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href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Special:Badtitle/Message">reviewed</a> on 20 November 2024.</div></div></div></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style>The Yuan dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%83" class="extiw" title="wikt:元">元</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:朝">朝</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan<a href="#cite_note-CivilSociety-13">[10]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%83" class="extiw" title="wikt:元">元</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Dà Yuán; <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠶᠤᠸᠠᠨ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ, Yeke Yuwan Ulus, literally "Great Yuan State"),<a href="#cite_note-15">[note 4]</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">imperial dynasty of China</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Successor_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Successor state">successor state</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> after <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">its division</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GreatYuan-6">[note 2]</a> It was established by <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai</a> (Emperor Shizu or Setsen Khan), the fifth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire from the <a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin</a> clan, and lasted from 1271 to 1368. In <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">Chinese history</a>, the Yuan dynasty followed the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> and preceded the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>. <table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Great Yuan</div><div class="ib-country-names"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>大元</li><li>Dà Yuán (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</li><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237794275">.mw-parser-output .font-mong{font-family:"Menk Hawang Tig","Menk Qagan Tig","Menk Garqag Tig","Menk Har_a Tig","Menk Scnin Tig","Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig","Oyun Qagan Tig","Oyun Garqag Tig","Oyun Har_a Tig","Oyun Scnin Tig","Oyun Agula Tig","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White","Mongol Usug","Mongolian White","MongolianScript","Code2000","Menksoft Qagan"}.mw-parser-output .font-mong-mnc,.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(mnc-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(dta-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(sjo-Mong){font-family:"Abkai Xanyan","Abkai Xanyan LA","Abkai Xanyan VT","Abkai Xanyan XX","Abkai Xanyan SC","Abkai Buleku","Daicing White","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White"}</style><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠳᠠᠢ ᠦᠨ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ</li><li>Dai Ön ulus (<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>)</li></ul></div><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1271–1368</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Dynasty_revised.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Yuan dynasty (c. 1290)[note 1]"><img alt="Yuan dynasty (c. 1290)[note 1]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Yuan_Dynasty_revised.png/250px-Yuan_Dynasty_revised.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Yuan_Dynasty_revised.png/375px-Yuan_Dynasty_revised.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Yuan_Dynasty_revised.png/500px-Yuan_Dynasty_revised.png 2x" data-file-width="1347" data-file-height="1417"></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Yuan dynasty (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1290)<a href="#cite_note-goryeo-5">[note 1]</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a>-ruled <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">division</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a><a href="#cite_note-GreatYuan-6">[note 2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">Conquest dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Late_imperial_China" title="History of China">Imperial China</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Shangdu" title="Shangdu">Shangdu</a> (summer capital)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Mongol" title="Middle Mongol">Middle Mongol</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur" title="Old Uyghur">Old Uyghur</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official script</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/%27Phags-pa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="'Phags-pa script">'Phags-pa script</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> as de facto <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>), <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a>, Mongolian <a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a>/Chinese <a href="/wiki/Heaven_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Heaven worship">Heaven worship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China" title="Church of the East in China">Chinese Nestorian Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Roman Catholic Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty">Emperor</a><a href="#cite_note-Emperor-10">[note 3]</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1260–1294 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1332–1368 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Toghon_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Toghon Temür">Toghon Temür</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor of China">Chancellor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1264–1282 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Fanakati" title="Ahmad Fanakati">Ahmad Fanakati</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1340–1355 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Toqto%27a_(Yuan_dynasty)" title="Toqto'a (Yuan dynasty)">Toqto'a</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Postclassical_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Postclassical Era">Postclassical Era</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai</a> proclaimed Emperor<a href="#cite_note-Emperor-10">[note 3]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">5 May 1260</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Kublai's proclamation of the dynastic name "Great Yuan"<a href="#cite_note-Proclamation1271-11">[8]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">5 November 1271</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiangyang" title="Battle of Xiangyang">Battle of Xiangyang</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1268–1273</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">Conquest of Southern Song</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">4 February 1276</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen" title="Battle of Yamen">Battle of Yamen</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">19 March 1279</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Turban Rebellion">Red Turban Rebellion</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1351–1368</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Fall of <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">14 September 1368</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Formation of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan dynasty</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1368–1388</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1310<a href="#cite_note-12">[9]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">11,000,000 km2 (4,200,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jiaochao" title="Jiaochao">Jiaochao</a> banknotes, <a href="/wiki/Cash_(Chinese_coin)" title="Cash (Chinese coin)">Chinese cash</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Phagmodrupa_dynasty" title="Phagmodrupa dynasty">Phagmodrupa dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"> Although <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>'s enthronement as <a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a> in 1206 was described in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a>-style title of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a><a href="#cite_note-Emperor-10">[note 3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Enthronement1206-8">[6]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> had ruled territories including modern-day <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_southern_China" title="Northern and southern China">northern China</a> for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Han style,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1994624-17">[13]</a> and the conquest was not complete until 1279 when the Southern Song dynasty was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen" title="Battle of Yamen">Battle of Yamen</a>. His realm was, by this point, isolated from the other Mongol-led khanates and controlled most of modern-day <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and its surrounding areas, including modern-day <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mongol_Empire_p.611-18">[14]</a> It was the first dynasty founded by a non-Han ethnicity that ruled all of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>.<a href="#cite_note-San-19">[15]</a>: 312 <a href="#cite_note-20">[16]</a> In 1368, following the defeat of the Yuan forces by the Ming dynasty, the Genghisid rulers retreated to the <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Plateau" title="Mongolian Plateau">Mongolian Plateau</a> and continued to rule until 1635 when they surrendered to the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin dynasty</a> (which later evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Rump_state" title="Rump state">rump state</a> is known in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">historiography</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a>. After the division of the Mongol Empire, the Yuan dynasty was the khanate ruled by the successors of <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke</a>. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>. The dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty and accorded him the <a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">temple name</a> Taizu.<a href="#cite_note-Emperor-10">[note 3]</a> In the edict titled Proclamation of the Dynastic Name issued in 1271,<a href="#cite_note-Proclamation1271-11">[8]</a> Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Great Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from the <a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Proclamation1271-11">[8]</a> Some of the Yuan emperors mastered the <a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Chinese language</a>, while others only used their native <a href="/wiki/Middle_Mongol" title="Middle Mongol">Mongolian language</a>, written with the <a href="/wiki/%27Phags-pa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="'Phags-pa script">'Phags-pa script</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[17]</a> Kublai, as a <a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a> (Great Khan) of the Mongol Empire from 1260, had claimed supremacy over the other successor Mongol khanates: the <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>, before proclaiming as the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a> in 1271. As such, the Yuan was also sometimes referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan. However, even though the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was recognized by the western khans in 1304, their subservience was nominal and each continued its own separate development.<a href="#cite_note-22">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[19]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Name">1 Name</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History">2 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Background">2.1 Background</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Rule_of_Kublai_Khan">2.2 Rule of Kublai Khan</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Early_years">2.2.1 Early years</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Founding_the_dynasty">2.2.2 Founding the dynasty</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Military_conquests_and_campaigns">2.2.3 Military conquests and campaigns</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Successors_after_Kublai">2.3 Successors after Kublai</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Tem%C3%BCr_Khan">2.3.1 Temür Khan</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#K%C3%BCl%C3%BCg_Khan">2.3.2 Külüg Khan</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Ayurbarwada_Buyantu_Khan">2.3.3 Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Gegeen_Khan_and_Yes%C3%BCn_Tem%C3%BCr">2.3.4 Gegeen Khan and Yesün Temür</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Jayaatu_Khan_Tugh_Tem%C3%BCr">2.3.5 Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Toghon_Tem%C3%BCr">2.3.6 Toghon Temür</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Decline_of_the_empire">2.4 Decline of the empire</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Impact">3 Impact</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Government">4 Government</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Science_and_technology">5 Science and technology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Mathematics">5.1 Mathematics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Medicine">5.2 Medicine</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Printing_and_publishing">5.3 Printing and publishing</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Ceramics">5.4 Ceramics</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Society">6 Society</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Imperial_lifestyle">6.1 Imperial lifestyle</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Religion">6.2 Religion</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Four-class_system">6.3 Four-class system</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Structure">6.3.1 Structure</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#Foreign_administrators">6.3.2 Foreign administrators</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#Anti-Chinese_policies">6.3.3 Anti-Chinese policies</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Anti-Semu_policies">6.3.4 Anti-Semu policies</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Criticism">6.3.5 Criticism</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Administrative_divisions">7 Administrative divisions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Gallery">8 Gallery</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#See_also">9 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#Notes">10 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#References">11 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Citations">11.1 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#Sources">11.2 Sources</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#Further_reading">12 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="#External_links">13 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names of China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Yuan dynasty</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_dynasty_(Chinese_and_Mongolian).svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Yuan_dynasty_%28Chinese_and_Mongolian%29.svg/145px-Yuan_dynasty_%28Chinese_and_Mongolian%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="145" height="280" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="1051"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 145px;height: 280px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Yuan_dynasty_%28Chinese_and_Mongolian%29.svg/145px-Yuan_dynasty_%28Chinese_and_Mongolian%29.svg.png" data-width="145" data-height="280" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Yuan_dynasty_%28Chinese_and_Mongolian%29.svg/218px-Yuan_dynasty_%28Chinese_and_Mongolian%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Yuan_dynasty_%28Chinese_and_Mongolian%29.svg/290px-Yuan_dynasty_%28Chinese_and_Mongolian%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><div class="infobox-caption">"Yuan dynasty" in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> (top) and "Great Yuan State" (Yehe Yüan Ulus, a modern form) in <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian script</a> (bottom)</div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">元朝</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">"Yuan dynasty"</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Yuán cháo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄩㄢˊ ㄔㄠˊ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Yüan2 ch‘ao2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Yuán cháo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[ɥɛ̌n ʈʂʰǎʊ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Suzhounese" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzhounese">Suzhounese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Nyœ́ záu</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Yùhn chìuh</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Jyun4 ciu4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[jyn˩ tsʰiw˩]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Guân tiâo</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Dynastic name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">大元</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Great Yuan</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dà Yuán</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄉㄚˋ ㄩㄢˊ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Ta4 Yüan2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dà Yuán</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[tâ ɥɛ̌n]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">daai6 jyun4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[taj˨ jyn˩]</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Alternative official full name: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠳᠠᠢ ᠶᠤᠸᠠᠨ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ Dai Yuwan Yeqe Mongɣul Ulus</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">大元大蒙古國</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">大元大蒙古国</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">"Great Yuan" (Middle Mongol transliteration of Chinese "Dà Yuán") Great Mongol State</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dà Yuán Dà Měnggǔ Guó</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄉㄚˋ ㄩㄢˊ ㄉㄚˋ ㄇㄥˇ ㄍㄨˇ ㄍㄨㄛˊ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Ta4 Yüan2 Ta4 Meng3-ku3 Kuo2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dà Yuán Dà Měng-gǔ Guó</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[tâ ɥɛ̌n tâ mə̀ŋ.kù kwǒ]</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">special characters</a>. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a>.</div></div> </div> In 1271, <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> imposed the name Great Yuan (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 大元; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Dà Yuán), establishing the Yuan dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-CivilSociety-13">[10]</a> "Dà Yuán" (大元) is derived from a clause "大哉乾元" (dà zāi Qián Yuán; 'Great is Qián', 'the Primal') in the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Wings" title="Ten Wings">Commentaries</a> on the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a> section<a href="#cite_note-24">[20]</a> regarding the <a href="/wiki/Qian_(hexagram)" class="mw-redirect" title="Qian (hexagram)">first hexagram</a> (乾).<a href="#cite_note-Proclamation1271-11">[8]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mongolian-language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian-language">Mongolian-language</a> counterpart was Dai Ön Ulus, also rendered as Ikh Yuan Üls or Yekhe Yuan Ulus. In Mongolian, Dai Ön a borrowing from Chinese, was often used in conjunction with the "Yeke Mongghul Ulus" (大蒙古國; 'Great Mongol State'), which resulted in the form <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠳᠠᠢ ᠥᠨ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ (大元大蒙古國; Dai Ön Yeqe Mongɣul Ulus, lit. "Great Yuan – Great Mongol State")<a href="#cite_note-mname-25">[21]</a> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠳᠠᠢ ᠦᠨ ᠺᠡᠮᠡᠺᠦ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ (Dai Ön qemeqü Yeqe Mongɣol Ulus, lit. "Great Mongol State called Great Yuan").<a href="#cite_note-26">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[24]</a> As per contemporary historiographical norm, "Yuan dynasty" typically refers to the realm with its main capital in <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Dadu</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>). However, the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a>-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire Mongol Empire when the dynasty was proclaimed.<a href="#cite_note-Proclamation1271-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreatYuan1-16">[12]</a> This usage is seen in the writings, including non-Chinese texts, produced during the time of the Yuan dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-GreatYuan1-16">[12]</a> In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is not commonly used in the broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">division of the Mongol Empire</a>. Some scholars believe that 1260 was the year that the Yuan dynasty emerged with the proclamation of a <a href="/wiki/Era_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Era name">reign title</a> following the collapse of the unified Mongol Empire.<a href="#cite_note-29">[25]</a> The Yuan dynasty is sometimes also called the "Mongol dynasty" by westerners,<a href="#cite_note-30">[26]</a>: 269 akin to the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> sometimes being referred to as the "Manchu dynasty"<a href="#cite_note-31">[27]</a> or "Manchu Dynasty of China".<a href="#cite_note-32">[28]</a>: 365 Furthermore, the Yuan is sometimes known as the "Empire of the Great Khan" or "Khanate of the Great Khan",<a href="#cite_note-33">[29]</a>: 48 since Yuan emperors held the nominal title of <a href="/wiki/Great_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Khan">Great Khan</a>; these appeared on some Yuan maps. However, both terms can also refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="History of the Yuan dynasty">History of the Yuan dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Timeline of the Yuan dynasty">Timeline of the Yuan dynasty</a>.</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Background" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">Division of the Mongol Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toluid_Civil_War" title="Toluid Civil War">Toluid Civil War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> united the Mongol tribes of the steppes and became <a href="/wiki/Great_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Khan">Great Khan</a> in 1206.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey2010169-34">[30]</a> He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son, <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei Khan</a>, the Mongols <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Caizhou" title="Siege of Caizhou">destroyed</a> the weakened <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> in 1234, conquering most of <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_southern_China" title="Northern and southern China">northern China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey2010169%E2%80%93170-35">[31]</a> Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in <a href="/wiki/Xingzhou_(in_modern_Hebei)" class="mw-redirect" title="Xingzhou (in modern Hebei)">Xingzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother <a href="/wiki/Sorghaghtani_Beki" title="Sorghaghtani Beki">Sorghaghtani</a>. He sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994415-36">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke Khan</a> succeeded Ögedei's son, <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Khan" title="Güyük Khan">Güyük</a>, as Great Khan in 1251.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen1994392-37">[33]</a> He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen1994394-38">[34]</a> Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued <a href="/wiki/Paper_money" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper money">paper money</a>, revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994418-39">[35]</a> He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, later renamed <a href="/wiki/Shangdu" title="Shangdu">Shangdu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi201265-40">[36]</a> Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, <a href="/wiki/Shi_Tianze" title="Shi Tianze">Shi Tianze</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Liu_Heima&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liu Heima (page does not exist)">Liu Heima</a> (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8A%89%E9%BB%91%E9%A6%AC" class="extiw" title="zh:劉黑馬">劉黑馬</a>, aka Liu Ni),<a href="#cite_note-41">[37]</a> and the Khitan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiao_Zhala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiao Zhala (page does not exist)">Xiao Zhala</a> (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%95%AD%E6%9C%AD%E5%89%8C" class="extiw" title="zh:蕭札剌">蕭札剌</a>) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ögedei Khan.<a href="#cite_note-42">[38]</a>: 129–130 Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols.<a href="#cite_note-43">[39]</a>: 175 There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier (石抹孛迭兒), Tabuyir (塔不已兒), and Zhongxi, the son of Xiaozhaci (蕭札刺之子重喜) commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ögedei Khan.<a href="#cite_note-44">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[41]</a> Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> in southern China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen1994410-46">[42]</a> The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256.<a href="#cite_note-47">[43]</a> He died in 1259 without a successor at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Diaoyucheng" title="Siege of Diaoyucheng">Siege of Diaoyucheng</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen1994411-48">[44]</a> Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother, <a href="/wiki/Ariq_B%C3%B6ke" title="Ariq Böke">Ariq Böke</a>, was challenging his claim to the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994422-49">[45]</a> Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198851-50">[46]</a> A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198853-51">[47]</a> Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on the bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994423%E2%80%93424-52">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ariq_B%C3%B6ke" title="Ariq Böke">Ariq Böke</a> was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan2007104-53">[49]</a> All of the three western khanates (<a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>) became functionally autonomous, and only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198862-54">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen1994413-55">[51]</a> Civil strife had <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">permanently divided the Mongol Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen200124-56">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rule_of_Kublai_Khan">Rule of Kublai Khan</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rule of Kublai Khan" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_years">Early years</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early years" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Instability troubled the early years of Kublai Khan's reign. Ögedei's grandson <a href="/wiki/Kaidu" title="Kaidu">Kaidu</a> refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai's domain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198877-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan2007105-57">[53]</a> The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198877-4">[4]</a> Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage prince <a href="/wiki/Wonjong_of_Goryeo" title="Wonjong of Goryeo">Wonjong</a> as the ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Kingdom of Goryeo</a> (Korea), making it a Mongol tributary state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994436%E2%80%93437-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198877-4">[4]</a> Kublai betrothed one of his daughters to the prince to solidify the relationship between the two houses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994438-58">[54]</a> Korean women were sent to the Yuan court as tribute and one concubine became the <a href="/wiki/Empress_Gi" title="Empress Gi">empress</a> of the Yuan dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-59">[55]</a> Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994426-60">[56]</a> He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to the Song.