in the Niger Delta">Niger Delta conflict</a> (2003–present) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Niger_Delta_conflict" title="2016 Niger Delta conflict">2016 conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Southeastern_Nigeria" title="Insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria">Insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria</a> (2021–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Mali</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Tuareg rebellions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuareg_rebellion_(1990%E2%80%931995)" title="Tuareg rebellion (1990–1995)">1990–1995</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuareg_rebellion_(2007%E2%80%932009)" title="Tuareg rebellion (2007–2009)">2007–2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuareg_rebellion_(2012)" title="Tuareg rebellion (2012)">2012</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_War" title="Mali War">Mali War</a> (2012–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Sierra Leone</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Civil_War" title="Sierra Leone Civil War">Sierra Leone Civil War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Liberia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Liberian Civil Wars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Liberian_Civil_War" title="First Liberian Civil War">1989–1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Liberian_Civil_War" title="Second Liberian Civil War">1999–2003</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Côte d'Ivoire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ivorian Civil Wars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Ivorian_Civil_War" title="First Ivorian Civil War">2002–2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Ivorian_Civil_War" title="Second Ivorian Civil War">2010–2011</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_Civil_War" title="Guinea-Bissau Civil War">Guinea-Bissau Civil War</a> (1998–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Guinea_clashes" title="2013 Guinea clashes">Guinea clashes</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a> (1982–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016%E2%80%932017_Gambian_constitutional_crisis" title="2016–2017 Gambian constitutional crisis">2016–2017 Gambian constitutional crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ECOWAS_military_intervention_in_the_Gambia" title="ECOWAS military intervention in the Gambia">ECOWAS military intervention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Togoland_Rebellion" title="Western Togoland Rebellion">Western Togoland Rebellion</a> (2020–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Angola</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a> (1975–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinda_War" title="Cabinda War">Cabinda War</a> (1975–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">DR Congo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a> (1996–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Democratic_Forces_insurgency" title="Allied Democratic Forces insurgency">Allied Democratic Forces insurgency</a> (1996–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a> (1998–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ituri_conflict" title="Ituri conflict">Ituri conflict</a> (1999–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kivu_conflict" title="Kivu conflict">Kivu conflict</a> (2004–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongo_conflict" title="Dongo conflict">Dongo conflict</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ituri_conflict" title="Ituri conflict">Ituri conflict</a> (2009–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_23_Movement" title="March 23 Movement">March 23 Movement</a> conflict <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M23_rebellion" title="M23 rebellion">2012–2013 rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M23_offensive_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="M23 offensive (2022–present)">2022–2024 offensive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batwa%E2%80%93Luba_clashes" title="Batwa–Luba clashes">Batwa–Luba clashes</a> (2013–2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamwina_Nsapu_rebellion" title="Kamwina Nsapu rebellion">Kamwina Nsapu rebellion</a> (2016–2019)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Republic of the Congo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Civil wars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_Civil_War_(1993%E2%80%931994)" title="Republic of the Congo Civil War (1993–1994)">1993–1994</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_Civil_War_(1997%E2%80%931999)" title="Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997–1999)">1997–1999</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002%E2%80%932003_conflict_in_the_Pool_Department" title="2002–2003 conflict in the Pool Department">Pool Department conflict</a> (2002–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pool_War" title="Pool War">Pool War</a> (2016–2017)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Central African Republic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic_Bush_War" title="Central African Republic Bush War">Bush War</a> (2004–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic_Civil_War" title="Central African Republic Civil War">Civil War (2012–present)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic_conflict_(2013%E2%80%932014)" title="Central African Republic conflict (2013–2014)">Djotodia period, 2013–2014</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Chad</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Civil_War_(2005%E2%80%932010)" title="Chadian Civil War (2005–2010)">Civil War (2005–2010)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Northern_Chad" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurgency in Northern Chad">Insurgency in Northern Chad</a> (2016–present) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2021_Northern_Chad_offensive" title="2021 Northern Chad offensive">2021 offensive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglophone_Crisis" title="Anglophone Crisis">Anglophone Crisis (Cameroon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a> (1987–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency" title="Boko Haram insurgency">Boko Haram insurgency</a> (2009–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Ethiopia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/OLA_insurgency" title="OLA insurgency">OLA insurgency, 2018–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Ogaden" title="Insurgency in Ogaden">Insurgency in Ogaden</a> (1994–2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Afar_insurgency" title="Second Afar insurgency">Second Afar insurgency</a> (1995–2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean%E2%80%93Ethiopian_border_conflict" title="Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict">Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict</a> (2000–2018) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean%E2%80%93Ethiopian_War" title="Eritrean–Ethiopian War">War, 1998–2000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_civil_conflict_(2018%E2%80%93present)" title="Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present)">Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afar%E2%80%93Somali_clashes" title="Afar–Somali clashes">Afar–Somali clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benishangul-Gumuz_conflict" title="Benishangul-Gumuz conflict">Benishangul-Gumuz conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromia%E2%80%93Somali_clashes" class="mw-redirect" title="Oromia–Somali clashes">Oromia–Somali clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigray_war" title="Tigray war">Tigray war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Amhara" title="War in Amhara">War in Amhara</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Somalia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puntland%E2%80%93Somaliland_dispute" title="Puntland–Somaliland dispute">Puntland–Somaliland dispute</a> (1998–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Somalia_(2006%E2%80%932009)" title="War in Somalia (2006–2009)">2006–2009 Ethiopian intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War_(2009%E2%80%93present)" title="Somali Civil War (2009–present)">2009–present phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union_Mission_to_Somalia" title="African Union Mission to Somalia">AMISOM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Somalia" title="Piracy off the coast of Somalia">Piracy off the coast of Somalia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Kenya</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflicts_in_Kenya" title="Ethnic conflicts in Kenya">Ethnic conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali%E2%80%93Kenyan_conflict" title="Somali–Kenyan conflict">Somali–Kenyan conflict</a> (1963–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likoni#The_Likoni_Massacres" title="Likoni">Likoni