Cartography | Maps, Mapping Techniques & History

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</div> <span class="toc-extra-link selected link-gray-900 mt-15"> Introduction </span> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/cartography">Quick Facts & Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/16/2316-050-3E41AB58/map-Ptolemy-world-Ulm-Ger.jpg" data-href="/media/1/97492/107067" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/16/2316-004-0EFC8DFF/map-Ptolemy-world-Ulm-Ger.jpg" alt="Ptolemy's map of the world, as printed at Ulm, Ger., 1482." height="50" /> </a> <a href="/video/Marie-Tharp-theory-plate-tectonics/280575" data-href="/media/1/97492/280575" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <div class="position-relative --aspect-ratio: 16/9"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/24/239224-138-5EC3336D/Marie-Tharp-theory-plate-tectonics.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="How Marie Tharp mapped the ocean floor" class="col-100" /> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; left:50%; transform: translate(-50%, -50%)"> <em class="material-icons font-14" data-icon="play_arrow" > </em> </div> </div> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/48/147648-050-A7943AE9/Google-earth-screenshot.jpg" data-href="/media/1/97492/155952" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/48/147648-004-0526FD68/Google-earth-screenshot.jpg" alt="Google Earth" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/2317-050-758D0E55/World-map-descriptions-Herodotus-Black-Sea.jpg" data-href="/media/1/97492/2196" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/2317-004-DFFAE24D/World-map-descriptions-Herodotus-Black-Sea.jpg" alt="Herodotus' map of the world" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/59/359-050-47C602B8/World-map-JM-Contarini-horizons-Age-of.jpg" data-href="/media/1/97492/1647" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/59/359-004-84713467/World-map-JM-Contarini-horizons-Age-of.jpg" alt="European exploration" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/11/134211-050-143125E9/World-map-Martin-Waldseemuller-1507.jpg" data-href="/media/1/97492/136112" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/11/134211-004-00BDAA7C/World-map-Martin-Waldseemuller-1507.jpg" alt="Martin Waldseemüller's 1507 world map" height="50" /> </a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-discover"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Discover </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/who-votes-for-the-academy-awards"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/89/204689-131-F543F5D1/Alexandria-Egypt-reward-competitions-Bridesmaids-Competition-participation-September-12-2014.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Alexandria, Egypt - September 12, 2014 - Wedding Bridesmaids Competition, reward for Best Bridesmaids for participation in competitions. 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Note the spikes on the outer surface of the virus, which impart the look of a corona surrounding the virion, when viewed electron microscopically. A novel coronavirus," width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/the-top-covid-19-vaccine-myths-spreading-online" >The Top COVID-19 Vaccine Myths Spreading Online</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/why-do-some-cicadas-appear-only-every-17-years"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/54/222554-131-1976D74D/periodical-cicada.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Periodical Cicada, Adult, Magicicada spp. Requires 17 years to complete development. Nymph splits its skin, and transforms into an adult. Feeds on sap of tree roots. Northern Illinois Brood. This brood is the largest emergence of cicadas anywhere" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/why-do-some-cicadas-appear-only-every-17-years" >Why Do Some Cicadas Appear Only Every 17 Years?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/weapons-of-world-war-i"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/90/177090-131-A1301FE7/German-machine-gun-emplacement-World-War-I.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="German machine gunners occupy a trench during World War I." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/weapons-of-world-war-i" >Weapons of World War I</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/famous-mustaches-in-history"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/79340-131-619BA3D6/Salvador-Dali.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Portrait of Salvador Dali in front of painting "The Madonna of Port Lligat."" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/famous-mustaches-in-history" >Famous Mustaches in History</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="drawerToggle btn position-sticky border btn-xs btn-white btn-circle rounded-sm d-none d-lg-flex " type="button" aria-label="Toggle Drawer"> <em class="material-icons font-18 text-blue" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="col"> 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Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. </div> <div class="label mt-20 mb-10">Select Citation Style</div> <select class="js-citation-format-select form-select"> <option selected value="mla">MLA</option> <option value="apa">APA</option> <option value="chicago">Chicago Manual of Style</option> </select> <div class="citation font-serif border rounded p-15 mt-20" data-authors="The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica" data-authors-initial="The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica" data-title="cartography" data-published-date="18 Feb. 2025" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography" > <div class="citation-text"></div> </div> <button class="js-copy-citation-button mt-20 btn btn-xs btn-outline-blue border shadow-sm pr-10" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="file_copy"></em> <span class="js-citation-status-text">Copy Citation</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-share-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=97492] .md-share-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="share"></em> Share </button> <div class="md-share-modal size-lg d-none qa-share-modal"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10" data-icon="share"></em> Share </div> <div class="label my-20">Share to social media</div> <div class="md-social-toolbar-circle d-flex align-items-start inverted" data-value="share" title="cartography" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography" > <a class="social-icon facebook justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>Facebook</span></a> <a class="social-icon x justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="x" href="https://x.com/britannica" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>X</span></a> </div> <div class="label pt-20 mt-20 mb-5 border-top">URL</div> <a class="font-serif text-truncate d-inline-block" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography">https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography</a> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-feedback-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal=".md-feedback-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="message"></em> Feedback </button> </div> <div> <button class="qa-external-website-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=97492] .md-websites-modal"> <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 mr-5" data-icon="link"></em> External Websites </button> </div> </div> <div class="md-feedback-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom"> Feedback </div> <form method="post" action="/submission/feedback/97492"> <div class="my-20"> Corrections? 