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198866-61">[57]</a> Kublai's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994427-62">[58]</a> He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Salt_in_Chinese_History#Ancient_China_and_the_early_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt in Chinese History">traditional monopolies on salt</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_China#Iron" title="History of metallurgy in China">iron</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198870%E2%80%9371-63">[59]</a> He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left the local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi201270-64">[60]</a> However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucian <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examinations</a> and divided Yuan society into three classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank until the conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> and its people, who made up the fourth class, the Southern Chinese. Kublai's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in the government, sometimes more than high officials, but their official rank was nebulous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198870%E2%80%9371-63">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Founding_the_dynasty">Founding the dynasty</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Founding the dynasty" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg/220px-YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3221" data-file-height="4018"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 274px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg/220px-YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="274" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg/330px-YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg/440px-YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a>, founder of the Yuan dynasty</figcaption></figure> Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital from <a href="/wiki/Karakorum" title="Karakorum">Karakorum</a> in Mongolia to <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a> in 1264,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey2010172-65">[61]</a> constructing a new city near the former <a href="/wiki/Jurchens" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurchens">Jurchen</a> capital <a href="/wiki/Zhongdu" title="Zhongdu">Zhongdu</a>, now modern <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, in 1266.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988132-66">[62]</a> In 1271, Kublai formally claimed the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a> and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan (大元) in the style of a traditional Chinese dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1994616-67">[63]</a> The name of the dynasty is first attested in the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a> and describes the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988136-68">[64]</a> Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the Daidu (大都; Dàdū; 'Great Capital') of the dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1999461-69">[65]</a> The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1999458-70">[66]</a> The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating the government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1999616-71">[67]</a> Kublai evoked his public image as a sage emperor by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994458-72">[68]</a> while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1999616-71">[67]</a> Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> trade network by protecting the <a href="/wiki/Yam_(route)" title="Yam (route)">Mongol postal system</a>, constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper <a href="/wiki/Jiaochao" title="Jiaochao">jiaochao</a> banknotes. During the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued issuing <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_coinage" title="Yuan dynasty coinage">coins</a>; however, under <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCl%C3%BCg_Khan" title="Külüg Khan">Külüg Khan</a> coins were completely replaced by paper money. It was not until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Toghon_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Toghon Temür">Toghon Temür</a> that the government of the Yuan dynasty would attempt to reintroduce copper coinage for circulation.<a href="#cite_note-73">[69]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Pax Mongolica</a>, Mongol peace, enabled the spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi201272-74">[70]</a> Kublai expanded the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> from southern China to Daidu in the north.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi201274-75">[71]</a> Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi201262-76">[72]</a> He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>, who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994463-77">[73]</a> Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> to chart a passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen200161-78">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Military_conquests_and_campaigns">Military conquests and campaigns</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Military conquests and campaigns" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Empire_of_the_Great_Khan_(Catayo)_according_to_the_Catalan_Atlas_(1375).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Empire_of_the_Great_Khan_%28Catayo%29_according_to_the_Catalan_Atlas_%281375%29.jpg/300px-Empire_of_the_Great_Khan_%28Catayo%29_according_to_the_Catalan_Atlas_%281375%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="258" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4482" data-file-height="3850"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 258px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Empire_of_the_Great_Khan_%28Catayo%29_according_to_the_Catalan_Atlas_%281375%29.jpg/300px-Empire_of_the_Great_Khan_%28Catayo%29_according_to_the_Catalan_Atlas_%281375%29.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="258" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Empire_of_the_Great_Khan_%28Catayo%29_according_to_the_Catalan_Atlas_%281375%29.jpg/450px-Empire_of_the_Great_Khan_%28Catayo%29_according_to_the_Catalan_Atlas_%281375%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Empire_of_the_Great_Khan_%28Catayo%29_according_to_the_Catalan_Atlas_%281375%29.jpg/600px-Empire_of_the_Great_Khan_%28Catayo%29_according_to_the_Catalan_Atlas_%281375%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Empire of the Great Khan ("Catayo" for <a href="/wiki/Cathay" title="Cathay">Cathay</a>) according to the <a href="/wiki/Catalan_Atlas" title="Catalan Atlas">Catalan Atlas</a> (1375, rotated 180°). <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> with its caravan of traders appears in the bottom right corner, while the Pacific coast runs along the top-left corner. <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> is seen enthroned. A flag with three red crescent moons (<a href="/wiki/File:Catalan_Atlas,_Flag_of_Cathay_(Chinese_Empire).png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Catalan_Atlas%2C_Flag_of_Cathay_%28Chinese_Empire%29.png/15px-Catalan_Atlas%2C_Flag_of_Cathay_%28Chinese_Empire%29.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="11" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1203" data-file-height="861"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 15px;height: 11px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Catalan_Atlas%2C_Flag_of_Cathay_%28Chinese_Empire%29.png/15px-Catalan_Atlas%2C_Flag_of_Cathay_%28Chinese_Empire%29.png" data-width="15" data-height="11" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Catalan_Atlas%2C_Flag_of_Cathay_%28Chinese_Empire%29.png/23px-Catalan_Atlas%2C_Flag_of_Cathay_%28Chinese_Empire%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Catalan_Atlas%2C_Flag_of_Cathay_%28Chinese_Empire%29.png/30px-Catalan_Atlas%2C_Flag_of_Cathay_%28Chinese_Empire%29.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a>) appears on all the territory.<a href="#cite_note-79">[75]</a></figcaption></figure> After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994429-80">[76]</a> Kublai besieged <a href="/wiki/Xiangyang_District,_Xiangfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiangyang District, Xiangfan">Xiangyang</a> (襄阳) between 1268 and 1273,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi201277-81">[77]</a> the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangtze River basin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey2010172-65">[61]</a> An unsuccessful naval expedition was undertaken <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan#First_invasion_(1274)" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">against Japan</a> in 1274.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan2007107-82">[78]</a> The Duan family ruling the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dali" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Dali">Kingdom of Dali</a> (大理) in Yunnan submitted to the Yuan dynasty as vassals and were allowed to keep their throne, militarily assisting the Yuan dynasty against the Song dynasty in southern China. The Duan family still ruled Dali relatively independently during the Yuan dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a>: 146 The <a href="/wiki/Tusi" title="Tusi">Tusi</a> chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling the <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Bozhou" title="Chiefdom of Bozhou">Chiefdom of Bozhou</a>, which was recognized by both the Song and Tang dynasty, also received recognition by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty, and later by the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> era king Huoji who legendarily helped <a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Liang" title="Zhuge Liang">Zhuge Liang</a> against <a href="/wiki/Meng_Huo" title="Meng Huo">Meng Huo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a>: 260 They were also recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a>: 143 In 1276 Kublai captured the Song capital of <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a> (杭州), the wealthiest city of China,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994430-86">[82]</a> after the surrender of the Southern Song Han Chinese <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gong_of_Song" title="Emperor Gong of Song">Emperor Gong of Song</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan2007106-87">[83]</a> Emperor Gong was married off to a Mongol princess of the royal <a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin</a> family of the Yuan dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a>: 213 Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Bing_of_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Bing of Song">Emperor Bing of Song</a>, who was Emperor Gong's younger brother. The Yuan forces commanded by Han Chinese General <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Hongfan" title="Zhang Hongfan">Zhang Hongfan</a> led a predominantly Han navy to defeat the Song loyalists at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen" title="Battle of Yamen">battle of Yamen</a> in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi201277%E2%80%9378-89">[85]</a> The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan2007113-90">[86]</a> The Yuan dynasty created the "Han Army" (漢軍) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附軍).<a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a> Kublai's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained the Mongol treasury.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994473-92">[88]</a> Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi2012111-93">[89]</a> Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994473-92">[88]</a> Kublai's <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan#Second_invasion_(1281)" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">second invasion of Japan</a> in 1281 failed because of an <a href="/wiki/Kamikaze_(typhoon)" title="Kamikaze (typhoon)">inauspicious typhoon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan2007107-82">[78]</a> Kublai botched his campaigns against <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Annam, Champa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Java</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi2012113-94">[90]</a> but won a <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_victory" title="Pyrrhic victory">Pyrrhic victory</a> against <a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="First Mongol invasion of Burma">Burma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988218-95">[91]</a> The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and a tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi2012113-94">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan2007107-82">[78]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Trần dynasty</a> which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_B%E1%BA%A1ch_%C4%90%E1%BA%B1ng_(1288)" title="Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)">Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)</a>. Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988218%E2%80%93219-96">[92]</a> Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and the northeast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988487%E2%80%93488-97">[93]</a> His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994488-98">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Successors_after_Kublai">Successors after Kublai</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Successors after Kublai" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_Yuan_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Yuan emperors">List of Yuan emperors</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Northern_Yuan_khans" title="List of Northern Yuan khans">List of Northern Yuan khans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Temür_Khan">Temür Khan</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Temür Khan" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MongolMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/330px-MongolMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="178" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="609"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 178px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/330px-MongolMap.jpg" data-width="330" data-height="178" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/495px-MongolMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/660px-MongolMap.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mongol successor khanates<a href="#cite_note-goryeo-5">[note 1]</a></figcaption></figure> Following the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dali" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Dali">Dali</a> in 1253, the former ruling Duan family were appointed as its leaders.<a href="#cite_note-99">[95]</a> Local chieftains were appointed as <a href="/wiki/Tusi" title="Tusi">Tusi</a>, recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a>-era governments, principally in the province of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>. Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son, <a href="/wiki/Zhenjin" title="Zhenjin">Zhenjin</a>, as the crown prince, but he died before Kublai in 1285.<a href="#cite_note-100">[96]</a> Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister <a href="/wiki/Bayan_of_the_Baarin" title="Bayan of the Baarin">Bayan</a>, succeeded the throne and ruled as <a href="/wiki/Tem%C3%BCr_Khan,_Emperor_Chengzong_of_Yuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan">Temür Khan</a>, or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam,<a href="#cite_note-101">[97]</a> which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during the reign of Temür Khan. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Külüg_Khan">Külüg Khan</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Külüg Khan" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCl%C3%BCg_Khan" title="Külüg Khan">Külüg Khan</a> (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307–11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent.<a href="#cite_note-San-19">[15]</a>: 323 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ayurbarwada_Buyantu_Khan">Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The fourth Yuan emperor, <a href="/wiki/Ayurbarwada_Buyantu_Khan" title="Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan">Buyantu Khan</a> (born Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Chinese culture</a> after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite.<a href="#cite_note-:0-102">[98]</a> He had been mentored by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Li_Meng_(Yuan_dynasty)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Li Meng (Yuan dynasty) (page does not exist)">Li Meng</a> (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E5%AD%9F" class="extiw" title="zh:李孟">李孟</a>), a <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_State_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of State Affairs">Department of State Affairs</a> (尚書省), which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials.<a href="#cite_note-:0-102">[98]</a> Starting in 1313 the traditional <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examinations</a> were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gegeen_Khan_and_Yesün_Temür">Gegeen Khan and Yesün Temür</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Gegeen Khan and Yesün Temür" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:254px;max-width:254px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuntai_north_side.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Yuntai_north_side.jpg/250px-Yuntai_north_side.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="152" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2832" data-file-height="1717"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 152px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Yuntai_north_side.jpg/250px-Yuntai_north_side.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="152" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Yuntai_north_side.jpg/375px-Yuntai_north_side.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Yuntai_north_side.jpg/500px-Yuntai_north_side.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg/250px-Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="183" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2579" data-file-height="1889"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 183px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg/250px-Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="183" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg/375px-Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg/500px-Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Cloud_Platform_at_Juyong_Pass" title="Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass">Cloud Platform</a> was created during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Toghon_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Toghon Temür">Emperor Huizong</a> by imperial command.</div></div></div></div> Emperor <a href="/wiki/Gegeen_Khan" title="Gegeen Khan">Gegeen Khan</a>, Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to reform the government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor of China">chancellor</a> Baiju. During his reign, the Da Yuan Tong Zhi (《大元通制》; 'Comprehensive Institutions of the Great Yuan'), a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in a <a href="/wiki/Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Coup">coup</a> involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placed <a href="/wiki/Yes%C3%BCn_Tem%C3%BCr" class="mw-redirect" title="Yesün Temür">Yesün Temür</a> (or Taidingdi) on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to <a href="/wiki/Regicide" title="Regicide">regicide</a>. Before Yesün Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of the Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiao1994551-103">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jayaatu_Khan_Tugh_Temür">Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jayaatu_Khan_Tugh_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür">Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg/170px-%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="302" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2232" data-file-height="3968"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 302px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg/170px-%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="302" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg/255px-%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg/340px-%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pagoda_of_Bailin_Temple" title="Pagoda of Bailin Temple">Bailin Temple Pagoda</a> of Zhaoxian County, <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a> Province, built in 1330 during the Yuan dynasty</figcaption></figure> When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, <a href="/wiki/Jayaatu_Khan_Tugh_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür">Tugh Temür</a> was recalled to <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Qipchaq</a> commander <a href="/wiki/El_Tem%C3%BCr" title="El Temür">El Temür</a>. He was installed as emperor in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son <a href="/wiki/Ragibagh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ragibagh">Ragibagh</a> succeeded to the throne in Shangdu (商都) with the support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Two_Capitals" title="War of the Two Capitals">War of the Two Capitals</a>. Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdicated in favour of his brother <a href="/wiki/Khutughtu_Khan_Kusala" title="Khutughtu Khan Kusala">Kusala</a>, who was backed by Chagatai Khan <a href="/wiki/Eljigidey" title="Eljigidey">Eljigidey</a>, and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after a banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiao1994550-104">[100]</a> However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty. Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoring <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> and promoting <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Chinese cultural values</a>. His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature (奎章閣學士院), first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment" (儒教推崇). The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional <a href="/wiki/Compendium" title="Compendium">compendium</a> named Jingshi Dadian (經世大典). Tugh Temür supported <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a> and also devoted himself in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Toghon_Temür">Toghon Temür</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Toghon Temür" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death of <a href="/wiki/Rinchinbal_Khan" title="Rinchinbal Khan">Rinchinbal</a> (Emperor Ningzong) the same year, the 13-year-old <a href="/wiki/Toghon_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Toghon Temür">Toghon Temür</a> (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> and succeeded to the throne. After El Temür's death, <a href="/wiki/Bayan_of_the_Merkid" title="Bayan of the Merkid">Bayan</a> became as powerful an official as El Temür had been in the beginning of his long reign. As Toghon Temür grew, he came to disapprove of Bayan's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied himself with Bayan's nephew <a href="/wiki/Toqto%27a_(Yuan_dynasty)" title="Toqto'a (Yuan dynasty)">Toqto'a</a>, who was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. With the dismissal of Bayan, Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled <a href="/wiki/Twenty-Four_Histories" title="Twenty-Four Histories">official histories</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with the approval of Toghon Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline_of_the_empire">Decline of the empire</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Decline of the empire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Jade_15_Swan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Yuan_Jade_15_Swan.jpg/220px-Yuan_Jade_15_Swan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Yuan_Jade_15_Swan.jpg/220px-Yuan_Jade_15_Swan.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Yuan_Jade_15_Swan.jpg/330px-Yuan_Jade_15_Swan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Yuan_Jade_15_Swan.jpg/440px-Yuan_Jade_15_Swan.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Yuan dynasty <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a> swan</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Dynasty,_porcelain_dish,_mid_14th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5b/Yuan_Dynasty%2C_porcelain_dish%2C_mid_14th_century.jpg/220px-Yuan_Dynasty%2C_porcelain_dish%2C_mid_14th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="579" data-file-height="500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 190px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5b/Yuan_Dynasty%2C_porcelain_dish%2C_mid_14th_century.jpg/220px-Yuan_Dynasty%2C_porcelain_dish%2C_mid_14th_century.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="190" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5b/Yuan_Dynasty%2C_porcelain_dish%2C_mid_14th_century.jpg/330px-Yuan_Dynasty%2C_porcelain_dish%2C_mid_14th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5b/Yuan_Dynasty%2C_porcelain_dish%2C_mid_14th_century.jpg/440px-Yuan_Dynasty%2C_porcelain_dish%2C_mid_14th_century.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Yuan dynasty blue-and-white <a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a> dish with fish and flowing water design, mid-14th century, <a href="/wiki/Freer_Gallery_of_Art" title="Freer Gallery of Art">Freer Gallery of Art</a></figcaption></figure> The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies. From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and the resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Turban Rebellion">Red Turban Rebellion</a> led by Song loyalists started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Song loyalists established a renewed Song dynasty in 1351 with its capital at Kaifeng. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghon Temür's restoration of power on the one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to <a href="/wiki/Shangdu" title="Shangdu">Shangdu</a> from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368–1644), founded by <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Yuanzhang" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhu Yuanzhang">Zhu Yuanzhang</a> in the south. Zhu Yuanzhang was a former Duke and commander in the army of the Red Turban Song dynasty and assumed power as Emperor after the death of the Red Turban Song Emperor <a href="/wiki/Han_Lin%27er" title="Han Lin'er">Han Lin'er</a>, who had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed, and who died in <a href="/wiki/Yingchang" title="Yingchang">Yingchang</a> (located in present-day <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some royal family members still live in <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> today.