massacres</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_Kenyan_crisis" title="2007–2008 Kenyan crisis">Kenyan crisis</a> (2007–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012%E2%80%932013_Tana_River_District_clashes" title="2012–2013 Tana River District clashes">2012–2013 Tana River District clashes</a> (2012–2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baragoi_clashes" title="Baragoi clashes">Baragoi clashes</a> (2012)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">South Sudan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heglig_Crisis" title="Heglig Crisis">Heglig Crisis</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_nomadic_conflicts" title="Sudanese nomadic conflicts">Nomadic conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence_in_South_Sudan" title="Ethnic violence in South Sudan">Ethnic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudanese_Civil_War" title="South Sudanese Civil War">Civil War</a> (2013–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyei_conflict_(2022%E2%80%932023)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyei conflict (2022–2023)">Abyei conflict (2022–2023)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Sudan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sudanese_Civil_War" title="Second Sudanese Civil War">Second Sudanese Civil War</a> (1983–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Darfur" title="War in Darfur">War in Darfur</a> (2003–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_nomadic_conflicts" title="Sudanese nomadic conflicts">Nomadic conflicts</a> (2009–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_conflict_in_South_Kordofan_and_Blue_Nile" title="Sudanese conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile">South Kordofan and Blue Nile conflict</a> (2011–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heglig_Crisis" title="Heglig Crisis">Heglig Crisis</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Nile_clashes_(2022%E2%80%932023)" title="Blue Nile clashes (2022–2023)">Blue Nile clashes</a> (2022–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_civil_war_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="Sudanese civil war (2023–present)">Sudanese civil war</a> (2023–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Uganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a> (1987–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Democratic_Forces_insurgency" title="Allied Democratic Forces insurgency">Allied Democratic Forces insurgency</a> (1996–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasese_clashes" title="Kasese clashes">Kasese clashes</a> (2016)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">genocide</a> (1990–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djiboutian_Civil_War" title="Djiboutian Civil War">Djiboutian Civil War</a> (1991–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanish_Islands_conflict" title="Hanish Islands conflict">Hanish Islands conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_invasion_of_Anjouan" title="2008 invasion of Anjouan">2008 invasion of Anjouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djiboutian%E2%80%93Eritrean_border_conflict" title="Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict">Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict</a></li> <li>Burundian conflicts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burundian_Civil_War" title="Burundian Civil War">1993–2005 Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burundian_unrest_(2015%E2%80%932018)" title="Burundian unrest (2015–2018)">2015–2018 unrest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Mozambique</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a> (1977–1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/RENAMO_insurgency_(2013%E2%80%932021)" title="RENAMO insurgency (2013–2021)">RENAMO insurgency (2013–2021)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Cabo_Delgado" title="Insurgency in Cabo Delgado">Insurgency in Cabo Delgado</a> (2017–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1994_Bophuthatswana_crisis" title="1994 Bophuthatswana crisis">Bophuthatswana crisis</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caprivi_conflict" title="Caprivi conflict">Caprivi conflict</a> (1994–1999)</li> <li>Lesothan conflicts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Development_Community_intervention_in_Lesotho" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern African Development Community intervention in Lesotho">SADC intervention in Lesotho</a> (1998–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Lesotho_political_crisis" title="2014 Lesotho political crisis">2014 Lesotho political crisis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Winter" title="Arab Winter">Arab Winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour revolutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genocide" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genocide_navbox" title="Template:Genocide navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genocide_navbox" title="Template talk:Genocide navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genocide_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genocide navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genocide" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">Genocides</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_genocides" title="List of genocides">list by death toll</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Before_1490" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Before_1490" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Before 1490</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)#146_BC" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">Destruction of Carthage</a> (146 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Vespers" title="Asiatic Vespers">Asiatic Vespers</a> (88 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gauls</a> (50s BCE) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eburones#Genocide_(53–51_BC)" title="Eburones">Eburones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a> (132–136)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egica#Legislation" title="Egica">Visigothic Jews under Egica</a> (693)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Ancestral Puebloans</a> (800s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrying_of_the_North" title="Harrying of the North">Harrying of the North</a> (1069–1070)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Mongol conquests</a> (1200s–1360s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Cathars</a> (1209–1229)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1311_massacre_of_Mongols_in_the_Delhi_Sultanate" title="1311 massacre of Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate">Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate</a> (1311)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Tamerlane" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Assyria</a> (1393–1394)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Guanches</a> (1402–1496)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1490_to_1912" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#1490_to_1914" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">1490 to 1912</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_genocide" title="Taíno genocide">Taíno</a> (1493–1550)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Japanese_colonization_of_Hokkaido" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Ainu</a> (1500s–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil">Indigenous peoples in Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_at_the_11th_Parallel" title="Massacre at the 11th Parallel">11th Parallel massacre</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_the_Hole" title="Man of the Hole">Tanaru</a> (1970s–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmet_massacre" title="Helmet massacre">Helmet massacre</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akuntsu" title="Akuntsu">Akuntsu</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haximu_massacre" title="Haximu massacre">Haximu</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanomami_humanitarian_crisis" title="Yanomami humanitarian crisis">Yanomami</a> (2019–2023)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaragua_massacre" title="Jaragua massacre">Jaragua massacre</a> (1503)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Aztecs</a> (1521)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Wars" title="Yaqui Wars">Yaqui</a> (1533–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Kashmiri_Shias" title="Persecution of Kashmiri Shias">Kashmiri Shias</a> (1548–1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">Huguenots</a> (1572)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago_genocide_of_1626" title="Kalinago genocide of 1626">Kalinago</a> (1626)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamey_Island_Massacre" title="Lamey Island Massacre">Lameyans</a> (1636)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Indigenous peoples