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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turmeric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Turmeric </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turmeric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Physical anthropology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disputed_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disputed_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Disputed evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disputed_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Araucanian_chickens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Araucanian_chickens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.1 Araucanian chickens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Araucanian_chickens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-California_canoes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#California_canoes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.2 California canoes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-California_canoes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clava_hand-club_and_words_for_axes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clava_hand-club_and_words_for_axes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.3 Clava hand-club and words for axes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clava_hand-club_and_words_for_axes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_Y" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_Y"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Population Y </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_Y-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_East_Asian_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_East_Asian_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Claims of East Asian contact </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Claims_of_East_Asian_contact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Claims of East Asian contact subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_East_Asian_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Claims_of_contact_with_Ecuador" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_contact_with_Ecuador"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Claims of contact with Ecuador </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_contact_with_Ecuador-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_Chinese_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_Chinese_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Claims of Chinese contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_Chinese_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_Japanese_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_Japanese_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Claims of Japanese contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_Japanese_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_Indian_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_Indian_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Claims of Indian contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_Indian_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_African_and_West_Asian_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_African_and_West_Asian_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Claims of African and West Asian contact </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Claims_of_African_and_West_Asian_contact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Claims of African and West Asian contact subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_African_and_West_Asian_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Claims_of_African_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_African_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Claims of African contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_African_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_Arab_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_Arab_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Claims of Arab contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_Arab_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_ancient_Phoenician_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_ancient_Phoenician_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Claims of ancient Phoenician contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_ancient_Phoenician_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_ancient_Judaic_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_ancient_Judaic_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Claims of ancient Judaic contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_ancient_Judaic_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_European_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_European_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Claims of European contact </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Claims_of_European_contact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Claims of European contact subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_European_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Solutrean_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solutrean_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Solutrean hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solutrean_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_ancient_Roman_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_ancient_Roman_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Claims of ancient Roman contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_ancient_Roman_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca_head" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca_head"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca_head-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-14th-_and_15th-century_European_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#14th-_and_15th-century_European_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 14th- and 15th-century European contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-14th-_and_15th-century_European_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irish_and_Welsh_legends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irish_and_Welsh_legends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Irish and Welsh legends </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irish_and_Welsh_legends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_transoceanic_travel_originating_in_the_New_World" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_transoceanic_travel_originating_in_the_New_World"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Claims of transoceanic travel originating in the New World </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Claims_of_transoceanic_travel_originating_in_the_New_World-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Claims of transoceanic travel originating in the New World subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_transoceanic_travel_originating_in_the_New_World-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Claims_of_Egyptian_coca_and_tobacco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_Egyptian_coca_and_tobacco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Claims of Egyptian coca and tobacco </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_Egyptian_coca_and_tobacco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_travel_in_Roman_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_travel_in_Roman_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Claims of travel in Roman times </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_travel_in_Roman_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Icelander_DNA_finding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Icelander_DNA_finding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Icelander DNA finding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Icelander_DNA_finding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norse_legends_and_sagas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norse_legends_and_sagas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Norse legends and sagas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norse_legends_and_sagas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_Inuit_travel_to_the_Old_World" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_Inuit_travel_to_the_Old_World"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Claims of Inuit travel to the Old World </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_Inuit_travel_to_the_Old_World-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_Inca_travel_to_Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_Inca_travel_to_Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Claims of Inca travel to Oceania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_Inca_travel_to_Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_based_on_religious_traditions_or_symbols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_based_on_religious_traditions_or_symbols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Claims based on religious traditions or symbols </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Claims_based_on_religious_traditions_or_symbols-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Claims based on religious traditions or symbols subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Claims_based_on_religious_traditions_or_symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Claims_of_pre-Columbian_contact_with_Christian_voyagers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_pre-Columbian_contact_with_Christian_voyagers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Claims of pre-Columbian contact with Christian voyagers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_pre-Columbian_contact_with_Christian_voyagers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_ancient_Jewish_migration_to_the_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_ancient_Jewish_migration_to_the_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Claims of ancient Jewish migration to the Americas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_ancient_Jewish_migration_to_the_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latter_Day_Saint_movement's_teachings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latter_Day_Saint_movement's_teachings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Latter Day Saint movement's teachings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latter_Day_Saint_movement's_teachings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" > 25 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="نظريات التواصل عبر المحيطات في الحقبة قبل الكولومبية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظريات التواصل عبر المحيطات في الحقبة قبل الكولومبية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolumbdan_%C9%99vv%C9%99l_d%C3%BCnya_s%C9%99yah%C9%99ti" title="Kolumbdan əvvəl dünya səyahəti – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kolumbdan əvvəl dünya səyahəti" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8_%D1%81_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Доколумбови презокеански контакти с Америка – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Доколумбови презокеански контакти с Америка" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contactes_transoce%C3%A0nics_precolombins" title="Contactes transoceànics precolombins – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Contactes transoceànics precolombins" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contactos_transoce%C3%A1nicos_precolombinos" title="Contactos transoceánicos precolombinos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Contactos transoceánicos precolombinos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D8%A7_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%81_%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A8" title="تماس با قاره آمریکا پیش از کریستف کلمب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تماس با قاره آمریکا پیش از کریستف کلمب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contacts_trans-oc%C3%A9aniques_pr%C3%A9colombiens" title="Contacts trans-océaniques précolombiens – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Contacts trans-océaniques précolombiens" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori_kontak_lintas_samudra_pra-Columbus" title="Teori kontak lintas samudra pra-Columbus – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teori kontak lintas samudra pra-Columbus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie_sui_contatti_transoceanici_precolombiani" title="Teorie sui contatti transoceanici precolombiani – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Teorie sui contatti transoceanici precolombiani" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A9%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="מסעות מוקדמים ליבשת אמריקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מסעות מוקדמים ליבשת אמריקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikikolumbin%C4%97s_kelion%C4%97s_%C4%AF_Amerik%C4%85" title="Ikikolumbinės kelionės į Ameriką – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ikikolumbinės kelionės į Ameriką" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contats_transoceaneg_precolombian" title="Contats transoceaneg precolombian – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Contats transoceaneg precolombian" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prekolumbi%C3%A1n_%C3%B3ce%C3%A1nk%C3%B6zi_utaz%C3%A1sok" title="Prekolumbián óceánközi utazások – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Prekolumbián óceánközi utazások" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Теории за претколумбовски прекуокеански контакт – Macedonian" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Speculative historical theories</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the prevailing models which describe the geographic origins and early migrations of humans in the Americas, see <a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_the_Americas" title="Peopling of the Americas">Peopling of the Americas</a>. For further information about Native American genetic heritage, see <a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a>. For evidenced pre-Columbian communication across the Bering Strait, see <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_trans-Bering_Strait_contact" title="Pre-Columbian trans-Bering Strait contact">Pre-Columbian trans-Bering Strait contact</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viking_landing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Viking_landing.jpg/300px-Viking_landing.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Viking_landing.jpg/450px-Viking_landing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Viking_landing.jpg/600px-Viking_landing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2292" data-file-height="1551" /></a><figcaption>Reenactment of a <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> landing in <a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a></figcaption></figure> Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories are speculative theories which propose that visits to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, interactions with the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a>, or both, were made by people from elsewhere prior to <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Columbus%27s_first_voyage" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbus's first voyage">first voyage</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> in 1492.<a href="#cite_note-RileyKelley2014-1">[1]</a> Studies between 2004 and 2009 suggest the possibility that the earliest human <a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Settlement of the Americas">migrations to the Americas</a> may have been made by boat from Beringia and travel down the Pacific coast, contemporary with and possibly predating land migrations over the <a href="/wiki/Beringia" title="Beringia">Beringia land bridge</a>,<a href="#cite_note-science20170810-2">[2]</a> which during the glacial period joined what today are <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>. Whether transoceanic travel occurred during the historic period, resulting in pre-Columbian contact between the settled American peoples and voyagers from other continents, is vigorously debated. Only a few cases of pre-Columbian contact are widely accepted by mainstream scientists and scholars. <a href="/wiki/Yup%27ik" title="Yup'ik">Yup'ik</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aleut" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleut">Aleut</a> peoples residing on both sides of the Bering Strait had frequent contact with each other, and European trade goods have been discovered in pre-Columbian archaeological sites in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Maritime explorations by <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Norse</a> peoples from <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> during the late 10th century led to the <a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse colonization</a> of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Greenland#Norse_settlement" title="History of Greenland">Greenland</a> and a base camp <a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a><a href="#cite_note-Kuitems,etal2022-4">[4]</a> in <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a>,<a href="#cite_note-CordellLightfoot2008-5">[5]</a> which preceded Columbus's arrival in the Americas by some 500 years. Recent genetic studies have also suggested that some eastern <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesian</a> populations have <a href="/wiki/Genetic_admixture" title="Genetic admixture">admixture</a> from coastal western South American peoples, with an estimated date of contact around 1200 CE.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a> Scientific and scholarly responses to other claims of post-prehistory, pre-Columbian transoceanic contact have varied. Some of these claims are examined in reputable peer-reviewed sources. Many others are based only on circumstantial or ambiguous interpretations of archaeological evidence, the discovery of alleged <a href="/wiki/Out-of-place_artifact" title="Out-of-place artifact">out-of-place artifacts</a>, superficial cultural comparisons, comments in historical documents, or narrative accounts. These have been dismissed as <a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">fringe science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">pseudoarchaeology</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">pseudohistory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fagan2006-7">[7]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Claims_of_Austronesian_contact">Claims of Austronesian contact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Claims of Austronesian contact">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_genetics">Human genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Human genetics">edit</a>]</div> Between 2007 and 2009, geneticist <a href="/wiki/Erik_Thorsby" title="Erik Thorsby">Erik Thorsby</a> and colleagues published two studies in <a href="/wiki/Tissue_Antigens" class="mw-redirect" title="Tissue Antigens">Tissue Antigens</a> that offer evidence of an Amerindian genetic contribution to human populations on <a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a>, determining that it was probably introduced before European discovery of the island.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> In 2014, geneticist Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas of the Center for GeoGenetics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Copenhagen" title="University of Copenhagen">University of Copenhagen</a> published a study in <a href="/wiki/Current_Biology" title="Current Biology">Current Biology</a> that found human genetic evidence of contact between the populations of Easter Island and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, dating to approximately 600 years ago (i.e. 1400 CE ± 100 years).<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In 2017, a comprehensive genomes study found "no Native American admixture in pre- and post-European-contact individuals".