<a href="#cite_note-105">[101]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Stay_on_topic" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">relevant?</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Liang_(realm)" title="Liang (realm)">Prince of Liang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basalawarmi" title="Basalawarmi">Basalawarmi</a> established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>, but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> under <a href="/wiki/Naghachu" title="Naghachu">Naghachu</a> had also <a href="/wiki/Ming_campaign_against_Naghachu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming campaign against Naghachu">surrendered to the Ming dynasty</a>. The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan (大元) was formally carried on, and is known as the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Yuan dynasty">Northern Yuan dynasty</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Impact" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Jingdezhen_Porcelain_Jar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Yuan_Jingdezhen_Porcelain_Jar.jpg/180px-Yuan_Jingdezhen_Porcelain_Jar.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 270px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Yuan_Jingdezhen_Porcelain_Jar.jpg/180px-Yuan_Jingdezhen_Porcelain_Jar.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="270" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Yuan_Jingdezhen_Porcelain_Jar.jpg/270px-Yuan_Jingdezhen_Porcelain_Jar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Yuan_Jingdezhen_Porcelain_Jar.jpg/360px-Yuan_Jingdezhen_Porcelain_Jar.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Yuan porcelain jar</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Underglaze_Blue_Jingdezhen_Porcelain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Yuan_Underglaze_Blue_Jingdezhen_Porcelain.jpg/220px-Yuan_Underglaze_Blue_Jingdezhen_Porcelain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Yuan_Underglaze_Blue_Jingdezhen_Porcelain.jpg/220px-Yuan_Underglaze_Blue_Jingdezhen_Porcelain.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Yuan_Underglaze_Blue_Jingdezhen_Porcelain.jpg/330px-Yuan_Underglaze_Blue_Jingdezhen_Porcelain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Yuan_Underglaze_Blue_Jingdezhen_Porcelain.jpg/440px-Yuan_Underglaze_Blue_Jingdezhen_Porcelain.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Yuan underglaze blue <a href="/wiki/Jingdezhen_porcelain" title="Jingdezhen porcelain">Jingdezhen porcelain</a> plate</figcaption></figure> A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a> and the increased use of the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular Chinese">written vernacular</a>. Arts and culture also greatly developed and flourished during the Yuan dynasty. There was a widespread introduction of blue and white painted porcelain, as well as a major change to Chinese painting.<a href="#cite_note-106">[102]</a> The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate in <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>, encouraged this development.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuzman1988568%E2%80%93570-107">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001211-108">[104]</a> Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-rite <a href="/wiki/Tantric_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantric Buddhism">Tantric Buddhism</a> had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of the Yuan dynasty introduced <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Eastern">Middle Eastern</a> <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, medicine, clothing, and cuisine in East Asia. Eastern crops such as <a href="/wiki/Carrot" title="Carrot">carrots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turnip" title="Turnip">turnips</a>, new varieties of <a href="/wiki/Lemon" title="Lemon">lemons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eggplant" title="Eggplant">eggplants</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Melon" title="Melon">melons</a>, high-quality granulated <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> were all either introduced or successfully popularized during the Yuan dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-Mongol_Empire_p.611-18">[14]</a>: 611 Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a> also enjoyed a period of toleration. <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a>) flourished, although <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> endured certain persecutions in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government. <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> governmental practices and examinations based on the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classic_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese classic texts">Classics</a>, which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, and scientific education. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plate;_Yuan_Dynasty;_Lacquer,_wood,_and_fabric.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Plate%3B_Yuan_Dynasty%3B_Lacquer%2C_wood%2C_and_fabric.jpg/220px-Plate%3B_Yuan_Dynasty%3B_Lacquer%2C_wood%2C_and_fabric.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1148"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Plate%3B_Yuan_Dynasty%3B_Lacquer%2C_wood%2C_and_fabric.jpg/220px-Plate%3B_Yuan_Dynasty%3B_Lacquer%2C_wood%2C_and_fabric.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Plate%3B_Yuan_Dynasty%3B_Lacquer%2C_wood%2C_and_fabric.jpg/330px-Plate%3B_Yuan_Dynasty%3B_Lacquer%2C_wood%2C_and_fabric.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Plate%3B_Yuan_Dynasty%3B_Lacquer%2C_wood%2C_and_fabric.jpg/440px-Plate%3B_Yuan_Dynasty%3B_Lacquer%2C_wood%2C_and_fabric.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A plate made of <a href="/wiki/Lacquerware" title="Lacquerware">lacquer</a>, wood, and paper from the Yuan dynasty. The Chinese were able to perfect a method of making lacquer. Decorating this plate are parrots and peonies. The parrot was a symbol of fidelity; because of its ability to mimic human speech, it was believed to be a suitable companion to a woman whose husband was away from home. The bird would be able to inform each person of the other's activities. The <a href="/wiki/Peony" title="Peony">peony</a> was a symbol of female virtue. When shown in full bloom, it is a token of love, affection, and feminine beauty.<a href="#cite_note-109">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Museum_of_Art" title="Birmingham Museum of Art">Birmingham Museum of Art</a>.</figcaption></figure> Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified <a href="/wiki/Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">saltpetre</a>, printing techniques, <a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Playing_cards" class="mw-redirect" title="Playing cards">playing cards</a>, and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin glass and <a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9" title="Cloisonné">cloisonné</a> became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification of China and adopted its garrison system.<a href="#cite_note-Mongol_Empire_p.611-18">[14]</a>: 611 <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%9A%8B%E6%A1%A5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/%E7%9A%8B%E6%A1%A5.jpg/220px-%E7%9A%8B%E6%A1%A5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/%E7%9A%8B%E6%A1%A5.jpg/220px-%E7%9A%8B%E6%A1%A5.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/%E7%9A%8B%E6%A1%A5.jpg/330px-%E7%9A%8B%E6%A1%A5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/%E7%9A%8B%E6%A1%A5.jpg/440px-%E7%9A%8B%E6%A1%A5.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Yuan dynasty arched bridges of <a href="/wiki/Taicang" title="Taicang">Taicang</a> were built to show the prosperity the city enjoyed under the Yuan.<a href="#cite_note-110">[106]</a></figcaption></figure> Aside from the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" title="Sino-Roman relations">ancient Roman embassies</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Medieval_China" title="Europeans in Medieval China">first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back</a> date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venetian</a> <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>, whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, Il milione (or, The Million, known in English as the Travels of Marco Polo), appeared about the year 1299. Some doubted the accuracy of Marco Polo's accounts due to the lack of mentioning the Great Wall of China, chopsticks, tea houses – which would have been a prominent sight since Europeans had yet to adopt a tea culture – as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Recent studies however show that Polo's account is largely accurate and unique.<a href="#cite_note-111">[107]</a> The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Among Kublai Khan's top engineers and scientists was the astronomer <a href="/wiki/Guo_Shoujing" title="Guo Shoujing">Guo Shoujing</a>, who was tasked with many public works projects and helped the Yuan reform the <a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">lunisolar calendar</a> to provide an accuracy of 365.2425 days of the year,<a href="#cite_note-112">[108]</a> which was only 26 seconds off the modern <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a>'s measurement. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, <a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">granaries</a> were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Canal of China">Grand Canal of China</a>, which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop, <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:254px;max-width:254px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:2014.09.04.154246_Houhai_Lake_Beijing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/2014.09.04.154246_Houhai_Lake_Beijing.jpg/250px-2014.09.04.154246_Houhai_Lake_Beijing.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/2014.09.04.154246_Houhai_Lake_Beijing.jpg/250px-2014.09.04.154246_Houhai_Lake_Beijing.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="188" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/2014.09.04.154246_Houhai_Lake_Beijing.jpg/375px-2014.09.04.154246_Houhai_Lake_Beijing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/2014.09.04.154246_Houhai_Lake_Beijing.jpg/500px-2014.09.04.154246_Houhai_Lake_Beijing.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Beiyue_Temple_8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Beiyue_Temple_8.jpg/250px-Beiyue_Temple_8.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Beiyue_Temple_8.jpg/250px-Beiyue_Temple_8.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="188" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Beiyue_Temple_8.jpg/375px-Beiyue_Temple_8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Beiyue_Temple_8.jpg/500px-Beiyue_Temple_8.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The two artificial lakes <a href="/wiki/Houhai" title="Houhai">Houhai</a> and <a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianhai" class="extiw" title="sv:Qianhai">Qianhai</a> were built in <a href="/wiki/Khanbalik" class="mw-redirect" title="Khanbalik">Dadu</a> by the Yuan. The Yuan built the <a href="/wiki/Beiyue_Temple" title="Beiyue Temple">Dening Hall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Quyang_County" title="Quyang County">Quyang</a> in 1270.</div></div></div></div> The Yuan dynasty was the first dynasty founded by non-<a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> ethnicity that ruled all of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>. In the historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire. Mongols are widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan is considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power, the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In traditional <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of China">historiography of China</a>, on the other hand, the Yuan dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate dynasty between the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>. Note, however, Yuan dynasty is traditionally often extended to cover the Mongol Empire before <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a>'s formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly because Kublai officially honoured prior rulers of the Mongol Empire as Yuan emperors by conferring them <a href="/wiki/Posthumous_name" title="Posthumous name">posthumous names</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">temple names</a>. Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the government of the Ming dynasty which overthrew the Yuan dynasty), there also exist Chinese people[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] who did not consider the Yuan dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but rather as a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that Han Chinese were treated as <a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">second-class citizens</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and that China stagnated economically and scientifically. The dynasty chose white as its imperial color, which corresponds to the Metal element according to the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Five Elements</a> (wuxing). The Metal element does not follow from the Song's dynastic element Five in the creation sequence of the five elements. Instead, it follows from the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a>'s dynastic element Earth. Although the Yuan did not openly announce it, its choice of white as its imperial color suggests that it considered Jin, another conquest dynasty, rather than the Han-Chinese Song dynasty, as its rightful predecessor.<a href="#cite_note-113">[109]</a> The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilkhanid">Ilkhanids</a>, the Chinese Huangdi (<a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a>) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization.<a href="#cite_note-114">[110]</a>: 46 </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Government" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_nobility#Mongol_Empire_(1206%E2%80%931368)_and_Yuan_dynasty_(1271%E2%80%931368)" title="Mongolian nobility">Mongolian nobility § Mongol Empire (1206–1368) and Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_coinage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Yuan_coinage.jpg/220px-Yuan_coinage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="74" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2266" data-file-height="763"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 74px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Yuan_coinage.jpg/220px-Yuan_coinage.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="74" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Yuan_coinage.jpg/330px-Yuan_coinage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Yuan_coinage.jpg/440px-Yuan_coinage.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_coinage" title="Yuan dynasty coinage">Yuan dynasty coinage</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_map_of_the_Northwest_territory_of_the_Yuan_Dynasty_in_Haiguotuzhi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Evolution_map_of_the_Northwest_territory_of_the_Yuan_Dynasty_in_Haiguotuzhi.jpg/220px-Evolution_map_of_the_Northwest_territory_of_the_Yuan_Dynasty_in_Haiguotuzhi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1577" data-file-height="1600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 223px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Evolution_map_of_the_Northwest_territory_of_the_Yuan_Dynasty_in_Haiguotuzhi.jpg/220px-Evolution_map_of_the_Northwest_territory_of_the_Yuan_Dynasty_in_Haiguotuzhi.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="223" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Evolution_map_of_the_Northwest_territory_of_the_Yuan_Dynasty_in_Haiguotuzhi.jpg/330px-Evolution_map_of_the_Northwest_territory_of_the_Yuan_Dynasty_in_Haiguotuzhi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Evolution_map_of_the_Northwest_territory_of_the_Yuan_Dynasty_in_Haiguotuzhi.jpg/440px-Evolution_map_of_the_Northwest_territory_of_the_Yuan_Dynasty_in_Haiguotuzhi.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map of the Northwest territory</figcaption></figure> The structure of the Yuan government took shape during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> (1260–1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368. The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Hans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongols</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan Buddhist">Tibetan Buddhists</a>. While the official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the native <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a>, as well as Khitan <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a> and Jurchen <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115-1234)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin dynasty (1115-1234)">Jin</a> dynasties. Chinese advisers such as <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bingzhong" title="Liu Bingzhong">Liu Bingzhong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yao_Shu" title="Yao Shu">Yao Shu</a> gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and the central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">division of authority</a> among <a href="/wiki/Civil_affairs" title="Civil affairs">civil</a>, military, and <a href="/wiki/Censorate" title="Censorate">censorial</a> offices, including the <a href="/wiki/Zhongshu_Sheng" title="Zhongshu Sheng">Central Secretariat</a> (Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, the <a href="/wiki/Privy_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Privy Council">Privy Council</a> (樞密院; Shūmì Yuàn) to manage military affairs, and the <a href="/wiki/Censorate" title="Censorate">Censorate</a> to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions, however, showed a major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-style <a href="/wiki/Three_Departments_and_Six_Ministries" title="Three Departments and Six Ministries">Six Ministries</a>), was created in China. At various times another central government institution called the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_State_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of State Affairs">Department of State Affairs</a> (尚書省; Shangshu Sheng) that mainly dealt with finance was established (such as during the reign of <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCl%C3%BCg_Khan" title="Külüg Khan">Külüg Khan</a> or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards. While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a> and Tang dynasties) gave a Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Justice">Ministry of Justice</a>, did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and <a href="/wiki/Semu" title="Semu">Semu</a>, who had separate courts of justice. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by a mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of War (imperial China)">Ministry of War</a> compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Qocho" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Qocho">Kingdom of Qocho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dali" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Dali">Kingdom of Dali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Bozhou" title="Chiefdom of Bozhou">Chiefdom of Bozhou</a>, other <a href="/wiki/Tusi" title="Tusi">Tusi</a> chiefdoms, and <a href="/wiki/Goryeo_under_Mongol_rule" title="Goryeo under Mongol rule">Goryeo</a> were ruled by rulers subject to, and in some cases related to, the Yuan imperial house.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Science and technology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Yuan dynasty">Science and technology of the Yuan dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Mathematics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mathematics" title="Chinese mathematics">Chinese mathematics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yanghui_triangle.gif" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Yanghui_triangle.gif/220px-Yanghui_triangle.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="1095"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 342px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Yanghui_triangle.gif/220px-Yanghui_triangle.gif" data-width="220" data-height="342" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Yanghui_triangle.gif/330px-Yanghui_triangle.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Yanghui_triangle.gif/440px-Yanghui_triangle.gif 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A diagram of <a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_triangle" title="Pascal's triangle">Pascal's triangle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Shijie" title="Zhu Shijie">Zhu Shijie</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Jade_Mirror_of_the_Four_Unknowns" title="Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns">Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns</a>, written in 1303</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yang_Hui_magic_circle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Yang_Hui_magic_circle.svg/220px-Yang_Hui_magic_circle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Yang_Hui_magic_circle.svg/220px-Yang_Hui_magic_circle.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Yang_Hui_magic_circle.svg/330px-Yang_Hui_magic_circle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Yang_Hui_magic_circle.svg/440px-Yang_Hui_magic_circle.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yang_Hui" title="Yang Hui">Yang Hui</a>'s Magic Circle</figcaption></figure> Advances in polynomial algebra were made by mathematicians during the Yuan era. The mathematician <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Shijie" title="Zhu Shijie">Zhu Shijie</a> (1249–1314) solved <a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Simultaneous equations">simultaneous equations</a> with up to four unknowns using a rectangular array of coefficients, equivalent to modern <a href="/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrices</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoseph2011196-115">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDauben2007344-116">[112]</a> Zhu used a method of elimination to reduce the simultaneous equations to a single equation with only one unknown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDauben2007346-117">[113]</a> His method is described in the <a href="/wiki/Jade_Mirror_of_the_Four_Unknowns" title="Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns">Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns</a>, written in 1303. The opening pages contain a diagram of <a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_triangle" title="Pascal's triangle">Pascal's triangle</a>. The summation of a finite arithmetic series is also covered in the book.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo1985101-118">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Guo_Shoujing" title="Guo Shoujing">Guo Shoujing</a> applied mathematics to the construction of calendars. He was one of the first mathematicians in China to work on spherical trigonometry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo1985105-119">[115]</a> Gou derived a cubic interpolation formula for his astronomical calculations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoseph2011247-120">[116]</a> His calendar, the Shoushi Li (授時暦; 'Time Granting Calendar'), was disseminated in 1281 as the official calendar of the Yuan dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001172-121">[117]</a> The calendar may have been influenced solely by the work of <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> astronomer <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> or possibly by the work of Arab astronomers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo1985105-119">[115]</a> There are no explicit signs of Muslim influences in the Shoushi calendar, but Mongol rulers were known to be interested in Muslim calendars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001172-121">[117]</a> Mathematical knowledge from the Middle East was introduced to China under the Mongols, and Muslim astronomers brought <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a> to China in the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo1985105-119">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Medicine" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001142-122">[118]</a> Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians called otachi and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterized otachi doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001142-122">[118]</a> Physicians received official support from the Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988125-123">[119]</a> Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001157-124">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988125-123">[119]</a> The Chinese medical tradition of the Yuan had "Four Great Schools" that the Yuan inherited from the Jin dynasty. All four schools were based on the same intellectual foundation, but advocated different theoretical approaches toward medicine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001157-124">[120]</a> Under the Mongols, the practice of Chinese medicine spread to other parts of the empire. Chinese physicians were brought along military campaigns by the Mongols as they expanded towards the west. Chinese medical techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">acupuncture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moxibustion" title="Moxibustion">moxibustion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulse_diagnosis" title="Pulse diagnosis">pulse diagnosis</a>, and various herbal drugs and elixirs were transmitted westward to the Middle East and the rest of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELane2006138%E2%80%93139-125">[121]</a> Several medical advances were made in the Yuan period. The physician <a href="/wiki/Wei_Yilin" title="Wei Yilin">Wei Yilin</a> (1277–1347) invented a suspension method for <a href="/wiki/Reduction_(orthopedic_surgery)" title="Reduction (orthopedic surgery)">reducing</a> dislocated joints, which he performed using anesthetics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELane2006140-126">[122]</a> The Mongol physician <a href="/wiki/Hu_Sihui" title="Hu Sihui">Hu Sihui</a> described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELane2006140-126">[122]</a> Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of the Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled as huihui or Muslim medicine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001151-127">[123]</a> The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001155-128">[124]</a> Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988125-123">[119]</a> Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because its <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humoral system</a> contradicted the <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin-yang</a> and wuxing philosophy underlying traditional Chinese medicine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001157-124">[120]</a> No Chinese translation of Western medical works is known, but it is possible that the Chinese had access to <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001151-127">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printing_and_publishing">Printing and publishing</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Printing and publishing" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg/220px-Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2631" data-file-height="1918"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg/220px-Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg/330px-Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg/440px-Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Yuan dynasty <a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">banknote</a> with its printing plate, 1287</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_movable_type_1313-ce.