in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequots</a> (1636–1638)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a> (1609–1701) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Ontario" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Huron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullivan_Expedition" title="Sullivan Expedition">Sullivan Expedition</a> (1779)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodhead%27s_Coshocton_expedition" title="Brodhead's Coshocton expedition">Coshocton Expedition</a> (1781)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnadenhutten_massacre" title="Gnadenhutten massacre">Gnadenhutten massacre</a> (1782)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a> (1830–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> (1830–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California</a> (1846–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre" title="Sand Creek massacre">Sand Creek massacre</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_murders" title="Osage Indian murders">Osage Indian murders</a> (1918–1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Cultural genocide in the United States">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples in Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a> (1609–1701) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Ontario" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Huron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beothuk#Genocide" title="Beothuk">Beothuk</a> (1700s–1800s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Residential school system</a> (1874–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixties_Scoop" title="Sixties Scoop">Sixties Scoop</a> (1951–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate</a> (1648–1657)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1740_Batavia_massacre" title="1740 Batavia massacre">1740 Batavia massacre</a> (1740)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Gypsy_Round-up" title="Great Gypsy Round-up">Great Gypsy Round-up</a> (1749)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_genocide" title="Dzungar genocide">Dzungars</a> (1750s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II</a> (1780–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_genocide" title="Chechen genocide">Chechens</a> (1785–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1804_Haitian_massacre" title="1804 Haitian massacre">French Hatians</a> (1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="Genocide of Indigenous Australians">Indigenous peoples in Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_War" title="Black War">Black War</a> (1825–1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a> (1869–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jawazi_massacre" title="Al-Jawazi massacre">al-Jawazi</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navarino_massacre" title="Navarino massacre">Navarino massacre</a> (1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tripolitsa" title="Siege of Tripolitsa">Siege of Tripolitsa</a> (1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Pacification of Algeria</a> (1830–1875) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_El_Ouffia" title="Massacre of El Ouffia">El Ouffia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Salsipuedes" title="Massacre of Salsipuedes">Charrúa</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moriori_genocide" title="Moriori genocide">Moriori</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Manchus</a> (1850–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_genocide" title="Circassian genocide">Circassians</a> (1860s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Desert" title="Conquest of the Desert">Mapuche</a> (1870s–1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putumayo_genocide" title="Putumayo genocide">Indigenous peoples in Putumayo</a> (1879–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Congolese</a> (1885–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888%E2%80%931893_Hazara_uprisings" class="mw-redirect" title="1888–1893 Hazara uprisings">Hazaras</a> (1888–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_genocide" title="Selk'nam genocide">Selk'nam</a> (1890s–1900s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kuruyuki" title="Battle of Kuruyuki">Ava Guaraní</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a> (1894–1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herero_and_Nama_genocide" title="Herero and Nama genocide">Herero and Nama</a> (1904–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maji_Maji_Rebellion" title="Maji Maji Rebellion">Ukame</a> (1905–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_the_Balkan_Wars" title="Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars">Albanians in the Balkan Wars</a> (1912–1913)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1913_to_1945" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(World_War_I_through_World_War_II)" title="Genocides in history (World War I through World War II)">1913 to 1945</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greeks</a> (1913–1922) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek_genocide" title="Pontic Greek genocide">Pontic Greeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_Thracian_Bulgarians_in_1913" title="Destruction of the Thracian Bulgarians in 1913">Thracian Bulgarians</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrians</a> (1915–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenians</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_genocide_in_Diyarbekir" title="1915 genocide in Diyarbekir">Christians in Diyarbekir</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportations_of_Kurds_(1916%E2%80%931934)" title="Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934)">Kurds</a> (1916–1934)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples_in_Venezuela" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples in Venezuela">Indigenous peoples in Venezuela</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pemon_conflict" title="Pemon conflict">Pemon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamerun_campaign" title="Kamerun campaign">Duala</a> (1914–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Kyrgyz</a> (1916–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogroms_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pogroms during the Russian Civil War">Jews during the Russian Civil War</a> (1917–1920) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Russia)" title="White Terror (Russia)">Russian White Terror</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Cossackization" title="De-Cossackization">Cossacks</a> (1919–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Hungary)" title="White Terror (Hungary)">Hungarian White Terror</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_the_Ingrian_Finns" title="Genocide of the Ingrian Finns">Ingrian Finns</a> (1920s–1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_Massacre" title="Kantō Massacre">Kantō Massacre</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napalp%C3%AD_massacre" title="Napalpí massacre">Napalpí massacre</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinder_der_Landstrasse" title="Kinder der Landstrasse">Kinder der Landstrasse</a> (1926–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_genocide" title="Libyan genocide">Libyan Arabs</a> (1929–1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Kazakh famine of 1930–1933">Kazakhs</a> (1930–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Matanza" title="La Matanza">La Matanza</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a> (1932–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simele_massacre" title="Simele massacre">Simele massacre</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_Holocaust" title="Romani Holocaust">Romani Holocaust</a> (1935–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">Spanish White Terror</a> (1936–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Operation_of_the_NKVD" title="Polish Operation of the NKVD">Polish Operation</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsley_massacre" title="Parsley massacre">Parsley massacre</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a> (1939–1945) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_war_crimes_in_occupied_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="Nazi war crimes in occupied Poland during World War II">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ostland" title="Reichskommissariat Ostland">Baltic lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_Solution_of_the_Czech_Question" title="Final Solution of the Czech Question">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_policy" title="Three Alls policy">Three Alls policy</a> (1940–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Serbs in Croatia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chetnik_war_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="Chetnik war crimes in World War II">Muslims and Croats in Serbia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanshitou_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanshitou Massacre">Nanshitou