<a href="#cite_note-Fehren-Schmitz_Jarman_Harkins_Kayser_2017_pp._3209–3215.e6-11">[11]</a> Two skulls suggested to belong to "Botocudo" people (a term used to refer to Native Americans who live in the interior of <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> that speak <a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê languages</a>), were found in research published in 2013 to have been members of <a href="/wiki/MtDNA_haplogroup" class="mw-redirect" title="MtDNA haplogroup">mtDNA haplogroup</a> <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_B_(mtDNA)#Tree" title="Haplogroup B (mtDNA)">B4a1a1</a>, which is normally found only among Polynesians and other subgroups of <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Austronesian people">Austronesians</a>. This was based on an analysis of 14 skulls. Two belonged to B4a1a1, while twelve belonged to subclades of mtDNA <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_C_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup C (mtDNA)">haplogroup C1</a> (common among Native Americans). The research team examined various scenarios, none of which they could say for certain were correct. They dismissed a scenario of direct contact in prehistory between <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a> and Brazil as "too unlikely to be seriously entertained." While B4a1a1 is also found among the <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Malagasy people">Malagasy people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> (which experienced significant Austronesian settlement in prehistory), the authors described as "fanciful" suggestions that B4a1a1 among the Botocudo resulted from the African slave trade (which included Madagascar).<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> A later review paper of Polynesian history suggested that it was "more likely that these are the skulls of two people who died in Polynesia sometime early in the period of European voyaging, and whose graves were robbed by later visitors, and then mistakenly grouped in collections with the remains of Native Americans."<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> In 2020, a study in Nature found that populations in the <a href="/wiki/Mangareva" title="Mangareva">Mangareva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marquesas_Islands" title="Marquesas Islands">Marquesas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palliser_Islands" title="Palliser Islands">Palliser</a> islands and Easter Island had <a href="/wiki/Genetic_admixture" title="Genetic admixture">genetic admixture</a> from indigenous populations of South America, with the DNA of contemporary populations of <a href="/wiki/Zen%C3%BA" title="Zenú">Zenú people</a> from the Pacific coast of <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> being the closest match. The authors suggest that the genetic signatures were probably the result of a single ancient contact. They proposed that an initial admixture event between indigenous South Americans and Polynesians occurred in eastern Polynesia between 1150 and 1230 CE, with later admixture in Easter Island around 1380 CE,<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a> but suggested other possible contact scenarios—for example, Polynesian voyages to South America followed by Polynesian people's returning to Polynesia with South American people, or carrying South American genetic heritage.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Several scholars uninvolved in the study suggested that a contact event in South America was more likely.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Furher genetic analysis on Easter Island indigenous population showed about 10% of the genome to be of Native American origin.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant_genetics">Plant genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Plant genetics">edit</a>]</div> The genetics of several plant species has also been used to support pre-Columbian contact via the Pacific. For example, there is a genetically distinct sub-population of coconuts on the western coast of South America. This has been suggested to be evidence of introduction by Austronesian seafarers.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sweet_potato">Sweet potato</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sweet potato">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potato_cultivation_in_Polynesia" title="Sweet potato cultivation in Polynesia">Sweet potato cultivation in Polynesia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dispersion_de_la_patate_douce01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="World map showing the spread of sweet potatoes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Dispersion_de_la_patate_douce01.svg/220px-Dispersion_de_la_patate_douce01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Dispersion_de_la_patate_douce01.svg/330px-Dispersion_de_la_patate_douce01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Dispersion_de_la_patate_douce01.svg/440px-Dispersion_de_la_patate_douce01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>The spread of sweet potatoes. The red lines indicate the likely spread carried out by the Polynesians.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potato" title="Sweet potato">sweet potato</a>, a food crop native to the Americas, was widespread in Polynesia by the time European explorers first reached the Pacific. Sweet potato has been radiocarbon-dated to 1000 CE in the <a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a>. Current thinking is that it was brought to central Polynesia c. 700 CE and spread across Polynesia from there.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> It has been suggested that it was brought by Polynesians who had traveled across the Pacific to South America and back, or that South Americans brought it to Polynesia.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> It is also possible that the plant floated across the ocean after being discarded from the cargo of a boat.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> According to the "tripartite hypothesis", <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</a> analysis supports at least two separate introductions of sweet potatoes from South America into Polynesia, including one before and one after European contact.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> However other scholars assert that the sweet potato arrived in Polynesia some 100,000 years ago, long before humans ventured to this part of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Muñoz-Rodríguez_Carruthers_Wood_Williams_2018_pp._1246–1256.e12-24">[24]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thames_Kumara_n.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Thames_Kumara_n.jpg/220px-Thames_Kumara_n.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Thames_Kumara_n.jpg/330px-Thames_Kumara_n.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Thames_Kumara_n.jpg/440px-Thames_Kumara_n.jpg 2x" data-file-width="993" data-file-height="660" /></a><figcaption>Sweet potatoes for sale, Thames, New Zealand. The word "kumara" has entered English from <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language" title="Māori language">Māori</a> and is widely used, especially in Polynesia.</figcaption></figure> Dutch linguists and specialists in <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Amerindian languages</a> <a href="/wiki/Willem_Adelaar" title="Willem Adelaar">Willem Adelaar</a> and Pieter Muysken have suggested that the word for sweet potato is shared by Polynesian languages and languages of South America. <a href="/wiki/Proto-Polynesian_language" title="Proto-Polynesian language">Proto-Polynesian</a> *kumala<a href="#cite_note-POLLEX-kumala-25">[25]</a> (compare <a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_language" title="Rapa Nui language">Easter Island</a> kumara, <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_language" title="Hawaiian language">Hawaiian</a> ʻuala, <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language" title="Māori language">Māori</a> kūmara; even though a proto-form is reconstructed above, apparent <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> outside <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Polynesian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Polynesian languages">Eastern Polynesian</a> are either definitely <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">borrowed</a> from Eastern Polynesian languages or irregular, calling Proto-Polynesian status and age into question) may be connected with dialectal <a href="/wiki/Quechua_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Quechua language">Quechua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aymara_language" title="Aymara language">Aymara</a> k'umar ~ k'umara; most Quechua dialects actually use apichu instead, but comal was attested at extinct <a href="/wiki/Ca%C3%B1ari_language" title="Cañari language">Cañari language</a> on the coast of what is now Ecuador in 1582.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Adelaar and Muysken assert that the similarity in the word for sweet potato "constitutes near proof of incidental contact between inhabitants of the Andean region and the South Pacific." The authors argue that the presence of the word for sweet potato suggests sporadic contact between Polynesia and South America, but not necessarily migrations.<a href="#cite_note-Adelaar2004-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ageratum_conyzoides">Ageratum conyzoides</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ageratum conyzoides">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ageratum_conyzoides" title="Ageratum conyzoides">Ageratum conyzoides</a>, also known as billygoat-weed, chick weed, goatweed, or whiteweed, is native to the tropical Americas, and was found in Hawaii by <a href="/wiki/William_Hillebrand" title="William Hillebrand">William Hillebrand</a> in 1888 who considered it to have grown there before <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">Captain Cook's</a> arrival in 1778. A legitimate native name (meie parari or mei rore) and established native medicinal usage and use as a scent and in <a href="/wiki/Lei_(garland)" title="Lei (garland)">leis</a> have been offered as support for the pre-Cookian age.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turmeric">Turmeric</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Turmeric">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Turmeric" title="Turmeric">Turmeric</a> (Curcuma longa) originated in Asia, and there is linguistic and circumstantial evidence of the spread and use of turmeric by the Austronesian peoples into Oceania and Madagascar. Günter Tessmann in 1930 (300 years after European contact) reported that a species of Curcuma was grown by the <a href="/wiki/Amahuaca" title="Amahuaca">Amahuaca</a> tribe to the east of the Upper Ucayali River in Peru and was a dye-plant used for the painting of the body, with the nearby <a href="/wiki/Witoto_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Witoto people">Witoto people</a> using it as face paint in their ceremonial dances.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> David Sopher noted in 1950 that "the evidence for a pre-European, transpacific introduction of the plant by man seems very strong indeed".<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_anthropology">Physical anthropology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Physical anthropology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isla_Mocha_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Isla_Mocha_1.jpg/220px-Isla_Mocha_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Isla_Mocha_1.jpg/330px-Isla_Mocha_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Isla_Mocha_1.jpg/440px-Isla_Mocha_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1110" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mocha_Island" title="Mocha Island">Mocha Island</a> off the coast of the <a href="/wiki/Arauco_Peninsula" title="Arauco Peninsula">Arauco Peninsula</a>, Chile</figcaption></figure> In December 2007, several human skulls were found in a museum in <a href="/wiki/Concepci%C3%B3n,_Chile" title="Concepción, Chile">Concepción, Chile</a>. These skulls originated on <a href="/wiki/Mocha_Island" title="Mocha Island">Mocha Island</a>, an island which is located just off the coast of Chile on the Pacific Ocean, formerly inhabited by the Mapuche. <a href="/wiki/Craniometry" title="Craniometry">Craniometric</a> analysis of the skulls, according to <a href="/wiki/Lisa_Matisoo-Smith" title="Lisa Matisoo-Smith">Lisa Matisoo-Smith</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Otago" title="University of Otago">University of Otago</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jos%C3%A9_Miguel_Ram%C3%ADrez_Aliaga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="José Miguel Ramírez Aliaga (page does not exist)">José Miguel Ramírez Aliaga</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Universidad_de_Valpara%C3%ADso" class="mw-redirect" title="Universidad de Valparaíso">Universidad de Valparaíso</a>, suggests that the skulls have "<a href="/wiki/Polynesian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Polynesian people">Polynesian</a> features" – such as a pentagonal shape when they are viewed from behind, and rocker jaws.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Rocker jaws have also been found at an excavation led José Miguel Ramírez in the coastal locality of <a href="/wiki/Tunqu%C3%A9n" title="Tunquén">Tunquén</a>, Central Chile.<a href="#cite_note-playaanchatunq-34">[34]</a> The site of excavation corresponds to an area with pre-Hispanic tombs and <a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">shell middens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: conchal).<a href="#cite_note-playaanchatunq-34">[34]</a> A global review of rocker jaws among different populations show that while rocker jaws are not unique to Polynesians "[t]he rarity of rocker jaw in South American natives supports" the view of "Polynesian voyagers who ventured to the west coast of South America".<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disputed_evidence">Disputed evidence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Disputed evidence">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Araucanian_chickens">Araucanian chickens</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Araucanian chickens">edit</a>]</div> In 2007, evidence emerged which suggested the possibility of pre-Columbian contact between the <a href="/wiki/Mapuche" title="Mapuche">Mapuche people</a> (Araucanians) of south-central Chile and Polynesians. Bones of <a href="/wiki/Araucana" title="Araucana">Araucana chickens</a> found at <a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Arenal,_Chile&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="El Arenal, Chile (page does not exist)">El Arenal</a> site in the <a href="/wiki/Araucan%C3%ADa_(historic_region)" title="Araucanía (historic region)">Arauco Peninsula</a>, an area inhabited by Mapuche, support a pre-Columbian introduction of <a href="/wiki/Landrace" title="Landrace">landraces</a> from the South Pacific islands to South America.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The bones found in Chile were radiocarbon-dated to between 1304 and 1424, before the arrival of the Spanish. Chicken DNA sequences were matched to those of chickens in <a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a>, and found to be dissimilar to those of European chickens.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> However, this finding was challenged by a 2008 study which questioned its methodology and concluded that its conclusion is flawed, although the theory it posits may still be possible.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Another study in 2014 reinforced that dismissal, and posited the crucial flaw in the initial research: "The analysis of ancient and modern specimens reveals a unique Polynesian genetic signature" and that "a previously reported connection between pre-European South America and Polynesian chickens most likely resulted from contamination with modern DNA, and that this issue is likely to confound ancient DNA studies involving haplogroup E chicken sequences."<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> However, in a 2013 study, the original authors extended and elaborated their findings, concluding:<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">This comprehensive approach demonstrates that the examination of modern chicken DNA sequences does not contribute to our understanding of the origins of Chile's earliest chickens. Interpretations based on poorly sourced and documented modern chicken populations, divorced from the archeological and historical evidence, do not withstand scrutiny. Instead, this expanded account will confirm the pre-Columbian age of the El Arenal remains and lend support to our original hypothesis that their appearance in South America is most likely due to Polynesian contact with the Americas in prehistory.</blockquote> A 2019 study of South American chickens "revealed an unknown genetic component that is mostly present in the Easter Island population that is also present in local chicken populations from the South American Pacific fringe".<a href="#cite_note-gallinas2019-42">[42]</a> The Easter Island chicken's "genetic proximity with the SA continental gamefowl can be explained by the fact that both populations were not crossed with cosmopolitan breeds and therefore remain closer to the ancestral population that originated them. "<a href="#cite_note-gallinas2019-42">[42]</a> The genetic proximity might also "be indicative of a common origin of these two populations".<a href="#cite_note-gallinas2019-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="California_canoes">California canoes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: California canoes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chumash_Tomol_%27Elye%27wun_paddlers,_CINMS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Chumash_Tomol_%27Elye%27wun_paddlers%2C_CINMS.jpg/220px-Chumash_Tomol_%27Elye%27wun_paddlers%2C_CINMS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Chumash_Tomol_%27Elye%27wun_paddlers%2C_CINMS.jpg/330px-Chumash_Tomol_%27Elye%27wun_paddlers%2C_CINMS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Chumash_Tomol_%27Elye%27wun_paddlers%2C_CINMS.jpg/440px-Chumash_Tomol_%27Elye%27wun_paddlers%2C_CINMS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>'Elye'wun, a reconstructed Chumash <a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">tomol</a></figcaption></figure> Researchers including Kathryn Klar and Terry Jones have proposed a theory of contact between <a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaiians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chumash_people" title="Chumash people">Chumash people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Southern_California" title="Southern California">Southern California</a> between 400 and 800 CE. The sewn-plank canoes crafted by the Chumash and neighboring <a href="/wiki/Tongva_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongva people">Tongva</a> are unique among the indigenous peoples of North America, but similar in design to larger canoes used by Polynesians and Melanesians for deep-sea voyages. <a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomolo'o</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chumash_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Chumash language">Chumash</a> word for such a craft, may derive from tumulaʻau/kumulaʻau, the Hawaiian term for the logs from which shipwrights carve planks to be sewn into canoes.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The analogous <a href="/wiki/Tongva_language" title="Tongva language">Tongva</a> term, tii'at, is unrelated. If it occurred, this contact left no genetic legacy in California or Hawaii. This theory has attracted limited media attention within California, but most archaeologists of the Tongva and Chumash cultures reject it on the grounds that the independent development of the sewn-plank canoe over several centuries is well-represented in the material record.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Clava_hand-club_and_words_for_axes">Clava hand-club and words for axes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Clava hand-club and words for axes">edit</a>]</div> Archaeological artefacts known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Clava_hand-club&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clava hand-club (page does not exist)">clava hand-clubs</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Araucan%C3%ADa_(historic_region)" title="Araucanía (historic region)">Araucanía</a> and nearby areas of Argentina have a strong resemblance to the <a href="/wiki/Wahaika" title="Wahaika">mere okewa</a> found in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mostnyclava-50">[50]</a> The clava hand-clubs are also mentioned in the Spanish chronicles dating to the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Conquest of Chile</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mostnyclava-50">[50]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Grete_Mostny" title="Grete Mostny">Grete Mostny</a>, clava hand-clubs "appear to have arrived to the west coast of South America from the Pacific".<a href="#cite_note-mostnyclava-50">[50]</a> Polynesian clubs from <a href="/wiki/Chatham_Islands" title="Chatham Islands">Chatham Islands</a> are reportedly the most similar to those of Chile.