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Chinese_movable_type_1313-ce.png/220px-Chinese_movable_type_1313-ce.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="1248"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Chinese_movable_type_1313-ce.png/220px-Chinese_movable_type_1313-ce.png" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Chinese_movable_type_1313-ce.png/330px-Chinese_movable_type_1313-ce.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Chinese_movable_type_1313-ce.png/440px-Chinese_movable_type_1313-ce.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A revolving typecase with individual <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> characters from <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(official)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Zhen (official)">Wang Zhen</a>'s Nong Shu, published in 1313</figcaption></figure> The Mongol rulers patronized the Yuan printing industry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001182-129">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu1950460-130">[126]</a> Chinese printing technology was transferred to the Mongols through <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Qocho" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Qocho">Kingdom of Qocho</a> and Tibetan intermediaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001182-129">[125]</a> Some Yuan documents such as <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(official)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Zhen (official)">Wang Zhen</a>'s Nong Shu were printed with earthenware <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a>, a technology invented in the 12th century. However, most published works were still produced through traditional <a href="/wiki/Block_printing" class="mw-redirect" title="Block printing">block printing</a> techniques.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001176%E2%80%93177-131">[127]</a> The publication of a Taoist text inscribed with the name of <a href="/wiki/T%C3%B6regene_Khatun" title="Töregene Khatun">Töregene Khatun</a>, Ögedei's wife, is one of the first printed works sponsored by the Mongols. In 1273, the Mongols created the Imperial Library Directorate, a government-sponsored printing office.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001182-129">[125]</a> The Yuan government established centers for printing throughout China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001182-129">[125]</a> Local schools and government agencies were funded to support the publishing of books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu1950463-132">[128]</a> Private printing businesses also flourished under the Yuan. They published a diverse range of works, and printed educational, literary, medical, religious, and historical texts. The volume of printed materials was vast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001181-133">[129]</a> In 1312, 1,000 copies of a Buddhist text commented by Cosgi Odsir were printed just within Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001183-134">[130]</a> By 1328, annual sales of printed calendars and almanacs reached over three million in the Yuan dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001184-135">[131]</a> One of the more notable applications of printing technology was the <a href="/wiki/Jiaochao" title="Jiaochao">Jiaochao</a>, the paper money of the Yuan. Jiaochao were made from the bark of mulberry trees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001183-134">[130]</a> The Yuan government used woodblocks to print paper money, but switched to bronze plates in 1275.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001179-136">[132]</a> The Mongols experimented with establishing the Chinese-style paper monetary system in Mongol-controlled territories outside of China. The Yuan minister <a href="/wiki/Bolad" title="Bolad">Bolad</a> was sent to Iran, where he explained Yuan paper money to the Il-khanate court of <a href="/wiki/Gaykhatu" title="Gaykhatu">Gaykhatu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001177-137">[133]</a> The Il-khanate government issued paper money in 1294, but public distrust of the exotic new currency doomed the experiment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001178-138">[134]</a> Foreign observers took note of Yuan printing technology. Marco Polo documented the Yuan printing of paper money and almanac pamphlets called tacuini.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001183-134">[130]</a> The vizier <a href="/wiki/Rashid-al-Din_Hamadani" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashid-al-Din Hamadani">Rashid-al-Din</a> recognized that printing was a valuable technological breakthrough, and expressed regret that the Mongol experiment with printing paper money had failed in the Muslim world. Rashid-al-Din's view was not shared by other chroniclers in the Middle East, who were critical of the experiment's disruptive impact on the Il-khanate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsen2001184-135">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ceramics">Ceramics</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ceramics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BW_Jar_FFD_RBG.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/BW_Jar_FFD_RBG.jpg/180px-BW_Jar_FFD_RBG.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5030" data-file-height="6707"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 240px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/BW_Jar_FFD_RBG.jpg/180px-BW_Jar_FFD_RBG.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="240" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/BW_Jar_FFD_RBG.jpg/270px-BW_Jar_FFD_RBG.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/BW_Jar_FFD_RBG.jpg/360px-BW_Jar_FFD_RBG.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Blue-and-white Covered Jar with Fretwork Floral Design in Red and Blue Glaze, excavated in Baoding</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics" title="Chinese ceramics">Chinese ceramics</a> the period was one of expansion, with the great innovation the development in <a href="/wiki/Jingdezhen_ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Jingdezhen ware">Jingdezhen ware</a> of <a href="/wiki/Underglaze" title="Underglaze">underglaze</a> painted <a href="/wiki/Blue_and_white_pottery" title="Blue and white pottery">blue and white pottery</a>. This seems to have begun in the early decades of the 14th century, and by the end of the dynasty was mature and well-established. Other major types of wares continued without a sharp break in their development, but there was a general trend to some larger size pieces, and more decoration. This is often seen as a decline from Song refinement. Exports expanded considerably, especially to the Islamic world. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Society" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Society of the Mongol Empire">Society of the Mongol Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yuan_poetry" title="Yuan poetry">Yuan poetry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zaju" title="Zaju">Zaju</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperial_lifestyle">Imperial lifestyle</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Imperial lifestyle" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG/220px-Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1728"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 181px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG/220px-Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="181" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG/330px-Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG/440px-Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Painting of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280</figcaption></figure> Since its invention in 1269, the <a href="/wiki/%27Phags-pa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="'Phags-pa script">'Phags-pa script</a>, a unified script for spelling <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Tibetan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> languages, was preserved in the court until the end of the dynasty. Most of the Emperors could not master <a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">written Chinese</a>, but they could generally converse well in the language. The Mongol custom of long standing quda marriage alliance with other Mongol clans – the <a href="/wiki/Onggirat" class="mw-redirect" title="Onggirat">Onggirat</a> and the Ikeres – kept the imperial blood purely Mongol until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Tugh_Temur" class="mw-redirect" title="Tugh Temur">Tugh Temur</a> (Emperor Wenzong), whose mother was a <a href="/wiki/Tangut_people" title="Tangut people">Tangut</a> concubine. The Mongol Emperors had built large palaces and pavilions, but some still continued to live as nomads at times. Tugh Temür was an example of a Yuan emperor who actively sponsored cultural activities; including in his imperial capacity and in his personal activities such as writing <a href="/wiki/Yuan_poetry" title="Yuan poetry">poetry</a>, painting, reading <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Chinese classical texts</a>, and ordering the compilation of books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1999471-139">[135]</a> The average Mongol garrison family of the Yuan dynasty seems to have lived a life of decaying rural leisure, with income from the harvests of their Chinese tenants eaten up by costs of equipping and dispatching men for their tours of duty. The Mongols practiced debt slavery, and by 1290 in all parts of the Mongol Empire commoners were selling their children into slavery. Seeing this as damaging to the Mongol nation, Kublai in 1291 forbade the sale abroad of Mongols. Kublai wished to persuade the Chinese that he was becoming increasingly <a href="/wiki/Sinicized" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinicized">sinicized</a> while maintaining his Mongolian credentials with his own people. He set up a civilian administration to rule, built a capital within China, supported Chinese religions and culture, and devised suitable economic and political institutions for the court. But at the same time he never abandoned his Mongolian heritage.<a href="#cite_note-140">[136]</a>: 488–489 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Religion" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Islam during the Yuan dynasty">Islam during the Yuan dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Religion in the Mongol Empire">Religion in the Mongol Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Y%C3%BCen_dynasty_Manichaean_diagram_of_the_Universe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Y%C3%BCen_dynasty_Manichaean_diagram_of_the_Universe.jpg/170px-Y%C3%BCen_dynasty_Manichaean_diagram_of_the_Universe.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="466" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="438" data-file-height="1200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 466px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Y%C3%BCen_dynasty_Manichaean_diagram_of_the_Universe.jpg/170px-Y%C3%BCen_dynasty_Manichaean_diagram_of_the_Universe.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="466" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Y%C3%BCen_dynasty_Manichaean_diagram_of_the_Universe.jpg/255px-Y%C3%BCen_dynasty_Manichaean_diagram_of_the_Universe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Y%C3%BCen_dynasty_Manichaean_diagram_of_the_Universe.jpg/340px-Y%C3%BCen_dynasty_Manichaean_diagram_of_the_Universe.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_Diagram_of_the_Universe" title="Manichaean Diagram of the Universe">Manichaean Diagram of the Universe</a>, a painting describing Yuan period <a href="/wiki/Manichaean" class="mw-redirect" title="Manichaean">Manichaean</a> cosmology</figcaption></figure> There were many religions practiced during the Yuan dynasty, such as <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a>. The establishment of the Yuan dynasty had dramatically increased the number of <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> in China. However, unlike the western khanates, the Yuan dynasty never converted to Islam. Instead, Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, favored Buddhism, especially the Tibetan variants. As a result, <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> became the de facto <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>. The top-level department and government agency known as the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Buddhist_and_Tibetan_Affairs" title="Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs">Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 宣政院; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: xuānzhèngyuàn) was set up in <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a> (modern Beijing) to supervise <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monk" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist monk">Buddhist monks</a> throughout the empire. Since Kublai Khan only esteemed the <a href="/wiki/Sakya_(Tibetan_Buddhist_school)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)">Sakya</a> sect of Tibetan Buddhism, other religions became less important. He and his successors kept a Sakya <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Preceptor" title="Imperial Preceptor">Imperial Preceptor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 帝师; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Dìshī) at court. Before the end of the Yuan dynasty, 14 leaders of the Sakya sect had held the post of Imperial Preceptor, thereby enjoying special power.<a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a>: 59 Furthermore, Mongol patronage of Buddhism resulted in a number of monuments of Buddhist art. Mongolian Buddhist translations, almost all from Tibetan originals, began on a large scale after 1300. Many Mongols of the upper class such as the <a href="/wiki/Jalayir" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalayir">Jalayir</a> and the Oronar nobles as well as the emperors also patronized <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> scholars and institutions. A considerable number of Confucian and Chinese historical works were translated into the <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian language</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_porcelain_buddha.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Yuan_porcelain_buddha.JPG/220px-Yuan_porcelain_buddha.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="640"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 330px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Yuan_porcelain_buddha.JPG/220px-Yuan_porcelain_buddha.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="330" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Yuan_porcelain_buddha.JPG/330px-Yuan_porcelain_buddha.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Yuan_porcelain_buddha.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Yuan <a href="/wiki/Qingbai" class="mw-redirect" title="Qingbai">Qingbai</a> porcelain statue of <a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> Buddhism</figcaption></figure> At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.<a href="#cite_note-buell1979-142">[138]</a> Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.<a href="#cite_note-Dillon_1999-143">[139]</a>: 24 Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves" and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a> was also forbidden. Jews were also affected and forbidden by the Mongols to eat <a href="/wiki/Kosher" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosher">Kosher</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[140]</a> <blockquote> Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say "we do not eat Mongol food". [Cinggis Qa’an replied:] "By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?" He thereupon made them eat. "If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime." He issued a regulation to that effect ... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: "if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat". Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.<a href="#cite_note-Leslie_1998-145">[141]</a> </blockquote> The Muslims in the semu class revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the <a href="/wiki/Ispah_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ispah Rebellion">Ispah Rebellion</a>, but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese meaning "barracks" and also meaning "thanks"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them.<a href="#cite_note-Gladney_1991-146">[142]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Ming_conquest_of_Yunnan" title="Ming conquest of Yunnan">Ming conquest of Yunnan</a>, Muslim generals <a href="/wiki/Mu_Ying" title="Mu Ying">Mu Ying</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lan_Yu_(general)" title="Lan Yu (general)">Lan Yu</a> led Muslim troops loyal to the Ming dynasty against Mongol and Muslim troops loyal to the Yuan dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-147">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dillon_1999-143">[139]</a>: 34 <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> statues were found in <a href="/wiki/Quanzhou" title="Quanzhou">Quanzhou</a> dating to the Yuan period.<a href="#cite_note-148">[144]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Four-class_system">Four-class system</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Four-class system" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Structure">Structure</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Structure" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Covered_box_with_pavilion_and_figures,_China,_Yuan_dynasty,_1300s_AD,_carved_lacquer_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_Tokyo,_Japan_-_DSC08285.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Covered_box_with_pavilion_and_figures%2C_China%2C_Yuan_dynasty%2C_1300s_AD%2C_carved_lacquer_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_Tokyo%2C_Japan_-_DSC08285.jpg/220px-Covered_box_with_pavilion_and_figures%2C_China%2C_Yuan_dynasty%2C_1300s_AD%2C_carved_lacquer_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_Tokyo%2C_Japan_-_DSC08285.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3744" data-file-height="3484"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 205px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Covered_box_with_pavilion_and_figures%2C_China%2C_Yuan_dynasty%2C_1300s_AD%2C_carved_lacquer_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_Tokyo%2C_Japan_-_DSC08285.jpg/220px-Covered_box_with_pavilion_and_figures%2C_China%2C_Yuan_dynasty%2C_1300s_AD%2C_carved_lacquer_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_Tokyo%2C_Japan_-_DSC08285.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="205" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Covered_box_with_pavilion_and_figures%2C_China%2C_Yuan_dynasty%2C_1300s_AD%2C_carved_lacquer_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_Tokyo%2C_Japan_-_DSC08285.jpg/330px-Covered_box_with_pavilion_and_figures%2C_China%2C_Yuan_dynasty%2C_1300s_AD%2C_carved_lacquer_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_Tokyo%2C_Japan_-_DSC08285.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Covered_box_with_pavilion_and_figures%2C_China%2C_Yuan_dynasty%2C_1300s_AD%2C_carved_lacquer_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_Tokyo%2C_Japan_-_DSC08285.jpg/440px-Covered_box_with_pavilion_and_figures%2C_China%2C_Yuan_dynasty%2C_1300s_AD%2C_carved_lacquer_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_Tokyo%2C_Japan_-_DSC08285.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Box with pavilion and figures, Yuan dynasty.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Covered_box_with_lunar_palace,_14th_century,_Tokyo_National_Museum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Covered_box_with_lunar_palace%2C_14th_century%2C_Tokyo_National_Museum.JPG/220px-Covered_box_with_lunar_palace%2C_14th_century%2C_Tokyo_National_Museum.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2528" data-file-height="2364"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 206px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Covered_box_with_lunar_palace%2C_14th_century%2C_Tokyo_National_Museum.JPG/220px-Covered_box_with_lunar_palace%2C_14th_century%2C_Tokyo_National_Museum.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="206" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Covered_box_with_lunar_palace%2C_14th_century%2C_Tokyo_National_Museum.JPG/330px-Covered_box_with_lunar_palace%2C_14th_century%2C_Tokyo_National_Museum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Covered_box_with_lunar_palace%2C_14th_century%2C_Tokyo_National_Museum.JPG/440px-Covered_box_with_lunar_palace%2C_14th_century%2C_Tokyo_National_Museum.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Covered box with lunar palace, 14th century. Yuan dynasty.</figcaption></figure> The Mongols had employed foreigners long before the reign of Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. But during Kublai's reign a hierarchy of reliability was introduced in China. The population was divided into the following classes:<a href="#cite_note-structure-149">[145]</a> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>. The Mongols were called "Gao-chen"[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/China-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/China-related articles">Chinese script needed</a>] (the citizens of the ruling empire) by the conquered Southern Song population.<a href="#cite_note-150">[146]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semu" title="Semu">Semu</a>, consisting of non-Mongol foreigners from the west and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Qocho" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Qocho">Buddhist Uyghurs from Turfan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanguts" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanguts">Tanguts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibetans" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetans">Tibetans</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Jews</a>, Nestorian Christians, and Muslims from Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Haw-151">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-structure-149">[145]</a></li> <li>Han, a category usually referring to <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> people, but under Yuan usage referred to various peoples, most of whom were former subjects of the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jurchen Jin dynasty</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern China">Northern China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurchens" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurchens">Jurchens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Koreans" title="Koreans">Koreans</a> and other ethnicities who lived north of the <a href="/wiki/Huaihe_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Huaihe River">Huaihe River</a><a href="#cite_note-Rossabi1983-152">[148]</a>: 247 <a href="#cite_note-structure-149">[145]</a></li> <li>Nan (Southerners), or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty, including ethnic Han Chinese and minority native ethnic groups in <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_southern_China" title="Northern and southern China">southern China</a>, as well as the people of the <a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom">Dali Kingdom</a>. They were sometimes called "Manzi" during the Yuan dynasty. They were on the "bottom of the privilege ladder" in Yuan society.<a href="#cite_note-structure-149">[145]</a></li></ol> The ordering of the classes and the placement of people in them came down to how loyal and trustworthy to the Mongols they were. This was defined by the date they surrendered to the Mongols and had little to do with their ethnicity. Ethnic Han Chinese could be classified as either Han ren or Nan ren while Khitans and Jurchens from <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a> were not considered Han but Semu.<a href="#cite_note-Haw-151">[147]</a> The earlier they surrendered to the Mongols, the higher they were placed, while the more they held out, the lower they were ranked. As a result, the Northern Chinese were ranked higher than the Southern Chinese, because the Song dynasty in southern China fought longer and surrendered later.<a href="#cite_note-153">[149]</a>: 264–265 <a href="#cite_note-154">[150]</a>: 426 Similarly, the Uighur and Karluk monarchs were ranked higher than the Korean monarch at court because they surrendered earlier while the Koreans surrendered later. The Uighurs in particular were noted to not have fought at all.<a href="#cite_note-Rossabi1983-152">[148]</a>: 247 <a href="#cite_note-Haw-151">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foreign_administrators">Foreign administrators</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Foreign administrators" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Mongols employed people from different regions to oversee different parts of their empire. Central Asian Muslims served as administrators in China while Han people and Khitans from China served as administrators over the Muslim population in <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> in Central Asia. Foreigners were used to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.<a href="#cite_note-buell1979-142">[138]</a> Han people were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, <a href="/wiki/Olmaliq" title="Olmaliq">Almaliq</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samarqand" class="mw-redirect" title="Samarqand">Samarqand</a> by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers.<a href="#cite_note-155">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called <a href="/wiki/Asud" title="Asud">"Right Alan Guard"</a> which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Qocho" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Qocho">Kingdom of Qocho</a> and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Gongzhi.<a href="#cite_note-Rossabi1983-152">[148]</a>: 255 After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators of gardens and fields in Samarqand while co-management with Chinese and Khitans was required since Muslims were not allowed to manage without them.<a href="#cite_note-barthold-156">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[153]</a> The Yuan-appointed Governor of Samarqand was a Khitan by the name of Ahai. He was from the <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a>, held the title Taishi, and was familiar with Chinese culture.<a href="#cite_note-barthold-156">[152]</a> Han officials and colonists were <a href="/wiki/History_of_Siberia#Mongol_conquest_of_Southern_and_Western_Siberia" title="History of Siberia">sent by the Yuan dynasty</a> to areas of <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty">Lingbei province</a> including <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%92%8C%E5%AE%81%E8%B7%AF" class="extiw" title="zh:和宁路">Henning Circuit</a>, <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%8A%E8%98%AD%E5%B7%9E" class="extiw" title="zh:益蘭州">Yilan Prefecture</a>, and <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AC%99%E5%B7%9E" class="extiw" title="zh:謙州">Qian Prefecture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[154]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_South_Mosque_of_Jinan_2009-03.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/The_South_Mosque_of_Jinan_2009-03.JPG/200px-The_South_Mosque_of_Jinan_2009-03.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 267px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/The_South_Mosque_of_Jinan_2009-03.JPG/200px-The_South_Mosque_of_Jinan_2009-03.JPG" data-width="200" data-height="267" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/The_South_Mosque_of_Jinan_2009-03.JPG/300px-The_South_Mosque_of_Jinan_2009-03.