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</a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_Management_Principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_Management_Principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Scientific Management Principles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_Management_Principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pursuit_of_economic_efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pursuit_of_economic_efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Pursuit of economic efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pursuit_of_economic_efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soldiering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soldiering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Soldiering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soldiering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Productivity,_automation,_and_unemployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Productivity,_automation,_and_unemployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Productivity, automation, and unemployment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Productivity,_automation,_and_unemployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taylorism_and_unions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taylorism_and_unions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Taylorism and unions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taylorism_and_unions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_Fordism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_Fordism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Relationship to Fordism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_Fordism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adoption_in_planned_economies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adoption_in_planned_economies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Adoption in planned economies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Adoption_in_planned_economies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Adoption in planned economies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Adoption_in_planned_economies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>East Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_rigor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_rigor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Criticism of rigor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_rigor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations_of_scientific_management_after_Taylorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations_of_scientific_management_after_Taylorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Variations of scientific management after Taylorism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Variations_of_scientific_management_after_Taylorism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Variations of scientific management after Taylorism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Variations_of_scientific_management_after_Taylorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_the_1900s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_1900s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>In the 1900s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_1900s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_2000s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_2000s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>In the 2000s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_2000s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Scientific management</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="إدارة علمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إدارة علمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorisme" title="Taylorisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Taylorisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorismus" title="Taylorismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Taylorismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorisme" title="Taylorisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Taylorisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorismus" title="Taylorismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Taylorismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B5%CE%B7%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Τεηλορισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τεηλορισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorismo" title="Taylorismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Taylorismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajlorismo" title="Tajlorismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tajlorismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorismo" title="Taylorismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Taylorismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C" title="مدیریت علمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مدیریت علمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorisme" title="Taylorisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Taylorisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99%EC%A0%81_%EA%B4%80%EB%A6%AC%EB%B2%95" title="과학적 관리법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학적 관리법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A8" title="वैज्ञानिक प्रबन्धन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वैज्ञानिक प्रबन्धन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorisme" title="Taylorisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Taylorisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorismo" title="Taylorismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Taylorismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9C_%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99" title="ניהול מדעי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ניהול מדעי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%86" title="ವೈಜ್ಞಾನಿಕ ನಿರ್ವಹಣೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವೈಜ್ಞಾನಿಕ ನಿರ್ವಹಣೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Тейлоризм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Тейлоризм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teilorizmas" title="Teilorizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Teilorizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengurusan_saintifik" title="Pengurusan saintifik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pengurusan saintifik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschappelijke_bedrijfsvoering" title="Wetenschappelijke bedrijfsvoering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschappelijke bedrijfsvoering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E6%B3%95" title="科学的管理法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="科学的管理法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorisme" title="Taylorisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Taylorisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorisme" title="Taylorisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Taylorisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorisme" title="Taylorisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Taylorisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naukowe_zarz%C4%85dzanie" title="Naukowe zarządzanie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Naukowe zarządzanie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorismo" title="Taylorismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Taylorismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorism" title="Taylorism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Taylorism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Научная организация труда – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Научная организация труда" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_management" title="Scientific management – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Scientific management" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorizmus" title="Taylorizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Taylorizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanstveni_mened%C5%BEment" title="Znanstveni menedžment – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Znanstveni menedžment" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%8E%DA%95%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="کارگێڕیی زانستی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کارگێڕیی زانستی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9F%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Научни менаџмент – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Научни менаџмент" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tejlorizam" title="Tejlorizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tejlorizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorismi" title="Taylorismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Taylorismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorism" title="Taylorism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Taylorism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamamahalang_Makaagham_(Scientific_Management)" title="Pamamahalang Makaagham (Scientific Management) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pamamahalang Makaagham (Scientific Management)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="அறிவியல் மேலாண்மை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவியல் மேலாண்மை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylorculuk" title="Taylorculuk – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Theory of management</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Taylorism" redirects here. For the school of theology, see <a href="/wiki/New_England_theology" title="New England theology">New England theology</a>. For the philosophy of history coined by A. J. P. Taylor, see <a href="/wiki/Taylorism_(history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taylorism (history)">Taylorism (history)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F._Taylor_1856-1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/F._Taylor_1856-1915.jpg/250px-F._Taylor_1856-1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="377" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/F._Taylor_1856-1915.jpg/375px-F._Taylor_1856-1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/F._Taylor_1856-1915.jpg/500px-F._Taylor_1856-1915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2408" data-file-height="3635" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor" title="Frederick Winslow Taylor">Frederick Taylor</a> (1856–1915), leading proponent of scientific management</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Scientific management</b> is a theory of <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a> that <a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">analyzes</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/synthesis#Noun" class="extiw" title="wikt:synthesis">synthesizes</a> <a href="/wiki/Workflow" title="Workflow">workflows</a>. Its main objective is improving <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">economic efficiency</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Workforce_productivity" title="Workforce productivity">labor productivity</a>. It was one of the earliest attempts <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">to apply science</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> of <a href="/wiki/Business_process" title="Business process">processes</a> to management. Scientific management is sometimes known as <b>Taylorism</b> after its pioneer, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor" title="Frederick Winslow Taylor">Frederick Winslow Taylor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitcham05p1153_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitcham05p1153-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Taylor began the theory's development in the United States during the 1880s and 1890s within <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> industries, especially steel. Its peak of influence came in the 1910s.<sup id="cite_ref-Wodham1997p12_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wodham1997p12-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Taylor died in 1915, by the 1920s scientific management was still influential but had entered into <a href="/wiki/Competition" title="Competition">competition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> with opposing or complementary ideas. </p><p>Although scientific management as a distinct theory or school of thought was obsolete by the 1930s,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> most of its themes are still important parts of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial engineering</a> and management today. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These include: analysis; synthesis; <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>; <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>; <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>; <a href="/wiki/Work_ethic" title="Work ethic">work ethic</a>; efficiency through elimination of wasteful activities (as in <i><a href="/wiki/Muda_(Japanese_term)" title="Muda (Japanese term)">muda</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Muri_(Japanese_term)" title="Muri (Japanese term)">muri</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Mura_(Japanese_term)" title="Mura (Japanese term)">mura</a></i>); <a href="/wiki/Standardization" title="Standardization">standardization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Best_practice" title="Best practice">best practices</a>; disdain for tradition preserved merely for its own sake or to protect the <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a> of particular workers with particular skill sets; the transformation of <a href="/wiki/Craft_production" title="Craft production">craft production</a> into <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_transfer" title="Knowledge transfer">knowledge transfer</a> between workers and from workers into tools, processes, and documentation. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Taylor's own names for his approach initially included "shop management" and "process management". However, "scientific management" came to national attention in 1910 when attorney <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a> (then not yet Supreme Court justice) popularized the term.<sup id="cite_ref-Drury1915pp15-21_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drury1915pp15-21-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brandeis had sought a consensus term for the approach with the help of practitioners like <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Gantt" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry L. Gantt">Henry L. Gantt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_B._Gilbreth" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank B. Gilbreth">Frank B. Gilbreth</a>. Brandeis then used the consensus of "SCIENTIFIC management" when he argued before the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)</a> that a proposed increase in railroad rates was unnecessary despite an increase in labor costs; he alleged scientific management would overcome railroad inefficiencies (The ICC ruled against the rate increase, but also dismissed as insufficiently substantiated that concept the railroads were necessarily inefficient.) Taylor recognized the nationally known term "scientific management" as another good name for the concept, and adopted it in the title of <a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Scientific_Management_(monograph)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Principles of Scientific Management (monograph)">his influential 1911 monograph</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Midvale_Steel_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Midvale Steel Company">Midvale Steel Company</a>, "one of America's great armor plate making plants," was the birthplace of scientific management. In 1877, Frederick W. Taylor started as a clerk in Midvale, but advanced to foreman in 1880. As foreman, Taylor was "constantly impressed by the failure of his [team members] to produce more than about one-third of [what he deemed] a good day's work".