<a href="#cite_note-Ramirez2010-51">[51]</a> The clava hand-club is one of various Polynesian-like Mapuche artifacts known.<a href="#cite_note-Ramirez2010-51">[51]</a> Possible linguistic evidence for Austronesian-American contact is found in words for axes.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> On Easter Island, the word for a stone axe is <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/toki" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:toki">toki</a>; among the New Zealand Maori, the word toki denotes an <a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">adze</a>. Similar words are found in the Americas: In the <a href="/wiki/Mapuche_language" title="Mapuche language">Mapuche language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, the word for a stone axe is toki; and further afield in <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yurumangu%C3%AD_language" title="Yurumanguí language">Yurumanguí</a> word for an axe is totoki.<a href="#cite_note-Adelaar2004-27">[27]</a> Stone adzes often had ceremonial value and were worn by Maori chiefs.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The Mapuche word toki may also mean "chief" and thus may be related to the <a href="/wiki/Cuzco_Quechua_language" title="Cuzco Quechua language">Quechua</a> word toqe ("militia chief") and the <a href="/wiki/Aymara_language" title="Aymara language">Aymara</a> word toqueni ("person of great judgement").<a href="#cite_note-Moulianetal2015-56">[56]</a> In the view of Moulian et al. (2015) the possible South American links complicate matters regarding the meaning of the word toki because they are suggestive of Polynesian contact.<a href="#cite_note-Moulianetal2015-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population_Y">Population Y</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Population Y">edit</a>]</div> A 2015 study found some Indigenous American groups, particularly those in the Amazon, carry a small admixture (around 1-2% of the genome) related to groups in Southeast Asia and Australasia like <a href="/wiki/Andamanese_peoples" title="Andamanese peoples">Andamanese peoples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Papuans" class="mw-redirect" title="Papuans">Papuans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lumad#Mamanwa" title="Lumad">Mamanwa</a> people of the Philippines. This ancestry component has been dubbed "Population Y". Some authors have suggested that this reflects a trans-Pacific migration, but scholars have suggested that this more likely reflects genetic heterogeneity in the initial founding population of Native Americans present in <a href="/wiki/Beringia" title="Beringia">Beringia</a>, only some of which carried the "Population Y" ancestry. It has also been noted that a 40,000 year old individual from <a href="/wiki/Tianyuan_Cave" title="Tianyuan Cave">Tianyuan Cave</a> in northern China also carries this ancestry, making it more likely that this ancestry was the result of contact in Eurasia, prior to the arrival of the ancestors of Native Americans in Beringia.<a href="#cite_note-:1-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Claims_of_East_Asian_contact">Claims of East Asian contact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Claims of East Asian contact">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_contact_with_Ecuador">Claims of contact with Ecuador</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Claims of contact with Ecuador">edit</a>]</div> A 2013 genetic study suggested the possibility of contact between <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, that would have happened no earlier than 6,000 years ago (4000 BC) via either a trans-oceanic or a late-stage coastal migration that did not leave genetic imprints in North America.<a href="#cite_note-decoupling-58">[58]</a> Further research did not support this but was rather "a case of a rare founding lineage that has been lost elsewhere by drift."<a href="#cite_note-Kivisild-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_Chinese_contact">Claims of Chinese contact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Claims of Chinese contact">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olmec_mask_at_Met.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Olmec_mask_at_Met.jpg/170px-Olmec_mask_at_Met.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Olmec_mask_at_Met.jpg/255px-Olmec_mask_at_Met.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Olmec_mask_at_Met.jpg/340px-Olmec_mask_at_Met.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1525" data-file-height="2045" /></a><figcaption>A jade <a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmec</a> mask from <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>. Gordon Ekholm, an archaeologist and curator at the <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="American Museum of Natural History">American Museum of Natural History</a>, suggested that the Olmec art style might have originated in <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> China.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></figcaption></figure> Some researchers have argued that the <a href="/wiki/Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmec</a> civilization came into existence with the help of Chinese refugees, particularly at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> In 1975, <a href="/wiki/Betty_Meggers" title="Betty Meggers">Betty Meggers</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> argued that the Olmec civilization originated around 1200 BCE due to Shang Chinese influences.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> In a 1996 book, Mike Xu, with the aid of Chen Hanping, claimed that <a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">celts</a> from <a href="/wiki/La_Venta" title="La Venta">La Venta</a> bear Chinese characters.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> These claims are unsupported by mainstream Mesoamerican researchers.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Other claims of early Chinese contact with North America have been made. In 1882, approximately 30 brass coins, perhaps strung together, were reportedly found in the area of the <a href="/wiki/Cassiar_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="Cassiar Gold Rush">Cassiar Gold Rush</a>, apparently near <a href="/wiki/Dease_Creek" title="Dease Creek">Dease Creek</a>, an area which was dominated by Chinese gold miners. A contemporary account states:<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><blockquote>In the summer of 1882 a miner found on De Foe (Deorse?) creek, Cassiar district, Br. Columbia, thirty Chinese coins in the auriferous sand, twenty-five feet below the surface. They appeared to have been strung, but on taking them up the miner let them drop apart. The earth above and around them was as compact as any in the neighborhood. One of these coins I examined at the store of Chu Chong in Victoria. Neither in metal nor markings did it resemble the modern coins, but in its figures looked more like an Aztec calendar. So far as I can make out the markings, this is a Chinese chronological cycle of sixty years, invented by <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Emperor Huungti</a>, 2637 BCE, and circulated in this form to make his people remember it.</blockquote> Grant Keddie, Curator of Archeology at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_B.C._Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal B.C. Museum">Royal B.C. Museum</a> identified these as good luck temple tokens which were minted in the 19th century. He believed that claims that these were very old made them notorious and he wrote that "The temple coins were shown to many people and different versions of stories pertaining to their discovery and age spread around the province to be put into print and changed frequently by many authors in the last 100 years."<a href="#cite_note-Question-67">[67]</a> A group of Chinese Buddhist missionaries led by <a href="/wiki/Hui_Shen" class="mw-redirect" title="Hui Shen">Hui Shen</a> before 500 CE claimed to have visited a location called <a href="/wiki/Fusang" title="Fusang">Fusang</a>. Although Chinese mapmakers placed this territory on the Asian coast, others have suggested as early as the 1800s<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> that Fusang might have been in North America, due to perceived similarities between portions of the California coast and Fusang as depicted by Asian sources.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> In his book 1421: The Year China Discovered the World, British author <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Menzies" title="Gavin Menzies">Gavin Menzies</a> claimed that the <a href="/wiki/Ming_treasure_voyages" title="Ming treasure voyages">treasure fleets</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> admiral <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a> arrived in America in 1421.<a href="#cite_note-GM-70">[70]</a> Professional historians contend that Zheng He reached the eastern coast of Africa, and dismiss Menzies's hypothesis as entirely without proof.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-finlay2004-74">[74]</a> In 1973 and 1975, <a href="/wiki/Doughnut" title="Doughnut">doughnut</a>-shaped stones that resembled stone anchors which were used by Chinese fishermen were discovered off the coast of California. These stones (sometimes called the Palos Verdes stones) were initially thought to be up to 1,500 years old and therefore, they were thought to be proof of pre-Columbian contact by Chinese sailors. Later geological investigations showed that they were made of a local rock which is known as <a href="/wiki/Monterey_Formation" title="Monterey Formation">Monterey shale</a>, and it is currently believed that they were used by Chinese settlers who fished off the coast during the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_Japanese_contact">Claims of Japanese contact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Claims of Japanese contact">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Otokichi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Otokichi.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="360" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="165" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Otokichi" title="Otokichi">Otokichi</a>, a Japanese castaway in America in 1834, depicted here in 1849</figcaption></figure> Archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Estrada" class="mw-redirect" title="Emilio Estrada">Emilio Estrada</a> and co-workers wrote that pottery which was associated with the <a href="/wiki/Valdivia_culture" title="Valdivia culture">Valdivia culture</a> of coastal Ecuador and dated to 3000–1500 BCE exhibited similarities to pottery which was produced during the <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_period" title="Jōmon period">Jōmon period</a> in Japan, arguing that contact between the two cultures might explain the similarities.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Chronological and other problems have led most archaeologists to dismiss this idea as implausible.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The suggestion has been made that the resemblances (which are not complete) are simply due to the limited number of designs possible when incising clay. Alaskan anthropologist Nancy Yaw Davis claims that the <a href="/wiki/Zuni_people" title="Zuni people">Zuni people</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> exhibit linguistic and cultural similarities to the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-Zuni-80">[80]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Zuni_language" title="Zuni language">Zuni language</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">linguistic isolate</a>, and Davis contends that the culture appears to differ from that of the surrounding natives in terms of blood type, <a href="/wiki/Endemic_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic disease">endemic disease</a>, and religion. Davis speculates that <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> priests or restless peasants from Japan may have crossed the Pacific in the 13th century, traveled to the <a href="/wiki/American_Southwest" class="mw-redirect" title="American Southwest">American Southwest</a>, and influenced Zuni society.<a href="#cite_note-Zuni-80">[80]</a> In the 1890s, lawyer and politician <a href="/wiki/James_Wickersham" title="James Wickersham">James Wickersham</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> argued that pre-Columbian contact between Japanese sailors and Native Americans was highly probable, given that from the early 17th century to the mid-19th century several dozen Japanese ships are known to have been carried from Asia to North America along the powerful <a href="/wiki/Kuroshio_Current" title="Kuroshio Current">Kuroshio Currents</a>. Japanese ships landed at places between the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a> in the north and Mexico in the south, carrying a total of 293 people in the 23 cases where head-counts were given in historical records. In most cases, the Japanese sailors gradually made their way home on merchant vessels. In 1834, a dismasted, rudderless Japanese ship was wrecked near <a href="/wiki/Cape_Flattery" title="Cape Flattery">Cape Flattery</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a>. Three survivors of the ship were enslaved by <a href="/wiki/Makah_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Makah people">Makahs</a> for a period before being rescued by members of the <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Another Japanese ship went ashore in about 1850 near the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a>, Wickersham writes, and the sailors were assimilated into the local Native American population. While admitting there is no definitive proof of pre-Columbian contact between Japanese and North Americans, Wickersham thought it implausible that such contacts as outlined above would have started only after Europeans arrived in North America and began documenting them. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Claims_of_Indian_contact">Claims of Indian contact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Claims of Indian contact">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sculptures_at_the_Chennakesava_Temple,_Somanathapura,_Mysuru,_Karnataka,_India_(2002)0821.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Sculptures_at_the_Chennakesava_Temple%2C_Somanathapura%2C_Mysuru%2C_Karnataka%2C_India_%282002%290821.jpg/170px-Sculptures_at_the_Chennakesava_Temple%2C_Somanathapura%2C_Mysuru%2C_Karnataka%2C_India_%282002%290821.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Sculptures_at_the_Chennakesava_Temple%2C_Somanathapura%2C_Mysuru%2C_Karnataka%2C_India_%282002%290821.jpg/255px-Sculptures_at_the_Chennakesava_Temple%2C_Somanathapura%2C_Mysuru%2C_Karnataka%2C_India_%282002%290821.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Sculptures_at_the_Chennakesava_Temple%2C_Somanathapura%2C_Mysuru%2C_Karnataka%2C_India_%282002%290821.jpg/340px-Sculptures_at_the_Chennakesava_Temple%2C_Somanathapura%2C_Mysuru%2C_Karnataka%2C_India_%282002%290821.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chennakesava_Temple,_Somanathapura" class="mw-redirect" title="Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura">Somnathpur</a> figures at the sides hold maize-like objects in their left hands</figcaption></figure> In 1879, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Cunningham" title="Alexander Cunningham">Alexander Cunningham</a> wrote a description of the carvings on the <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bharhut" title="Bharhut">Bharhut</a> in central India, dating from c. 200 BCE, among which he noted what appeared to be a depiction of a custard-apple (<a href="/wiki/Annona_squamosa" title="Annona squamosa">Annona squamosa</a>).<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Cunningham was not initially aware that this plant, indigenous to the New World tropics, was introduced to India after <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>'s discovery of the sea route in 1498, and the problem was pointed out to him. A 2009 study claimed to have found carbonized remains that date to 2000 BCE and appear to be those of custard-apple seeds.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smith_Copan_elephant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Smith_Copan_elephant.jpg/170px-Smith_Copan_elephant.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Smith_Copan_elephant.jpg/255px-Smith_Copan_elephant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Smith_Copan_elephant.jpg/340px-Smith_Copan_elephant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="934" /></a><figcaption>Copán stela B was claimed by Smith as representing elephants</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Grafton_Elliot_Smith" title="Grafton Elliot Smith">Grafton Elliot Smith</a> claimed that certain motifs present in the carvings on the Mayan stelae at <a href="/wiki/Cop%C3%A1n" title="Copán">Copán</a> represented the <a href="/wiki/Asian_elephant" title="Asian elephant">Asian elephant</a>, and wrote a book on the topic entitled Elephants and Ethnologists in 1924. Contemporary archaeologists suggested that the depictions were almost certainly based on the (indigenous) <a href="/wiki/Tapir" title="Tapir">tapir</a>, with the result that Smith's suggestions have generally been dismissed by subsequent research.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Some objects depicted in carvings from <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, dating from the 12th century, that resemble ears of maize (<a href="/wiki/Zea_mays" class="mw-redirect" title="Zea mays">Zea mays</a>—a crop native to the New World), were interpreted by Carl Johannessen in 1989 as evidence of pre-Columbian contact.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> These suggestions were dismissed by multiple Indian researchers based on several lines of evidence. The object has been claimed by some to instead represent a "Muktaphala", an imaginary fruit bedecked with pearls.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Claims_of_African_and_West_Asian_contact">Claims of African and West Asian contact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Claims of African and West Asian contact">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_African_contact">Claims of African contact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Claims of African contact">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Olmec_alternative_origin_speculations" title="Olmec alternative origin speculations">Olmec alternative origin speculations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:San_Lorenzo_Monument_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/San_Lorenzo_Monument_4.jpg/220px-San_Lorenzo_Monument_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/San_Lorenzo_Monument_4.jpg/330px-San_Lorenzo_Monument_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/San_Lorenzo_Monument_4.jpg/440px-San_Lorenzo_Monument_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1632" /></a><figcaption>Several <a href="/wiki/Olmec_colossal_heads" title="Olmec colossal heads">Olmec colossal heads</a> have features that some diffusionists link to African contact</figcaption></figure> Proposed claims for an African presence in <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> stem from attributes of the <a href="/wiki/Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmec</a> culture, the claimed transfer of African plants to the Americas,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> and interpretations of European and Arabic historical accounts. The Olmec culture existed in what is now southern Mexico from roughly 1200 BCE to 400 BCE. The idea that the Olmecs are related to Africans was first suggested by José Melgar, who discovered the first <a href="/wiki/Olmec_colossal_heads" title="Olmec colossal heads">colossal head</a> at Hueyapan (now <a href="/wiki/Tres_Zapotes" title="Tres Zapotes">Tres Zapotes</a>) in 1862.