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/The_South_Mosque_of_Jinan_2009-03.JPG/400px-The_South_Mosque_of_Jinan_2009-03.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jinan_Great_Southern_Mosque" title="Jinan Great Southern Mosque">Jinan Great Southern Mosque</a> was completed during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Tem%C3%BCr_Khan" title="Temür Khan">Temür Khan</a> (the Emperor Chengzong of Yuan).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anti-Chinese_policies">Anti-Chinese policies</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Anti-Chinese policies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Politically, the system of government created by Kublai Khan was the product of a compromise between Mongolian patrimonial <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> and the traditional Chinese <a href="/wiki/Autocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocratic">autocratic</a>-<a href="/wiki/Bureaucratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureaucratic">bureaucratic</a> system. Nevertheless, socially the educated Chinese <a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elite</a> were in general not given the degree of esteem that they had been accorded previously under native Chinese dynasties. Although the traditional Chinese elite were not given their share of power, the Mongols and the <a href="/wiki/Semu" title="Semu">Semu</a> people (various allied groups from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and the western end of the empire) largely remained strangers to the mainstream <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a>, and this dichotomy gave the Yuan regime a somewhat strong "<a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial</a>" coloration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiao1994491%E2%80%93492-159">[155]</a> The unequal treatment is possibly due to the fear of transferring power to the ethnic Chinese under their rule. The Mongols and Semu were given certain advantages in the dynasty, and this would last even after the restoration of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a> in the early 14th century. In general there were very few North Chinese or Southerners reaching the highest-post in the government compared with the possibility that Persians did so in the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982135-160">[156]</a> Later the <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> also mentioned the discrimination that existed during the Yuan dynasty. In response to an objection against the use of "barbarians" in his government, the Yongle Emperor answered: "Discrimination was used by the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty, who employed only "Mongols and Tartars" and discarded northern and southern Chinese and this was precisely the cause that brought disaster upon them."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982124%E2%80%93136-161">[157]</a> However, ordinary Mongol families fell into extreme poverty in both Mongolia and China proper, and elite positions were increasingly penetrated by ethnic Han.<a href="#cite_note-162">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[159]</a>: 467 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anti-Semu_policies">Anti-Semu policies</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Anti-Semu policies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Despite the high position given to Muslims, some policies of the Yuan emperors severely discriminated against them, restricting Halal slaughter and other Islamic practices like circumcision, as well as <a href="/wiki/Kosher" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosher">Kosher</a> butchering for Jews, forcing them to eat food the Mongol way.<a href="#cite_note-Leslie_1998-145">[141]</a> Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Yuanzhang" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhu Yuanzhang">Zhu Yuanzhang</a> had Muslim generals like <a href="/wiki/Lan_Yu_(general)" title="Lan Yu (general)">Lan Yu</a> who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had a Chinese surname Yíng (營) which means, amongst other definitions, both "barracks" and "thanks". Many Hui Muslims claim that because they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols, this surname was given in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them.<a href="#cite_note-Gladney_1991-146">[142]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Stay_on_topic" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">relevant?</a>] During the war fighting the Mongols, among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies was the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng.<a href="#cite_note-164">[160]</a> The Muslims in the Semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the <a href="/wiki/Ispah_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ispah Rebellion">Ispah Rebellion</a> but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. The Muslim merchants in Quanzhou who engaged in maritime trade enriched their families which encompassed their political and trade activities as families. Historians see the violent Chinese backlash that happened at the end of the Yuan dynasty against the wealth of the Muslim and Semu as something inevitable, however anti-Muslim and anti-Semu laws had already been passed by the Yuan dynasty. In 1340 all marriages were forced to follow Confucian principles in marriage regulations, in 1329 all foreign holy men including Muslims had tax exemptions revoked, in 1328 the position of Muslim Qadi was abolished after its powers were limited in 1311. This resulted in anti-Mongol sentiment among Muslims so some anti-Yuan rebels in the mid 14th century were joined by Muslims. In 1357–1367 the Yisibaxi Muslim Persian garrison started a revolt against the Yuan dynasty in Quanzhou and southern Fujian. Persian merchants Amin ud-Din (Amiliding) and Saif ud-Din Saifuding led the revolt. Persian official Yawuna assassinated both Amin ud-Din and Saif ud-Din in 1362 and took control of the Muslim rebel forces. For five years the Muslim rebels tried to strike north and took over some parts of Xinghua but were defeated at Fuzhou two times and failed to take it. Yuan provincial loyalist forces from Fuzhou defeated the Muslim rebels in 1367 after A Muslim rebel officer named Jin Ji defected from Yawuna.<a href="#cite_note-165">[161]</a>: 121 <a href="#cite_note-166">[162]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:254px;max-width:254px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%85%83_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E7%89%A1%E4%B8%B9%E7%B4%8B%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_peonies_MET_DP256112.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%E5%85%83_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E7%89%A1%E4%B8%B9%E7%B4%8B%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_peonies_MET_DP256112.jpg/250px-%E5%85%83_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E7%89%A1%E4%B8%B9%E7%B4%8B%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_peonies_MET_DP256112.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%E5%85%83_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E7%89%A1%E4%B8%B9%E7%B4%8B%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_peonies_MET_DP256112.jpg/250px-%E5%85%83_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E7%89%A1%E4%B8%B9%E7%B4%8B%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_peonies_MET_DP256112.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="188" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%E5%85%83_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E7%89%A1%E4%B8%B9%E7%B4%8B%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_peonies_MET_DP256112.jpg/375px-%E5%85%83_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E7%89%A1%E4%B8%B9%E7%B4%8B%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_peonies_MET_DP256112.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%E5%85%83_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E7%89%A1%E4%B8%B9%E7%B4%8B%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_peonies_MET_DP256112.jpg/500px-%E5%85%83_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E7%89%A1%E4%B8%B9%E7%B4%8B%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_peonies_MET_DP256112.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Dish_with_Roses_LACMA_M.2005.57_(1_of_2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Dish_with_Roses_LACMA_M.2005.57_%281_of_2%29.jpg/250px-Dish_with_Roses_LACMA_M.2005.57_%281_of_2%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="248" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="2081"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 248px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Dish_with_Roses_LACMA_M.2005.57_%281_of_2%29.jpg/250px-Dish_with_Roses_LACMA_M.2005.57_%281_of_2%29.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="248" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Dish_with_Roses_LACMA_M.2005.57_%281_of_2%29.jpg/375px-Dish_with_Roses_LACMA_M.2005.57_%281_of_2%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Dish_with_Roses_LACMA_M.2005.57_%281_of_2%29.jpg/500px-Dish_with_Roses_LACMA_M.2005.57_%281_of_2%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Yuan dynasty carved red lacquer.</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criticism">Criticism</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Criticism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The historian <a href="/wiki/Frederick_W._Mote" title="Frederick W. Mote">Frederick W. Mote</a> wrote that the usage of the term "social classes" for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the four-class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege" to which they were entitled institutionally and legally, so a person's standing within the classes was not a guarantee of their standing, since there were rich and well socially standing Chinese while there were less rich Mongol and Semu than there were Mongol and Semu who lived in poverty and were ill-treated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003492-167">[163]</a> Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four-class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of the Semu as a class.<a href="#cite_note-168">[164]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Administrative divisions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty">Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia">Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Dynasty_Administrative_division_1330.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Yuan_Dynasty_Administrative_division_1330.jpg/250px-Yuan_Dynasty_Administrative_division_1330.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="190" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 190px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Yuan_Dynasty_Administrative_division_1330.jpg/250px-Yuan_Dynasty_Administrative_division_1330.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="190" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Yuan_Dynasty_Administrative_division_1330.jpg/375px-Yuan_Dynasty_Administrative_division_1330.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Yuan_Dynasty_Administrative_division_1330.jpg/500px-Yuan_Dynasty_Administrative_division_1330.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongol_Empire%27s_Ayimaq_in_North_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Mongol_Empire%27s_Ayimaq_in_North_China.jpg/300px-Mongol_Empire%27s_Ayimaq_in_North_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1169" data-file-height="826"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 212px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Mongol_Empire%27s_Ayimaq_in_North_China.jpg/300px-Mongol_Empire%27s_Ayimaq_in_North_China.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="212" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Mongol_Empire%27s_Ayimaq_in_North_China.jpg/450px-Mongol_Empire%27s_Ayimaq_in_North_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Mongol_Empire%27s_Ayimaq_in_North_China.jpg/600px-Mongol_Empire%27s_Ayimaq_in_North_China.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mongol Empire's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayimaq&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ayimaq (page does not exist)">Ayimaq</a> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%95%E4%B8%8B_(%E3%83%A2%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B4%E3%83%AB%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD)" class="extiw" title="ja:投下 (モンゴル帝国)">ja</a>] in North China</figcaption></figure> The territory of the Yuan dynasty was divided into the Central Region (腹裏) governed by the <a href="/wiki/Zhongshu_Sheng" title="Zhongshu Sheng">Central Secretariat</a> and places under control of various provinces (行省) or Branch Secretariats (行中書省), as well as the region under the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Buddhist_and_Tibetan_Affairs" title="Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs">Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs</a>. The Central Region, consisting of present-day <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, the south-eastern part of present-day <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> areas to the north of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>, was considered the most important region of the dynasty and directly governed by the Central Secretariat (or Zhongshu Sheng, 中書省) at <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>); similarly, another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 宣政院; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Xuānzhèng Yuàn) <a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">held administrative rule</a> over the whole of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> and a part of <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>. Branch Secretariats or simply <a href="/wiki/Province" title="Province">provinces</a>, were provincial-level administrative organizations or institutions, though they were not exactly provinces in modern sense. There were eleven "regular" provinces in Yuan dynasty,<a href="#cite_note-169">[165]</a> and their administrations were subordinated to the Central Secretariat. Below the level of provinces, the largest political division was the <a href="/wiki/Circuit_(administrative_division)#China" title="Circuit (administrative division)">circuit</a> (道), followed by <a href="/wiki/Circuit_(administrative_division)#China" title="Circuit (administrative division)">lù</a> (路), <a href="/wiki/Fu_(administrative_division)" title="Fu (administrative division)">fǔ</a> (府), and <a href="/wiki/Zhou_(country_subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou (country subdivision)">zhōu</a> (州). These are three kinds of prefecture-like divisions. The lowest political division was the <a href="/wiki/Counties_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Counties of the People's Republic of China">county</a> (縣). Basically, lù were higher than fǔ, which were higher than zhōu. However, the actual relationship between them could be very complicated. All of lù, fǔ, and zhōu could administer counties. Some fǔ and zhōu were directly administered by the province, while some existed inside a lù. A lù usually administered several counties, along with several fǔ and zhōu, and the fǔ or zhōu themselves could also administer their own counties. As a result, it is impossible to delineate exactly how many tiers of divisions there were under a province. This government structure at the provincial level was later inherited and modified by the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> dynasties. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Gallery" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 184.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 182.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_dynasty_iron_magic_square.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Magic square in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)"><noscript><img alt="Magic square in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Yuan_dynasty_iron_magic_square.jpg/274px-Yuan_dynasty_iron_magic_square.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1608" data-file-height="1409"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 183px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Yuan_dynasty_iron_magic_square.jpg/274px-Yuan_dynasty_iron_magic_square.jpg" data-alt="Magic square in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)" data-width="183" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Yuan_dynasty_iron_magic_square.jpg/411px-Yuan_dynasty_iron_magic_square.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Yuan_dynasty_iron_magic_square.jpg/548px-Yuan_dynasty_iron_magic_square.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Magic_square" title="Magic square">Magic square</a> in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 218px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 216px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png" class="mw-file-description" title="smelting machines (Yuan dynasty)"><noscript><img alt="smelting machines (Yuan dynasty)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/324px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png" decoding="async" width="216" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="592"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 216px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/324px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png" data-alt="smelting machines (Yuan dynasty)" data-width="216" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/487px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/649px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> machines (Yuan dynasty)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 118px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 116px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B0%B4%E8%BD%AE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Water wheel (Yuan dynasty)"><noscript><img alt="Water wheel (Yuan dynasty)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/%E6%B0%B4%E8%BD%AE.jpg/174px-%E6%B0%B4%E8%BD%AE.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 116px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/%E6%B0%B4%E8%BD%AE.jpg/174px-%E6%B0%B4%E8%BD%AE.jpg" data-alt="Water wheel (Yuan dynasty)" data-width="116" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/%E6%B0%B4%E8%BD%AE.jpg/261px-%E6%B0%B4%E8%BD%AE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/%E6%B0%B4%E8%BD%AE.jpg/348px-%E6%B0%B4%E8%BD%AE.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Water wheel (Yuan dynasty)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 118.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 116.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B0%B4%E9%94%A4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Water hammer (Yuan dynasty)"><noscript><img alt="Water hammer (Yuan dynasty)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E6%B0%B4%E9%94%A4.jpg/175px-%E6%B0%B4%E9%94%A4.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="729" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 117px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E6%B0%B4%E9%94%A4.jpg/175px-%E6%B0%B4%E9%94%A4.jpg" data-alt="Water hammer (Yuan dynasty)" data-width="117" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E6%B0%B4%E9%94%A4.jpg/262px-%E6%B0%B4%E9%94%A4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E6%B0%B4%E9%94%A4.jpg/350px-%E6%B0%B4%E9%94%A4.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Water hammer (Yuan dynasty)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 120px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 118px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%BA%BA%E7%BB%87%E6%9C%BA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Weaving machine (Yuan dynasty)"><noscript><img alt="Weaving machine (Yuan dynasty)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E7%BA%BA%E7%BB%87%E6%9C%BA.jpg/177px-%E7%BA%BA%E7%BB%87%E6%9C%BA.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 118px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E7%BA%BA%E7%BB%87%E6%9C%BA.jpg/177px-%E7%BA%BA%E7%BB%87%E6%9C%BA.jpg" data-alt="Weaving machine (Yuan dynasty)" data-width="118" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E7%BA%BA%E7%BB%87%E6%9C%BA.jpg/265px-%E7%BA%BA%E7%BB%87%E6%9C%BA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E7%BA%BA%E7%BB%87%E6%9C%BA.jpg/353px-%E7%BA%BA%E7%BB%87%E6%9C%BA.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Weaving machine (Yuan dynasty)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 120px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 118px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B0%B4%E7%A3%A8%E9%BD%BF%E8%BD%AE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="water mill gear (Yuan dynasty)"><noscript><img alt="water mill gear (Yuan dynasty)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/%E6%B0%B4%E7%A3%A8%E9%BD%BF%E8%BD%AE.jpg/177px-%E6%B0%B4%E7%A3%A8%E9%BD%BF%E8%BD%AE.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 118px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/%E6%B0%B4%E7%A3%A8%E9%BD%BF%E8%BD%AE.jpg/177px-%E6%B0%B4%E7%A3%A8%E9%BD%BF%E8%BD%AE.jpg" data-alt="water mill gear (Yuan dynasty)" data-width="118" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/%E6%B0%B4%E7%A3%A8%E9%BD%BF%E8%BD%AE.jpg/265px-%E6%B0%B4%E7%A3%A8%E9%BD%BF%E8%BD%AE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/%E6%B0%B4%E7%A3%A8%E9%BD%BF%E8%BD%AE.jpg/354px-%E6%B0%B4%E7%A3%A8%E9%BD%BF%E8%BD%AE.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">water mill gear (Yuan dynasty)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 119.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 117.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%A6%E7%BB%87%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%BA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="loom (Yuan dynasty)"><noscript><img alt="loom (Yuan dynasty)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%A6%E7%BB%87%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%BA.jpg/176px-%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%A6%E7%BB%87%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%BA.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="1450"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 118px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%A6%E7%BB%87%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%BA.jpg/176px-%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%A6%E7%BB%87%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%BA.jpg" data-alt="loom (Yuan dynasty)" data-width="118" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%A6%E7%BB%87%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%BA.jpg/264px-%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%A6%E7%BB%87%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%BA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%A6%E7%BB%87%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%BA.jpg/352px-%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%A6%E7%BB%87%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%BA.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">loom (Yuan dynasty)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 350px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 348px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhao_Mengfu1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Yuan painting (Zhao Mengfu)"><noscript><img alt="Yuan painting (Zhao Mengfu)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Zhao_Mengfu1.jpg/522px-Zhao_Mengfu1.jpg" decoding="async" width="348" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="265"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 348px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Zhao_Mengfu1.jpg/522px-Zhao_Mengfu1.jpg" data-alt="Yuan painting (Zhao Mengfu)" data-width="348" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Zhao_Mengfu1.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Yuan painting (<a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mengfu" title="Zhao Mengfu">Zhao Mengfu</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 142.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 140.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chuangzi Nu (Yuan dynasty)[166]"><noscript><img alt="Chuangzi Nu (Yuan dynasty)[166]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg/211px-Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 141px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg/211px-Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg" data-alt="Chuangzi Nu (Yuan dynasty)[166]" data-width="141" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg/317px-Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chuangzi Nu (Yuan dynasty)<a href="#cite_note-bm-170">[166]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 97.333333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 95.333333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Skanda_detail_heart_sutra_zhao_mengfu.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Military costume."><noscript><img alt="Military costume." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Skanda_detail_heart_sutra_zhao_mengfu.jpeg/143px-Skanda_detail_heart_sutra_zhao_mengfu.jpeg" decoding="async" width="96" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="628" data-file-height="1052"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 96px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Skanda_detail_heart_sutra_zhao_mengfu.jpeg/143px-Skanda_detail_heart_sutra_zhao_mengfu.jpeg" data-alt="Military costume." data-width="96" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Skanda_detail_heart_sutra_zhao_mengfu.jpeg/215px-Skanda_detail_heart_sutra_zhao_mengfu.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Skanda_detail_heart_sutra_zhao_mengfu.jpeg/286px-Skanda_detail_heart_sutra_zhao_mengfu.jpeg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Military costume.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 80px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 78px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Immortal_Riding_a_Dragon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a dragon."><noscript><img alt="Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a dragon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Immortal_Riding_a_Dragon.jpg/117px-Immortal_Riding_a_Dragon.jpg" decoding="async" width="78" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1013" data-file-height="2070"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 78px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Immortal_Riding_a_Dragon.jpg/117px-Immortal_Riding_a_Dragon.jpg" data-alt="Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a dragon." data-width="78" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Immortal_Riding_a_Dragon.jpg/176px-Immortal_Riding_a_Dragon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Immortal_Riding_a_Dragon.jpg/235px-Immortal_Riding_a_Dragon.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a <a href="/wiki/Dragon" title="Dragon">dragon</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 241.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 239.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Horse_and_Groom,_after_Li_Gonglin_by_Zhao_Yong.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Yuan cavalry"><noscript><img alt="Yuan cavalry" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Horse_and_Groom%2C_after_Li_Gonglin_by_Zhao_Yong.jpg/359px-Horse_and_Groom%2C_after_Li_Gonglin_by_Zhao_Yong.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="956" data-file-height="640"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 240px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Horse_and_Groom%2C_after_Li_Gonglin_by_Zhao_Yong.jpg/359px-Horse_and_Groom%2C_after_Li_Gonglin_by_Zhao_Yong.jpg" data-alt="Yuan cavalry" data-width="240" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Horse_and_Groom%2C_after_Li_Gonglin_by_Zhao_Yong.jpg/538px-Horse_and_Groom%2C_after_Li_Gonglin_by_Zhao_Yong.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Horse_and_Groom%2C_after_Li_Gonglin_by_Zhao_Yong.jpg/717px-Horse_and_Groom%2C_after_Li_Gonglin_by_Zhao_Yong.