Massacre</a> (1942–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles</a> (1943–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Chechens_and_Ingush" title="Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush">Chechens and Ingush</a> (1944–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars" title="Deportation of the Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> (1944–1948)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1946_to_1999" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">1946 to 1999</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyderabad_massacres" title="Hyderabad massacres">Hyderabadi Muslims</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Paraguay" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay">Indigenous peoples in Paraguay</a> (1956–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_genocide" title="Guatemalan genocide">Maya</a> (1962–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Arabs_during_the_Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Massacre of Arabs during the Zanzibar Revolution">Arab and Indian Zanzibaris</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_anti-Igbo_pogrom" title="1966 anti-Igbo pogrom">1966 anti-Igbo pogrom</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Biafra_(1966–1970)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Biafra</a> (1966–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Feyli_Kurds_under_Saddam_Hussein" title="Persecution of Feyli Kurds under Saddam Hussein">Feyli Kurds</a> (1970–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_genocide" title="Bangladesh genocide">Bangladesh</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Idi_Amin's_regime" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Acholi and Lango</a> (1972–1979)</li> <li>Burundi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ikiza" title="Ikiza">1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_ethnic_violence_in_Burundi" title="1993 ethnic violence in Burundi">1993</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor_genocide" title="East Timor genocide">East Timor</a> (1974–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong_Hill_Tracts_conflict" title="Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict">Jummas</a> (1977–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Bush_War_(1981–1985)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Baganda</a> (1981–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabra_and_Shatila_massacre" title="Sabra and Shatila massacre">Sabra and Shatila massacre</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_genocide" title="Tamil genocide">Sri Lankan Tamils</a> (1983–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gukurahundi" title="Gukurahundi">Gukurahundi</a> (1983–1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedoon#Kuwait" title="Bedoon">Kuwaiti Bedoon</a> (1985–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anfal_campaign" title="Anfal campaign">Anfal</a> (1986–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_genocide" title="Isaaq genocide">Isaaq</a> (1987–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Population_Program" title="National Population Program">National Population Program</a> (1987–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amhara_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Amhara genocide">Amhara</a> (1990–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes">Ahwaris</a> (1991–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian</a> (1992–1995) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Srebrenica_massacre" title="Srebrenica massacre">Srebrenica massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rwandan</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Hutus during the First Congo War</a> (1996–1997)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="21st_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(21st_century)" title="Genocides in history (21st century)">21st century</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effacer_le_tableau" title="Effacer le tableau">Effacer le tableau</a> (2002–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darfur_genocide" title="Darfur genocide">Darfur</a> (2003–) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Masalit_massacres_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="Masalit massacres (2023–present)">Masalit massacres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_in_Tigray" title="Genocide in Tigray">Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs</a> (2003–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Kaduna_genocide" title="Southern Kaduna genocide">Southern Kaduna</a> (2011–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen_genocide" title="Iraqi Turkmen genocide">Iraqi Turkmen</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidi_genocide" title="Yazidi genocide">Yazidis</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Shias_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Shias by the Islamic State">Shias under ISIS</a> (2014–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State">Christians under ISIS</a> (2014–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide" title="Rohingya genocide">Rohingya</a> (2017–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Las_Anod_conflict_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="Las Anod conflict (2023–present)">Dhulbahante</a> (2023–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_genocide" title="Gaza genocide">Gaza Strip</a> (2023–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autogenocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Autogenocide">Autogenocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide#Genocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Androcide" title="Androcide">Androcide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples">Genocide of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memoricide" title="Memoricide">Memoricide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policide" title="Policide">Policide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_cleansing_of_population#Politicide" title="Political cleansing of population">Politicide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classicide" title="Classicide">Classicide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliticide" title="Eliticide">Eliticide</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarian_genocide" title="Utilitarian genocide">Utilitarian genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">Death marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_squad" title="Death squad">Death squades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_adoption" title="Forced adoption">Forced adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">Forced assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide" title="Incitement to genocide">Incitement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_massacre" title="Genocidal massacre">Massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_Fields" title="Killing Fields">Killing Fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogroms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killing" title="Mass killing">Mass killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_rape" title="Genocidal rape">Rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">Settler colonialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Denial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trivialization" title="Holocaust trivialization">Trivialization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_denial" title="Armenian genocide denial">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_the_genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Denial of the genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide_denial" title="Bosnian genocide denial">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide_denial" title="Rwandan genocide denial">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_denial" title="Holodomor denial">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide_denial" title="Cambodian genocide denial">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_atrocities_against_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Denial of atrocities against Indigenous peoples">Indigenous</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_definitions" title="Genocide definitions">Definitions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Holocaust" title="Names of the Holocaust">Names of the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Terminology of the Armenian genocide">Terminology of the Armenian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Holocaust_terminology" title="Category:Holocaust terminology">Holocaust terminology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Genocide_Convention#Municipal_laws" title="List of parties to the Genocide Convention">Genocide law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_prevention" title="Genocide prevention">Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_genocide_on_youth" title="Effects of genocide