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taylor determined to discover, by scientific methods, how long it should take men to perform each given piece of work; and it was in the fall of 1882 that he started to put the first features of scientific management into operation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Horace_Bookwalter_Drury" title="Horace Bookwalter Drury">Horace Bookwalter Drury</a>, in his 1918 work, <i>Scientific management: A History and Criticism</i>, identified seven other leaders in the movement, most of whom learned of and extended scientific management from Taylor's efforts:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Gantt" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry L. Gantt">Henry L. Gantt</a> (1861–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_G._Barth" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl G. Barth">Carl G. Barth</a> (1860–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_K._Hathaway" title="Horace K. Hathaway">Horace K. Hathaway</a> (1878–1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Llewellyn_Cooke" title="Morris Llewellyn Cooke">Morris L. Cooke</a> (1872–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_E._Thompson" title="Sanford E. Thompson">Sanford E. Thompson</a> (1867–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Bunker_Gilbreth_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Bunker Gilbreth Sr.">Frank B. Gilbreth</a> (1868–1924). Gilbreth's independent work on "motion study" is on record as early as 1885; after meeting Taylor in 1906 and being introduced to scientific management, Gilbreth devoted his efforts to introducing scientific management into factories. Gilbreth and his wife <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Moller_Gilbreth" title="Lillian Moller Gilbreth">Lillian Moller Gilbreth</a> (1878–1972) performed micro-motion studies using stop-motion cameras as well as developing the profession of industrial/organizational psychology.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrington_Emerson" title="Harrington Emerson">Harrington Emerson</a> (1853–1931) began determining what industrial plants' products and costs were compared to what they ought to be in 1895. Emerson did not meet Taylor until December 1900, and the two never worked together.</li></ul> <p>Emerson's testimony in late 1910 to the Interstate Commerce Commission brought the movement to national attention<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and instigated serious opposition. Emerson contended the railroads might save $1,000,000 a day by paying greater attention to efficiency of operation. By January 1911, a leading railroad journal began a series of articles denying they were inefficiently managed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When steps were taken to introduce scientific management at the government-owned <a href="/wiki/Rock_Island_Arsenal" title="Rock Island Arsenal">Rock Island Arsenal</a> in early 1911, it was opposed by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Gompers" title="Samuel Gompers">Samuel Gompers</a>, founder and President of the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a> (an alliance of <a href="/wiki/Craft_unions" class="mw-redirect" title="Craft unions">craft unions</a>). When a subsequent attempt was made to introduce the bonus system into the government's <a href="/wiki/Watertown_Arsenal" title="Watertown Arsenal">Watertown Arsenal</a> foundry during the summer of 1911, the entire force walked out for a few days. Congressional investigations followed, resulting in a ban on the use of time studies and pay premiums in Government service.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Taylor's death in 1915 at age 59<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> left the movement without its original leader. In management literature today, the term "scientific management" mostly refers to the work of Taylor and his disciples ("classical", implying "no longer current, but still respected for its seminal value") in contrast to newer, improved iterations of efficiency-seeking methods. Today, task-oriented optimization of work tasks is nearly ubiquitous in industry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_Management_Principles">Scientific Management Principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scientific Management Principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Frederick Taylor tackled the challenge of making a business productive and profitable in his years of service and research in a steel company. He believed in a scientific solution. In his "Shop Management" article, Taylor explained that there were two facts that appeared "most noteworthy" in the field of management: (a) "Great unevenness": the lack of uniformity in what is called "the management", (b) The lack of relation between good (shop) management and the pay.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He added, </p><blockquote><p>"The art of management has been defined, "<i>as knowing exactly what you want men to do, and then seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way</i>"."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> In this regard, he highlighted that although there is "no concise definition" for this art, "the relations between employers and men form without question the most important part of this art". He then continued that a good management must in long run give satisfaction to both managers and workers. Taylor emphasized that he was advocating "high wages" and "low labor cost" as "the foundation of the best management".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discussing the pays for different classes of workers and what he called a "first-class" workman, he compared different scenarios of workmanship and their pros and cons. For best management, he asserted with ample reasons that managers in an organization should follow the following guideline: </p><blockquote><p>(a) Each worker should be given the highest grade of work they are capable of. </p><p>(b) Each worker should be demanded the work that a first-grade worker can do and thrive. </p><p> (c) When each worker works at the pace of a first-grade worker, they should be paid 30% to 100% beyond the average of their class.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote><p>While Taylor stated that sharing "the equitable division of the profits" is required in an organization, he believed that management could unite high wages with a low labor cost by application of the following principles:</p><blockquote><p>(a) A large daily task: Each worker in the organization, should have a clearly defined task. </p><p>(b) Standard Conditions: Each worker should be given standard conditions and appliances that will enable him to perform his tasks. </p><p>(c) High pay for success: Each worker should be rewarded when he accomplishes their task. </p><p> (d) Loss in case of failure: When a worker fails, he should know that he would share the loss.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>In Scientific Management, the responsibility of the success or failure of an organization is not solely on the shoulder of the workers, as it is in the old management systems. According to Scientific Management, the managers are taking half of the burden by being responsible for securing the proper work conditions for workers' prosperity.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his book "Principles of Scientific Management", Taylor formally introduced his methodically investigated theory of Scientific Management. Although he explained the details of Scientific Management in his works, he did not provide its concise definition.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly before his death, Taylor approved the following summary and definition of Scientific Management that Hoxie prepared: </p><blockquote><p>"Scientific management is a system devised by industrial engineers for the purpose of serving the common interests of employers, workmen and society at large through the elimination of avoidable wastes, the general improvement of the processes and methods of production, and the just and scientific distribution of the product."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote><p>Taylor indicated that Scientific Management consisted of <b>four underlying principles</b>:</p><blockquote><p><b>1) the development of a true science:</b> We must scientifically analyze all parts of a job. This consists of examining the elements and steps that required to carry out the work, as well as measuring the optimum time for each task. We also need to know the working time per day for a qualified worker. </p><p><b>2) the scientific selection of the workers:</b> The most suitable person for the job is selected. </p><p><b>3) the scientific education and training of the workers:</b> There is a clear division of work and responsibility between managers and workers. While workers are carrying out the job with quality and workmanship, managers are responsible for planning, supervision, and proper training of the workers. </p> <p><b>4) cooperation between managers and workers:</b> Managers and workers scientific cooperation is required to ensure the proper and high-quality execution of the jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1911_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1911-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>There are various tools that would enable us to serve these principles, such as time and motion study, functional foremanship, standardization of tools and movements of workers for each type of work, clear instructions for workers, and cost accounting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1911_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1911-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are many other features, tools, and methods that Taylor developed and recommended during his job at the steel plant and research, which have footprints in other fields, such as accounting and Engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of his concepts, studies, and findings has led to intellectual revolution in organization management.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taylor made contributions to various fields such as work measurement, production planning and control, process design, quality control, ergonomics, and human engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pursuit_of_economic_efficiency">Pursuit of economic efficiency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pursuit of economic efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Flourishing in the late 19th and early 20th century, scientific management built on earlier pursuits of <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">economic efficiency</a>. While it was prefigured in the folk wisdom of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thrift#Noun" class="extiw" title="wikt:thrift">thrift</a>, it favored <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical methods</a> to determine efficient procedures rather than perpetuating established traditions. Thus it was followed by a profusion of successors in applied science, including <a href="/wiki/Time_and_motion_study" title="Time and motion study">time and motion study</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Efficiency_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Efficiency Movement">Efficiency Movement</a> (which was a broader cultural echo of scientific management's impact on business managers specifically), <a href="/wiki/Fordism" title="Fordism">Fordism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operations_management" title="Operations management">operations management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">operations research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Management_science" title="Management science">management science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">manufacturing engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logistics" title="Logistics">logistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business_process_management" title="Business process management">business process management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business_process_reengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Business process reengineering">business process reengineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lean_manufacturing" title="Lean manufacturing">lean manufacturing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Six_Sigma" title="Six Sigma">Six Sigma</a>. There is a fluid continuum linking scientific management with the later fields, and the different approaches often display a high degree of compatibility. </p><p>Taylor rejected the notion, which was universal in his day and still held today, that the trades, including manufacturing, were resistant to analysis and could only be performed by <a href="/wiki/Craft_production" title="Craft production">craft production</a> methods. In the course of his empirical studies, Taylor examined various kinds of <a href="/wiki/Manual_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Manual labor">manual labor</a>. For example, most bulk materials handling was manual at the time; <a href="/wiki/Material_handling_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Material handling equipment">material handling equipment</a> as we know it today was mostly not developed yet. He looked at <a href="/wiki/Shovel" title="Shovel">shoveling</a> in the unloading of <a href="/wiki/Railroad_car" title="Railroad car">railroad cars</a> full of <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a>; lifting and carrying in the moving of <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">iron pigs</a> at steel mills; the manual inspection of <a href="/wiki/Ball_(bearing)" title="Ball (bearing)">bearing balls</a>; and others. He discovered many concepts that were not widely accepted at the time. For example, by observing workers, he decided that labor should include rest breaks so that the worker has time to recover from fatigue, either physical (as in shoveling or lifting) or mental (as in the ball inspection case). Workers were allowed to take more rests during work, and productivity increased as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1911[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1911[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subsequent forms of scientific management were articulated by Taylor's disciples, such as <a href="/wiki/Henry_Gantt" title="Henry Gantt">Henry Gantt</a>; other engineers and managers, such as <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_S._Graham" title="Benjamin S. Graham">Benjamin S. Graham</a>; and other theorists, such as <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>. Taylor's work also contrasts with other efforts, including those of <a href="/wiki/Henri_Fayol" title="Henri Fayol">Henri Fayol</a> and those of <a href="/wiki/Frank_Bunker_Gilbreth,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Bunker Gilbreth, Sr.">Frank Gilbreth, Sr.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Moller_Gilbreth" title="Lillian Moller Gilbreth">Lillian Moller Gilbreth</a> (whose views originally shared much with Taylor's but later diverged in response to Taylorism's inadequate handling of human relations). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soldiering">Soldiering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Soldiering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scientific management requires a high level of managerial control over employee work practices and entails a higher ratio of managerial workers to laborers than previous management methods.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Such detail-oriented management may cause friction between workers and managers. </p><p>Taylor observed that some workers were more talented than others, and that even smart ones were often unmotivated. He observed that most workers who are forced to perform repetitive tasks tend to work at the slowest rate that goes unpunished. This slow rate of work has been observed in many industries and many countries<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor1911pp13-14_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor1911pp13-14-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been called by various terms.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor1911pp13-14_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor1911pp13-14-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor1911pp19,23,82,95_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor1911pp19,23,82,95-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taylor used the term "soldiering",<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor1911pp13-14_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor1911pp13-14-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a term that reflects the way <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscripts</a> may approach following orders, and observed that, when paid the same amount, workers will tend to do the amount of work that the slowest among them does.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor1911pp13-29,95_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor1911pp13-29,95-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taylor describes soldiering as "the greatest evil with which the working-people ... are now afflicted".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1911[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1911[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This reflects the idea that workers have a vested interest in their own well-being, and do not benefit from working above the defined rate of work when it will not increase their remuneration. He, therefore, proposed that the work practice that had been developed in most work environments was crafted, intentionally or unintentionally, to be very inefficient in its execution. He posited that time and motion studies combined with rational analysis and synthesis could uncover one <a href="/wiki/Best_practice" title="Best practice">best method</a> for performing any particular task, and that prevailing methods were rarely equal to these best methods. Crucially, Taylor himself prominently acknowledged that if each employee's compensation was linked to their output, their <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> would go up.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor1911pp13-29,95_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor1911pp13-29,95-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus his compensation plans usually included <a href="/wiki/Piece_work" title="Piece work">piece rates</a>. In contrast, some later adopters of time and motion studies ignored this aspect and tried to get large productivity gains while passing little or no compensation gains to the workforce, which contributed to resentment against the system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Productivity,_automation,_and_unemployment"><span id="Productivity.2C_automation.2C_and_unemployment"></span>Productivity, automation, and unemployment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Productivity, automation, and unemployment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Musterarbeitsplatz.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Musterarbeitsplatz.png/250px-Musterarbeitsplatz.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Musterarbeitsplatz.png/375px-Musterarbeitsplatz.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Musterarbeitsplatz.png/500px-Musterarbeitsplatz.png 2x" data-file-width="2043" data-file-height="1494" /></a><figcaption>A machinist at the Tabor Company, a firm where Frederick Taylor's consultancy was applied to practice, about 1905</figcaption></figure> <p>Taylorism led to <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> increases,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Berg20091–2_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Berg20091–2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning fewer workers or working hours were needed to produce the same amount of goods. In the short term, productivity increases like those achieved by Taylor's efficiency techniques can cause considerable disruption. <a href="/wiki/Labor_relations" title="Labor relations">Labor relations</a> often become contentious over whether the financial benefits will accrue to owners in the form of increased profits, or workers in the form of increased wages. As a result of decomposition and documentation of manufacturing processes, companies employing Taylor's methods might be able to hire lower-skill workers, enlarging the pool of workers and thus lowering wages and <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">job security</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the long term, most economists consider productivity increases as a benefit to the economy overall, and necessary to improve the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> for consumers in general. By the time Taylor was doing his work, improvements in agricultural productivity had freed up a large portion of the workforce for the manufacturing sector, allowing those workers in turn to buy new types of consumer goods instead of working as <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_farmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsistence farmer">subsistence farmers</a>. In later years, increased manufacturing efficiency would free up large sections of the workforce for the <a href="/wiki/Service_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Service sector">service sector</a>. If captured as profits or wages, the money generated by more-productive companies would be spent on new goods and services; if free market competition forces prices down close to the cost of production, consumers effectively capture the benefits and have more money to spend on new goods and services. Either way, new companies and industries spring up to profit from increased demand, and due to freed-up labor are able to hire workers. But the long-term benefits are no guarantee that individual displaced workers will be able to get new jobs that paid them as well or better as their old jobs, as this may require access to education or job training, or moving to different part of the country where new industries are growing. Inability to obtain new employment due to mismatches like these is known as <a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">structural unemployment</a>, and economists debate to what extent this is happening in the long term, if at all, as well as the impact on <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">income inequality</a> for those who do find jobs. </p><p>Though not foreseen by early proponents of scientific management, detailed decomposition and documentation of an optimal production method also makes <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automation</a> of the process easier, especially physical processes that would later use <a href="/wiki/Industrial_control_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial control systems">industrial control systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Numerical_control" title="Numerical control">numerical control</a>. Widespread <a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">economic globalization</a> also creates opportunity for work to be <a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">outsourced</a> to lower-wage areas, with <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_transfer" title="Knowledge transfer">knowledge transfer</a> made easier if an optimal method is already clearly documented. Especially when wages or wage differentials are high, automation and <a href="/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring">offshoring</a> can result in significant productivity gains and similar questions of who benefits and whether or not <a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">technological unemployment</a> is persistent. Because automation is often best suited to tasks that are repetitive and boring, and can also be used for tasks that are <a href="/wiki/Dirty,_dangerous,_and_demeaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirty, dangerous, and demeaning">dirty, dangerous, and demeaning</a>, proponents believe that in the long run it will free up human workers for more creative, safer, and more enjoyable work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Berg20091–2_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Berg20091–2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taylorism_and_unions">Taylorism and unions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Taylorism and unions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early history of labor relations with scientific management in the U.S. was described by Horace Bookwalter Drury: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...for a long time there was thus little or no direct [conflict] between scientific management and organized labor... [However] One of the best known experts once spoke to us with satisfaction of the manner in which, in a certain factory where there had been a number of union men, the labor organization had, upon the introduction of scientific management, gradually disintegrated. </p><p>...From 1882 (when the system was started) until 1911, a period of approximately thirty years, there was not a single strike under it, and this in spite of the fact that it was carried on primarily in the steel industry, which was subject to a great many disturbances. For instance, in the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_general_strike_(1910)" title="Philadelphia general strike (1910)">general strike in Philadelphia</a>, one man only went out at the Tabor plant [managed by Taylor], while at the <a href="/wiki/Baldwin_Locomotive_Works" title="Baldwin Locomotive Works">Baldwin Locomotive</a> shops across the street two thousand struck. </p><p> ...Serious opposition may be said to have been begun in 1911, immediately after certain testimony presented before the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a> [by Harrington Emerson] revealed to the country the strong movement setting towards scientific management. National labor leaders, wide-awake as to what might happen in the future, decided that the new movement was a menace to their organization, and at once inaugurated an attack... centered about the installation of scientific management in the <a href="/wiki/Watertown_Arsenal" title="Watertown Arsenal">government arsenal at Watertown</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[httpsarchiveorgstreamcu31924002406647pagen199mode2up_197]_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[httpsarchiveorgstreamcu31924002406647pagen199mode2up_197]-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>In 1911, organized labor erupted with strong opposition to scientific management,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including from <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Gompers" title="Samuel Gompers">Samuel Gompers</a>, founder and president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL). </p><p>Once the time-and-motion men had completed their studies of a particular task, the workers had very little opportunity for further thinking, experimenting, or suggestion-making. Taylorism was criticized for turning the worker into an "automaton" or "machine",<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making work monotonous and unfulfilling by doing one small and rigidly defined piece of work instead of using complex skills with the whole production process done by one person. "The further 'progress' of industrial development... increased the anomic or forced division of labor," the opposite of what Taylor thought would be the effect.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some workers also complained about being made to work at a faster pace and producing goods of lower quality.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:35%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>TRADE UNION OBJECTIONS TO SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT: ...It intensifies the modern tendency toward specialization of the work and the task... displaces skilled workers and... weakens the bargaining strength of the workers through specialization of the task and the destruction of craft skill. ...leads to over-production and the increase of unemployment... looks upon the worker as a mere instrument of production and reduces him to a semi-automatic attachment to the machine or tool... tends to undermine the worker's health, shortens his period of industrial activity and earning power, and brings on premature old age. — <i>Scientific Management and Labor</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrey,1916257_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrey,1916257-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Hoxie" title="Robert F. Hoxie">Robert F. Hoxie</a>, 1915 report to the <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Industrial_Relations" title="Commission on Industrial Relations">Commission on Industrial Relations</a> </p> </blockquote> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:35%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p><span class="nowrap">     </span>Owing to its application in part in government arsenals, and a strike by the union molders against some of its features as they were introduced in the foundry at the <a href="/wiki/Watertown_Arsenal" title="Watertown Arsenal">Watertown Arsenal</a>, "scientific management" received much publicity.<br /> <span class="nowrap">     </span>The House of Representatives appointed a committee, consisting of Congressman <a href="/wiki/William_Bauchop_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="William Bauchop Wilson">William B. Wilson</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_C._Redfield" title="William C. Redfield">William C. Redfield</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Q._Tilson" title="John Q. Tilson">John Q. Tilson</a> to investigate the system as it had been applied in the <a href="/wiki/Watertown_Arsenal" title="Watertown Arsenal">Watertown Arsenal</a>. In its report to Congress this committee sustained Labor's contention that the system forced abnormally high speed upon workmen, that its disciplinary features were arbitrary and harsh, and that the use of a stop-watch and the payment of a bonus were injurious to the worker's manhood and welfare. At a succeeding session of Congress a measure was passed which prohibited the further use of the stop-watch and the payment of a premium or bonus to workmen in government establishments.