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Yuan <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 174px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Jiang_Ge.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Yuan Mongol soldier"><noscript><img alt="Yuan Mongol soldier" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Jiang_Ge.JPG" decoding="async" width="172" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="190"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 172px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Jiang_Ge.JPG" data-alt="Yuan Mongol soldier" data-width="172" data-height="160" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Yuan Mongol soldier</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 115.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 113.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Qubilai_Setsen_Khaan.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan during his youth"><noscript><img alt="Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan during his youth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Qubilai_Setsen_Khaan.JPG/170px-Qubilai_Setsen_Khaan.JPG" decoding="async" width="114" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="335" data-file-height="473"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 114px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Qubilai_Setsen_Khaan.JPG/170px-Qubilai_Setsen_Khaan.JPG" data-alt="Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan during his youth" data-width="114" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Qubilai_Setsen_Khaan.JPG/255px-Qubilai_Setsen_Khaan.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Qubilai_Setsen_Khaan.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>'s grandson, <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> during his youth</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 209.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 207.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%85%83%E8%B4%9F%E5%9B%8A%E9%AA%91%E9%A9%AC%E4%BF%91.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mongol rider (Yuan dynasty)"><noscript><img alt="Mongol rider (Yuan dynasty)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/%E5%85%83%E8%B4%9F%E5%9B%8A%E9%AA%91%E9%A9%AC%E4%BF%91.jpg/311px-%E5%85%83%E8%B4%9F%E5%9B%8A%E9%AA%91%E9%A9%AC%E4%BF%91.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4476" data-file-height="3456"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 208px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/%E5%85%83%E8%B4%9F%E5%9B%8A%E9%AA%91%E9%A9%AC%E4%BF%91.jpg/311px-%E5%85%83%E8%B4%9F%E5%9B%8A%E9%AA%91%E9%A9%AC%E4%BF%91.jpg" data-alt="Mongol rider (Yuan dynasty)" data-width="208" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/%E5%85%83%E8%B4%9F%E5%9B%8A%E9%AA%91%E9%A9%AC%E4%BF%91.jpg/466px-%E5%85%83%E8%B4%9F%E5%9B%8A%E9%AA%91%E9%A9%AC%E4%BF%91.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/%E5%85%83%E8%B4%9F%E5%9B%8A%E9%AA%91%E9%A9%AC%E4%BF%91.jpg/622px-%E5%85%83%E8%B4%9F%E5%9B%8A%E9%AA%91%E9%A9%AC%E4%BF%91.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mongol rider (Yuan dynasty)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 242px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_stone_Nestorian_inscription_(rep).JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese stone inscription of a Nestorian Christian Cross from Cross Temple in Beijing (then called Dadu, or Khanbaliq), dated to the Yuan dynasty"><noscript><img alt="Chinese stone inscription of a Nestorian Christian Cross from Cross Temple in Beijing (then called Dadu, or Khanbaliq), dated to the Yuan dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Yuan_stone_Nestorian_inscription_%28rep%29.JPG/360px-Yuan_stone_Nestorian_inscription_%28rep%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 240px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Yuan_stone_Nestorian_inscription_%28rep%29.JPG/360px-Yuan_stone_Nestorian_inscription_%28rep%29.JPG" data-alt="Chinese stone inscription of a Nestorian Christian Cross from Cross Temple in Beijing (then called Dadu, or Khanbaliq), dated to the Yuan dynasty" data-width="240" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Yuan_stone_Nestorian_inscription_%28rep%29.JPG/540px-Yuan_stone_Nestorian_inscription_%28rep%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Yuan_stone_Nestorian_inscription_%28rep%29.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chinese stone inscription of a <a href="/wiki/Nestorian" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian">Nestorian</a> <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian Cross">Christian Cross</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cross_Temple,_Fangshan" title="Cross Temple, Fangshan">Cross Temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> (then called Dadu, or <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a>), dated to the Yuan dynasty</div> </li> </ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" 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dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty">List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Yuan_Dynasty_and_Northern_Yuan_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Emperor's family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_rulers" title="List of Mongol rulers">List of Mongol rulers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mongolia" title="History of Mongolia">History of Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty">Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia">Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">Tibet under Yuan rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Yuan_rule" title="Mongolia under Yuan rule">Mongolia under Yuan rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Yuan_rule" title="Manchuria under Yuan rule">Manchuria under Yuan rule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_coinage" title="Yuan dynasty coinage">Yuan dynasty coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Islam during the Yuan dynasty">Islam during the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Medieval_China" title="Europeans in Medieval China">Europeans in Medieval China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua-Yi_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Hua-Yi distinction">Hua-Yi distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun_ware" title="Jun ware">Jun ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">List of largest empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Qiuyan" title="Wu Qiuyan">Wu Qiuyan</a></li></ul></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-goryeo-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-goryeo_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-goryeo_5-1">b</a> The precise status of <a href="/wiki/Goryeo_under_Mongol_rule" title="Goryeo under Mongol rule">Goryeo under Mongol rule</a> is unclear. While Goryeo was a vassal of the Yuan dynasty, many scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Tan_Qixiang" title="Tan Qixiang">Tan Qixiang</a>, regard it as an autonomous state outside the Yuan territory;<a href="#cite_note-tan-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994436%E2%80%93437-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198877-4">[4]</a> others regard it as an integral part of the Yuan territory. </li> <li id="cite_note-GreatYuan-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GreatYuan_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GreatYuan_6-1">b</a> As per modern historiographical norm, the "Yuan dynasty" in this article refers exclusively to the realm based in <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Dadu</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>). However, the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a>-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" (大元) as proclaimed by Kublai in 1271, as well as the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant to be applied to the entire <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Proclamation1271-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreatYuan1-16">[12]</a> In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">disintegrated nature</a> of the Mongol Empire. </li> <li id="cite_note-Emperor-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Emperor_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Emperor_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Emperor_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Emperor_10-3">d</a> Since the enthronement of <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> (成吉思皇帝; Chéngjísī huángdì) in Spring 1206.<a href="#cite_note-Enthronement1206-8">[6]</a> Decades before <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> announced the dynastic name "Great Yuan" in 1271, the "Great Mongol State" (Yeke Mongγol Ulus) already used the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a>-style title of <a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">Emperor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 皇帝; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Huángdì) to translate title <a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 合罕; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Héhàn, Great Khan) in <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a> Although Kublai Khan announced that he inherited the Mongol throne, <a href="/wiki/Toluid_Civil_War" title="Toluid Civil War">Toluid Civil War</a> broke out due to opposition from other Mongols. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Modern <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a> form commonly used by Chinese and Mongolian academics: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Mongolian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Mongolian language">Middle Mongolian</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠳᠠᠢ ᠦᠨ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ, Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus or Их Юань улс in Modern <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Cyrillic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian Cyrillic">Mongolian Cyrillic</a>, Ikh Yuan Üls/Yekhe Yuan Ulus.<a href="#cite_note-14">[11]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Citations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWalter_Koh2014" class="citation web cs1">Walter Koh, ed. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinasymposium.com/articles/History/History_Chapter_Eight.pdf">"China under Mongol Rule: The Yuan dynasty"</a> (PDF). China Symposium.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Symposium&rft.atitle=China+under+Mongol+Rule%3A+The+Yuan+dynasty&rft.date=2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinasymposium.com%2Farticles%2FHistory%2FHistory_Chapter_Eight.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tan-2"><a href="#cite_ref-tan_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTan_Qixiang1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Tan_Qixiang" title="Tan Qixiang">Tan Qixiang</a>; et al. (1987). <a href="/wiki/The_Historical_Atlas_of_China" title="The Historical Atlas of China"> <bdi lang="zh">《中国历史地图集》</bdi></a> [The Historical Atlas of China] (in Simplified Chinese). <a href="/wiki/SinoMaps_Press" title="SinoMaps Press">SinoMaps Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guoxue123.com/other/map/zgmap/013.htm">Vol. 7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5031-1844-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5031-1844-9"><bdi>978-7-5031-1844-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%9C%B0%E5%9B%BE%E9%9B%86%E3%80%8B&rft.pages=Vol.+7&rft.pub=SinoMaps+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-7-5031-1844-9&rft.au=Tan+Qixiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1994436–437-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi1994436%E2%80%93437_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi1994436%E2%80%93437_3-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRossabi1994">Rossabi 1994</a>, pp. 436–437. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198877-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198877_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198877_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198877_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198877_4-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_West2006" class="citation web cs1">Andrew West, ed. (21 December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.babelstone.co.uk/Phags-pa/Description.html">"'Phags-pa Script: Description"</a>. BabelStone. Retrieved 22 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BabelStone&rft.atitle=%27Phags-pa+Script%3A+Description&rft.date=2006-12-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.babelstone.co.uk%2FPhags-pa%2FDescription.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Enthronement1206-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Enthronement1206_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Enthronement1206_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSong_Lian1976" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Song_Lian" title="Song Lian">Song Lian</a> (1976) [1370]. "<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E5%85%83%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7001" class="extiw" title="zh:s:元史/卷001">太祖本紀</a> [Chronicle of <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Taizu</a>]". <bdi lang="zh">《元史》</bdi> [<a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan">History of Yuan</a>] (in Literary Chinese). Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju. <q>元年丙寅，帝大會諸王群臣，建<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%9D%E6%96%BF%E7%99%BD%E7%BA%9B" class="extiw" title="zh:九斿白纛">九游白纛</a>，即皇帝位於斡難河之源。諸王群臣共上尊號曰成吉思皇帝。" "In <a href="/wiki/1206" title="1206">the first year</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Sexagenary_cycle" title="Sexagenary cycle">bingyin</a> day, the emperor greatly assembled the many princes and numerous vassals, and erected his nine-tailed white <a href="/wiki/Tug_(banner)" title="Tug (banner)">tuğ banner</a>, assuming the position of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a> at the source of the <a href="/wiki/Onon_(river)" title="Onon (river)">Onon river</a>. And the many princes and numerous vassals together bestowed upon him the reverent title <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>Genghis Huangdi.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E6%9C%AC%E7%B4%80+%5BChronicle+of+Taizu%5D&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E5%85%83%E5%8F%B2%E3%80%8B&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=Zhonghua+Shuju&rft.date=1976&rft.au=Song+Lian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang_Fuxue_(杨富学)1997" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">Yang Fuxue (杨富学) (1997). <bdi lang="zh">回鹘文献所见蒙古"合罕"称号之使用范围</bdi> [The scope of use of Mongolian "Khagan" title found in Old Uyghur literature]. 内蒙古社会科学 [Inner Mongolia Social Sciences] (5). 甘肃敦煌研究院. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224535800">224535800</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%E5%86%85%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6+%5BInner+Mongolia+Social+Sciences%5D&rft.atitle=%E5%9B%9E%E9%B9%98%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E6%89%80%E8%A7%81%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%22%E5%90%88%E7%BD%95%22%E7%A7%B0%E5%8F%B7%E4%B9%8B%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8%E8%8C%83%E5%9B%B4&rft.issue=5&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224535800%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Yang+Fuxue+%28%E6%9D%A8%E5%AF%8C%E5%AD%A6%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Proclamation1271-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Proclamation1271_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proclamation1271_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proclamation1271_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proclamation1271_11-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proclamation1271_11-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proclamation1271_11-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKublai_Emperor1271" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Emperor</a> (18 December 1271), <a class="external text" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%BB%BA%E5%9C%8B%E8%99%9F%E8%A9%94"><bdi lang="zh">《建國號詔》</bdi></a> [Edict to Establish the Name of the State], 《元典章》[Statutes of Yuan] (in Literary Chinese)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E5%BB%BA%E5%9C%8B%E8%99%9F%E8%A9%94%E3%80%8B&rft.series=%E3%80%8A%E5%85%83%E5%85%B8%E7%AB%A0%E3%80%8B%5B%27%27Statutes+of+Yuan%27%27%5D&rft.date=1271&rft.au=Kublai+Emperor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2F%E5%BB%BA%E5%9C%8B%E8%99%9F%E8%A9%94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaagepera1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Taagepera, Rein</a> (September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/content/qt3cn68807/qt3cn68807.pdf?t=otc3in">"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/International_Studies_Quarterly" title="International Studies Quarterly">International Studies Quarterly</a>. 41 (3): 499. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053">10.1111/0020-8833.00053</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793">2600793</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Expansion+and+Contraction+Patterns+of+Large+Polities%3A+Context+for+Russia&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=499&rft.date=1997-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2600793%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Taagepera&rft.aufirst=Rein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fcontent%2Fqt3cn68807%2Fqt3cn68807.pdf%3Ft%3Dotc3in&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CivilSociety-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CivilSociety_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CivilSociety_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon2013" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Karla W. (26 April 2013). Civil Society in China: The Legal Framework from Ancient Times to the 'New Reform Era'. Oxford University Press. p. 39 n. 69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199765898.003.0002">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199765898.003.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190297640" title="Special:BookSources/9780190297640"><bdi>9780190297640</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+Society+in+China%3A+The+Legal+Framework+from+Ancient+Times+to+the+%27New+Reform+Era%27&rft.pages=39+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3En.+69%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013-04-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199765898.003.0002&rft.isbn=9780190297640&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Karla+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mongoltoli.mn/history/h/418">"ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠨ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠶᠤᠸᠠᠨ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ"</a> (in Mongolian). Монголын түүхийн тайлбар толь. 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E1%A0%AE%E1%A0%A3%E1%A0%A9%E1%A0%AD%E1%A0%A3%E1%A0%AF+%E1%A0%A4%E1%A0%A8+%E1%A0%B6%E1%A0%A1%E1%A0%AC%E1%A0%A1+%E1%A0%B6%E1%A0%A4%E1%A0%B8%E1%A0%A0%E1%A0%A8+%E1%A0%A4%E1%A0%AF%E1%A0%A4%E1%A0%B0&rft.pub=%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD+%D1%82%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD+%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80+%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmongoltoli.mn%2Fhistory%2Fh%2F418&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GreatYuan1-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GreatYuan1_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GreatYuan1_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GreatYuan1_16-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2019" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, David (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=itKyDwAAQBAJ&q=great+yuan+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA50">In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48244-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48244-8"><bdi>978-1-108-48244-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Shadow+of+the+Mongol+Empire%3A+Ming+China+and+Eurasia&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-108-48244-8&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DitKyDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dgreat%2Byuan%2Bentire%2Bmongol%2Bempire%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2009" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, David (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDjWpqU55eMC&q=great+yuan+refer+to+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA293">Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols</a>. Harvard–Yenching Institute Monograph Series 68 Studies in East Asian Law. Brill. p. 293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03608-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03608-6"><bdi>978-0-674-03608-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire%27s+Twilight%3A+Northeast+Asia+Under+the+Mongols&rft.series=Harvard%E2%80%93Yenching+Institute+Monograph+Series+68+Studies+in+East+Asian+Law&rft.pages=293&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03608-6&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPDjWpqU55eMC%26q%3Dgreat%2Byuan%2Brefer%2Bto%2Bentire%2Bmongol%2Bempire%26pg%3DPA293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodong_Kim2018" class="citation book cs1">Hodong Kim (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6p1WDwAAQBAJ&q=great+yuan+refer+to+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA45">"Mongol Perceptions of "China" and the Yuan Dynasty"</a>. In Brook, Timothy; Walt van Praag, Michael van; Boltjes, Miek (eds.). Sacred Mandates: Asian International Relations since Chinggis Khan. University of Chicago Press. pp. 45–56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-56293-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-56293-3"><bdi>978-0-226-56293-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mongol+Perceptions+of+%22China%22+and+the+Yuan+Dynasty&rft.btitle=Sacred+Mandates%3A+Asian+International+Relations+since+Chinggis+Khan&rft.pages=45-56&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-226-56293-3&rft.au=Hodong+Kim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6p1WDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dgreat%2Byuan%2Brefer%2Bto%2Bentire%2Bmongol%2Bempire%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> At p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1994624-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote1994624_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMote1994">Mote 1994</a>, p. 624. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mongol_Empire_p.611-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mongol_Empire_p.611_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mongol_Empire_p.611_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mongol_Empire_p.611_18-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtwood2004" class="citation book cs1">Atwood, Christopher Pratt (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo0000atwo">Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</a>. <a href="/wiki/Facts_On_File" class="mw-redirect" title="Facts On File">Facts On File</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4671-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4671-3"><bdi>978-0-8160-4671-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Mongolia+and+the+Mongol+Empire&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-4671-3&rft.aulast=Atwood&rft.aufirst=Christopher+Pratt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofmo0000atwo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-San-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-San_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-San_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSan2014" class="citation book cs1">San, Tan Koon (2014). Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Kuala Lumpur: The Other Press. pp. 312, 323. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-983-9541-88-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-983-9541-88-5"><bdi>978-983-9541-88-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/898313910">898313910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dynastic+China%3A+An+Elementary+History&rft.place=Kuala+Lumpur&rft.pages=312%2C+323&rft.pub=The+Other+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F898313910&rft.isbn=978-983-9541-88-5&rft.aulast=San&rft.aufirst=Tan+Koon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEberhard1971" class="citation book cs1">Eberhard, Wolfram (1971). A History of China (3rd ed.). Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-01518-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-01518-5"><bdi>0-520-01518-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+China&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pages=232&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-520-01518-5&rft.aulast=Eberhard&rft.aufirst=Wolfram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranke1953" class="citation journal cs1">Franke, Herbert (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1665DFfIcjI.pdf">"Could the Mongol emperors read and write Chinese?"</a> (PDF). Asia Major. Second series. 3 (1). Academica Sinica: 28–41.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia+Major&rft.atitle=Could+the+Mongol+emperors+read+and+write+Chinese%3F&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=28-41&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Franke&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw%2Ffile%2F1665DFfIcjI.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._J._Saunders" class="mw-redirect" title="J. J. Saunders">Saunders, John Joseph</a> (2001) [1971]. The History of the Mongol Conquests. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1766-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1766-7"><bdi>978-0-8122-1766-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Mongol+Conquests&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1766-7&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=John+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrousset1939" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Grousset" title="René Grousset">Grousset, René</a> (1939). L'empire des steppes: Attila, Gengis-Khan, Tamerlan [The Empire of Steppes] (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27empire+des+steppes%3A+Attila%2C+Gengis-Khan%2C+Tamerlan&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=Grousset&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/zh:%E5%91%A8%E6%98%93/%E4%B9%BE">"周易·乾卦·彖傳" </a>. <bdi lang="zh">《易傳》</bdi> [<a href="/wiki/Ten_Wings" title="Ten Wings">Commentaries</a> on the I Ching] (in Traditional Chinese). <q>《彖》曰：大哉乾元，萬物資始，乃統天。</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E5%91%A8%E6%98%93%C2%B7%E4%B9%BE%E5%8D%A6%C2%B7%E5%BD%96%E5%82%B3&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E6%98%93%E5%82%B3%E3%80%8B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mname-25"><a href="#cite_ref-mname_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolker_RybatzkiAlessandra_PozziPeter_W._GeierJohn_R._Krueger2009" class="citation book cs1">Volker Rybatzki; Alessandra Pozzi; Peter W. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/m/jiangsu/suzhou/travel/2012-03/26/content_14912380.htm">the original</a> on 21 August 2021 – via China Daily.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Suzhou+Official+Travel+and+Tourism+website&rft.atitle=Taicang%27s+five+Yuan+Dynasty+bridges&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinadaily.com.cn%2Fm%2Fjiangsu%2Fsuzhou%2Ftravel%2F2012-03%2F26%2Fcontent_14912380.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>]<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLing_Dingnian_(凌鼎年)2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ling Dingnian (凌鼎年) (2016). Taicang Shihua <bdi lang="zh">太仓史话</bdi> (in Chinese). <a href="/wiki/Social_Sciences_Literature_Press" title="Social Sciences Literature Press">Social Sciences Literature Press</a>. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5097-8262-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5097-8262-0"><bdi>978-7-5097-8262-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taicang+Shihua+%E5%A4%AA%E4%BB%93%E5%8F%B2%E8%AF%9D&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Social+Sciences+Literature+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-7-5097-8262-0&rft.au=Ling+Dingnian+%28%E5%87%8C%E9%BC%8E%E5%B9%B4%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSun_Hai_(孙海)Lin_Xinjian_(蔺新建)2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sun Hai (孙海); Lin Xinjian (蔺新建) (2006). <bdi lang="zh">中国考古集成: 宋元明清</bdi> [Chinese Archaeology Collections: Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing] (in Chinese). <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%B7%9E%E5%8F%A4%E7%B1%8D%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE" class="extiw" title="zh:中州古籍出版社">Central States Ancient Books Publishing House</a>. p. 14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E8%80%83%E5%8F%A4%E9%9B%86%E6%88%90%3A+%E5%AE%8B%E5%85%83%E6%98%8E%E6%B8%85&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Central+States+Ancient+Books+Publishing+House&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Sun+Hai+%28%E5%AD%99%E6%B5%B7%29&rft.au=Lin+Xinjian+%28%E8%94%BA%E6%96%B0%E5%BB%BA%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaw2006" class="citation cs2">Haw, Stephen G. 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Harrassowitz Verlag: 36–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.13173%2FCAJ%2F2008%2F1%2F4">10.13173/CAJ/2008/1/4</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256889989">256889989</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Central+Asiatic+Journal&rft.atitle=An+Initial+Study+for+Mongolian+Factors+inside+the+Rasulid+Hexaglot&rft.volume=52&rft.pages=36-54&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13173%2FCAJ%2F2008%2F1%2F4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256889989%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=Kai-Lung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3725455&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li 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Richmond: Curzon Press. pp. 24, 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1026-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1026-3"><bdi>978-0-7007-1026-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Muslim+Hui+community%3A+migration%2C+settlement+and+sects&rft.place=Richmond&rft.pages=24%2C+34&rft.pub=Curzon+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3&rft.au=Michael+Dillon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhUEswLE4SWUC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohan_Elverskog2010" class="citation book cs1">Johan Elverskog (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&pg=PA228">Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4237-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4237-9"><bdi>978-0-8122-4237-9</bdi></a>. 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The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology. p. 12. 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Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-230-837-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-230-837-5"><bdi>978-981-230-837-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cheng+Ho+and+Islam+in+Southeast+Asia&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=Institute+of+Southeast+Asian+Studies&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-981-230-837-5&rft.au=Tan+Ta+Sen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvIUmU2ytmIIC%26q%3Dzhu%2Byuanzhang%2Bmosques%26pg%3DPA170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChow2012" class="citation web cs1">Chow, Chung-wah (7 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130218090946/http://travel.cnn.com/quanzhou-chinas-forgotten-historic-port-258149/">"What to do in Quanzhou: China's forgotten historic port"</a>. 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Mote">Mote, Frederick W.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC&pg=PA490">Imperial China 900–1800</a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 489–490. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01212-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01212-7"><bdi>978-0-674-01212-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+China+900%E2%80%931800&rft.pages=489-490&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01212-7&rft.aulast=Mote&rft.aufirst=Frederick+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSQWW7QgUH4gC%26pg%3DPA490&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKupfer2008" class="citation book cs1">Kupfer, Peter (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hCJNQPszu5sC&pg=PA189">Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China</a>. Peter Lang. p. 189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-631-57533-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-631-57533-8"><bdi>978-3-631-57533-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Youtai+-+Presence+and+Perception+of+Jews+and+Judaism+in+China&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-631-57533-8&rft.aulast=Kupfer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhCJNQPszu5sC%26pg%3DPA189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2008" class="citation book cs1">Zhao, George Qingzhi (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XnIIbzweN7IC&pg=PA24">Marriage as Political Strategy and Cultural Expression: Mongolian Royal Marriages from World Empire to Yuan Dynasty</a>. Peter Lang. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4331-0275-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4331-0275-2"><bdi>978-1-4331-0275-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marriage+as+Political+Strategy+and+Cultural+Expression%3A+Mongolian+Royal+Marriages+from+World+Empire+to+Yuan+Dynasty&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4331-0275-2&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=George+Qingzhi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXnIIbzweN7IC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Natsagdorj, S., and C. Dalai. 2003. "Yuan gürnii üyeiin Mongol oron." In Mongol Ulsiin Tuukh, vol. 2: XII-XIV Zuunii Dund üy, edited by C. Dalai and T. Ishdorj. Ulaanbaatar: Admon, p. 225 </li> <li id="cite_note-Haw-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haw_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haw_151-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haw_151-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaw2014" class="citation conference cs1">Haw, Stephen G. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7542628">The Semu ren in the Yuan Empire – who were they?</a>. Joint Research Conference of the Institute for Advanced Studies and the Israel Science Foundation. Jerusalem: Academia.edu. Retrieved 27 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+Semu+ren+in+the+Yuan+Empire+%E2%80%93+who+were+they%3F&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pub=Academia.edu&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Haw&rft.aufirst=Stephen+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7542628&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rossabi1983-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rossabi1983_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rossabi1983_152-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rossabi1983_152-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossabi1983" class="citation book cs1">Rossabi, Morris (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&pg=PA247">China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries</a>. University of California Press. pp. 247, 255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04562-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04562-0"><bdi>978-0-520-04562-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Among+Equals%3A+The+Middle+Kingdom+and+Its+Neighbors%2C+10th-14th+Centuries&rft.pages=247%2C+255&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04562-0&rft.aulast=Rossabi&rft.aufirst=Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsNpD5UKmkswC%26pg%3DPA247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang_Jianping2007" class="citation book cs1">Wang Jianping (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sTPPAsiFDS4C&pg=PA265">"Islam and Christianity in the Social Context of China"</a>. In Zhao Dunhua (ed.). Dialogues of Philosophies, Religions and Civilizations in the Era of Globalization. San Antonio: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy. pp. 261–278. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781565182431" title="Special:BookSources/9781565182431"><bdi>9781565182431</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islam+and+Christianity+in+the+Social+Context+of+China&rft.btitle=Dialogues+of+Philosophies%2C+Religions+and+Civilizations+in+the+Era+of+Globalization&rft.place=San+Antonio&rft.pages=261-278&rft.pub=Council+for+Research+in+Values+and+Philosophy&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781565182431&rft.au=Wang+Jianping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsTPPAsiFDS4C%26pg%3DPA265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang_Guangda2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Zhang Guangda (2000). "27. China". In M. A. Al-Bakhit; Louis Bazin; Sékéné Mody Cissoko (eds.). History of Humanity: Scientific and Cultural Development. Vol. IV: From the seventh to the sixteenth century. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84226-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84226-6"><bdi>978-0-521-84226-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Empire+of+the+Qara+Khitai+in+Eurasian+History%3A+Between+China+and+the+Islamic+World&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84226-6&rft.aulast=Biran&rft.aufirst=Michal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB934LaVBaz8C%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-barthold-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-barthold_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-barthold_156-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._Barthold1928" class="citation book cs1">W. Barthold, ed. (1928). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=35pFAQAAIAAJ">Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion</a>. E.J.W. Gibb memorial series (2nd ed.). p. 451.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turkestan+Down+to+the+Mongol+Invasion&rft.series=E.J.W.+Gibb+memorial+series&rft.pages=451&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1928&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D35pFAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBretschneider1888" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emil_Bretschneider" title="Emil Bretschneider">Bretschneider, Emil</a> (1888). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html">"The Travels of Ch'ang Ch'un to the West, 1220–1223 recorded by his disciple Li Chi Ch'ang"</a>. Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources. Barnes & Noble. pp. 37–108.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Travels+of+Ch%27ang+Ch%27un+to+the+West%2C+1220%E2%80%931223+recorded+by+his+disciple+Li+Chi+Ch%27ang&rft.btitle=Medi%C3%A6val+Researches+from+Eastern+Asiatic+Sources&rft.pages=37-108&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=1888&rft.aulast=Bretschneider&rft.aufirst=Emil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fsilkroad%2Ftexts%2Fchangchun.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"> <bdi lang="zh">《元史》</bdi> [<a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan">History of Yuan</a>] (in Traditional Chinese).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E5%85%83%E5%8F%B2%E3%80%8B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">not specific enough to verify</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiao1994491–492-159"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsiao1994491%E2%80%93492_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHsiao1994">Hsiao 1994</a>, pp. 491–492. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982135-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982135_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorgan1982">Morgan 1982</a>, p. 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982124–136-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982124%E2%80%93136_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorgan1982">Morgan 1982</a>, pp. 124–136. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEndicott-West1989" class="citation book cs1">Endicott-West, Elizabeth (1989). Mongolian Rule in China: Local Administration in the Yuan Dynasty. Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series 29. Brill. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9781684170050_004">10.1163/9781684170050_004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68417-005-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-68417-005-0"><bdi>978-1-68417-005-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mongolian+Rule+in+China%3A+Local+Administration+in+the+Yuan+Dynasty&rft.series=Harvard-Yenching+Institute+Monograph+Series+29&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9781684170050_004&rft.isbn=978-1-68417-005-0&rft.aulast=Endicott-West&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEndicott2005" class="citation book cs1">Endicott, Elizabeth (2005). "The Mongols and China: Cultural Contacts and the Changing Nature of Pastoral Nomadism (Twelfth to Early Twentieth Centuries)". In Reuven Amitai; Michal Biran (eds.). Mongols, Turks, and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World. Brill. pp. 461–482. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789047406334_021">10.1163/9789047406334_021</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-0633-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-474-0633-4"><bdi>978-90-474-0633-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245584164">245584164</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mongols+and+China%3A+Cultural+Contacts+and+the+Changing+Nature+of+Pastoral+Nomadism+%28Twelfth+to+Early+Twentieth+Centuries%29&rft.btitle=Mongols%2C+Turks%2C+and+Others%3A+Eurasian+Nomads+and+the+Sedentary+World&rft.pages=461-482&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245584164%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789047406334_021&rft.isbn=978-90-474-0633-4&rft.aulast=Endicott&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/scholarship.php?searchterm=005_dachang.inc&issue=005">"China's Islamic Communities Generate Local Histories: The Case of Dachang"</a>. China Heritage Quarterly (book review). No. 5. Australia National University. March 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1833-8461">1833-8461</a>. Retrieved 27 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+Heritage+Quarterly&rft.atitle=China%27s+Islamic+Communities+Generate+Local+Histories%3A+The+Case+of+Dachang&rft.issue=5&rft.date=2006-03&rft.issn=1833-8461&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinaheritagequarterly.org%2Fscholarship.php%3Fsearchterm%3D005_dachang.inc%26issue%3D005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu_Yingsheng_(刘迎胜)2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Liu Yingsheng (刘迎胜) (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GSA_AaRdgioC&pg=PA121">"Muslim Merchants in Mongol Yuan China"</a>. In Schottenhammer, Angela (ed.). The East Asian Mediterranean: Maritime Crossroads of Culture, Commerce and Human Migration. Vol. 6 of East Asian economic and socio-cultural studies: East Asian maritime history. Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 133–144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05809-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05809-4"><bdi>978-3-447-05809-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1860-1812">1860-1812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Muslim+Merchants+in+Mongol+Yuan+China&rft.btitle=The+East+Asian+Mediterranean%3A+Maritime+Crossroads+of+Culture%2C+Commerce+and+Human+Migration&rft.pages=133-144&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=1860-1812&rft.isbn=978-3-447-05809-4&rft.au=Liu+Yingsheng+%28%E5%88%98%E8%BF%8E%E8%83%9C%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGSA_AaRdgioC%26pg%3DPA121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaffee2018" class="citation book cs1">Chaffee, John W. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IfBmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA157">The Muslim Merchants of Premodern China: The History of a Maritime Asian Trade Diaspora, 750–1400</a>. New Approaches to Asian History. Cambridge University Press. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9780511998492.005">10.1017/9780511998492.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-64009-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-64009-1"><bdi>978-1-108-64009-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+Merchants+of+Premodern+China%3A+The+History+of+a+Maritime+Asian+Trade+Diaspora%2C+750%E2%80%931400&rft.series=New+Approaches+to+Asian+History&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9780511998492.005&rft.isbn=978-1-108-64009-1&rft.aulast=Chaffee&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIfBmDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003492-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote2003492_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMote2003">Mote 2003</a>, p. 492. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFunada_Yoshiyuki2010" class="citation conference cs1">Funada Yoshiyuki (6 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2439642">The Image of the Semu People: Mongols, Chinese, and Various Other Peoples under the Mongol Empire</a>. International Roundtable Entitled "The Nature of the Mongol Empire and Its Legacy". Centre for Studies in Asian Cultures and Social Anthropology, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna. Retrieved 27 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+Image+of+the+Semu+People%3A+Mongols%2C+Chinese%2C+and+Various+Other+Peoples+under+the+Mongol+Empire&rft.place=Centre+for+Studies+in+Asian+Cultures+and+Social+Anthropology%2C+Austrian+Academy+of+Sciences%2C+Vienna&rft.date=2010-11-06&rft.au=Funada+Yoshiyuki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2439642&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Duosang Mongol History, Vol. 1; Zhong-gou Tong-shi; History of Zhong-gou Border Nationalities; The New Yuan-shih[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-bm-170"><a href="#cite_ref-bm_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeong_Kit_Meng2006" class="citation web cs1">Leong Kit Meng, ed. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091202081843/http://www.grandhistorian.com/chinesesiegewarfare/index-english12122007.html">"Siege Weapons Types in Chinese Warfare"</a>. Chinese Siege Warfare. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.grandhistorian.com/chinesesiegewarfare/index-english12122007.html">the original</a> on 2 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Siege+Warfare&rft.atitle=Siege+Weapons+Types+in+Chinese+Warfare&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.grandhistorian.com%2Fchinesesiegewarfare%2Findex-english12122007.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Sources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllsen1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_T._Allsen" title="Thomas T. Allsen">Allsen, Thomas</a> (1994). "The rise of the Mongolian empire and Mongolian rule in north China". In <a href="/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Twitchett, Dennis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Franke_(sinologist)" title="Herbert Franke (sinologist)">Franke, Herbert</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iN9Tdfdap5MC">The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368</a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 321–413. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24331-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24331-5"><bdi>978-0-521-24331-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+rise+of+the+Mongolian+empire+and+Mongolian+rule+in+north+China&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Volume+6%3A+Alien+Regimes+and+Border+States%2C+907%E2%80%931368&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=321-413&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24331-5&rft.aulast=Allsen&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiN9Tdfdap5MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllsen2001" class="citation book cs1">Allsen, Thomas (2001). Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80335-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80335-9"><bdi>978-0-521-80335-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Conquest+in+Mongol+Eurasia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80335-9&rft.aulast=Allsen&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF陳學霖1991" class="citation journal cs1">陳學霖, Hok-Lam Chan (1991). ""Ta Chin" (Great Golden): The Origin and Changing Interpretations of the Jurchen State Name". T'oung Pao. Second Series. 77 (4/5): 253–299. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853291X00046">10.1163/156853291X00046</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4528536">4528536</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162236445">162236445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=T%27oung+Pao&rft.atitle=%22Ta+Chin%22+%28Great+Golden%29%3A+The+Origin+and+Changing+Interpretations+of+the+Jurchen+State+Name&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=4%2F5&rft.pages=253-299&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162236445%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4528536%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156853291X00046&rft.aulast=%E9%99%B3%E5%AD%B8%E9%9C%96&rft.aufirst=Hok-Lam+Chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDauben2007" class="citation book cs1">Dauben, Joseph (2007). 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Journal of the American Oriental Society. 118 (1): 54–62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F606298">10.2307/606298</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/606298">606298</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Nomads+on+Ponies+vs.+Slaves+on+Horses&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=54-62&rft.date=1998-01%2F1998-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F606298&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F606298%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=John+Masson+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu1950" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, K. T. (1950). "Chinese Printing under Four Alien Dynasties: (916-1368 A. D.)". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 13 (3/4): 447–523. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2718064">10.2307/2718064</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0073-0548">0073-0548</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718064">2718064</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Chinese+Printing+under+Four+Alien+Dynasties%3A+%28916-1368+A.+D.%29&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=447-523&rft.date=1950&rft.issn=0073-0548&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2718064%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2718064&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=K.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2006" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Gang (January 2006). "Reinventing China: Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century". Modern China. 32 (1): 3–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0097700405282349">10.1177/0097700405282349</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20062627">20062627</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144587815">144587815</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Reinventing+China%3A+Imperial+Qing+Ideology+and+the+Rise+of+Modern+Chinese+National+Identity+in+the+Early+Twentieth+Century&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-30&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144587815%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20062627%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0097700405282349&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Gang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Yuan dynasty <hr></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Yuan+dynasty">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Yuan+dynasty&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirge1995" class="citation journal cs1">Birge, Bettine (1995). "Levirate marriage and the revival of widow chastity in Yüan China". Asia Major. 3rd series. 8 (2): 107–146. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41645519">41645519</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia+Major&rft.atitle=Levirate+marriage+and+the+revival+of+widow+chastity+in+Y%C3%BCan+China&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=107-146&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41645519%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Birge&rft.aufirst=Bettine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Brook, Timothy. The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties (History of Imperial China) (Harvard UP, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Troubled-Empire-Dynasties-History-Imperial/dp/0674072537/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChande_Bary1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chan_Hok-lam" title="Chan Hok-lam">Chan, Hok-lam</a>; de Bary, W.T., eds. (1982). Yuan Thought: Chinese Thought and Religion Under the Mongols. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-05324-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-05324-2"><bdi>978-0-231-05324-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yuan+Thought%3A+Chinese+Thought+and+Religion+Under+the+Mongols&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-231-05324-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotterell2007" class="citation book cs1">Cotterell, Arthur (2007). The Imperial Capitals of China - An Inside View of the Celestial Empire. London, England: Pimlico. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84595-009-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84595-009-5"><bdi>978-1-84595-009-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Capitals+of+China+-+An+Inside+View+of+the+Celestial+Empire&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84595-009-5&rft.aulast=Cotterell&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDardess1994" class="citation book cs1">Dardess, John (1994). "Shun-ti and the end of Yuan rule in China". In <a href="/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Denis C. Twitchett</a>; <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Franke_(sinologist)" title="Herbert Franke (sinologist)">Herbert Franke</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_King_Fairbank" title="John King Fairbank">John King Fairbank</a> (eds.). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368. Cambridge University Press. pp. 561–586. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24331-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24331-5"><bdi>978-0-521-24331-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shun-ti+and+the+end+of+Yuan+rule+in+China&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Volume+6%2C+Alien+Regimes+and+Border+States%2C+710%E2%80%931368&rft.pages=561-586&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24331-5&rft.aulast=Dardess&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbrey2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Buckley_Ebrey" title="Patricia Buckley Ebrey">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley</a> (2009). Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook (2nd ed.). Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-8839-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-8839-2"><bdi>978-1-4391-8839-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Civilization%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-8839-2&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEndicott-West1986" class="citation journal cs1">Endicott-West, Elizabeth (1986). "Imperial governance in Yüan times". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 46 (2): 523–549. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2719142">10.2307/2719142</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2719142">2719142</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Imperial+governance+in+Y%C3%BCan+times&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=523-549&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2719142&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2719142%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Endicott-West&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEndicott-West1994" class="citation book cs1">Endicott-West, Elizabeth (1994). "The Yuan government and society". In Denis C. Twitchett; Herbert Franke (sinologist); John King Fairbank (eds.). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368. Cambridge University Press. pp. 587–615. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24331-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24331-5"><bdi>978-0-521-24331-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Yuan+government+and+society&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Volume+6%2C+Alien+Regimes+and+Border+States%2C+710%E2%80%931368&rft.pages=587-615&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24331-5&rft.aulast=Endicott-West&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanglois1981" class="citation book cs1">Langlois, John D. (1981). China Under Mongol Rule. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-10110-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-10110-1"><bdi>978-0-691-10110-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Under+Mongol+Rule&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-691-10110-1&rft.aulast=Langlois&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanglois1977" class="citation journal cs1">Langlois, John D. (1977). "Report on the research conference: The Impact of Mongol Domination on Chinese Civilization". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Song-Yuan_Studies" title="Journal of Song-Yuan Studies">Sung Studies Newsletter</a>. 13 (13): 82–90. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23497251">23497251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sung+Studies+Newsletter&rft.atitle=Report+on+the+research+conference%3A+The+Impact+of+Mongol+Domination+on+Chinese+Civilization&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=82-90&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23497251%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Langlois&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaludan1998" class="citation book cs1">Paludan, Ann (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chronicleofchine00palu">Chronicle of the China Emperors</a>. London, England: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05090-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05090-3"><bdi>978-0-500-05090-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicle+of+the+China+Emperors&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05090-3&rft.aulast=Paludan&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchronicleofchine00palu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2001" class="citation book cs1">Saunders, John Joseph (2001) [1971]. The History of the Mongol Conquests. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1766-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1766-7"><bdi>978-0-8122-1766-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Mongol+Conquests&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1766-7&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=John+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwen1997" class="citation book cs1">Owen, Stephen (1997). "The Yuan and Ming Dynasties". In <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Owen_(sinologist)" title="Stephen Owen (sinologist)">Stephen Owen</a> (ed.). An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911. New York: <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Norton">W. W. Norton</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303173356/http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/OwenSanqu.pdf">723–743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Yuan+and+Ming+Dynasties&rft.btitle=An+Anthology+of+Chinese+Literature%3A+Beginnings+to+1911&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=723-743&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYuan+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li>"Directory of Scholars Working in Sung, Liao, Chin and Yüan". 1987. "Directory of Scholars Working in Sung, Liao, Chin and Yüan". Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies, no. 19. Society for Song, Yuan, and Conquest Dynasty Studies: 224–54. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23497542">23497542</a>.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Yuan_Dynasty" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Yuan Dynasty">Yuan Dynasty</a>.</div></div> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Liao" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Liao">Western Liao</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> <a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom">Dali Kingdom</a> <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Fragmentation" title="Era of Fragmentation">Remnants</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibet</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">Dynasties in Chinese history</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Mongolia" title="History of Mongolia">History of Mongolia</a> / <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">Tibet</a> (With <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> as vassal) 1271–1368 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Yuan dynasty">Northern Yuan dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Phagmodrupa_dynasty" title="Phagmodrupa dynasty">Phagmodrupa dynasty</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 14px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" data-alt="flag" data-width="21" data-height="14" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Yuan_dynasty&params=39.915_N_116.390_E_type:country">39°54′54″N 116°23′24″E / 39.915°N 116.390°E / 39.915; 116.390</a> </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&oldid=1258530035">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&oldid=1258530035</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan_dynasty&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 20 November 2024, at 06:19 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan-dinastie" title="Yuan-dinastie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Yuan-dinastie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan-Dynastie" title="Yuan-Dynastie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Yuan-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-alt mw-list-item"><a href="https://alt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%83_%D3%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Улу Ӱан каандык – Southern Altai" lang="alt" hreflang="alt" data-title="Улу Ӱан каандык" data-language-autonym="Алтай тил" data-language-local-name="Southern Altai" class="interlanguage-link-target">Алтай тил</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9" title="سلالة يوان الحاكمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلالة يوان الحاكمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Yuan" title="Dinastía Yuan – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dinastía Yuan" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="Yuan imperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yuan imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C3%A2n-ti%C3%A2u" title="Goân-tiâu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Goân-tiâu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_(%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Юань (династия) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Юань (династия)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_(%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F)" title="Юань (імперыя) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Юань (імперыя)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Юен – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Юен" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A1%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="ཡོན་རྒྱལ་རབས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཡོན་རྒྱལ་རབས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%85%D1%8D_%D0%AE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Ехэ Юань Улас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Ехэ Юань Улас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Yuan" title="Dinastia Yuan – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dinastia Yuan" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B9%C4%83%D1%85-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%C4%95%D0%BB%C4%95" title="Юань йăх-несĕлĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Юань йăх-несĕлĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%AD%C5%A1e_J%C3%BCan" title="Říše Jüan – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Říše Jüan" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenhinllin_Yuan" title="Brenhinllin Yuan – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Brenhinllin Yuan" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan-dynastiet" title="Yuan-dynastiet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Yuan-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan-Dynastie" title="Yuan-Dynastie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Yuan-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuani_d%C3%BCnastia" title="Yuani dünastia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Yuani dünastia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%93%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AC%CE%BD" title="Δυναστεία Γιουάν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυναστεία Γιουάν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Yuan" title="Dinastía Yuan – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dinastía Yuan" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastio_Yuan" title="Dinastio Yuan – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dinastio Yuan" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dinastia" title="Yuan dinastia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Yuan dinastia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A2%D9%86" title="دودمان یوآن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دودمان یوآن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastie_Yuan" title="Dynastie Yuan – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dynastie Yuan" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADshliocht_Yuan" title="Ríshliocht Yuan – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ríshliocht Yuan" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Yuan" title="Dinastía Yuan – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dinastía Yuan" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%83" title="元 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="元" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngi%C3%A8n-chh%C3%A8u" title="Ngièn-chhèu – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ngièn-chhèu" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D3%A9%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%80" title="Юан өнчин төр – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Юан өнчин төр" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EB%82%98%EB%9D%BC" title="원나라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원나라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="युआन राजवंश – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="युआन राजवंश" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Yuan" title="Dinastija Yuan – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dinastija Yuan" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Yuan" title="Dinasti Yuan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinasti Yuan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BAanveldi%C3%B0" title="Júanveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Júanveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Yuan" title="Dinastia Yuan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dinastia Yuan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9F" title="שושלת יואן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שושלת יואן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangsa_Yuan" title="Wangsa Yuan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Wangsa Yuan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="იუანის დინასტია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იუანის დინასტია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Юань Империясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Юань Империясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasaba_ya_Yuan" title="Nasaba ya Yuan – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Nasaba ya Yuan" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanedana_Yuan" title="Xanedana Yuan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Xanedana Yuan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jua%C5%86u_dinastija" title="Juaņu dinastija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Juaņu dinastija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%C5%B3_dinastija" title="Juanų dinastija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Juanų dinastija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Yuan" title="Dinastia Yuan – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Dinastia Yuan" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCan-dinasztia" title="Jüan-dinasztia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jüan-dinasztia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BD_(%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Јуен (династија) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јуен (династија)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="യുവാൻ രാജവംശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="യുവാൻ രാജവംശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="युआन राजवंश – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="युआन राजवंश" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="იუანიშ დინასტია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="იუანიშ დინასტია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Yuan" title="Dinasti Yuan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dinasti Yuan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngu%C3%B2ng-di%C3%A8u" title="Nguòng-dièu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Nguòng-dièu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Юань Улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Юань Улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BD%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%86%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="ယွမ်မင်းဆက် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ယွမ်မင်းဆက်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan-dynastie" title="Yuan-dynastie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Yuan-dynastie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="युआन राजवंश – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="युआन राजवंश" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%83_(%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D)" title="元 (王朝) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="元 (王朝)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan-D%C3%BCnastii" title="Yuan-Dünastii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Yuan-Dünastii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan-dynastiet" title="Yuan-dynastiet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Yuan-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan-dynastiet" title="Yuan-dynastiet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Yuan-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Yuan" title="Dinastia Yuan – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Dinastia Yuan" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_(sulola)" title="Yuan (sulola) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yuan (sulola)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A2%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="یوآن راجٹبر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="یوآن راجٹبر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8D" title="يوان کورنۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="يوان کورنۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93" title="រាជវង្សយាន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រាជវង្សយាន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastia_Yuan" title="Dynastia Yuan – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dynastia Yuan" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Yuan" title="Dinastia Yuan – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dinastia Yuan" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Yuan" title="Dinastia Yuan – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dinastia Yuan" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_(%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Юань (империя) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Юань (империя)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Yuan" title="Dinastia Yuan – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dinastia Yuan" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%BA" title="යුවාන් රාජවංශය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="යුවාන් රාජවංශය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Yuan dynasty" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCan_(dynastia)" title="Jüan (dynastia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jüan (dynastia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتی یوان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتی یوان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Јуанско царство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јуанско царство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Yuan" title="Dinastija Yuan – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dinastija Yuan" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan-dynastia" title="Yuan-dynastia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Yuan-dynastia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuandynastin" title="Yuandynastin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Yuandynastin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiyang_Yuan" title="Dinastiyang Yuan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Dinastiyang Yuan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="யுவான் அரசமரபு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="யுவான் அரசமரபு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99" title="ราชวงศ์หยวน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชวงศ์หยวน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Hanedan%C4%B1" title="Yuan Hanedanı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yuan Hanedanı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D2%AF%D1%80%D2%AF%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Юан күрүнези – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Юан күрүнези" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%AE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Династія Юань – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Династія Юань" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A2%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%81" title="یوآن شاہی سلسلہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یوآن شاہی سلسلہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%DB%88%DB%95%D9%86_%D8%B3%DB%87%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="يۈەن سۇلالىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="يۈەن سۇلالىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yienzciuz" title="Yienzciuz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Yienzciuz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%A0_Nguy%C3%AAn" title="Nhà Nguyên – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhà Nguyên" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuani_d%C3%BCnastia" title="Yuani dünastia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Yuani dünastia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%83" title="元 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="元" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiya_Yuan" title="Dinastiya Yuan – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Dinastiya Yuan" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%83%E6%9C%9D" title="元朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="元朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%85%83" title="大元 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="大元" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%83%E6%9C%9D" title="元朝 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="元朝" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%B3%E2%B5%8D%E2%B4%B7%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%9C_%E2%B5%8F_%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%A1%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8F" title="ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵡⴰⵏ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵡⴰⵏ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 November 2024, at 06:19 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-5w7wd","wgBackendResponseTime":312,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.595","walltime":"4.185","ppvisitednodes":{"value":39659,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":776193,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":64202,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":45,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":678862,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3575.660 1 -total"," 22.79% 814.905 2 Template:Reflist"," 15.73% 562.440 1 Template:Infobox_former_country"," 12.17% 435.265 75 Template:Cite_book"," 10.76% 384.789 114 Template:Sfn"," 6.13% 219.010 3 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 5.28% 188.790 16 Template:Fix"," 4.96% 177.507 1 Template:Infobox_Chinese"," 4.90% 175.139 3 Template:Side_box"," 4.58% 163.780 25 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[\"CITEREFElizabeth_E._Bacon1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEndicott-West1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEndicott-West1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEndicott-West1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEndicott2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancis_Woodman_Cleaves1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranke1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrançoise_Aubin1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFunada_Yoshiyuki2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGladney1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrousset1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuzman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHans_Ulrich_Vogel2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartill2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaw2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaw2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHo1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHo2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodong_Kim2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHodong_Kim2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsiao1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHu_Xiaopeng_(胡小鹏)2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHua2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohan_Elverskog2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_E._Herman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Masson_Smith_Jr.1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKe_Shaomin1920\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKublai_Emperor1271\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKupfer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLane2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLanglois1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLanglois1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeong_Kit_Meng2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeslie1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLing_Dingnian_(凌鼎年)2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiu_Yingsheng_(刘迎胜)2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLorge2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarilyn_Shea2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_C._Brose2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Dillon1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMike_Markowitz2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris_Rossabi1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMote1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMote1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMote2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwen1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaludan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiero_Corradini1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowersTempleman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRonald_FindlayMats_Lundahl2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossabi1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossabi1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossabi1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossabi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuth_Dunnell1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSan2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaunders2001\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSimon2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSong_Lian1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStone2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSun_Hai_(孙海)Lin_Xinjian_(蔺新建)2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaagepera1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTan_Qixiang1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTan_Ta_Sen2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVolker_RybatzkiAlessandra_PozziPeter_W._GeierJohn_R._Krueger2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFW._Barthold1928\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalter_Koh2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang_Furen2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang_Jianping2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWen_Haiqing_(溫海清)2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_HoneychurchChunag_Amartuvshin2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWu1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYang_Fuxue_(杨富学)1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang_Guangda2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhao2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhao2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF陈得芝2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF陳學霖1991\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Aut\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bsn\"] = 2,\n [\"Campaignbox Mongol conquests\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite Cambridge History of China\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 71,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 24,\n [\"Cite periodical\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 12,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Commonscat\"] = 1,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"Csni\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Division of the Mongol Empire\"] = 1,\n [\"Empires\"] = 1,\n [\"En dash\"] = 1,\n [\"Fact\"] = 1,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Google books\"] = 3,\n [\"History of China\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Mongolia\"] = 1,\n [\"History of the Mongols\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-cmn\"] 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