on youth">Effects on young survivors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_recognition_politics" title="Genocide recognition politics">Politics of recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_justification" title="Genocide justification">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killings_under_communist_regimes" title="Mass killings under communist regimes">Mass killings under communist regimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_mass_killings" title="Anti-communist mass killings">Anti-communist mass killings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal proceedings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Holocaust_trials_(1943–2022)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Holocaust_trials" title="Category:Holocaust trials">Holocaust trials</a> (1943–2022)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krasnodar_Trial" title="Krasnodar Trial">Krasnodar trial</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharkov_Trial" title="Kharkov Trial">Kharkov trial</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">Épuration légale</a> (1944–1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_trials" title="Majdanek trials">Majdanek trials</a> (1944–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_trials" title="Chełmno trials">Chełmno trials</a> (1945–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dachau_trials" title="Dachau trials">Dachau trials</a> (1945–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belsen_trials" title="Belsen trials">Belsen trials</a> (1945–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_trials" title="Euthanasia trials">Euthanasia trials</a> (1945–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trial</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsk_Trial" title="Minsk Trial">Minsk trial</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Trial" title="Riga Trial">Riga trial</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_trials" title="Stutthof trials">Stutthof trials</a> (1946–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_Romanian_war_crime_trials" title="Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials">Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials</a> (1946–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_National_Tribunal" title="Supreme National Tribunal">Supreme National Tribunal</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_Ravensbr%C3%BCck_trials" title="Hamburg Ravensbrück trials">Hamburg Ravensbrück trials</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg Military Tribunals</a> (1946–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Erich_von_Manstein" title="Trial of Erich von Manstein">Erich von Manstein</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulm_Einsatzkommando_trial" title="Ulm Einsatzkommando trial">Ulm Einsatzkommando trial</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_trials_in_Soviet_Estonia" title="War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia">War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia</a> (1961–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eichmann_trial" title="Eichmann trial">Eichmann trial</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belzec_trial" title="Belzec trial">Belzec trial</a> (1963–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Auschwitz_trials" title="Frankfurt Auschwitz trials">Frankfurt Auschwitz trials</a> (1963–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_trials" title="Treblinka trials">Treblinka trials</a> (1964–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_trial" title="Sobibor trial">Sobibor trial</a> (1965–1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodor_Fedorenko#Soviet_trial_and_execution" title="Feodor Fedorenko">Fedorenko trial</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Finta#War_crimes_prosecution" title="Imre Finta">Finta trial</a> (1994)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="20th_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">20th century</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Mile_Budak" title="Trial of Mile Budak">Budak trial</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Mihailovi%C4%87_et_al." title="Trial of Mihailović et al.">Belgrade Process</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_War_Crimes_Tribunal" title="Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal">Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide_case" title="Bosnian genocide case">Bosnian genocide case</a> (1993–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a> (1993–2017) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Trial of Slobodan Milošević">Slobodan Milošević</a> (2002–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Radovan_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87" title="Trial of Radovan Karadžić">Radovan Karadžić</a> (2008–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Ratko_Mladi%C4%87" title="Trial of Ratko Mladić">Ratko Mladić</a> (2011–2017)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trials_of_the_Derg_members" title="Trials of the Derg members">Trials of the Derg members</a> (1994–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a> (1994–2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge_Tribunal" title="Khmer Rouge Tribunal">Khmer Rouge Tribunal</a> (1997–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatia%E2%80%93Serbia_genocide_case" title="Croatia–Serbia genocide case">Croatia–Serbia genocide case</a> (1999–2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="21st_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">21st century</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_Darfur" title="International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur">International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur</a> (2005–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_Peoples%27_Tribunal_on_Sri_Lanka" title="Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka">Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka</a> (2010–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Crimes_Tribunal_(Bangladesh)" title="International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)">International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh</a> (2012–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide_case" title="Rohingya genocide case">Rohingya genocide case</a> (2019–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Tribunal" title="Uyghur Tribunal">Uyghur Tribunal</a> (2020–2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_Ukraine" title="International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine">International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine</a> (2022–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_v._Russian_Federation_(2022)" title="Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022)">Ukraine v. Russian Federation</a> (2022–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa%27s_genocide_case_against_Israel" title="South Africa's genocide case against Israel">South Africa v. Israel</a> (2023–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_for_Children_International_%E2%80%93_Palestine_et_al_v._Biden_et_al" title="Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al">Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al</a> (2023–2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua_v._Germany" title="Nicaragua v. Germany">Nicaragua v. Germany</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religious_persecution_and_discrimination" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religious_persecution" title="Template:Religious persecution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religious_persecution" title="Template talk:Religious persecution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religious_persecution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religious persecution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religious_persecution_and_discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_censorship" title="Religious censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_violence" title="Communal violence">Communal violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deprogramming" title="Deprogramming">Deprogramming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desecration" title="Desecration">Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing" title="Extrajudicial killing">Extrajudicial killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_punishment" title="Extrajudicial punishment">Extrajudicial punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_exclusivism" title="Religious exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cleansing" title="Population cleansing">Population cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cleansing" title="Social cleansing">Social cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a> (64–313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire</a> (c. 324–c. 491)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent</a> (c.550–c. 1200)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a> (c.184–c. 205)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a> (732)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhineland_massacres" title="Rhineland massacres">Rhineland massacres</a> (1096)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1099)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (1099)">Jerusalem massacre</a> (1099)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent</a> (643–1526)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> (1184–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_at_Ayyadieh" title="Massacre at Ayyadieh">Massacre at Ayyadieh</a> (1191)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a> (12th–16th cent.