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> More recently, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Van_Sertima" title="Ivan Van Sertima">Ivan Van Sertima</a> speculated an African influence on Mesoamerican culture in his book They Came Before Columbus (1976). His claims included the attribution of <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_pyramids" title="Mesoamerican pyramids">Mesoamerican pyramids</a>, calendar technology, <a href="/wiki/Mummification" class="mw-redirect" title="Mummification">mummification</a>, and mythology to the arrival of Africans by boat on currents running from Western Africa to the Americas. Heavily inspired by <a href="/wiki/Leo_Wiener" title="Leo Wiener">Leo Wiener</a> (see below), Van Sertima suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> god <a href="/wiki/Quetzalcoatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Quetzalcoatl">Quetzalcoatl</a> represented an African visitor. His conclusions have been severely criticized by mainstream academics and considered <a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">pseudoarchaeology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leo_Wiener" title="Leo Wiener">Leo Wiener</a>'s Africa and the Discovery of America suggests similarities between the <a href="/wiki/Mandinka_people" title="Mandinka people">Mandinka people</a> of West Africa and native Mesoamerican religious symbols such as the winged serpent and the sun disk, or <a href="/wiki/Quetzalcoatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Quetzalcoatl">Quetzalcoatl</a>, and words that have <a href="/wiki/Mand%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandé">Mandé</a> roots and share similar meanings across both cultures, such as "kore", "gadwal", and "qubila" (in Arabic) or "kofila" (in Mandinka).<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Malian sources describe what some consider to be visits to the New World by a fleet from the <a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali Empire</a> in 1311, led by <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Bakr II">Abu Bakr II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> According to the only known primary-source-based copy of Christopher Columbus's journal (transcribed by <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a>), the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus#Third_voyage" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">Columbus's third voyage</a> was to test both (1) the claims of King <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal">John II of Portugal</a> that "canoes had been found which set out from the coast of Guinea [West Africa] and sailed to the west with merchandise" and (2) the claims of the native inhabitants of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola that "there had come to Española from the south and south-east, a black people who have the tops of their spears made of a metal which they call guanin, of which he had sent samples to the Sovereigns to have them assayed, when it was found that of 32 parts, 18 were of gold, 6 of silver and 8 of copper".<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-LasCasas1906-98">[98]</a> Brazilian researcher <a href="/wiki/Niede_Guidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Niede Guidon">Niede Guidon</a>, who led the excavations of the <a href="/wiki/Pedra_Furada" title="Pedra Furada">Pedra Furada</a> sites, "said she believed that humans...might have come not overland from Asia but by boat from Africa", with the journey taking place 100,000 years ago, well before the accepted dates for the earliest human migrations that led to the prehistoric settlement of the Americas. <a href="/wiki/Michael_R._Waters" title="Michael R. Waters">Michael R. Waters</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Geoarchaeology" title="Geoarchaeology">geoarchaeologist</a> at <a href="/wiki/Texas_A%26M_University" title="Texas A&M University">Texas A&M University</a>, noted the absence of genetic evidence in modern populations to support Guidon's claim.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_Arab_contact">Claims of Arab contact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Claims of Arab contact">edit</a>]</div> Early Chinese accounts of Muslim expeditions state that Muslim sailors reached a region called Mulan Pi ("magnolia skin") (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 木蘭皮; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Mùlán Pí; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: Mu-lan-p'i). Mulan Pi is mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Lingwai_Daida" title="Lingwai Daida">Lingwai Daida</a> (1178) by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Qufei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhou Qufei (page does not exist)">Zhou Qufei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhu_fan_zhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhu fan zhi">Zhufan Zhi</a> (1225) by <a href="/wiki/Chao_Jukua" class="mw-redirect" title="Chao Jukua">Chao Jukua</a>, together referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Sung_Document" class="mw-redirect" title="Sung Document">Sung Document</a>". Mulan Pi is normally identified as Spain and Morocco of the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid dynasty</a> (Al-Murabitun),<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> though some fringe theories hold that it is instead some part of the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-Needham-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Li-102">[102]</a> One supporter of the interpretation of Mulan Pi as part of the Americas was historian <a href="/wiki/Hui-lin_Li" title="Hui-lin Li">Hui-lin Li</a> in 1961,<a href="#cite_note-Needham-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Li-102">[102]</a> and while <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> was also open to the possibility, he doubted that Arab ships at the time would have been able to withstand a return journey over such a long distance across the Atlantic Ocean, pointing out that a return journey would have been impossible without knowledge of prevailing winds and currents.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG/220px-Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG/330px-Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption>Al-Mas'udi's atlas of the world includes a continent west (or south) of the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">Abu al-Hasan Ali al-Mas'udi</a> (871–957), <a href="/wiki/Khashkhash_Ibn_Saeed_Ibn_Aswad" title="Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad">Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad</a> sailed over the Atlantic Ocean and discovered a previously unknown land (Arḍ Majhūlah, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: أرض مجهولة) in 889 and returned with a shipload of valuable treasures.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> The passage has been alternatively interpreted to imply that Ali al-Masudi regarded the story of Khashkhash to be a fanciful tale.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_ancient_Phoenician_contact">Claims of ancient Phoenician contact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Claims of ancient Phoenician contact">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas</a></div> In 1996, <a href="/wiki/Mark_McMenamin" title="Mark McMenamin">Mark McMenamin</a> proposed that <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> sailors discovered the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> c. 350 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Scott-106">[106]</a> The Phoenician state of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> minted gold <a href="/wiki/Stater" title="Stater">staters</a> in 350 BC bearing a pattern in the reverse exergue of the coins, which McMenamin initially interpreted as a map of the Mediterranean with the Americas shown to the west across the Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-Scott-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> McMenamin later demonstrated that these coins found in America were modern forgeries.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_ancient_Judaic_contact">Claims of ancient Judaic contact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Claims of ancient Judaic contact">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bat_Creek_Exam_5-28-10.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bat_Creek_Exam_5-28-10.JPG/220px-Bat_Creek_Exam_5-28-10.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bat_Creek_Exam_5-28-10.JPG/330px-Bat_Creek_Exam_5-28-10.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bat_Creek_Exam_5-28-10.JPG/440px-Bat_Creek_Exam_5-28-10.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2568" data-file-height="1170" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bat_Creek_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Bat Creek inscription">Bat Creek inscription</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Bat_Creek_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Bat Creek inscription">Bat Creek inscription</a> and <a href="/wiki/Los_Lunas_Decalogue_Stone" title="Los Lunas Decalogue Stone">Los Lunas Decalogue Stone</a> have led some to suggest the possibility that <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> seafarers may have traveled to America after they fled from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish–Roman Wars">Jewish–Roman Wars</a> in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> However, American archaeologists Robert C. Mainfort Jr. and Mary L. Kwas argued in American Antiquity (2004) that the Bat Creek inscription was copied from an illustration in an 1870 <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Masonic</a> reference book and introduced by the Smithsonian field assistant who found it during excavation activities.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> As for the Decalogue Stone, there are mistakes which suggest that it was carved by one or more novices who either overlooked or misunderstood some details on a source Decalogue from which they copied it. Since there is no other evidence or archaeological context in the vicinity, it is most likely that the legend at the nearby university is true—that the stone was carved by two anthropology students whose signatures can be seen inscribed in the rock below the Decalogue, "Eva and Hobe 3-13-30."<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Scholar <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_H._Gordon" title="Cyrus H. Gordon">Cyrus H. Gordon</a> believed that <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> and other Semitic-speaking groups had crossed the Atlantic in antiquity, ultimately arriving in both North and South America.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> This opinion was based on his own work on the Bat Creek inscription.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Similar ideas were also held by <a href="/wiki/John_Philip_Cohane" title="John Philip Cohane">John Philip Cohane</a>; Cohane even claimed that many geographical placenames in the United States have a Semitic origin.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Claims_of_European_contact">Claims of European contact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Claims of European contact">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solutrean_hypothesis">Solutrean hypothesis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Solutrean hypothesis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solutrean_hypothesis" title="Solutrean hypothesis">Solutrean hypothesis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arch1_clovispoints2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Arch1_clovispoints2.jpg/220px-Arch1_clovispoints2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Arch1_clovispoints2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="192" /></a><figcaption>Examples of Clovis and other Paleoindian point forms, markers of archaeological cultures in northeastern North America</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Solutrean_hypothesis" title="Solutrean hypothesis">Solutrean hypothesis</a> argues that Europeans migrated to the New World during the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> era, circa 16,000 to 13,000 BCE. This hypothesis proposes contact partly on the basis of perceived similarities between the flint tools of the <a href="/wiki/Solutrean_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Solutrean culture">Solutrean culture</a> in modern-day France, Spain and Portugal (which thrived circa 20,000 to 15,000 BCE), and the <a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a> of North America, which developed circa 9000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> The Solutrean hypothesis was proposed in the mid-1990s.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> It has little support amongst the scientific community, and genetic markers are inconsistent with the idea.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_ancient_Roman_contact">Claims of ancient Roman contact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Claims of ancient Roman contact">edit</a>]</div> Evidence of contacts with the civilizations of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a>—primarily with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, but sometimes also with other contemporaneous cultures—have been based on isolated archaeological finds in American sites that originated in the Old World. For example, the Bay of Jars in Brazil has been yielding ancient clay storage jars that resemble <a href="/wiki/Amphora#Ancient_Rome" title="Amphora">Roman amphorae</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> for over 150 years. It has been proposed that the origin of these jars is a Roman shipwreck, although it has also been suggested that they could be 15th- or 16th-century Spanish olive oil jars. Archaeologist Romeo Hristov argues that a Roman ship, or the drifting of such a shipwreck to American shores, is a possible explanation for the alleged discovery of artifacts that are apparently ancient Roman in origin (such as the <a href="/wiki/Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca_head" title="Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head">Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca bearded head</a>) in America. Hristov claims that the possibility of such an event has been made more likely by the discovery of evidence of travels by Romans to <a href="/wiki/Tenerife" title="Tenerife">Tenerife</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lanzarote" title="Lanzarote">Lanzarote</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>, and of a Roman settlement (from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE) on Lanzarote.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0_Mosaico_pavimentale_%E2%80%93_Grotte_Celloni_%E2%80%93_Pal._Massimo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/0_Mosaico_pavimentale_%E2%80%93_Grotte_Celloni_%E2%80%93_Pal._Massimo.JPG/220px-0_Mosaico_pavimentale_%E2%80%93_Grotte_Celloni_%E2%80%93_Pal._Massimo.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/0_Mosaico_pavimentale_%E2%80%93_Grotte_Celloni_%E2%80%93_Pal._Massimo.JPG/330px-0_Mosaico_pavimentale_%E2%80%93_Grotte_Celloni_%E2%80%93_Pal._Massimo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/0_Mosaico_pavimentale_%E2%80%93_Grotte_Celloni_%E2%80%93_Pal._Massimo.JPG/440px-0_Mosaico_pavimentale_%E2%80%93_Grotte_Celloni_%E2%80%93_Pal._Massimo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2576" /></a><figcaption>Floor mosaic depicting a fruit which looks like a <a href="/wiki/Pineapple" title="Pineapple">pineapple</a>. Opus vermiculatum, Roman artwork of the end of the 1st century BCE/beginning of the 1st century CE.</figcaption></figure> In 1950, an Italian botanist, Domenico Casella, suggested that a depiction of a <a href="/wiki/Pineapple" title="Pineapple">pineapple</a> (a fruit native to the New World tropics) was represented among wall paintings of Mediterranean fruits at <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Wilhelmina_Feemster_Jashemski" title="Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski">Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski</a>, this interpretation has been challenged by other botanists, who identify it as a pine <a href="/wiki/Conifer_cone" title="Conifer cone">cone</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Stone_pine" title="Stone pine">umbrella pine tree</a>, which is native to the Mediterranean area.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The leaves shown in the depiction (as with stone carvings from <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>)<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> make the pine cone identification problematic. Roman and other European coins have been found in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Jeremiah Epstein, an American anthropologist, rejected the suggestion that these coins can be cited as evidence of Pre-Columbian contact between Europe and the Americas pointing out the lack of any pre-Columbian archaeological contexts relating to these finds, the lack of detail concerning the discoveries, and the possibility of forgery (at least two were clearly forgeries).<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca_head">Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca_head" title="Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head">Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head</a></div> A small <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> sculpture of a head, with a beard and European-like features, was found in 1933 in the <a href="/wiki/Toluca_Valley" title="Toluca Valley">Toluca Valley</a>, 72 kilometres (45 mi) southwest of <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>, in a burial offering under three intact floors of a <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of Mexico">pre-colonial</a> building dated to between 1476 and 1510. The artifact has been studied by Roman art authority Bernard Andreae, director emeritus of the German Institute of Archaeology in Rome, Italy, and Austrian anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_von_Heine-Geldern" title="Robert von Heine-Geldern">Robert von Heine-Geldern</a>, both of whom stated that the style of the artifact was compatible with small Roman sculptures of the 2nd century. If genuine and if not placed there after 1492 (the pottery found with it dates to between 1476 and 1510),<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> the find provides evidence for at least a one-time contact between the Old and New Worlds.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Arizona_State_University" title="Arizona State University">Arizona State University</a>'s Michael E. Smith, a leading Mesoamerican scholar named John Paddock used to tell his classes in the years before he died that the artifact was planted as a joke by Hugo Moedano, a student who originally worked on the site. Despite speaking with individuals who knew the original discoverer (García Payón), and Moedano, Smith says he has been unable to confirm or reject this claim. Though he remains skeptical, Smith concedes he cannot rule out the possibility that the head was a genuinely buried post-Classic offering at <a href="/wiki/Calixtlahuaca" title="Calixtlahuaca">Calixtlahuaca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="14th-_and_15th-century_European_contact">14th- and 15th-century European contact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: 14th- and 15th-century European contact">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Priory_of_Sion" title="Priory of Sion">Priory of Sion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Westford_Knight" title="Westford Knight">Westford Knight</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_Sinclair,_Earl_of_Orkney" title="Henry I Sinclair, Earl of Orkney">Henry I Sinclair, Earl of Orkney</a> and feudal baron of <a href="/wiki/Roslin_Castle" title="Roslin Castle">Roslin</a> (c. 1345 – c. 1400), was a Scottish <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobleman</a> who is best known today from a modern legend which claims that he took part in explorations of <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and North America almost 100 years before <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s voyages to the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> In 1784, he was identified by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Reinhold_Forster" title="Johann Reinhold Forster">Johann Reinhold Forster</a><a href="#cite_note-forst-132">[132]</a> as possibly being the Prince <a href="/wiki/Zichmni" title="Zichmni">Zichmni</a> who is described in letters which were allegedly written around 1400 by the <a href="/wiki/Zeno_brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeno brothers">Zeno brothers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, in which they describe a voyage which they made throughout the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic">North Atlantic</a> under the command of Zichmni.<a href="#cite_note-ZENO,_NICOLÒ,-133">[133]</a> According to The Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, "the Zeno affair remains one of the most preposterous and at the same time one of the most successful fabrications in the history of exploration."