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://core.ac.uk/reader/296291802" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">CORE - Cartography and Geographic Information Science in Current Contents</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.isprs.org/proceedings/xxxiv/6-w6/papers/silayo_cor.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing - Cartography in a Gas Environment</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://pressbooks.pub/gist/part/cartographic-principles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Pressbooks Create - Cartographic Principles</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://icaci.org/files/documents/wom/01_IMY_WoM_en.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Cartographic Association - Cartography</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://colorado.pressbooks.pub/makingmaps/chapter/chapter-1-introduction-to-cartography/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Colorado Pressbooks Network - Making Effective Maps: Cartographic Visualization for GIS - Introduction to Cartography</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://cca-acc.org/resources/what-is-cartography" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Canadian Cartographic Association - What is Cartography?</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.academia.edu/13358369/An_introduction_to_critical_cartography" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Academia - An introduction to critical cartography</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn btn-sm border-2 btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 d-none mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10 px-sm-5 px-md-10 js-header-ai-ask-button"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: mapmaking, mapping</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written and fact-checked by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-18T00:00:00CST" >Feb 18, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn btn-sm border-2 btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 module-spacing js-inline-ai-ask-button p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Muhammad-al-Idrisi" topicid="282089">Muḥammad al-Idrīsī</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Gerardus-Mercator" topicid="375626">Gerardus Mercator</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Simon-Ushakov" topicid="1773975">Simon Ushakov</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Christian-Leopold-Freiherr-von-Buch" topicid="82801">Leopold, Baron von Buch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/James-Rennell" topicid="498150">James Rennell</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/science/map" topicid="363506">map</a></dd> <dd><a href="/technology/GIS" topicid="1033394">GIS</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/hydrography" topicid="278837">hydrography</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/atlas-maps" topicid="41285">atlas</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Ordnance-Survey-International" topicid="431554">Ordnance Survey International</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/cartography"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/97492/81daabb926ab2bc4d90eb5665d96f515" rel="nofollow">Correction: Gulf of Mexico-Google-Lawsuit story</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 18, 2025, 3:11 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/97492/bc438f4feca1234475a1adef99344da7" rel="nofollow">The White House says it's a 'fact' that the Gulf of Mexico has been renamed. Is that right?</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 13, 2025, 8:58 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref7002"></span>cartography</strong>, the art and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/science" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">science</a> of graphically representing a geographical area, usually on a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/playa" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">flat</a> surface such as a map or chart. It may involve the superimposition of political, cultural, or other nongeographical divisions onto the representation of a geographical area.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A brief treatment of cartography follows. For full treatment, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/map" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">map</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Cartography is an ancient <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="discipline" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/discipline" data-type="MW">discipline</a> that dates from the prehistoric depiction of hunting and fishing territories. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Babylonia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Babylonians</a> mapped the world in a flattened, disk-shaped form, but Claudius Ptolemaeus (<span id="ref7003"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ptolemy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ptolemy</a>) established the basis for subsequent efforts in the 2nd century <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span> with his eight-volume work <em>Geōgraphikē hyphēgēsis</em> (<em>Guide to Geography</em>) that showed a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/spherical-Earth" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">spherical Earth</a>. Maps produced during the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Middle-Ages" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Middle Ages</a> followed Ptolemy’s guide, but they used <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jerusalem" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jerusalem</a> as the central feature and placed East at the top. Those representations are often called <span id="ref7004"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/T-and-O-rendering" class="md-crosslink ">T-maps</a> because they show only three continents (<a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Europe</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Asia</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Africa</a>), separated by the “T” formed by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mediterranean-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mediterranean Sea</a> and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Nile-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nile River</a>. More accurate geographical representation began in the 14th century when portolan (seamen’s) charts were <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="compiled" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/compiled" data-type="EB">compiled</a> for navigation.