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Crusades_to_Europe_and_the_Holy_Land#Crusades_against_heretics_and_schismatics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Crusades to Europe and the Holy Land">Crusades against schismatics</a> (13th–15th cent.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversions_of_Muslims_in_Spain" title="Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain">Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain</a> (1500–1526)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a> (1522–1712)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a> (1526–1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a> (1561–1812)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> (1562–1598)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a> (1609–1614)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Test_Acts" title="Test Acts">Test Acts</a> (1673–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction</a> (1683–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_S%C3%A1mi_people" title="Christianization of the Sámi people">Christianization of the Sámi people</a> (1700s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolutionary dechristianisation</a> (1789–1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_War" title="Utah War">Utah War</a> (1857–1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_civil_conflict_in_Mount_Lebanon_and_Damascus" title="1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus">1860 Mount Lebanon civil war</a> (1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_genocide" title="Circassian genocide">Circassian genocide</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt</a> (1862–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adana_massacre" title="Adana massacre">Adana massacre</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_the_Balkan_Wars" title="Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars">Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars</a> (1912–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a> (1913–1922) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek_genocide" title="Pontic Greek genocide">Pontic Greek genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide</a> (1914–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> (1915–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc">Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc</a> (1917–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Soviet persecution</a> (1922–1991) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Anti-religious campaign during the Russian Civil War">1917–1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">1921–1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1928%E2%80%931941)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)">1928–1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1958%E2%80%931964)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)">1958–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1970s%E2%80%931987)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1970s–1987)">1970–1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-religious_legislation" title="Soviet anti-religious legislation">legislation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%A0ahovi%C4%87i_massacre" title="Šahovići massacre">Šahovići massacre</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">White Terror (Spain)</a> (1936–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_boycott_of_Jewish_businesses" title="Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses">Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> (1939–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_anti-religious_campaign" title="Polish anti-religious campaign">Communist Polish persecution</a> (1945–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_of_Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-religious campaign of Communist Romania">Communist Romanian persecution</a> (1945–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noakhali_riots" title="Noakhali riots">Noakhali riots</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Day" title="Direct Action Day">Direct Action Day</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Bihar_riots" title="1946 Bihar riots">1946 Bihar riots</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Rawalpindi_massacres" title="1947 Rawalpindi massacres">Rawalpindi massacres</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Pakistan#Decline_and_persecution" title="Hinduism in Pakistan">Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_Muslims_in_independent_India" title="Violence against Muslims in independent India">Violence against Muslims in India</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus#India" title="Persecution of Hindus">Violence against Hindus in independent India</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">Jewish exodus from the Muslim world</a> (1948–1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party">Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party</a> (1949–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_and_uprisings_in_Tibet_since_1950" title="Protests and uprisings in Tibet since 1950">Persecution of Tibetans</a> (1950–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Turks_from_Bulgaria_(1950-1951)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)">Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_Nigeria" title="Religious violence in Nigeria">Religious violence in Nigeria</a> (1953–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istanbul_pogrom" title="Istanbul pogrom">Istanbul pogrom</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">Buddhist crisis</a> (1963) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hu%E1%BA%BF_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3n_shootings" title="Huế Phật Đản shootings">Huế Phật Đản shootings</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c" title="Thích Quảng Đức">Thích Quảng Đức</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/X%C3%A1_L%E1%BB%A3i_Pagoda_raids" title="Xá Lợi Pagoda raids">Xá Lợi Pagoda raids</a> (1963)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> (1966–1976) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famen_Temple#People's_Republic_of_China" title="Famen Temple">Famen Temple</a> (1966)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_genocide" title="Bangladesh genocide">Bangladesh genocide</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus#Bangladesh" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh</a> (1971–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a> (1975–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_anti-Sikh_riots" title="1984 anti-Sikh riots">1984 anti-Sikh riots</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_Process" title="Revival Process">Revival Process</a> (1984–1989) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Excursion" title="Big Excursion">Big Excursion</a> (1989)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Kashmiri_Hindus" title="Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus">Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a> (1991–2001) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing_in_the_Bosnian_War" title="Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War">Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War</a> (1992–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian genocide</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Kosovo_War" title="War crimes in the Kosovo War">War crimes in the Kosovo War</a> (1999)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walisongo_school_massacre" title="Walisongo school massacre">Walisongo school massacre</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosheh_massacres" title="Kosheh massacres">Kosheh massacres</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Gujarat_riots" title="2002 Gujarat riots">2002 Gujarat riots</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Thailand_insurgency" title="South Thailand insurgency">South Thailand insurgency</a> (2004–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency" title="Boko Haram insurgency">Boko Haram insurgency</a> (2009–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maspero_demonstrations" title="Maspero demonstrations">Maspero