<br /> <span class="nowrap">     </span>When the federal <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Industrial_Relations" title="Commission on Industrial Relations">Commission on Industrial Relations</a> began its work it was decided that a further investigation of "scientific management" should be made, and Mr. <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Hoxie" title="Robert F. Hoxie">Robert F. Hoxie</a>, Professor of Economics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, was selected to undertake the work. [<span class="nowrap"> ... </span>]<br /> <span class="nowrap">     </span>Mr. Hoxie was to devote a year to his investigation, and [<span class="nowrap"> ... </span>] it was deemed advsiable that he should be accompanied by two men [<span class="nowrap"> ... </span>]<br /> <span class="nowrap">     </span>One of those appointed was Mr. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_G._Valentine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert G. Valentine (page does not exist)">Robert G. Valentine</a> [formerly Commissioner of Indian Affairs, but "at this time a management consultant in private practice" according to Aitken] [<span class="nowrap"> ... </span>]<br /> </p> <p><span class="nowrap">     </span>The other expert was to be a trade unionist, and I [John P. Frey] was honored with the appointment.</p><div style="margin-left:6em">— <a href="/wiki/John_P._Frey" title="John P. Frey">John P. Frey</a>. "Scientific Management and Labor". <i>American Federationist.</i> <b>22</b> (4): 257 (April 1916)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrey,1916257_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrey,1916257-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </blockquote> </div> <p>The Watertown Arsenal in Massachusetts provides an example of the application and repeal of the Taylor system in the workplace, due to worker opposition. In the early 20th century, neglect in the Watertown shops included overcrowding, dim lighting, lack of tools and equipment, and questionable management strategies in the eyes of the workers. Frederick W. Taylor and Carl G. Barth visited Watertown in April 1909 and reported on their observations at the shops. Their conclusion was to apply the Taylor system of management to the shops to produce better results. Efforts to install the Taylor system began in June 1909. Over the years of time study and trying to improve the efficiency of workers, criticisms began to evolve. Workers complained of having to compete with one another, feeling strained and resentful, and feeling excessively tired after work. In June 1913, employees of the Watertown Arsenal petitioned to abolish the practice of scientific management there.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of magazine writers inquiring into the effects of scientific management found that the "conditions in shops investigated contrasted favorably with those in other plants".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A committee of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. House of Representatives">U.S. House of Representatives</a> investigated and reported in 1912, concluding that scientific management did provide some useful techniques and offered valuable organizational suggestions,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (April 2011)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup> but that it also gave production managers a dangerously<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Please clarify the preceding statement or statements with a good explanation from a reliable source. (January 2019)">how?</span></a></i>]</sup> high level of uncontrolled power.<sup id="cite_ref-Mullins2004p70_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullins2004p70-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After an attitude survey of the workers revealed a high level of resentment and hostility towards scientific management, the Senate banned Taylor's methods at the arsenal.<sup id="cite_ref-Mullins2004p70_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullins2004p70-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Taylor had a largely negative view of unions, and believed they only led to decreased productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Efforts to resolve conflicts with workers included methods of scientific collectivism, making agreements with unions, and the <a href="/wiki/Personnel_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Personnel management">personnel management</a> movement.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_Fordism">Relationship to Fordism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Relationship to Fordism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is often assumed that <a href="/wiki/Fordism" title="Fordism">Fordism</a> derives from Taylor's work. Taylor apparently made this assumption himself when visiting the <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford Motor Company</a>'s Michigan plants not too long before he died, but it is likely that the methods at Ford were evolved independently, and that any influence from Taylor's work was indirect at best.<sup id="cite_ref-Hounshell1984pp249-253_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hounshell1984pp249-253-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Sorensen" title="Charles E. Sorensen">Charles E. Sorensen</a>, a principal of the company during its first four decades, disclaimed any connection at all.<sup id="cite_ref-Sorensen1956p41_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sorensen1956p41-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a belief at Ford, which remained dominant until <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford_II" title="Henry Ford II">Henry Ford II</a> took over the company in 1945, that the world's experts were worthless, because if Ford had listened to them, it would have failed to attain its great successes. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> felt that he had succeeded <i>in spite of</i>, not <i>because of</i>, experts, who had tried to stop him in various ways (disagreeing about price points, production methods, car features, business financing, and other issues). Sorensen thus was dismissive of Taylor and lumped him into the category of useless experts.<sup id="cite_ref-Sorensen1956p41_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sorensen1956p41-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sorensen held the New England machine tool vendor <a href="/wiki/Walter_Flanders" title="Walter Flanders">Walter Flanders</a> in high esteem and credits him for the efficient floorplan layout at Ford, claiming that Flanders knew nothing about Taylor. Flanders may have been exposed to the spirit of Taylorism elsewhere, and may have been influenced by it, but he did not cite it when developing his production technique. Regardless, the Ford team apparently did independently invent modern mass production techniques in the period of 1905–1915, and they themselves were not aware of any borrowing from Taylorism. Perhaps it is only possible with hindsight to see the zeitgeist that (indirectly) connected the budding Fordism to the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Efficiency_movement" title="Efficiency movement">efficiency movement</a> during the decade of 1905–1915. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adoption_in_planned_economies">Adoption in planned economies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Adoption in planned economies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scientific management appealed to managers of <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned economies</a> because <a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">central economic planning</a> relies on the idea that the expenses that go into economic production can be precisely predicted and can be optimized by design. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 1913 <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> wrote that the "most widely discussed topic today in Europe, and to some extent in Russia, is the 'system' of the American engineer, Frederick Taylor"; Lenin decried it as merely a "'scientific' system of sweating" more work from laborers.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Again in 1914, Lenin derided Taylorism as "man's enslavement by the machine".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, after the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolutions">Russian Revolutions</a> brought him to power, Lenin wrote in 1918 that the "Russian is a bad worker [who must] learn to work. The Taylor system... is a combination of the refined brutality of bourgeois exploitation and a number of the greatest scientific achievements in the field of analysing mechanical motions during work, the elimination of superfluous and awkward motions, the elaboration of correct methods of work, the introduction of the best system of accounting and control, etc. The Soviet Republic must at all costs adopt all that is valuable in the achievements of science and technology in this field."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, Taylorism was advocated by <a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Gastev" title="Aleksei Gastev">Aleksei Gastev</a> and <i>nauchnaia organizatsia truda</i> (<i>the movement for the scientific organization of labor</i>). It found support in both <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>. Gastev continued to promote this system of labor management until his arrest and execution in 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-Beissinger1988_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beissinger1988-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1920s and 1930s, the Soviet Union enthusiastically embraced Fordism and Taylorism, importing American experts in both fields as well as American engineering firms to build parts of its new industrial infrastructure. The concepts of the <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five Year Plan</a> and the centrally planned economy can be traced directly to the influence of Taylorism on Soviet thinking.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As scientific management was believed to epitomize American efficiency,<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_2004_1989_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes_2004_1989-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> even claimed that "the combination of the Russian revolutionary sweep with American efficiency is the essence of <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_2004_1989_p251_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes_2004_1989_p251-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sorensen was one of the consultants who brought American know-how to the USSR during this era,<sup id="cite_ref-Sorensen1956pp193-216_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sorensen1956pp193-216-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> made such exchanges unthinkable. As the Soviet Union developed and grew in power, both sides, the Soviets and the Americans, chose to ignore or deny the contribution that American ideas and expertise had made: the Soviets because they wished to portray themselves as creators of their own destiny and not indebted to a rival, and the Americans because they did not wish to acknowledge their part in creating a powerful communist rival. <a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a> had always enjoyed widespread popularity in America, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">anti-capitalism</a> in Russia, but after World War II, they precluded any admission by either side that technologies or ideas might be either freely shared or clandestinely stolen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Germany">East Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: East Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-19361-006,_Chemnitz,_Normierung_im_Fr%C3%A4smaschinenwerkes_%22Fritz_Heckert%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-19361-006%2C_Chemnitz%2C_Normierung_im_Fr%C3%A4smaschinenwerkes_%22Fritz_Heckert%22.jpg/250px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-19361-006%2C_Chemnitz%2C_Normierung_im_Fr%C3%A4smaschinenwerkes_%22Fritz_Heckert%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-19361-006%2C_Chemnitz%2C_Normierung_im_Fr%C3%A4smaschinenwerkes_%22Fritz_Heckert%22.jpg/375px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-19361-006%2C_Chemnitz%2C_Normierung_im_Fr%C3%A4smaschinenwerkes_%22Fritz_Heckert%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-19361-006%2C_Chemnitz%2C_Normierung_im_Fr%C3%A4smaschinenwerkes_%22Fritz_Heckert%22.jpg/500px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-19361-006%2C_Chemnitz%2C_Normierung_im_Fr%C3%A4smaschinenwerkes_%22Fritz_Heckert%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="518" /></a><figcaption>Photograph of East German machine tool builders in 1953, from the <a href="/wiki/German_Federal_Archives" title="German Federal Archives">German Federal Archives</a>. The workers are discussing standards specifying how each task should be done and how long it should take.</figcaption></figure> <p>By the 1950s, scientific management had grown dated,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but its goals and practices remained attractive and were also being adopted by the <a href="/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="German Democratic Republic">German Democratic Republic</a> as it sought to increase efficiency in its industrial sectors. Workers engaged in a state-planned instance of process improvement, pursuing the same goals that were contemporaneously pursued in <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> societies, as in the <a href="/wiki/Toyota_Production_System" title="Toyota Production System">Toyota Production System</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_rigor">Criticism of rigor</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Criticism of rigor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Taylor believed that the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> of management included the calculations of exactly how much time it takes a man to do a particular task, or his rate of work. Critics of Taylor complained that such a calculation relies on certain arbitrary, non-scientific decisions such as what constituted the job, which men were timed, and under which conditions. Any of these factors are subject to change, and therefore can produce inconsistencies.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some dismiss so-called "scientific management" or Taylorism as <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others are critical of the <a href="/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic" title="Representativeness heuristic">representativeness</a> of the workers Taylor selected to take his measurements.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variations_of_scientific_management_after_Taylorism">Variations of scientific management after Taylorism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Variations of scientific management after Taylorism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_1900s">In the 1900s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In the 1900s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Taylorism was one of the first attempts to systematically treat management and process improvement as a scientific problem, and Taylor is considered a founder of modern <a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial engineering</a>. Taylorism may have been the first "bottom-up" method and found a lineage of successors that have many elements in common. Later methods took a broader approach, measuring not only productivity but quality. With the advancement of statistical methods, <a href="/wiki/Quality_assurance" title="Quality assurance">quality assurance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quality_control" title="Quality control">quality control</a> began in the 1920s and 1930s. During the 1940s and 1950s, the body of knowledge for doing scientific management evolved into <a href="/wiki/Operations_management" title="Operations management">operations management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">operations research</a>, and management <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>. In the 1980s <a href="/wiki/Total_quality_management" title="Total quality management">total quality management</a> became widely popular, growing from <a href="/wiki/Quality_control" title="Quality control">quality control</a> techniques. In the 1990s "re-engineering" went from a simple word to a mystique. Today's <a href="/wiki/Six_Sigma" title="Six Sigma">Six Sigma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lean_manufacturing" title="Lean manufacturing">lean manufacturing</a> could be seen as new kinds of scientific management, although their <a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">evolutionary</a> distance from the original is so great that the comparison might be misleading. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Shigeo_Shingo" title="Shigeo Shingo">Shigeo Shingo</a>, one of the originators of the <a href="/wiki/Toyota_Production_System" title="Toyota Production System">Toyota Production System</a>, believed that this system and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_management_culture" title="Japanese management culture">Japanese management culture</a> in general should be seen as a kind of scientific management.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These newer methods are all based on systematic <a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">analysis</a> rather than relying on tradition and rule of thumb.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other thinkers, even in Taylor's own time, also proposed considering the individual worker's needs, not just the needs of the process. Critics said that in Taylorism, "the worker was taken for granted as a cog in the machinery."<sup id="cite_ref-Rosen1993p139_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosen1993p139-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Hartness" title="James Hartness">James Hartness</a> published <i>The Human Factor in Works Management</i><sup id="cite_ref-Hartness1912_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartness1912-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1912, while <a href="/wiki/Frank_Bunker_Gilbreth,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Bunker Gilbreth, Sr.">Frank Gilbreth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Moller_Gilbreth" title="Lillian Moller Gilbreth">Lillian Moller Gilbreth</a> offered their own alternatives to Taylorism. The <a href="/wiki/Human_Relations_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Relations Movement">human relations</a> school of management (founded by the work of <a href="/wiki/Elton_Mayo" title="Elton Mayo">Elton Mayo</a>) evolved in the 1930s as a counterpoint or complement of scientific management. Taylorism focused on the organization of the work process, and human relations helped workers adapt to the new procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-Braverman_1998_1974_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Braverman_1998_1974-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern definitions of "quality control" like <a href="/wiki/ISO-9000" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO-9000">ISO-9000</a> include not only clearly documented and optimized manufacturing tasks, but also consideration of human factors like expertise, motivation, and organizational culture. The <a href="/wiki/Toyota_Production_System" title="Toyota Production System">Toyota Production System</a>, from which <a href="/wiki/Lean_manufacturing" title="Lean manufacturing">lean manufacturing</a> in general is derived, includes "respect for people" and teamwork as core principles. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Peter_Drucker" title="Peter Drucker">Peter Drucker</a> saw Frederick Taylor as the creator of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">knowledge management</a>, because the aim of scientific management was to produce knowledge about how to improve work processes. Although the typical application of scientific management was manufacturing, Taylor himself advocated scientific management for all sorts of work, including the management of schools, universities and government.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Taylor believed scientific management could be extended to "the work of our salesmen". Shortly after his death, his acolyte Harlow S. Person began to lecture corporate audiences on the possibility of using Taylorism for "sales engineering"<sup id="cite_ref-Dawson2005_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawson2005-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Person was talking about what is now called <a href="/wiki/Sales_process_engineering" title="Sales process engineering">sales process engineering</a>—engineering the processes that <a href="/wiki/Sales" title="Sales">salespeople</a> use—not about what we call <a href="/wiki/Sales_engineering" title="Sales engineering">sales engineering</a> today.) This was a watershed insight in the history of corporate <a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">marketing</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_2000s">In the 2000s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: In the 2000s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Google's methods of increasing productivity and output can be seen to be influenced by Taylorism as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Head2005_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Head2005-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Silicon Valley company is a forerunner in applying behavioral science (such as the motivations of purpose, mastery, and autonomy set out by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_H._Pink" title="Daniel H. Pink">Daniel Pink</a> in his 2009 book <i><a href="/wiki/Drive:_The_Surprising_Truth_About_What_Motivates_Us" title="Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us">Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us</a></i>) to increase knowledge worker productivity. In classic scientific management as well as approaches like lean management where leaders facilitate and empower teams to continuously improve their standards and values. Leading high-tech companies use the concept of nudge management to increase productivity of employees. More and more business leaders start to make use of this new scientific management.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today's <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">militaries</a> employ all of the major goals and tactics of scientific management, if not under that name. Of the key points, all but wage incentives for increased output are used by modern military organizations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Wage incentives rather appear in the form of skill bonuses for enlistments.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Scientific management has had an important influence in sports, where stop watches and motion studies rule the day. (Taylor himself enjoyed sports, especially tennis and golf. He and a partner won a national championship in doubles tennis. He invented improved tennis racquets and improved golf clubs, although other players liked to tease him for his unorthodox designs, and they did not catch on as replacements for the mainstream implements).<sup id="cite_ref-Kanigel1997_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kanigel1997-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern human resources can be seen to have begun in the scientific management era, most notably in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Katherine_M._H._Blackford" title="Katherine M. H. Blackford">Katherine M. H. Blackford</a>. </p><p>Practices descended from scientific management are currently used in offices and in medicine (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Managed_care" title="Managed care">managed care</a>) as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Head2005_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Head2005-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In countries with a <a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_economy" title="Post-industrial economy">post-industrial economy</a>, manufacturing jobs are a relatively few, with most workers in the <a href="/wiki/Service_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Service sector">service sector</a>. One approach to efficiency in information work is called <a href="/wiki/Digital_Taylorism" title="Digital Taylorism">digital Taylorism</a>, which uses software to monitor the performance of employees who use computers all day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_system_of_manufacturing" title="American system of manufacturing">American system of manufacturing</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cheaper_by_the_Dozen" title="Cheaper by the Dozen">Cheaper by the Dozen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawthorne_effect" title="Hawthorne effect">Hawthorne effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Le_Ch%C3%A2telier" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Louis Le Châtelier">Henry Louis Le Châtelier</a> (1850–1936), industrial chemist and author of French language texts on Taylorism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Times_(film)" title="Modern Times (film)"><i>Modern Times</i> (film)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Pajama_Game" title="The Pajama Game">The Pajama Game</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pandora%27s_Box_(British_TV_series)" title="Pandora's Box (British TV series)">Pandora's Box</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Renold" title="Hans Renold">Hans Renold</a> (1852–1943), credited with introducing Taylorism to Britain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stakhanovism" class="mw-redirect" title="Stakhanovism">Stakhanovism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_X_and_Theory_Y" title="Theory X and Theory Y">Theory X and Theory Y</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_R._Towne" title="Henry R. Towne">Henry R. Towne</a> (1844–1924), ASME President and author of the seminal <i>The Engineer as An Economist</i> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Words_per_minute" title="Words per minute">Words per minute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mitcham05p1153-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mitcham05p1153_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMitcham2005">Mitcham 2005</a>, p. 1153 Mitcham, Carl and Adam, Briggle <i>Management</i> in Mitcham (2005) p. 1153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wodham1997p12-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wodham1997p12_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoodham1997">Woodham 1997</a>, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drury1915pp15-21-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drury1915pp15-21_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDrury1918">Drury 1918</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924002406647#page/n19/mode/2up/">15–21, 292</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDrury1918">Drury 1918</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a href="#CITEREFDrury1918">Drury 1918</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924002406647#page/n131/mode/2up/">129</a>, "Emerson has done more than any other single man to popularize the subject of scientific management. His statement that the railroads could save $1,000,000 a day by introducing efficiency methods was the keynote which started the present interest in the subject. His books, Efficiency (a reprint in 1911 of periodical contributions of 1908 and 1909), and The Twelve Principles of Efficiency (1912), taken with his magazine articles and addresses, have perhaps done more than anything else to make "efficiency " a household word."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0320.html">"F. W. Taylor, Expert in Efficiency, Dies"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=F.+W.+Taylor%2C+Expert+in+Efficiency%2C+Dies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Flearning%2Fgeneral%2Fonthisday%2Fbday%2F0320.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1903" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Frederick W. (1903). "Shop Management". <i>Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers</i>. <b>24</b>: 1356–1364. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1115%2F1.4060669">10.1115/1.4060669</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:267187263">267187263</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Society+of+Mechanical+Engineers&rft.atitle=Shop+Management&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=1356-1364&rft.date=1903&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1115%2F1.4060669&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A267187263%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Frederick+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanejaPryorToombs2011" class="citation journal cs1">Taneja, S.; Pryor, M. G.; Toombs, L. A. (2011). "Frederick W. Taylor's Scientific Management Principles: Relevance and Validity". <i>The Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship</i>. <b>16</b> (3).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Applied+Management+and+Entrepreneurship&rft.atitle=Frederick+W.+Taylor%27s+Scientific+Management+Principles%3A+Relevance+and+Validity&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Taneja&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Pryor%2C+M.+G.&rft.au=Toombs%2C+L.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoxie1915" class="citation book cs1">Hoxie, R. F. (1915). <i>Scientific Management and Labor</i>. New York and London: D. Appleton and Company. p. 140.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Management+and+Labor&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+Company&rft.date=1915&rft.aulast=Hoxie&rft.aufirst=R.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNyland1996" class="citation journal cs1">Nyland, C. (1996). "Taylorism, John R. Commons, and the Hoxie Report". <i>Journal of Economic Issues</i>. <b>30</b> (4): 985–1016. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00213624.1996.11505862">10.1080/00213624.1996.11505862</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Issues&rft.atitle=Taylorism%2C+John+R.+Commons%2C+and+the+Hoxie+Report&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=985-1016&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00213624.1996.11505862&rft.aulast=Nyland&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1911-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1911_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1911_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1911">Taylor 1911</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMckillopMckillop1920" class="citation book cs1">Mckillop, M.; Mckillop, A. D. (1920). <i>Efficiency Methods: An Introduction to Scientific Management</i>. London: George Routledge & Sons, Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Efficiency+Methods%3A+An+Introduction+to+Scientific+Management&rft.place=London&rft.pub=George+Routledge+%26+Sons%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Mckillop&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Mckillop%2C+A.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson1974" class="citation journal cs1">Nelson, D. (1974). "Scientific Management, Systematic Management, and Labor, 1880-1915". <i>The Business History Review</i>. <b>48</b> (4): 479–500. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3113537">10.2307/3113537</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3113537">3113537</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154947695">154947695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Business+History+Review&rft.atitle=Scientific+Management%2C+Systematic+Management%2C+and+Labor%2C+1880-1915&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=479-500&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154947695%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3113537%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3113537&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlynn1998" class="citation journal cs1">Flynn, J. (1998). "Part I: 100 years of production management". <i>IIE (Institute of Industrial Engineers)Solutions</i>: 23–28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IIE+%28Institute+of+Industrial+Engineers%29Solutions&rft.atitle=Part+I%3A+100+years+of+production+management&rft.pages=23-28&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1911[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1911[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1911[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1911">Taylor 1911</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor1911pp13-14-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor1911pp13-14_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor1911pp13-14_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor1911pp13-14_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1911">Taylor 1911</a>, pp. 13–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor1911pp19,23,82,95-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taylor1911pp19,23,82,95_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1911">Taylor 1911</a>, pp. 19, 23, 82, 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/soldier">"Definition of SOLDIER"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i>. 8 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+SOLDIER&rft.date=2023-08-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fsoldier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor1911pp13-29,95-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor1911pp13-29,95_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor1911pp13-29,95_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1911">Taylor 1911</a>, pp. 13–29, 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Berg20091–2-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Berg20091–2_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Berg20091–2_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVon_Berg2009">Von Berg 2009</a>, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[httpsarchiveorgstreamcu31924002406647pagen199mode2up_197]-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrury1918[httpsarchiveorgstreamcu31924002406647pagen199mode2up_197]_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDrury1918">Drury 1918</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924002406647#page/n199/mode/2up/">197</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDrury1915">Drury 1915</a>, pp. 195–198</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelossi2008" class="citation book cs1">Melossi, Dario (December 2008). <i>Controlling Crime, Controlling Society: Thinking about Crime in Europe and America</i>. 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Taylor: An Evaluation"</a>. <i>The Academy of Management Review</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 14–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F257244">10.2307/257244</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0363-7425">0363-7425</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/257244">257244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Academy+of+Management+Review&rft.atitle=The+Ideas+of+Frederick+W.+Taylor%3A+An+Evaluation&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=14-24&rft.date=1982&rft.issn=0363-7425&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F257244%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F257244&rft.aulast=Locke&rft.aufirst=Edwin+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F257244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaring1991">Waring 1991</a>, p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hounshell1984pp249-253-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell1984pp249-253_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHounshell1984">Hounshell 1984</a>, pp. 249–253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sorensen1956p41-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sorensen1956p41_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sorensen1956p41_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSorensen1956">Sorensen 1956</a>, p. 41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenin" class="citation web cs1">Lenin, V.I. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1913/mar/13.htm">"Lenin: A 'Scientific' System of Sweating"</a>. <i>www.marxists.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.marxists.org&rft.atitle=Lenin%3A+A+%27Scientific%27+System+of+Sweating&rft.aulast=Lenin&rft.aufirst=V.I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Flenin%2Fworks%2F1913%2Fmar%2F13.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenin" class="citation web cs1">Lenin, V.I. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/mar/13.htm">"Lenin: The Taylor System—Man's Enslavement by the Machine"</a>. <i>www.marxists.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.marxists.org&rft.atitle=Lenin%3A+The+Taylor+System%E2%80%94Man%27s+Enslavement+by+the+Machine&rft.aulast=Lenin&rft.aufirst=V.I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Flenin%2Fworks%2F1914%2Fmar%2F13.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenin" class="citation web cs1">Lenin, Vladimir. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1918/mar/x03.htm">"The Immediate Tasks of the Soviet Government"</a>. <i>www.marxists.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.marxists.org&rft.atitle=The+Immediate+Tasks+of+the+Soviet+Government&rft.aulast=Lenin&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Flenin%2Fworks%2F1918%2Fmar%2Fx03.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beissinger1988-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beissinger1988_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeissinger1988">Beissinger 1988</a>, pp. 35–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hughes_2004_1989-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hughes_2004_1989_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2004">Hughes 2004</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hughes_2004_1989_p251-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hughes_2004_1989_p251_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2004">Hughes 2004</a>, p. 251, quoting <a href="#CITEREFStalin1976">Stalin 1976</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sorensen1956pp193-216-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sorensen1956pp193-216_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSorensen1956">Sorensen 1956</a>, pp. 193–216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAitken1985">Aitken 1985</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> For example: <a href="#CITEREFYaszek2002">Yaszek 2002</a>, p. 130, "Meanwhile, the pseudo-science of Taylorism justified heightened outside surveillance of the laboring body, positing a rational 'technology of the productive human body' [...]. Significantly, Taylorism altered previous Cartesian notion of the body as a kind of working machine by redefining 'work' in the more narrow sense used in physics, as 'force working against resistance' [...]."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenke2004" class="citation web cs1">Henke, J. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.klett.de">"Infoblatt Taylorismus. Frederick Winslow Taylor stellte Theorien zur Optimierung der Arbeit bzw. Unternehmen auf"</a>. <i>Klett</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.klett.de/sixcms/detail.php?template=terrasse_artikel__layout__pdf&art_id=1010818">the original</a> on 1 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Klett&rft.atitle=Infoblatt+Taylorismus.+Frederick+Winslow+Taylor+stellte+Theorien+zur+Optimierung+der+Arbeit+bzw.+Unternehmen+auf.&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Henke&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.klett.de%2Fsixcms%2Fdetail.php%3Ftemplate%3Dterrasse_artikel__layout__pdf%26art_id%3D1010818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHebeisen1999" class="citation book cs1">Hebeisen, W. (1999). <i>F. W. Taylor und der Taylorismus. Über das Wirken und die Lehre Taylors und die Kritik am Taylorismus</i>. Zürich: vdf Hochschulverlag AG. p. 188.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=F.+W.+Taylor+und+der+Taylorismus.+%C3%9Cber+das+Wirken+und+die+Lehre+Taylors+und+die+Kritik+am+Taylorismus.&rft.place=Z%C3%BCrich%3A+vdf+Hochschulverlag+AG.&rft.pages=188&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Hebeisen&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rosen1993p139-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rosen1993p139_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosen1993">Rosen 1993</a>, p. 139</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hartness1912-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hartness1912_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHartness1912">Hartness 1912</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Braverman_1998_1974-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Braverman_1998_1974_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraverman1998">Braverman 1998</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1124539315"><i>Social studies and diversity teacher education : what we do and why</i></a>. Elizabeth E. Heilman, Ramona Fruja, Matthew Missias. London: Routledge. 2009. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-23115-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-23115-6"><bdi>978-1-135-23115-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1124539315">1124539315</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+studies+and+diversity+teacher+education+%3A+what+we+do+and+why&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1124539315&rft.isbn=978-1-135-23115-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1124539315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dawson2005-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dawson2005_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDawson2005">Dawson 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Head2005-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Head2005_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Head2005_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHead2005">Head 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbertFreibichler2017" class="citation journal cs1">Ebert, Philip; Freibichler, Wolfgang (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs41469-017-0014-1">"Nudge management: applying behavioral science to increase knowledge worker productivity"</a>. <i>Journal of Organization Design</i>. <b>6</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs41469-017-0014-1">10.1186/s41469-017-0014-1</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Organization+Design&rft.atitle=Nudge+management%3A+applying+behavioral+science+to+increase+knowledge+worker+productivity&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs41469-017-0014-1&rft.aulast=Ebert&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Freibichler%2C+Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1186%252Fs41469-017-0014-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kanigel1997-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kanigel1997_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKanigel1997">Kanigel 1997</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAitken1985" class="citation cs2">Aitken, Hugh George Jeffrey (1922–1994) (1985) [1960], <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/taylorismatwater0000aitk/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Scientific Management in Action: Taylorism at Watertown Arsenal, 1908–1915</i></a></span>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trent_University" title="Trent University">Trent University</a>)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Management+in+Action%3A+Taylorism+at+Watertown+Arsenal%2C+1908%E2%80%931915&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Aitken&rft.aufirst=Hugh+George+Jeffrey+%281922%E2%80%931994%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftaylorismatwater0000aitk%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1468387/editions">1468387 (all editions)</a>.<div style="margin-left:3em"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificmanage00aitk/page/n3/mode/2up"><i><span></span></i>Republished in 1985<i><span></span></i></a></span> (New foreword by <a href="/wiki/Merritt_Roe_Smith" title="Merritt Roe Smith">Merritt Roe Smith</a>). <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a> <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a> (<a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Public_Library" title="San Francisco Public Library">San Francisco Public Library</a>). 1985.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Republished+in+1985&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press+Internet+Archive+%28San+Francisco+Public+Library%29&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscientificmanage00aitk%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span> <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/84026462">84-26462</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04241-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04241-1">978-0-691-04241-1</a></div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeissinger1988" class="citation cs2">Beissinger, Mark R. (1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cHPO_yLx5ToC&pg=PP1"><i>Scientific Management, Socialist Discipline, and Soviet Power</i></a>, London, UK: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-108-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-108-4"><bdi>978-1-85043-108-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Management%2C+Socialist+Discipline%2C+and+Soviet+Power&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris+%26+Co+Ltd&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-1-85043-108-4&rft.aulast=Beissinger&rft.aufirst=Mark+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcHPO_yLx5ToC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bonazzi, G. (2014). <i>Geschichte des organisatorischen Denkens</i>. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraverman1998" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Braverman" title="Harry Braverman">Braverman, Harry</a> (1998) [1974], <a href="/wiki/Labor_and_Monopoly_Capital:_The_Degradation_of_Work_in_the_Twentieth_Century" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century"><i>Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century</i></a>, New York, NY, USA: Republication by Monthly Review Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85345-940-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-85345-940-1"><bdi>0-85345-940-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Labor+and+Monopoly+Capital%3A+The+Degradation+of+Work+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY%2C+USA&rft.pub=Republication+by+Monthly+Review+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-85345-940-1&rft.aulast=Braverman&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawson2005" class="citation cs2">Dawson, Michael (2005), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/consumertrapbigb00daws"><i>The Consumer Trap: Big Business Marketing in American Life</i></a></span> (paper ed.), Urbana, IL, USA: University of Illinois Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-07264-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-07264-2"><bdi>0-252-07264-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Consumer+Trap%3A+Big+Business+Marketing+in+American+Life&rft.place=Urbana%2C+IL%2C+USA&rft.edition=paper&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-252-07264-2&rft.aulast=Dawson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconsumertrapbigb00daws&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrury1915" class="citation thesis cs1"><a href="/wiki/Horace_Bookwalter_Drury" title="Horace Bookwalter Drury">Drury, Horace Bookwalter (1888–1968)</a> (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BvFCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA277"><i>Scientific Management: A History and Criticism</i></a> (PhD dissertation). <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Libraries" title="University of California Libraries">University of California Libraries</a>) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access#Free_access" title="Free to read"><img alt="Free access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></a></span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Scientific+Management%3A+A+History+and+Criticism&rft.inst=Columbia+University&rft.date=1915&rft.aulast=Drury&rft.aufirst=Horace+Bookwalter+%281888%E2%80%931968%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBvFCAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA277&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_thesis" title="Template:Cite thesis">cite thesis</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrury1918" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Horace_Bookwalter_Drury" title="Horace Bookwalter Drury">Drury, Horace Bookwalter</a> (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924002406647/page/n103/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22one+hundred+patents%22">"Scientific Management; A History and Criticism"</a>. <i>Studies in History, Economics and Public Law</i> (this is a re-print of Drury's 1915 PhD dissertation at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia</a>). <b>65</b> (1, whole no. 157). Edited by the Faculty of Political Science of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>: 100 – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Library" title="Cornell University Library">Cornell University Library</a>) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access#Free_access" title="Free to read"><img alt="Free access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></a></span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+History%2C+Economics+and+Public+Law&rft.atitle=Scientific+Management%3B+A+History+and+Criticism&rft.volume=%27%27%2765%27%27%27+%281%2C+whole+no.+157%29&rft.pages=100&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Drury&rft.aufirst=Horace+Bookwalter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924002406647%2Fpage%2Fn103%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater%26q%3D%2522one%2Bhundred%2Bpatents%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Dumas, M., La Rosa, M., Mendling, J. & Reijers, H. (2013). <i>Fundamentals of Business Process Management.</i> Berlin Heidelberg: Springer Verlag.</li> <li>Freriks, R. (1996). <i>Theoretische Modelle der Betriebsgröße im Maschinenbau. Koordination und Kontrollmechanismen bei organisatorischem Wachstum</i>. Opladen: Leske+ Budrich.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrey,1916" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_P._Frey" title="John P. Frey">Frey, John Philip (1871–1957)</a> (April 1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b4QCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA257">"Scientific Management and Labor"</a>. <i>American Federationist</i>. <b>23</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a>: 257–268 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Library" title="University of Michigan Library">University of Michigan Library</a>) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access#Free_access" title="Free to read"><img alt="Free access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></a></span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Federationist&rft.atitle=Scientific+Management+and+Labor&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=257-268&rft.date=1916-04&rft.aulast=Frey&rft.aufirst=John+Philip+%281871%E2%80%931957%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db4QCAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26816217/editions">26816217 (all editions)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartness1912" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/James_Hartness" title="James Hartness">Hartness, James</a> (1912), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QB41AAAAMAAJ"><i>The human factor in works management</i></a>, New York and London: McGraw-Hill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780879600471" title="Special:BookSources/9780879600471"><bdi>9780879600471</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1065709">1065709</a>. 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(1999). <i>F.W. Taylor und der Taylorismus. Über das Wirken und die Lehre Taylors und die Kritik am Taylorismus</i>. Zürich: vdf Hochschulverlag AG.</li> <li>Henke, J. (2004). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.klett.de/sixcms/detail.php?template=terrasse_artikel__layout__pdf&art_id=1010818">Infoblatt Taylorismus. Frederick Winslow Taylor stellte Theorien zur Optimierung der Arbeit bzw. Unternehmen auf.</a></i> Leipzig: Klett Verlag.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHounshell1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_A._Hounshell" title="David A. 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Hughes">Hughes, Thomas P.</a> (2004) [1989], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americangenesisc00hugh"><i>American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm, 1870–1970</i></a> (2nd ed.), Chicago, IL, US: University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-009741-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-009741-2"><bdi>978-0-14-009741-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Genesis%3A+A+Century+of+Invention+and+Technological+Enthusiasm%2C+1870%E2%80%931970&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL%2C+US&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-14-009741-2&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Thomas+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericangenesisc00hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanigel1997" class="citation cs2">Kanigel, Robert (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onebestwayfreder00robe"><i>The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency</i></a>, New York, NY, US: Penguin-Viking, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-86402-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-86402-7"><bdi>978-0-670-86402-7</bdi></a>. <i>A detailed biography of Taylor and a historian's look at his ideas.</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+One+Best+Way%3A+Frederick+Winslow+Taylor+and+the+Enigma+of+Efficiency&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY%2C+US&rft.pub=Penguin-Viking&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-670-86402-7&rft.aulast=Kanigel&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonebestwayfreder00robe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: postscript (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_postscript" title="Category:CS1 maint: postscript">link</a>)</span></li> <li>Koch, S. (2011). <i>Einführung in das Management von Geschäftsprozessen.</i> Berling Heidelberg: Springer Verlag.</li> <li>Laube, H. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/karriere/ausland/jobs-im-silicon-valley-arbeiten-bei-google-facebook-evernote-a-965811.html"><i>Arbeiten im Silicon Valley. Wann ist endlich wieder Montag</i>?</a> In: <i>Der Spiegel.</i></li> <li>McGaughey, Ewan, 'Behavioral Economics and Labor Law' (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2435111">LSE Legal Studies Working Paper No. 20/2014</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitcham2005" class="citation cs2">Mitcham, Carl (2005), "<i>Management</i>", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eaIRAQAAMAAJ"><i>Encyclopedia of science, technology, and ethics</i></a>, vol. 3, Macmillan Reference USA, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865834-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865834-6"><bdi>978-0-02-865834-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Management&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+science%2C+technology%2C+and+ethics&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865834-6&rft.aulast=Mitcham&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeaIRAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMullins2004" class="citation cs2">Mullins, Laurie J. (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wps.pearsoned.co.uk/ema_uk_he_mullins_manorgbeh_7/"><i>Management and Organizational Behavior</i></a> (7th ed.), Financial Times–FT Press–Prentice-Hall–Pearson Education Ltd, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-273-68876-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-273-68876-1"><bdi>978-0-273-68876-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Management+and+Organizational+Behavior&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Financial+Times%E2%80%93FT+Press%E2%80%93Prentice-Hall%E2%80%93Pearson+Education+Ltd&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-273-68876-1&rft.aulast=Mullins&rft.aufirst=Laurie+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwps.pearsoned.co.uk%2Fema_uk_he_mullins_manorgbeh_7%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen1993" class="citation cs2">Rosen, Ellen (1993), <i>Improving Public Sector Productivity: Concepts and Practice</i>, Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-4573-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-4573-9"><bdi>978-0-8039-4573-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Improving+Public+Sector+Productivity%3A+Concepts+and+Practice&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA%2C+US&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8039-4573-9&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Ellen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSorensen1956" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Sorensen" title="Charles E. 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Norton, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/56010854">56010854</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/912748">912748</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Forty+Years+with+Ford&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F912748&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F56010854&rft.aulast=Sorensen&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015004575919%26seq%3D11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span>. Various republications, including <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814332795" title="Special:BookSources/9780814332795">9780814332795</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStalin1976" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin, J.V.</a> (1976), <i>Problems of Leninism: Lectures Delivered at the Sverdlov University</i>, Beijing, China: Foreign Languages Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problems+of+Leninism%3A+Lectures+Delivered+at+the+Sverdlov+University&rft.place=Beijing%2C+China&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Stalin&rft.aufirst=J.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1911" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor" title="Frederick Winslow Taylor">Taylor, Frederick Winslow</a> (1911), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HoJMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3"><i>The Principles of Scientific Management</i></a>, New York, NY, USA and London, UK: Harper & Brothers, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/11010339">11010339</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/233134">233134</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Scientific+Management&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY%2C+USA+and+London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1911&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F233134&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F11010339&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Frederick+Winslow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHoJMAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6435">Also available from Project Gutenberg</a>.</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVon_Berg2009" class="citation cs2">Von Berg, A. 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(1991), <i>Taylorism Transformed: Scientific Management Theory since 1945</i>, Chapel Hill, NC, US: University of North Carolina Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0807819727" title="Special:BookSources/0807819727"><bdi>0807819727</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taylorism+Transformed%3A+Scientific+Management+Theory+since+1945&rft.place=Chapel+Hill%2C+NC%2C+US&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0807819727&rft.aulast=Waring&rft.aufirst=Stephen+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodham1997" class="citation cs2">Woodham, Jonathan (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twentiethcentury00wood_0"><i>Twentieth-Century Design</i></a>, New York, NY, US and London, UK: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0192842048" title="Special:BookSources/0192842048"><bdi>0192842048</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35777427">35777427</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Twentieth-Century+Design&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY%2C+US+and+London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35777427&rft.isbn=0192842048&rft.aulast=Woodham&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftwentiethcentury00wood_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaszek2002" class="citation book cs1">Yaszek, Lisa (2002). "4: Of Fossils and Androids: (Re)Producing Sexuality in Recent Film". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eeBcAgAAQBAJ"><i>The Self Wired: Technology and Subjectivity in Contemporary Narrative</i></a>. Literary Criticism and Cultural Theory. New York: Routledge (published 2013). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136716164" title="Special:BookSources/9781136716164"><bdi>9781136716164</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4%3A+Of+Fossils+and+Androids%3A+%28Re%29Producing+Sexuality+in+Recent+Film&rft.btitle=The+Self+Wired%3A+Technology+and+Subjectivity+in+Contemporary+Narrative&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Literary+Criticism+and+Cultural+Theory&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781136716164&rft.aulast=Yaszek&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeeBcAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGershon2001" class="citation cs2">Gershon, Richard (2001), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/telecommunicatio00rich"><i>Telecommunications Management: Industry Structures and Planning Strategies</i></a></span>, Mahwah, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-3002-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-3002-6"><bdi>978-0-8058-3002-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Telecommunications+Management%3A+Industry+Structures+and+Planning+Strategies&rft.place=Mahwah%2C+NJ%2C+USA&rft.pub=Lawrence+Erlbaum+Associates&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8058-3002-6&rft.aulast=Gershon&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftelecommunicatio00rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Morf, Martin (1983) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ284636&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ284636"><i>Eight Scenarios for Work in the Future.