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-read-more-module" href="/science/map#ref506097" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/80/149180-050-23E41CF0/topographic-map.jpg" alt="topographic map" class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-navy-dark">More From Britannica</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">map</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="280575" data-asm-type="video"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="video" video-id="239224"><a data-id="239224" class="gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9" href="/video/Marie-Tharp-theory-plate-tectonics/-280575"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/24/239224-138-5EC3336D/Marie-Tharp-theory-plate-tectonics.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop" alt="How Marie Tharp mapped the ocean floor" loading="lazy"><script type="application/json"> { "sources": [ { "file" : "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/JbVhbL7e.m3u8" } ], "image": "https://cdn.britannica.com/24/239224-138-5EC3336D/Marie-Tharp-theory-plate-tectonics.jpg" ,"tracks": [ { "file" : "//assets-jpcust.jwpsrv.com/tracks/7yyEnUZZ", "label": "English" } ] ,"adfile": "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/40Zdj9To.m3u8" } </script><div class="btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%)"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="play_arrow"></em></div></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><span class="md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption" video-control="239224">How Marie Tharp mapped the ocean floor</span><span>Marie Tharp was an American geologist and oceanographer famous for helping to create the first maps of the ocean floor.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div><a class="font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block" href="/science/cartography/images-videos">See all videos for this article</a></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The discovery of the New World by Europeans led to the need for new techniques in cartography, particularly for the systematic representation on a flat surface of the features of a curved surface—generally referred to as a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/projection-cartography" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">projection</a> (e.g., <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Mercator-projection" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mercator projection</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cylindrical-projection" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">cylindrical projection</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Lambert-conformal-projection" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lambert conformal projection</a>). During the 17th and 18th centuries there was a vast outpouring of printed maps of ever-increasing accuracy and sophistication. Systematic surveys were undertaken involving <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/triangulation-trigonometry" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">triangulation</a> that greatly improved map reliability and precision. Noteworthy among the scientific methods introduced later was the use of the <span id="ref7005"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/optical-telescope" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">telescope</a> for determining the length of a degree of longitude.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="155952" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/48/147648-050-A7943AE9/Google-earth-screenshot.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/97492/155952"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/48/147648-050-A7943AE9/Google-earth-screenshot.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/48/147648-050-A7943AE9/Google-earth-screenshot.jpg?w=300" alt="Google Earth" data-width="1600" data-height="884" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/48/147648-050-A7943AE9/Google-earth-screenshot.jpg" data-href="/media/1/97492/155952">Google Earth</a><span>Screenshot of Google Earth.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph"> Modern cartography largely involves the use of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="aerial" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/aerial" data-type="EB">aerial</a> and, increasingly, satellite photographs as a base for any desired map or chart. The procedures for translating photographic data into maps are governed by the principles of <span id="ref7006"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/photogrammetry" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">photogrammetry</a> and yield a degree of accuracy previously unattainable. The remarkable improvements in satellite photography since the late 20th century and the general availability on the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/Internet" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Internet</a> of satellite images have made possible the creation of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Google-Earth" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Google Earth</a> and other databases that are widely available online. Satellite photography has also been used to create highly detailed maps of features of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Moon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Moon</a> and of several planets in our <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/solar-system" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">solar system</a> and their satellites. In addition, the use of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/GIS" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">geographic information systems</a> (GIS) has been indispensible in expanding the scope of cartographic subjects.</p><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="md-signature font-12">This article was most recently revised and updated by <a href="/editor/Kenneth-Pletcher/6746">Kenneth Pletcher</a>.</span><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-simplify-root"></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":1,"pageId":97492,"pageLength":404,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.62"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.62' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"MEDIUM","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true,"hasAiTopQuestions":false,"hasSimplifyButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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