demonstrations</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_by_Islamic_extremists_in_Bangladesh" title="Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh">Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh</a> (2013–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidi_genocide" title="Yazidi genocide">Yazidi genocide</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State">Genocide of Christians by ISIL</a> (2014–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen_genocide" title="Iraqi Turkmen genocide">Iraqi Turkmen genocide</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs in China</a> (2014–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide" title="Rohingya genocide">Rohingya genocide</a> (2016–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christchurch_mosque_shootings" title="Christchurch mosque shootings">Christchurch mosque shootings</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings" title="2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings">2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Delhi_riots" title="2020 Delhi riots">2020 Delhi riots</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel">2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Istanbul_church_shooting" title="2024 Istanbul church shooting">2024 Istanbul church shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocus_City_Hall_attack" title="Crocus City Hall attack">Crocus City Hall attack</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/16px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/24px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/32px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/29px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/38px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG/15px-GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG/22px-GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG/29px-GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG 2x" data-file-width="203" data-file-height="261" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Genocide" title="Portal:Genocide">Genocide</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:EC1835_C_cut.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/EC1835_C_cut.jpg/16px-EC1835_C_cut.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/EC1835_C_cut.jpg/24px-EC1835_C_cut.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/EC1835_C_cut.jpg/32px-EC1835_C_cut.jpg 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:1990s" title="Portal:1990s">1990s</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131297#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131297#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131297#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4360701-9">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2008105129">United States</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2008116783">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb155768224">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb155768224">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX722124">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810589491005606">Poland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007540156605171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/119256657">IdRef</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rwandan_genocide&oldid=1258421431">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rwandan_genocide&oldid=1258421431</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rwandan_genocide" title="Category:Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1994_in_Rwanda" title="Category:1994 in Rwanda">1994 in Rwanda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1994_murders_in_Africa" title="Category:1994 murders in Africa">1994 murders in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_mass_murder_in_Africa" title="Category:20th-century mass murder in Africa">20th-century mass murder in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_cleansing_in_Africa" title="Category:Ethnic cleansing in Africa">Ethnic cleansing in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Genocides_in_Africa" title="Category:Genocides in Africa">Genocides in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mass_murder_in_1994" title="Category:Mass murder in 1994">Mass murder in 1994</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Massacres_in_Rwanda" title="Category:Massacres in Rwanda">Massacres in Rwanda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Massacres_in_1994" title="Category:Massacres in 1994">Massacres in 1994</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Massacres_of_ethnic_groups" title="Category:Massacres of ethnic groups">Massacres of ethnic groups</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_scandals" title="Category:Military scandals">Military scandals</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peacekeeping_operations" title="Category:Peacekeeping operations">Peacekeeping operations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Responsibility_to_protect" title="Category:Responsibility to protect">Responsibility to protect</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_Nations_operations_in_Rwanda" title="Category:United Nations operations in Rwanda">United Nations operations in Rwanda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:April_1994_crimes" title="Category:April 1994 crimes">April 1994 crimes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:April_1994_events_in_Africa" title="Category:April 1994 events in Africa">April 1994 events in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:May_1994_crimes" title="Category:May 1994 crimes">May 1994 crimes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1994_disasters_in_Rwanda" title="Category:1994 disasters in Rwanda">1994 disasters in Rwanda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:May_1994_events_in_Africa" title="Category:May 1994 events in Africa">May 1994 events in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:June_1994_crimes" title="Category:June 1994 crimes">June 1994 crimes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:June_1994_events_in_Africa" title="Category:June 1994 events in Africa">June 1994 events in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:July_1994_crimes" title="Category:July 1994 crimes">July 1994 crimes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:July_1994_events_in_Africa" title="Category:July 1994 events in Africa">July 1994 events in Africa</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2021">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:Articles with French-language sources (fr)">Articles with French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">CS1 maint: others</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_British_English_from_February_2018" title="Category:Use British English from February 2018">Use British English from February 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_February_2021" title="Category:Use dmy dates from February 2021">Use dmy dates from February 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 19 November 2024, at 17:01 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rwandan_genocide&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-869cr","wgBackendResponseTime":223,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.177","walltime":"4.639","ppvisitednodes":{"value":34000,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":837362,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":136110,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":54,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":840709,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 4004.386 1 -total"," 29.62% 1186.204 1 Template:Reflist"," 27.07% 1083.969 300 Template:Sfn"," 8.45% 338.271 59 Template:Cite_web"," 8.44% 337.926 35 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.78% 311.523 51 Template:Cite_book"," 7.65% 306.166 3 Template:Infobox"," 7.25% 290.514 1 Template:Infobox_civilian_attack"," 6.47% 259.148 1 Template:Navboxes"," 6.19% 248.001 38 