<a href="#cite_note-biographi-134">[134]</a> Henry was the grandfather of <a href="/wiki/William_Sinclair,_1st_Earl_of_Caithness" title="William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness">William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness</a>, the builder of <a href="/wiki/Rosslyn_Chapel" title="Rosslyn Chapel">Rosslyn Chapel</a> near <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, Scotland. The authors <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lomas" title="Robert Lomas">Robert Lomas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Knight_(author)" title="Christopher Knight (author)">Christopher Knight</a> believe some carvings in the chapel were intended to represent ears of New World corn or <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>,<a href="#cite_note-THK-135">[135]</a> a crop unknown in Europe at the time of the chapel's construction. Knight and Lomas view these carvings as evidence supporting the idea that Henry Sinclair traveled to the Americas well before Columbus. In their book they discuss meeting with the wife of the botanist Adrian Dyer and explain that Dyer's wife told them that Dyer agreed that the image thought to be maize was accurate.<a href="#cite_note-THK-135">[135]</a> In fact Dyer found only one identifiable plant among the botanical carvings and instead suggested that the "maize" and "aloe" were stylized wooden patterns, only coincidentally looking like real plants.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Specialists in medieval architecture have variously interpreted the carvings as stylised depictions of wheat, strawberries, or lilies.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_ship_of_dreams-138">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Yule_Oldham" title="Henry Yule Oldham">Henry Yule Oldham</a> suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Bianco_world_map" title="Bianco world map">Bianco world map</a> depicted part of the coast of <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> before 1448. This was immediately opposed by members of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Geographical Society">Royal Geographical Society</a> but later repeated by American and European historians. This was later refuted by <a href="/wiki/Abel_Fontoura_da_Costa" title="Abel Fontoura da Costa">Abel Fontoura da Costa</a>, who proved that it actually depicted <a href="/wiki/Santiago,_Cape_Verde" title="Santiago, Cape Verde">Santiago</a>, the largest island of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> archipelago.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_historia_general_de_las_Indias.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/La_historia_general_de_las_Indias.jpg/170px-La_historia_general_de_las_Indias.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/La_historia_general_de_las_Indias.jpg/255px-La_historia_general_de_las_Indias.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/La_historia_general_de_las_Indias.jpg 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption>A 1547 edition of Oviedo's La historia general de las Indias</figcaption></figure> Some have conjectured that Columbus was able to persuade the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aragon" title="Aragon">Aragon</a> to support his planned voyage only because they were aware of some recent earlier voyage across the Atlantic. Some suggest that Columbus himself visited Canada or Greenland before 1492, because according to <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a> he wrote he had sailed 100 leagues past an island he called <a href="/wiki/Thule" title="Thule">Thule</a> in 1477. Whether Columbus actually did this and what island he visited, if any, is uncertain. Columbus is thought to have visited <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a> in 1476.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Bristol was also the port from which <a href="/wiki/John_Cabot" title="John Cabot">John Cabot</a> sailed in 1497, crewed mostly by Bristol sailors. In a letter of late 1497 or early 1498, the English merchant John Day wrote to Columbus about Cabot's discoveries, saying that land found by Cabot was "discovered in the past by the men from Bristol who found 'Brasil' as your lordship knows".<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> There may be records of expeditions from Bristol to find the "<a href="/wiki/Brazil_(mythical_island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazil (mythical island)">isle of Brazil</a>" in 1480 and 1481.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Trade between Bristol and Iceland is well documented from the mid-15th century. <a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Oviedo_y_Vald%C3%A9s" title="Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés">Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés</a> records several such legends in his Historia general de las Indias of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus. He discusses the then-current story of a Spanish caravel that was swept off its course while on its way to England, and wound up in a foreign land populated by naked tribesmen. The crew gathered supplies and made its way back to Europe, but the trip took several months and the captain and most of the men died before reaching land. The caravel's <a href="/wiki/Ship_pilot" class="mw-redirect" title="Ship pilot">ship pilot</a>, a man called <a href="/wiki/Alonso_S%C3%A1nchez" title="Alonso Sánchez">Alonso Sánchez</a>, and a few others made it to Portugal, but all were very ill. Columbus was a good friend of the pilot, and took him to be treated in his own house, and the pilot described the land they had seen and marked it on a map before dying. People in Oviedo's time knew this story in several versions, though Oviedo himself regarded it as a myth.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> In 1925, Soren Larsen wrote a book claiming that a joint Danish-Portuguese expedition landed in Newfoundland or Labrador in 1473 and again in 1476. Larsen claimed that <a href="/wiki/Didrik_Pining" title="Didrik Pining">Didrik Pining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Pothorst" title="Hans Pothorst">Hans Pothorst</a> served as captains, while <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Vaz_Corte-Real" title="João Vaz Corte-Real">João Vaz Corte-Real</a> and the possibly mythical <a href="/wiki/John_Scolvus" title="John Scolvus">John Scolvus</a> served as navigators, accompanied by <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Martins" title="Álvaro Martins">Álvaro Martins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Nothing beyond circumstantial evidence has been found to support Larsen's claims.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> The historical record shows that <a href="/wiki/Basque_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Basque people">Basque</a> fishermen were present in <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a> from at least 1517 onward (therefore predating all recorded European settlements in the region except those of the Norse). The Basques' fishing expeditions led to significant trade and cultural exchanges with Native Americans. A fringe theory suggests that Basque sailors first arrived in North America prior to Columbus' voyages to the New World (some sources suggest the late 14th century as a tentative date) but kept the destination a secret in order to avoid competition over the fishing resources of the North American coasts. There is no historical or archaeological evidence to support this claim.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Irish_and_Welsh_legends">Irish and Welsh legends</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Irish and Welsh legends">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_brendan_german_manuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Saint_brendan_german_manuscript.jpg/170px-Saint_brendan_german_manuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Saint_brendan_german_manuscript.jpg/255px-Saint_brendan_german_manuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Saint_brendan_german_manuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Saint Brendan and the whale, from a 15th-century manuscript</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Great_Ireland" title="Great Ireland">Great Ireland</a></div> The legend of Saint <a href="/wiki/Brendan_the_Navigator" title="Brendan the Navigator">Brendan</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a> monk from what is now <a href="/wiki/County_Kerry" title="County Kerry">County Kerry</a>, involves a fantastical journey into the Atlantic Ocean in search of Paradise in the 6th century. Since the discovery of the New World, various authors have tried to link the Brendan legend with an early discovery of America. In 1977, the voyage was successfully recreated by <a href="/wiki/Tim_Severin" title="Tim Severin">Tim Severin</a> using a replica of an ancient Irish <a href="/wiki/Currach" title="Currach">currach</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> According to a British myth, <a href="/wiki/Madoc" title="Madoc">Madoc</a> was a prince from <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> who explored the Americas as early as 1170. While most scholars consider this legend to be untrue, it was used to bolster British claims in the Americas vis-à-vis those of Spain.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> The "Madoc story" remained popular in later centuries, and a later development asserted that Madoc's voyagers had intermarried with local Native Americans, and that their Welsh-speaking descendants still live somewhere in the United States. These "Welsh Indians" were credited with the construction of a number of landmarks throughout the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern United States</a>, and a number of white travelers were inspired to go look for them. The "Madoc story" has been the subject of much speculation in the context of possible pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. No conclusive archaeological proof of such a man or his voyages has been found in the New or Old World; however, speculation abounds connecting him with certain sites, such as <a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_Backbone_(rock_formation)" title="Devil's Backbone (rock formation)">Devil's Backbone</a>, located on the Ohio River at Fourteen Mile Creek near <a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville, Kentucky</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> At <a href="/wiki/Fort_Mountain_State_Park" title="Fort Mountain State Park">Fort Mountain State Park</a> in Georgia, a plaque formerly mentioned a 19th-century interpretation of the ancient stone wall that gives the site its name. The plaque repeated a claim by Tennessee governor <a href="/wiki/John_Sevier" title="John Sevier">John Sevier</a> that <a href="/wiki/Cherokees" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherokees">Cherokees</a> believed "a people called Welsh" had built a fort on the mountain long ago to repel Indian attacks.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> The plaque has been changed, leaving no reference to Madoc or the Welsh.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Biologist and controversial amateur epigrapher <a href="/wiki/Barry_Fell" title="Barry Fell">Barry Fell</a> claims that Irish <a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a> writing has been found carved into stones in the Virginias.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Linguist <a href="/wiki/David_H._Kelley" title="David H. Kelley">David H. Kelley</a> has criticized some of Fell's work but nonetheless argued that genuine Celtic Ogham inscriptions have in fact been discovered in America.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> However, others have raised serious doubts about these claims.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Claims_of_transoceanic_travel_originating_in_the_New_World">Claims of transoceanic travel originating in the New World</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Claims of transoceanic travel originating in the New World">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_Egyptian_coca_and_tobacco">Claims of Egyptian coca and tobacco</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Claims of Egyptian coca and tobacco">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RAMmummy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/RAMmummy.jpg/220px-RAMmummy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/RAMmummy.jpg/330px-RAMmummy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/RAMmummy.jpg/440px-RAMmummy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1414" data-file-height="984" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a></figcaption></figure> Traces of <a href="/wiki/Coca" title="Coca">coca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a> which are found in some Egyptian mummies have led to speculation that <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptians">Ancient Egyptians</a> may have had contact with the New World. The initial discovery was made by a German <a href="/wiki/Toxicologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxicologist">toxicologist</a> Svetlana Balabanova after examining the mummy of a priestess named <a href="/wiki/Henut_Taui" title="Henut Taui">Henut Taui</a>. Follow-up tests on the hair shaft, which were performed in order to rule out the possibility of contamination, revealed the same results.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> A television show reported that examinations of numerous <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudanese</a> mummies which were also undertaken by Balabanova mirrored what was found in the mummy of Henut Taui.<a href="#cite_note-Curseof-157">[157]</a> Balabanova suggested that the tobacco may be accounted for since it may have also been known in China and Europe, as indicated by analyses run on human remains from those respective regions. Balabanova proposed that such plants native to the general area may have developed independently, but have since gone extinct.<a href="#cite_note-Curseof-157">[157]</a> Other explanations include fraud, though curator Alfred Grimm of the Egyptian Museum in <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a> disputes this.<a href="#cite_note-Curseof-157">[157]</a> Skeptical of Balabanova's findings, Rosalie David, Keeper of Egyptology at the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Museum" title="Manchester Museum">Manchester Museum</a>, had similar tests performed on samples which were taken from the Manchester mummy collection and she reported that two of the tissue samples and one hair sample tested positive for the presence of nicotine.<a href="#cite_note-Curseof-157">[157]</a> However, mainstream scholars remain skeptical, and they do not see the results of these tests as proof of ancient contact between Africa and the Americas, especially because there may be possible Old World sources of cocaine and nicotine.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-Buckland-159">[159]</a> Two attempts to replicate Balabanova's findings of cocaine failed, suggesting "that either Balabanova and her associates are misinterpreting their results or that the samples of mummies tested by them have been mysteriously exposed to cocaine".<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> A re-examination of the mummy of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> in the 1970s revealed the presence of fragments of tobacco leaves in its abdomen. This finding became a popular topic in fringe literature and the media and it was seen as proof of contact between Ancient Egypt and the New World. The investigator <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Bucaille" title="Maurice Bucaille">Maurice Bucaille</a> noted that when the mummy was unwrapped in 1886 the abdomen was left open and "it was no longer possible to attach any importance to the presence inside the abdominal cavity of whatever material was found there, since the material could have come from the surrounding environment."<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Following the renewed discussion of tobacco sparked by Balabanova's research and its mention in a 2000 publication by Rosalie David, a study in the journal <a href="/wiki/Antiquity_(journal)" title="Antiquity (journal)">Antiquity</a> suggested that reports of both tobacco and cocaine in mummies "ignored their post-excavation histories" and pointed out that the mummy of Ramesses II had been moved five times between 1883 and 1975.<a href="#cite_note-Buckland-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_travel_in_Roman_times">Claims of travel in Roman times</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Claims of travel in Roman times">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a> writes,<a href="#cite_note-Pomponius-162">[162]</a> and is copied by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>,<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> that <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Celer_(consul)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer (consul)">Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer</a> (died 59 BCE), <a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsul</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, received "several Indians" (Indi) who had been driven by a storm to the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a> as a present from a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_king" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic king">Germanic king</a>: <blockquote> Metellum Celerem adjicit, eumque ita retulisse commemorat: Cum Galliae proconsule praeesset, Indos quosdam a rege [Suevorum] dono sibi datos; unde in eas terras devenissent requirendo, cognôsse, vi tempestatum ex Indicis aequoribus abreptos, emensosque quae intererant, tandem in Germaniae litora exiise. Restat ergo pelagus; sed reliqua lateris ejusdem assiduo gelu durantur, et ideo deserta sunt. </blockquote> <blockquote> Metellus Celer recalls the following: when he was proconsul in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, he was given people from <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> by the king of the <a href="/wiki/Sueves" class="mw-redirect" title="Sueves">Sueves</a>; upon requesting why they were in this land, he learnt that they were caught in a storm away from India, that they became castaways, and finally landed on the coast of Germania. They thus resisted the sea, but suffered from the cold for the rest of their travel, and that is the reason why they left.<a href="#cite_note-Pomponius-162">[162]</a> </blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_J._Pohl" title="Frederick J. Pohl">Frederick J. Pohl</a> suggested that these castaways were possibly <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">American Indians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> This account is open to question, since Metellus Celer died just after his consulship, before he ever got to Gaul.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Icelander_DNA_finding">Icelander DNA finding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Icelander DNA finding">edit</a>]</div> In 2010, Sigríður Sunna Ebenesersdóttir published a genetic study showing that over 350 living Icelanders carried mitochondrial DNA of a new type, C1e, belonging to the C1 clade which was until then known only from Native American and East Asian populations. Using the <a href="/wiki/DeCODE_genetics" title="DeCODE genetics">deCODE genetics</a> database, Sigríður Sunna determined that the DNA entered the Icelandic population not later than 1700, and likely several centuries earlier. However Sigríður Sunna also states that "while a Native American origin seems most likely for [this new haplogroup], an Asian or European origin cannot be ruled out".<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> In 2014, a study discovered a new mtDNA subclade C1f from the remains of three people found in north-western Russia and dated to 7,500 years ago. It has not been detected in modern populations. The study proposed the hypothesis that the sister C1e and C1f subclades had split early from the most recent common ancestor of the C1 clade and had evolved independently, and that subclade C1e had a northern European origin. Iceland was settled by the Vikings in the 9th century and they had raided heavily into western Russia, where the sister subclade C1f is now known to have resided. They proposed that both subclades were brought to Iceland through the Vikings, and that C1e went extinct on mainland northern Europe due to population turnover and its small representation, and subclade C1f went extinct completely.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norse_legends_and_sagas">Norse legends and sagas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Norse legends and sagas">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thorfinn_Karlsefni_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Thorfinn_Karlsefni_1918.jpg/170px-Thorfinn_Karlsefni_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Thorfinn_Karlsefni_1918.jpg/255px-Thorfinn_Karlsefni_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Thorfinn_Karlsefni_1918.jpg/340px-Thorfinn_Karlsefni_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1837" data-file-height="2449" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Thorfinn Karlsefni</figcaption></figure> In 1009, legends report that Norse explorer <a href="/wiki/Thorfinn_Karlsefni" title="Thorfinn Karlsefni">Thorfinn Karlsefni</a> abducted two children from <a href="/wiki/Markland" title="Markland">Markland</a>, an area on the North American mainland where Norse explorers visited but did not settle. The two children were then taken to Greenland, where they were baptized and taught to speak Norse.