</i></a> in <i>Futurist,</i> v17 n3 pp. 24–29 Jun 1983, reprinted in Cornish, Edward and <a href="/wiki/World_Future_Society" title="World Future Society">World Future Society</a> (1985) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AOdo_dJo1qcC"><i>Habitats tomorrow: homes and communities in an exciting new era : selections from The futurist</i></a>, pp. 14–19</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoble1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_F._Noble" title="David F. Noble">Noble, David F.</a> (1984), <i>Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation</i>, New York, New York, US: Knopf, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-51262-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-51262-4"><bdi>978-0-394-51262-4</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/83048867">83048867</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forces+of+Production%3A+A+Social+History+of+Industrial+Automation&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York%2C+US&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F83048867&rft.isbn=978-0-394-51262-4&rft.aulast=Noble&rft.aufirst=David+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheiber2012" class="citation cs2">Scheiber, Lukas (2012), <i>Next Taylorism: A Calculus of Knowledge Work</i>, Frankfurt am Main, BRD: Peter Lang, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3631624050" title="Special:BookSources/978-3631624050"><bdi>978-3631624050</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Next+Taylorism%3A+A+Calculus+of+Knowledge+Work&rft.place=Frankfurt+am+Main%2C+BRD&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3631624050&rft.aulast=Scheiber&rft.aufirst=Lukas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1903" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor" title="Frederick Winslow Taylor">Taylor, Frederick Winslow</a> (1903), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Am4I-N4XN2QC&pg=PA3"><i>Shop Management</i></a>, New York, NY, US: <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Mechanical_Engineers" title="American Society of Mechanical Engineers">American Society of Mechanical Engineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780598777706" title="Special:BookSources/9780598777706"><bdi>9780598777706</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2365572">2365572</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shop+Management&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY%2C+US&rft.pub=American+Society+of+Mechanical+Engineers&rft.date=1903&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2365572&rft.isbn=9780598777706&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Frederick+Winslow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAm4I-N4XN2QC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+management" class="Z3988"></span>. <i>"Shop Management" began as an address by Taylor to a meeting of the ASME, which published it in pamphlet form. The link here takes the reader to a 1912 republication by Harper & Brothers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6464">Also available from Project Gutenberg</a>.</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_management&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Scientific_management" class="extiw" title="commons:Scientific management"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Scientific management</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Scientific_management" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Scientific management">Scientific management</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140614194255/http://www.stevens.edu/library/collections/frederick-winslow-taylor"><i>Special Collections: F.W. 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href="/wiki/Outline_of_management" title="Outline of management">Outline of management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_management_articles" title="Index of management articles">Index of management articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">By type<br />of organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_administration" title="Academic administration">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_management" title="Association management">Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">Business</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Restaurant_management" title="Restaurant management">Restaurant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Court management">Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_administration" title="Health administration">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_cycle_management" title="Intelligence cycle management">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_administration" title="Military administration">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reputation_management" title="Reputation management">Reputation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">By focus,<br />within an<br />organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On scope</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strategic_management" title="Strategic management">Strategic</a><br />(top-level)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capability_management" title="Capability management">Capability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_management" title="Capital management">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Change_management" title="Change management">Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_management" title="Communications management">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_management" title="Financial management">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation_management" title="Innovation management">Innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_legal_management" title="Enterprise legal management">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Performance management">Performance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_management" title="Systems management">Systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On component</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facility_management" title="Facility management">Facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_management" title="Product management">Product</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Product_lifecycle" title="Product lifecycle">Product lifecycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brand_management" title="Brand management">Brand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Construction_management" title="Construction management">Construction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Program_management" title="Program management">Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On activity or<br />department<br />managed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Line_management" title="Line management">Line</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marketing_management" title="Marketing management">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_management" title="Operations management">Operations</a>/<a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_process_management" title="Manufacturing process management">production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Process_management_(computing)" title="Process management (computing)">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_management" title="Quality management">Quality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sales_management" title="Sales management">Sales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Staff_management" title="Staff management">Staff</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Accounting management">Accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_management" title="Office management">Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Records_management" title="Records management">Records</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On aspect or<br />relationship</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customer_relationship_management" title="Customer relationship management">Customer relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics" title="Logistics">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception_management" title="Perception management">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_chain_management" title="Supply chain management">Supply chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talent_management" title="Talent management">Talent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On problem</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_management" title="Conflict management">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_management" title="Crisis management">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_management" title="Stress management">Stress</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Resource_management" title="Resource management">On resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_resource_management" title="Environmental resource management">Environmental resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_inventory_management" title="Field inventory management">Field inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_resource_management" title="Human resource management">Human resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_management" title="Information management">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology_management" title="Information technology management">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_management" title="Materials management">Materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skills_management" title="Skills management">Skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_management" title="Technology management">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_management" title="Time management">Time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interim_management" title="Interim management">Interim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_management" title="Middle management">Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senior_management" title="Senior management">Senior</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Methods,<br />approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_method" title="Collaborative method">Collaborative method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_management" title="Distributed management">Distributed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earned_value_management" title="Earned value management">Earned value management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_management" title="Evidence-based management">Evidence-based management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_range_leadership_model" title="Full range leadership model">Full range leadership model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_by_objectives" title="Management by objectives">Management by objectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_style" title="Management style">Management style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macromanagement" title="Macromanagement">Macromanagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micromanagement" title="Micromanagement">Micromanagement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Scientific management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_entrepreneurship" title="Social entrepreneurship">Social entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_management" title="Sustainable management">Sustainable management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Team_building" title="Team building">Team building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_management" title="Virtual management">Virtual management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Skills,<br />activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forecasting" title="Forecasting">Forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership">Leadership</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Pioneers,<br />scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Drucker" title="Peter Drucker">Peter Drucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliyahu_M._Goldratt" title="Eliyahu M. Goldratt">Eliyahu M. Goldratt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_E._Williamson" title="Oliver E. Williamson">Oliver E. Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Technology,_Management,_and_Applied_Engineering" title="Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering">Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_school" title="Business school">Business school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certified_Business_Manager" title="Certified Business Manager">Certified Business Manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_Management_Institute" title="Chartered Management Institute">Chartered Management Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_management_studies" title="Critical management studies">Critical management studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Degrees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Business_Administration" title="Bachelor of Business Administration">Bachelor of Business Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Business_Administration" title="Master of Business Administration">Master of Business Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PhD_in_management" title="PhD in management">PhD in management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Business_Administration" title="Doctor of Business Administration">Doctor of Business Administration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaboration" title="Collaboration">Collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_governance" title="Corporate governance">Corporate governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_compensation" title="Executive compensation">Executive compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_consulting" title="Management consulting">Management consulting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_(management)" title="Control (management)">Management control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_cybernetics" title="Management cybernetics">Management cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_development" title="Management development">Management development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_fad" title="Management fad">Management fad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_system" title="Management system">Management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_psychology" title="Managerial psychology">Managerial psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerialism" title="Managerialism">Managerialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_development" title="Organization development">Organization development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_behavior_management" title="Organizational behavior management">Organizational behavior management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pointy-haired_Boss" class="mw-redirect" title="Pointy-haired Boss">Pointy-haired Boss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" 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