Template:Cite_news"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.678","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20999386,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdams2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkhavan1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmatulli2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmnesty_International2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmnesty_International2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAppiahGates2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAprille_Muscara2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAptel2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAsiimwe2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralian_War_Memorial\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBBC_News_(I)1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBBC_News_(II)2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBBC_News_(III)2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBakuramutsa1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarnett2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarnett2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBonner1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrittain1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBymanChalkHoffmanRosenau2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarney2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrol2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChozick2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChrétien2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChude_Brouwer2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDallaire2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanning2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDes_Forges1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiamond2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorsey1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrumbl2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElbe2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmizet2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmmanuel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFassbender2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerroggiaro2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFujii2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFujii2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGallimore2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGenin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGersony1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGourevitch1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGourevitch2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraysonHitchcott2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGross2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuichaoua1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuichaoua2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuichaoua2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayden2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIngelaere2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJenkins2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamusella2022\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKimani2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimani2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinzer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirschke1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamair1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemarchand2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLinden1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLorch1994\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLorch1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuis2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLynch2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMamdani2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDoom2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMcGreal2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGreal2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGreal2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeierhenrich2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMelvern2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelvern2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelvern2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelvern2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelvern2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMisgav2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNowrojee1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPBS\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParis2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPogge2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolgreen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPomfret1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPottier2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPower2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowers2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrunier1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrunier1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrunier1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrunier2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrutsalis1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRFI2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRefugees\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRettig2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRever2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReydams2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReydams2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReyntjens2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReyntjens2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReyntjens2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRittner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSam_Munderere2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel_TottenWilliam_S._Parsons2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSander2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarkin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheshadri\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShyaka\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilva-Leander2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarkey2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStraus2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStraus2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullo2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTiemessen2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTottenBartropJacobs2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTottenParsons2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTribunal_de_Grande_Instance_de_Paris2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTully2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTwagilimana2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUN2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_Nations\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnrepresented_Nations_and_Peoples_Organization_(UNPO)2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVansina1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaldorf2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitney1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYakaré-Oulé2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYanagizawa-Drott2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Brouwer2005\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 7,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 51,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 35,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 38,\n [\"Cite press release\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 59,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 2,\n [\"External media\"] = 2,\n [\"Genocide topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 15,\n [\"Hatnote\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox civilian attack\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend-inline\"] = 9,\n [\"Main\"] = 12,\n [\"Main article\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 3,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Percentage\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Post-Cold War African conflicts\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Religious persecution\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 3,\n [\"Rwanda topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Rwandan genocide\"] = 1,\n [\"Rwandan genocide footer\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 300,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbulleted list\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 9,\n [\"Wikiversity\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"short\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","520","18.4"],["?","420","14.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","280","9.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","220","7.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","160","5.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","120","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","3.5"],["type","100","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::formatDate","100","3.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","2.8"],["[others]","720","25.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-rxt7p","timestamp":"20241124053128","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Rwandan genocide","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rwandan_genocide","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q131297","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q131297","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-05-24T11:25:19Z","dateModified":"2024-11-19T17:01:03Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f2\/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg","headline":"1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda"}</script> </body> </html>