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> In 1420, Danish geographer <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Clavus_Swart" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudius Clavus Swart">Claudius Clavus Swart</a> wrote that he personally had seen "<a href="/wiki/Pygmies" class="mw-redirect" title="Pygmies">pygmies</a>" from Greenland who were caught by Norsemen in a small skin boat. Their boat was hung in <a href="/wiki/Nidaros_Cathedral" title="Nidaros Cathedral">Nidaros Cathedral</a> in <a href="/wiki/Trondheim" title="Trondheim">Trondheim</a> along with another, longer boat also taken from "pygmies". Clavus Swart's description fits the Inuit and two of their types of boats, the <a href="/wiki/Kayak" title="Kayak">kayak</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Umiak" title="Umiak">umiak</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ADE163-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-ANA-169">[169]</a> Similarly, the Swedish clergyman <a href="/wiki/Olaus_Magnus" title="Olaus Magnus">Olaus Magnus</a> wrote in 1505 that he saw in <a href="/wiki/Oslo_Cathedral" title="Oslo Cathedral">Oslo Cathedral</a> two leather boats taken decades earlier. According to Olaus, the boats were captured from Greenland pirates by one of the <a href="/wiki/Haakon_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Haakon (disambiguation)">Haakons</a>, which would place the event in the 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-ADE163-168">[168]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Columbus" title="Ferdinand Columbus">Ferdinand Columbus</a>'s biography of his father Christopher, he says that in 1477 his father saw in <a href="/wiki/Galway" title="Galway">Galway</a>, Ireland, two dead bodies which had washed ashore in their boat. The bodies and boat were of exotic appearance, and have been suggested to have been <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> who had drifted off course.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_Inuit_travel_to_the_Old_World">Claims of Inuit travel to the Old World</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Claims of Inuit travel to the Old World">edit</a>]</div> It has been suggested that the Norse took other indigenous peoples to Europe as slaves over the following centuries, because they are known to have taken Scottish and Irish slaves.<a href="#cite_note-ADE163-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-ANA-169">[169]</a> There is also evidence of Inuit coming to Europe under their own power or as captives after 1492. In <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, they were known as the <a href="/wiki/Finn-men" title="Finn-men">Finn-men</a>. A substantial body of Greenland Inuit folklore first collected in the 19th century told of journeys by boat to <a href="/wiki/Akilineq" title="Akilineq">Akilineq</a>, depicted as a rich country across the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_Inca_travel_to_Oceania">Claims of Inca travel to Oceania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Claims of Inca travel to Oceania">edit</a>]</div> Peruvian historian <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Antonio_del_Busto_Duthurburu" title="José Antonio del Busto Duthurburu">José Antonio del Busto Duthurburu</a> popularized the theory that <a href="/wiki/Inca" class="mw-redirect" title="Inca">Inca</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Topa_Inca_Yupanqui" title="Topa Inca Yupanqui">Topa Inca Yupanqui</a> may have led a maritime exploration voyage across the Pacific Ocean around 1465, eventually reaching <a href="/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui" class="mw-redirect" title="Rapa Nui">Rapa Nui</a> (Easter Island). Different Spanish chroniclers of the 16th century recount stories told to them by Inca peoples, in which Yupanqui embarked on a sea voyage, eventually reaching two islands referred to as Nina Chumpi ("fire belt") and Hawa Chumpi ("outer belt", also spelled Avachumpi, Hahua chumpi). According to the stories, Yupanqui returned from the expedition bringing back with him black-skinned people, gold, a chair made of brass, and the skin of a horse or an animal similar to a horse. Del Busto speculated the "black-skinned people" may have been <a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesians</a>, while the animal skin may have belonged to a Polynesian <a href="/wiki/Wild_boar" title="Wild boar">wild boar</a> that was misidentified.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Critics have pointed out that Yupanqui's expedition—assuming it ever took place—could have reached the <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands" title="Galápagos Islands">Galápagos Islands</a> or some other part of the Americas instead of Oceania.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Claims_based_on_religious_traditions_or_symbols">Claims based on religious traditions or symbols</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Claims based on religious traditions or symbols">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_pre-Columbian_contact_with_Christian_voyagers">Claims of pre-Columbian contact with Christian voyagers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Claims of pre-Columbian contact with Christian voyagers">edit</a>]</div> During the period of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a>, several indigenous myths and works of art led a number of Spanish chroniclers and authors to suggest that Christian preachers may have visited <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> well before the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bernal_D%C3%ADaz_del_Castillo" title="Bernal Díaz del Castillo">Bernal Díaz del Castillo</a>, for example, was intrigued by the presence of cross symbols in Maya hieroglyphs, which according to him suggested that other Christians may have arrived in ancient Mexico before the Spanish <a href="/wiki/Conquistadors" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquistadors">conquistadors</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fray_Diego_Dur%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Fray Diego Durán">Fray Diego Durán</a>, for his part, linked the legend of the Pre-Columbian god <a href="/wiki/Quetzalcoatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Quetzalcoatl">Quetzalcoatl</a> (whom he describes as being chaste, penitent, and a miracle-worker) to the Biblical accounts of Christian apostles. <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a> describes Quetzalcoatl as being fair-skinned, tall, and bearded (therefore suggesting an Old World origin), while <a href="/wiki/Fray_Juan_de_Torquemada" title="Fray Juan de Torquemada">Fray Juan de Torquemada</a> credits him with bringing agriculture to the Americas. Modern scholarship has cast serious doubts on several of these claims, since agriculture was practiced in the Americas well before the emergence of Christianity in the Old World, and Maya crosses have been found to have a very different symbolism from that present in Christian religious traditions.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-174">[174]</a> According to Pre-Columbian myth, Quetzalcoatl departed Mexico in ancient times by travelling east across the ocean, promising he would return. Some scholars have argued that <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_Xocoyotzin" class="mw-redirect" title="Moctezuma Xocoyotzin">Moctezuma Xocoyotzin</a> believed Spanish <a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">conquistador</a> <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a> (who arrived in what today is Mexico from the east) to be Quetzalcoatl, and his arrival to be a fulfilling of the myth's prophecy, though others have disputed this claim.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Fringe theories suggest that Quetzalcoatl may have been a Christian preacher from the Old World who lived among indigenous peoples of ancient Mexico, and eventually attempted to return home by sailing eastwards. <a href="/wiki/Carlos_de_Sig%C3%BCenza_y_G%C3%B3ngora" title="Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora">Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora</a>, for example, speculated that the Quetzalcoatl myth might have originated from a visit to the Americas by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_the_Apostle" title="Thomas the Apostle">Thomas the Apostle</a> in the 1st century CE. Later on, <a href="/wiki/Servando_Teresa_de_Mier" title="Servando Teresa de Mier">Fray Servando Teresa de Mier</a> argued that the cloak with the image of the <a href="/wiki/Virgin_of_Guadalupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgin of Guadalupe">Virgin of Guadalupe</a>, which the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> claims was worn by <a href="/wiki/Juan_Diego" title="Juan Diego">Juan Diego</a>, was instead brought to the Americas much earlier by Thomas, who used it as an instrument for <a href="/wiki/Evangelization" class="mw-redirect" title="Evangelization">evangelization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-174">[174]</a> Mexican historian <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Orozco_y_Berra" title="Manuel Orozco y Berra">Manuel Orozco y Berra</a> conjectured that both the cross hieroglyphs and the Quetzalcoatl myth might have originated on a visit to Mesoamerica by a Catholic <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a> missionary in medieval times. However, there is no archaeological or historical evidence to suggest that the <a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse explorations</a> ever made it as far as ancient Mexico or Central America.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-174">[174]</a> Other proposed identities for Quetzalcoatl (attributed to their proponents pursuing religious agendas) include <a href="/wiki/St._Brendan" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Brendan">St. Brendan</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> A popular thread of <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">conspiracy theory</a> originating with <a href="/wiki/The_Holy_Blood_and_the_Holy_Grail" title="The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail">Holy Blood, Holy Grail</a> has it that the Templars used a fleet of 18 ships at <a href="/wiki/La_Rochelle" title="La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a> to escape arrest in France. The fleet allegedly left laden with knights and treasures just before the issue of the warrant for the arrest of the Order in October 1307.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> This, in turn, was based on a single item of testimony from serving brother Jean de Châlon, who says he had "heard people talking that [Gerard de Villiers had] put to sea with 18 galleys, and the brother Hugues de Chalon fled with the whole treasury of the brother Hugues de Pairaud."<a href="#cite_note-Finke,_1907-179">[179]</a> However, aside from being the sole source for this statement, the transcript indicates that it is hearsay, and this serving brother seems to be prone to making some of the wildest and most damning of claims about the Order, which have led some to doubt his credibility.<a href="#cite_note-Dafoe-180">[180]</a> What destination, if any, was reached by this fleet is uncertain. A fringe theory suggests the fleet may have made its way to the Americas, where the Knights Templar interacted with the aboriginal population. Helen Nicholson of <a href="/wiki/Cardiff_University" title="Cardiff University">Cardiff University</a> has cast doubt on the existence of this voyage, arguing that the Knights Templar did not have ships capable of navigating the Atlantic Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_ancient_Jewish_migration_to_the_Americas">Claims of ancient Jewish migration to the Americas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Claims of ancient Jewish migration to the Americas">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ten_Lost_Tribes" title="Ten Lost Tribes">Ten Lost Tribes</a></div> Since the first centuries of <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a> and up until the 19th century, several European intellectuals and theologians tried to account for the presence of the Amerindian aboriginal peoples by connecting them to the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Lost_Tribes" title="Ten Lost Tribes">Ten Lost Tribes</a> of Israel, who according to Biblical tradition, were deported following the conquest of the Israelite kingdom by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>. In the past as well as in the present, these efforts were and still are being used to further the interests of religious groups, both Jewish and Christian, and they have also been used to justify European settlement of the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-182">[182]</a> One of the first people to claim that the indigenous peoples of the Americas were descendants of the Lost Tribes was the Portuguese rabbi and writer <a href="/wiki/Menasseh_Ben_Israel" title="Menasseh Ben Israel">Menasseh Ben Israel</a> (1604-1657), who in his book The Hope of Israel argued that the discovery of the alleged long-lost Jews heralded the imminent coming of the Biblical <a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-182">[182]</a> In 1650, a <a href="/wiki/Norfolk" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a> preacher, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Thorowgood" title="Thomas Thorowgood">Thomas Thorowgood</a>, published Jewes in America or Probabilities that the Americans are of that Race,<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> for the New England missionary society. Tudor Parfitt writes:<blockquote>The society was active in trying to convert the Indians but suspected that they might be Jews and realized they better be prepared for an arduous task. Thorowgood's tract argued that the native population of North America were descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a></blockquote> In 1652 <a href="/wiki/Hamon_L%27Estrange" title="Hamon L'Estrange">Sir Hamon L'Estrange</a>, an English author writing on history and theology, published Americans no Jews, or improbabilities that the Americans are of that Race in response to the tract by Thorowgood. In response to L'Estrange, Thorowgood published a second edition of his book in 1660 with a revised title and included a foreword written by <a href="/wiki/John_Eliot_(missionary)" title="John Eliot (missionary)">John Eliot</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> missionary who had translated the Bible into an Indian language.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> <a href="/wiki/Elias_Boudinot" title="Elias Boudinot">Elias Boudinot</a>, a signatory to the U.S. Declaration of Independence, made similar claims in his 1816 book titled A Star in the West: A Humble Attempt to Discover the Long Lost Ten Tribes of Israel; Preparatory to Their Return to Their Beloved City, Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latter_Day_Saint_movement's_teachings">Latter Day Saint movement's teachings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Latter Day Saint movement's teachings">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Izapa_Stela_5.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Izapa_Stela_5.svg/170px-Izapa_Stela_5.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Izapa_Stela_5.svg/255px-Izapa_Stela_5.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Izapa_Stela_5.svg/340px-Izapa_Stela_5.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1395" data-file-height="1523" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Izapa_Stela_5" title="Izapa Stela 5">Izapa Stela 5</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Archaeology_and_the_Book_of_Mormon" title="Archaeology and the Book of Mormon">Archaeology and the Book of Mormon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_the_Book_of_Mormon" title="Genetics and the Book of Mormon">Genetics and the Book of Mormon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Native American people and Mormonism</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Mormon" title="Book of Mormon">Book of Mormon</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sacred_text" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred text">sacred text</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a>, states that some ancient inhabitants of the New World are descendants of Semitic peoples who sailed from the Old World. <a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormon</a> groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Ancient_Research_and_Mormon_Studies" title="Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies">Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies</a> attempt to study and expand on these ideas. In a 1998 letter to the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Religious_Research" title="Institute for Religious Research">Institute for Religious Research</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a> stated that "Archaeologists and other scholars have long probed the hemisphere's past and the society does not know of anything found so far that has substantiated the Book of Mormon."<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Some LDS scholars hold the view that archaeological studies of the Book of Mormon's claims are not meant to vindicate the literary narrative. For example, <a href="/wiki/Terryl_Givens" title="Terryl Givens">Terryl Givens</a>, professor of English at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Richmond" title="University of Richmond">University of Richmond</a>, points out that there is a lack of historical accuracy in the Book of Mormon in relation to modern archaeological knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Givens2004-188">[188]</a> In the 1950s, Professor M. Wells Jakeman popularized the belief that the <a href="/wiki/Izapa_Stela_5" title="Izapa Stela 5">Izapa Stela 5</a> represents the Book of Mormon prophets Lehi and Nephi's <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_vision" title="Tree of life vision">tree of life vision</a> and was a validation of the historicity of the claims of pre-Columbian settlement in the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> His interpretations of the carving and its connection to pre-Columbian contact have been disputed.<a href="#cite_note-Paulson2000-190">[190]</a> Since that time, scholarship on the Book of Mormon has concentrated on cultural parallels rather than "smoking gun" sources.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wirth2007-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">Ancient maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antillia" title="Antillia">Antillia</a> – 15th-century phantom island</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantis_Expedition" title="Atlantis Expedition">Atlantis Expedition</a> – 1984 Argentine raft journey across Atlantic Ocean</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burrows_Cave" title="Burrows Cave">Burrows Cave</a> – Alleged cave site</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davenport_Tablets" title="Davenport Tablets">Davenport Tablets</a> – Three inscribed slate tables found in the United States in the 1870s</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_(anthropology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion (anthropology)">Diffusion (anthropology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwennan_Gorn" title="Gwennan Gorn">Gwennan Gorn</a> – Ship of supposed Welsh sea-voyager</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperdiffusionism" title="Hyperdiffusionism">Hyperdiffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperdiffusionism_in_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperdiffusionism in archaeology">Hyperdiffusionism in archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_the_Study_of_American_Cultures" title="Institute for the Study of American Cultures">Institute for the Study of American Cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Cousin_(navigator)" title="Jean Cousin (navigator)">Jean Cousin (navigator)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Indian_theory" title="Jewish Indian theory">Jewish Indian theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kensington_Runestone" title="Kensington Runestone">Kensington Runestone</a> – Faked "Scandinavian" runestone</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki expedition</a> – 1947 raft journey from South America to Polynesia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_penny" title="Maine penny">Maine penny</a> – Norwegian silver coin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newport_Tower_(Rhode_Island)" title="Newport Tower (Rhode Island)">Newport Tower (Rhode Island)</a> – Remains of 17th-century windmill</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Paleoindians" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of Paleoindians">Origins of Paleoindians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Pre-Columbian rafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinland_Map" title="Vinland Map">Vinland Map</a> – Forged 'Norse' map of North America</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westford_Knight" title="Westford Knight">Westford Knight</a> – Pattern on a rock in the United States</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Bowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Magna Bowl">Magna Bowl</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-RileyKelley2014-1"><a href="#cite_ref-RileyKelley2014_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output 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Quiroz, Daniel; Beavan, Nancy; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261656806">"Polynesian Chickens in the New World: a detailed application of a commensal approach"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Archaeology_in_Oceania" title="Archaeology in Oceania">Archaeology in Oceania</a>. 48 (2): 101–119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Farco.5007">10.1002/arco.5007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology+in+Oceania&rft.atitle=Polynesian+Chickens+in+the+New+World%3A+a+detailed+application+of+a+commensal+approach&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=101-119&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Farco.5007&rft.aulast=Storey&rft.aufirst=Alice+A.&rft.au=Quiroz%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Beavan%2C+Nancy&rft.au=Matisoo-Smith%2C+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F261656806&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gallinas2019-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gallinas2019_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gallinas2019_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gallinas2019_42-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuzuriaga-NeiraPérez-PardalO’RourkeVillacís-Rivas2019" class="citation journal cs1">Luzuriaga-Neira, Agusto; Pérez-Pardal, Lucía; O’Rourke, Sean M.; Villacís-Rivas, Gustavo; Cueva-Castillo, Freddy; Escudero-Sánchez, Galo; Aguirre-Pabón, Juan Carlos; Ulloa-Núñez, Amarilis; Rubilar-Quezada, Makarena; Vallinoto, Marcelo; Miller, Michael R.; Beja-Pereira, Albano (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6877731">"The Local South American Chicken Populations Are a Melting-Pot of Genomic Diversity"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Frontiers_in_Genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontiers in Genetics">Frontiers in Genetics</a>. 10: 1172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffgene.2019.01172">10.3389/fgene.2019.01172</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6877731">6877731</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31803242">31803242</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+Local+South+American+Chicken+Populations+Are+a+Melting-Pot+of+Genomic+Diversity&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=1172&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6877731%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31803242&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffgene.2019.01172&rft.aulast=Luzuriaga-Neira&rft.aufirst=Agusto&rft.au=P%C3%A9rez-Pardal%2C+Luc%C3%ADa&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Rourke%2C+Sean+M.&rft.au=Villac%C3%ADs-Rivas%2C+Gustavo&rft.au=Cueva-Castillo%2C+Freddy&rft.au=Escudero-S%C3%A1nchez%2C+Galo&rft.au=Aguirre-Pab%C3%B3n%2C+Juan+Carlos&rft.au=Ulloa-N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez%2C+Amarilis&rft.au=Rubilar-Quezada%2C+Makarena&rft.au=Vallinoto%2C+Marcelo&rft.au=Miller%2C+Michael+R.&rft.au=Beja-Pereira%2C+Albano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6877731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/06/20/MNG9GDBBLG1.DTL">"Did ancient Polynesians visit California? Maybe so"</a>. San Francisco Chronicle. June 20, 2005. Retrieved January 31, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Did+ancient+Polynesians+visit+California%3F+Maybe+so.&rft.pub=San+Francisco+Chronicle&rft.date=2005-06-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ffile%3D%2Fc%2Fa%2F2005%2F06%2F20%2FMNG9GDBBLG1.DTL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesKathryn_A._Klar2005" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Terry L.; Kathryn A. Klar (June 3, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060927085144/http://www.saa.org/Publications/AmAntiq/70-3/Jones.html">"Diffusionism Reconsidered: Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence for Prehistoric Polynesian Contact with Southern California"</a>. American Antiquity. 70 (3): 457–484. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F40035309">10.2307/40035309</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40035309">40035309</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161301055">161301055</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saa.org/publications/AmAntiq/70-3/Jones.html">the original</a> on September 27, 2006. Retrieved March 6, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Diffusionism+Reconsidered%3A+Linguistic+and+Archaeological+Evidence+for+Prehistoric+Polynesian+Contact+with+Southern+California&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=457-484&rft.date=2005-06-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161301055%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40035309%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F40035309&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Terry+L.&rft.au=Kathryn+A.+Klar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saa.org%2Fpublications%2FAmAntiq%2F70-3%2FJones.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsCecilia_GarciaEric_J._Lien2008" class="citation journal cs1">Adams, James D.; Cecilia Garcia; Eric J. Lien (January 23, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2862936">"A Comparison of Chinese and American Indian (Chumash) Medicine"</a>. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 7 (2): 219–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fecam%2Fnem188">10.1093/ecam/nem188</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2862936">2862936</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18955312">18955312</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evidence-Based+Complementary+and+Alternative+Medicine&rft.atitle=A+Comparison+of+Chinese+and+American+Indian+%28Chumash%29+Medicine&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=219-25&rft.date=2008-01-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2862936%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18955312&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fecam%2Fnem188&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rft.au=Cecilia+Garcia&rft.au=Eric+J.+Lien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2862936&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cla.calpoly.edu/~tljones/">Terry Jones's homepage</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080511194439/http://cla.calpoly.edu/~tljones/">Archived</a> May 11, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, California Polytechnic State University. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> For the argument against the Chumash—Polynesian contact theory, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold2007" class="citation journal cs1">Arnold, J.E. (2007). "Credit Where Credit is Due: The History of the Chumash Oceangoing Plank Canoe". American Antiquity. 72 (2): 196–209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F40035811">10.2307/40035811</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40035811">40035811</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145274737">145274737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Credit+Where+Credit+is+Due%3A+The+History+of+the+Chumash+Oceangoing+Plank+Canoe&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=196-209&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145274737%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40035811%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F40035811&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=J.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold2001" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Jeanne E., ed. (2001). The Origins of a Pacific Coast Chiefdom: The Chumash of the Channel Islands. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+a+Pacific+Coast+Chiefdom%3A+The+Chumash+of+the+Channel+Islands&rft.place=Salt+Lake+City&rft.pub=University+of+Utah+Press&rft.date=2001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGamble2002" class="citation journal cs1">Gamble, Lynn H. (2002). "Archaeological Evidence for the Origin of the Plank Canoe in North America". American Antiquity. 67 (2): 301–315. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2694568">10.2307/2694568</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2694568">2694568</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163616908">163616908</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Archaeological+Evidence+for+the+Origin+of+the+Plank+Canoe+in+North+America&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=301-315&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163616908%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2694568%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2694568&rft.aulast=Gamble&rft.aufirst=Lynn+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mostnyclava-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mostnyclava_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mostnyclava_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mostnyclava_50-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMostny1983" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Grete_Mostny" title="Grete Mostny">Mostny, Grete</a> (1983) [1981]. 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"The Polynesian-Mapuche connection: Soft and Hard Evidence and New Ideas". Rapa Nui Journal. 24 (1): 29–33.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rapa+Nui+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Polynesian-Mapuche+connection%3A+Soft+and+Hard+Evidence+and+New+Ideas&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-33&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Ram%C3%ADrez-Aliaga&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9-Miguel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmory1942" class="citation journal cs1">Emory, Kenneth P. (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20702896">"OCEANIAN INFLUENCE ON AMERICAN INDIAN CULTURE. Nordenskiold's View"</a>. The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 51 (2): 126–135. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0032-4000">0032-4000</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20702896">20702896</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Polynesian+Society&rft.atitle=OCEANIAN+INFLUENCE+ON+AMERICAN+INDIAN+CULTURE.+Nordenskiold%27s+View&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=126-135&rft.date=1942&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20702896%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0032-4000&rft.aulast=Emory&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20702896&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeiburger2020" class="citation journal cs1">Neiburger, E. J. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.s.ebscohost.com/abstract?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtype=crawler&jrnl=00089559&AN=141360314&h=weBRg0%2bDkyfI2tGq8bH0tUku84ud4gLOCqJT9G%2bryqM1%2fqp%2br8%2byAaPJtYz2ae7%2fy1%2bBz1D%2bzRX15N%2fJgxhcXw%3d%3d&crl=c&resultNs=AdminWebAuth&resultLocal=ErrCrlNotAuth&crlhashurl=login.aspx%3fdirect%3dtrue%26profile%3dehost%26scope%3dsite%26authtype%3dcrawler%26jrnl%3d00089559%26AN%3d141360314">"Did Polynesians Visit the Prehistoric Americas?"</a>. Central States Archaeological Journal. 67 (1): 36–43.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Central+States+Archaeological+Journal&rft.atitle=Did+Polynesians+Visit+the+Prehistoric+Americas%3F&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=36-43&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Neiburger&rft.aufirst=E.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.s.ebscohost.com%2Fabstract%3Fdirect%3Dtrue%26profile%3Dehost%26scope%3Dsite%26authtype%3Dcrawler%26jrnl%3D00089559%26AN%3D141360314%26h%3DweBRg0%252bDkyfI2tGq8bH0tUku84ud4gLOCqJT9G%252bryqM1%252fqp%252br8%252byAaPJtYz2ae7%252fy1%252bBz1D%252bzRX15N%252fJgxhcXw%253d%253d%26crl%3Dc%26resultNs%3DAdminWebAuth%26resultLocal%3DErrCrlNotAuth%26crlhashurl%3Dlogin.aspx%253fdirect%253dtrue%2526profile%253dehost%2526scope%253dsite%2526authtype%253dcrawler%2526jrnl%253d00089559%2526AN%253d141360314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesStoreyMatisoo-SmithRamírez-Aliaga2011" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Terry L.; Storey, Alice A.; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth A.; Ramírez-Aliaga, José Miguel (January 16, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ncWCVCaWMuAC&q=toki+adze+chief+colombia">Polynesians in America: Pre-Columbian Contacts with the New World</a>. Rowman Altamira. pp. 103–106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-2006-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-2006-8"><bdi>978-0-7591-2006-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polynesians+in+America%3A+Pre-Columbian+Contacts+with+the+New+World&rft.pages=103-106&rft.pub=Rowman+Altamira&rft.date=2011-01-16&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-2006-8&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Terry+L.&rft.au=Storey%2C+Alice+A.&rft.au=Matisoo-Smith%2C+Elizabeth+A.&rft.au=Ram%C3%ADrez-Aliaga%2C+Jos%C3%A9+Miguel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DncWCVCaWMuAC%26q%3Dtoki%2Badze%2Bchief%2Bcolombia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLillios1999" class="citation journal cs1">Lillios, Katina T. 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Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 6 (3): 235–262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1021999319447">10.1023/A:1021999319447</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-7764">1573-7764</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Method+and+Theory&rft.atitle=Objects+of+Memory%3A+The+Ethnography+and+Archaeology+of+Heirlooms&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=235-262&rft.date=1999-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1021999319447&rft.issn=1573-7764&rft.aulast=Lillios&rft.aufirst=Katina+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1021999319447&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moulianetal2015-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Moulianetal2015_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moulianetal2015_56-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoulianCatrileoLandeo2015" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Moulian, Rodrígo; <a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Catrileo" title="María Catrileo">Catrileo, María</a>; Landeo, Pablo (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-48832015000200004&script=sci_arttext">"Afines quechua en el vocabulario mapuche de Luis de Valdivia"</a> [Akins Quechua words in the Mapuche vocabulary of Luis de Valdivia]. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Revista_de_ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica_te%C3%B3rica_y_aplicada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Revista de lingüística teórica y aplicada (page does not exist)">Revista de lingüística teórica y aplicada</a> (in Spanish). 53 (2): 73–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0718-48832015000200004">10.4067/S0718-48832015000200004</a>. Retrieved January 13, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+de+ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica+te%C3%B3rica+y+aplicada&rft.atitle=Afines+quechua+en+el+vocabulario+mapuche+de+Luis+de+Valdivia&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=73-96&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4067%2FS0718-48832015000200004&rft.aulast=Moulian&rft.aufirst=Rodr%C3%ADgo&rft.au=Catrileo%2C+Mar%C3%ADa&rft.au=Landeo%2C+Pablo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscielo.conicyt.cl%2Fscielo.php%3Fpid%3DS0718-48832015000200004%26script%3Dsci_arttext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-57"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_57-0">^</a> Jennifer A. Raff <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinedigeditions.com/publication/?m=16146&i=634462&view=articleBrowser&article_id=3531892&ver=html5">"Y Not a Pacific Migration? Misunderstandings of Genetics in Service of Pseudoscience</a>" The SAA Archaeological Record NOVEMBER 2019 - Volume 19 Number 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-decoupling-58"><a href="#cite_ref-decoupling_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoewerNothnagelGusmãoGomes2013" class="citation journal cs1">Roewer, Lutz; Nothnagel, Michael; Gusmão, Leonor; Gomes, Veronica; González, Miguel; Corach, Daniel; Sala, Andrea; Alechine, Evguenia; Palha, Teresinha; Santos, Ney; Ribeiro-Dos-Santos, Andrea; Geppert, Maria; Willuweit, Sascha; Nagy, Marion; Zweynert, Sarah; Baeta, Miriam; Núñez, Carolina; Martínez-Jarreta, Begoña; González-Andrade, Fabricio; Fagundes De Carvalho, Elizeu; Da Silva, Dayse Aparecida; Builes, Juan José; Turbón, Daniel; Lopez Parra, Ana Maria; Arroyo-Pardo, Eduardo; Toscanini, Ulises; Borjas, Lisbeth; Barletta, Claudia; Ewart, Elizabeth; et al. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3623769">"Continent-Wide Decoupling of Y-Chromosomal Genetic Variation from Language and Geography in Native South Americans"</a>. PLOS Genetics. 9 (4): e1003460. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1003460">10.1371/journal.pgen.1003460</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3623769">3623769</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23593040">23593040</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Genetics&rft.atitle=Continent-Wide+Decoupling+of+Y-Chromosomal+Genetic+Variation+from+Language+and+Geography+in+Native+South+Americans&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e1003460&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3623769%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23593040&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1003460&rft.aulast=Roewer&rft.aufirst=Lutz&rft.au=Nothnagel%2C+Michael&rft.au=Gusm%C3%A3o%2C+Leonor&rft.au=Gomes%2C+Veronica&rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez%2C+Miguel&rft.au=Corach%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Sala%2C+Andrea&rft.au=Alechine%2C+Evguenia&rft.au=Palha%2C+Teresinha&rft.au=Santos%2C+Ney&rft.au=Ribeiro-Dos-Santos%2C+Andrea&rft.au=Geppert%2C+Maria&rft.au=Willuweit%2C+Sascha&rft.au=Nagy%2C+Marion&rft.au=Zweynert%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Baeta%2C+Miriam&rft.au=N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez%2C+Carolina&rft.au=Mart%C3%ADnez-Jarreta%2C+Bego%C3%B1a&rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez-Andrade%2C+Fabricio&rft.au=Fagundes+De+Carvalho%2C+Elizeu&rft.au=Da+Silva%2C+Dayse+Aparecida&rft.au=Builes%2C+Juan+Jos%C3%A9&rft.au=Turb%C3%B3n%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Lopez+Parra%2C+Ana+Maria&rft.au=Arroyo-Pardo%2C+Eduardo&rft.au=Toscanini%2C+Ulises&rft.au=Borjas%2C+Lisbeth&rft.au=Barletta%2C+Claudia&rft.au=Ewart%2C+Elizabeth&rft.au=Santos%2C+Sidney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3623769&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kivisild-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Kivisild_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKivisild2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kivisild, Toomas (May 1, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5418327">"The study of human Y chromosome variation through ancient DNA"</a>. Human Genetics. 136 (5): 529–546. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00439-017-1773-z">10.1007/s00439-017-1773-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1432-1203">1432-1203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5418327">5418327</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28260210">28260210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+study+of+human+Y+chromosome+variation+through+ancient+DNA&rft.volume=136&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=529-546&rft.date=2017-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5418327%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1432-1203&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28260210&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00439-017-1773-z&rft.aulast=Kivisild&rft.aufirst=Toomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5418327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Pool, p. 92, who cites Gordon Ekholm (1964) "Transpacific Contacts" in Prehistoric Man in the New World JD Jennings and E. Norbeck, eds., Chicago: University of Chicago, pp. 489–510. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> This theory is mentioned in the history book <a href="/wiki/The_Rise_of_the_West:_A_History_of_the_Human_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community">The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community</a> (1963) by <a href="/wiki/William_Hardy_McNeill" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hardy McNeill">William H. McNeill</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Meggers. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Xu, Origin of the Olmec civilization. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinese.tcu.edu/www_chinese3_tcu_edu.htm">Dr. Mike Xu's Transpacific website</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010802024552/http://www.chinese.tcu.edu/www_chinese3_tcu_edu.htm">Archived</a> August 2, 2001, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, comparing Olmec and Chinese Shang period artifacts. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> David C. Grove (1976) "Olmec origins and transpacific diffusion: reply to Meggers" <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.academia.edu/1553330/Olmec_origins_and_transpacific_diffusion_reply_to_Meggers">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDean1884" class="citation journal cs1">Dean, James (January 1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F273578">"Anthropology"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_American_Naturalist" title="The American Naturalist">The American Naturalist</a>. 18 (1): 98–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F273578">10.1086/273578</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2450831">2450831</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=Anthropology&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=98-99&rft.date=1884-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F273578&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2450831%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dean&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F273578&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Question-67"><a href="#cite_ref-Question_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeddie1990" class="citation journal cs1">Keddie, Grant (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://staff.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Asiatic-Objects.pdf">"The Question of Asiatic Objects on the North Pacific Coast of North America: Historic or Prehistoric?"</a> (PDF). 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Science. 135 (3501): 371–2. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1962Sci...135..371E">1962Sci...135..371E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.135.3501.371">10.1126/science.135.3501.371</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17782632">17782632</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33126483">33126483</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Possible+Transpacific+Contact+on+the+Coast+of+Ecuador&rft.volume=135&rft.issue=3501&rft.pages=371-2&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.135.3501.371&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33126483%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17782632&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1962Sci...135..371E&rft.aulast=Estrada&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Meggers%2C+BJ&rft.au=Evans%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans,_CliffordMeggers,_Betty1966" class="citation journal cs1">Evans, Clifford; Meggers, Betty (January 1966). 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Putnam's Sons. pp. 379, 380.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christopher+Columbus%3A+his+life%2C+his+work%2C+his+remains%2C+as+revealed+by+original+printed+and+manuscript+records%2C+together+with+an+essay+on+Peter+Martyr+of+Anghera+and+Bartolom%C3%A9+De+Las+Casas%2C+the+first+Historians+of+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=379%2C+380&rft.pub=G.+P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Thacher&rft.aufirst=John+Boyd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchristophercolum02thac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LasCasas1906-98"><a href="#cite_ref-LasCasas1906_98-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLas_Casas1906" class="citation book cs1">Las Casas, Bartolomé de (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P7EBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA327">"Las Casas on the Third Voyage"</a>. In Olson, Julius E.; Bourne, Edward Gaylord (eds.). The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot, 985-1503: The Voyages of the Northmen. Vol. 1. Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 327.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Las+Casas+on+the+Third+Voyage&rft.btitle=The+Northmen%2C+Columbus+and+Cabot%2C+985-1503%3A+The+Voyages+of+the+Northmen&rft.pages=327&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Las+Casas&rft.aufirst=Bartolom%C3%A9+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP7EBAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Romero, Simon (March 27, 2014). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/28/world/americas/discoveries-challenge-beliefs-on-humans-arrival-in-the-americas.html?_r=0">Discoveries Challenge Beliefs on Humans' Arrival in the Americas</a>". The New York Times. Retrieved December 4, 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQiong_Zhang2015" class="citation book cs1">Qiong Zhang (June 5, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WVPFCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA135">Making the New World Their Own: Chinese Encounters with Jesuit Science in the Age of Discovery</a>. Brill. pp. 134–135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004284388" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004284388"><bdi>978-9004284388</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+the+New+World+Their+Own%3A+Chinese+Encounters+with+Jesuit+Science+in+the+Age+of+Discovery&rft.pages=134-135&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015-06-05&rft.isbn=978-9004284388&rft.au=Qiong+Zhang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWVPFCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Needham-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Needham_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Needham_101-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Needham_&_Colin_A._Ronan1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> & Colin A. Ronan (1986). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 3. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 119–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31560-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31560-9"><bdi>978-0-521-31560-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shorter+Science+and+Civilisation+in+China&rft.pages=119-20&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-31560-9&rft.au=Joseph+Needham+%26+Colin+A.+Ronan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Li-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Li_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Li_102-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHui-lin_LiLi,_Hui-lin1960–1961" class="citation journal cs1">Hui-lin Li; Li, Hui-lin (1960–1961). 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Ronan (1986). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 3. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31560-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31560-9"><bdi>978-0-521-31560-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shorter+Science+and+Civilisation+in+China&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-31560-9&rft.au=Joseph+Needham+%26+Colin+A.+Ronan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Tabish Khair (2006). Other Routes: 1500 Years of African and Asian Travel Writing, p. 12. Signal Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-904955-11-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-904955-11-8">1-904955-11-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Masudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali al-Masudi">Ali al-Masudi</a> (940). Muruj Adh-Dhahab (The Book of Golden Meadows), Vol. 1, p. 268. </li> <li id="cite_note-Scott-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scott_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott_106-1">b</a> Scott, J. M. 2005. Geography in Early Judaism and Christianity. Cambridge University Press, pp. 182–183. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_McMenamin" title="Mark McMenamin">McMenamin, M. A.</a> 1997. The Phoenician World Map. Mercator's World 2(3): 46–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMenamin2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_McMenamin" title="Mark McMenamin">McMenamin, Mark A.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=42FlAAAACAAJ">Phoenicians, Fakes and Barry Fell: Solving the Mystery of Carthaginian Coins Found in America</a>. Meanma Press. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-893882-01-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-893882-01-0"><bdi>978-1-893882-01-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved February 8, 2020. <q>The putative Carthaginian coins must now be removed from the body admissible evidence favoring a pre-Columbian transatlantic crossing. It gives me some chagrin to admit this, as I had earlier come out mildly in support of the authenticity of these coins (McMenamin 1999b, 2000a, 2000b). Weak evidence (involving measurements of die axis; the Arkansas coin has a die axis [33 degrees] differing from the Alabama type coins [12 to 20 degrees]) in support of the authenticity of these coins (McMenamin 2000b) is superseded by the strong evidence in the current work.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phoenicians%2C+Fakes+and+Barry+Fell%3A+Solving+the+Mystery+of+Carthaginian+Coins+Found+in+America&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Meanma+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-893882-01-0&rft.aulast=McMenamin&rft.aufirst=Mark+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D42FlAAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCulloch1993" class="citation journal cs1">McCulloch, J. Huston (July–August 1993). "Did Judean Refugees Escape to Tennessee?". Biblical Archaeology Review. 19: 46–53, 82–83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Archaeology+Review&rft.atitle=Did+Judean+Refugees+Escape+to+Tennessee%3F&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=46-53%2C+82-83&rft.date=1993-07%2F1993-08&rft.aulast=McCulloch&rft.aufirst=J.+Huston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMainfortKwas2004" class="citation journal cs1">Mainfort, Robert C.; Kwas, Mary L. (2004). "The Bat Creek Stone Revisited: A Fraud Exposed". American Antiquity. 69 (4): 761–769. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4128448">10.2307/4128448</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4128448">4128448</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161826727">161826727</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+Bat+Creek+Stone+Revisited%3A+A+Fraud+Exposed&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=761-769&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161826727%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4128448%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4128448&rft.aulast=Mainfort&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rft.au=Kwas%2C+Mary+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCulloch" class="citation web cs1">McCulloch, Huston. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asc.ohio-state.edu/mcculloch.2/arch/batcrk.html">"The Bat Creek Stone"</a>. OSU Arts and Sciences. Ohio State University. Retrieved July 31, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OSU+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Bat+Creek+Stone&rft.aulast=McCulloch&rft.aufirst=Huston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asc.ohio-state.edu%2Fmcculloch.2%2Farch%2Fbatcrk.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUngar-Sargon2013" class="citation web cs1">Ungar-Sargon, Batya (February 27, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-arts-and-culture/125339/the-mystery-stone">"The Mystery Stone"</a>. Tablet Magazine. Retrieved July 31, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tablet+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Mystery+Stone&rft.date=2013-02-27&rft.aulast=Ungar-Sargon&rft.aufirst=Batya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tabletmag.com%2Fjewish-arts-and-culture%2F125339%2Fthe-mystery-stone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPace2001" class="citation news cs1">Pace, Eric (April 9, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2001/04/09/obituaries/09GORD.html">"Cyrus Gordon, Scholar of Ancient Languages, Dies at 92"</a>. The New York Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Cyrus+Gordon%2C+Scholar+of+Ancient+Languages%2C+Dies+at+92&rft.date=2001-04-09&rft.aulast=Pace&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2001%2F04%2F09%2Fobituaries%2F09GORD.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMainfortKwas1991" class="citation journal cs1">Mainfort, Robert C. Jr.; Kwas, Mary L. (Spring 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070816103039/http://ramtops.co.uk/bat1.html">"The Bat Creek Stone: Judeans in Tennessee?"</a>. Tennessee Anthropologist. XVI (1). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ramtops.co.uk/bat1.html">the original</a> on August 16, 2007 – via Ramtops.co.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tennessee+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=The+Bat+Creek+Stone%3A+Judeans+in+Tennessee%3F&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=XVI&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Mainfort&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.+Jr.&rft.au=Kwas%2C+Mary+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Framtops.co.uk%2Fbat1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1971" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Cyrus Herzl (1971). Before Columbus: Links Between the Old World and Ancient America. Crown. p. 138.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+Columbus%3A+Links+Between+the+Old+World+and+Ancient+America&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Crown&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Cyrus+Herzl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeigand1978" class="citation journal cs1">Weigand, Phil C. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1978.80.3.02a00760">"Review of In Search of Noah's Ark by Dave Balsiger, Charles E. Sellier; Remote Kingdoms by Tertius Chandler; The Key by John Philip Cohane; Gods of the Cataclysm: A Revolutionary Investigation of Man and His Gods Before and After the Great Cataclysm by Hugh Fox"</a>. American Anthropologist. 80 (3): 731–733. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1978.80.3.02a00760">10.1525/aa.1978.80.3.02a00760</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Review+of+In+Search+of+Noah%27s+Ark+by+Dave+Balsiger%2C+Charles+E.+Sellier%3B+Remote+Kingdoms+by+Tertius+Chandler%3B+The+Key+by+John+Philip+Cohane%3B+Gods+of+the+Cataclysm%3A+A+Revolutionary+Investigation+of+Man+and+His+Gods+Before+and+After+the+Great+Cataclysm+by+Hugh+Fox&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=731-733&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1978.80.3.02a00760&rft.aulast=Weigand&rft.aufirst=Phil+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1978.80.3.02a00760&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradleyStanford2004" class="citation journal cs1">Bradley, Bruce; <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Stanford" title="Dennis Stanford">Stanford, Dennis</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130320033824/http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Conservation%20Biology/Karen%20PDF/Clovis/Bradley%20%26%20Stanford%202004.pdf">"The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible Palaeolithic route to the New World"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/World_Archaeology" title="World Archaeology">World Archaeology</a>. 36 (4): 459–478. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.694.6801">10.1.1.694.6801</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0043824042000303656">10.1080/0043824042000303656</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161534521">161534521</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Conservation%20Biology/Karen%20PDF/Clovis/Bradley%20%26%20Stanford%202004.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 20, 2013. Retrieved June 19, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+North+Atlantic+ice-edge+corridor%3A+a+possible+Palaeolithic+route+to+the+New+World&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=459-478&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.694.6801%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161534521%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0043824042000303656&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft.au=Stanford%2C+Dennis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplanet.uwc.ac.za%2Fnisl%2FConservation%2520Biology%2FKaren%2520PDF%2FClovis%2FBradley%2520%2526%2520Stanford%25202004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarey2006" class="citation news cs1">Carey, Bjorn (February 19, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livescience.com/history/060219_first_americans.html">"First Americans may have been European"</a>. Live Science.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=First+Americans+may+have+been+European&rft.date=2006-02-19&rft.aulast=Carey&rft.aufirst=Bjorn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2Fhistory%2F060219_first_americans.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Meltzer, David J. (2009). First Peoples in the New World, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009, p. 188 </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFagundesKanitzEckertValls2008" class="citation journal cs1">Fagundes, Nelson J.R.; Kanitz, Ricardo; Eckert, Roberta; et al. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2427228">"Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas"</a>. American Journal of Human Genetics. 82 (3): 583–592. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2007.11.013">10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2427228">2427228</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18313026">18313026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Mitochondrial+Population+Genomics+Supports+a+Single+Pre-Clovis+Origin+with+a+Coastal+Route+for+the+Peopling+of+the+Americas&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=583-592&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2427228%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18313026&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2007.11.013&rft.aulast=Fagundes&rft.aufirst=Nelson+J.R.&rft.au=Kanitz%2C+Ricardo&rft.au=Eckert%2C+Roberta&rft.au=Valls%2C+Ana+C.S.&rft.au=Bogo%2C+Mauricio+R.&rft.au=Salzano%2C+Francisco+M.&rft.au=Smith%2C+David+Glenn&rft.au=Silva%2C+Wilson+A.&rft.au=Zago%2C+Marco+A.&rft.au=Ribeiro-dos-Santos%2C+Andrea+K.&rft.au=Santos%2C+Sidney+E.B.&rft.au=Petzl-Erler%2C+Maria+Luiza&rft.au=Bonatto%2C+Sandro+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2427228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKashaniPeregoOlivieriAngerhofer2012" class="citation journal cs1">Kashani, Baharak Hooshia; Perego, Ugo A.; Olivieri, Anna; et al. (January 2012). "Mitochondrial haplogroup C4c: A rare lineage entering America through the ice-free corridor?". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 147 (1): 34–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.21614">10.1002/ajpa.21614</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22024980">22024980</a>. <q>Recent analyses of mitochondrial genomes from Native Americans have brought the overall number of recognized maternal founding lineages from just four to a current count of 15. However, because of their relative low number, almost nothing is known about some of these lineages. This leaves a considerable void in understanding the events that led to the colonization of the Americas following the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). In this study, we identified and completely sequenced 14 mitochondrial DNAs belonging to one extremely rare Native American lineage known as haplogroup C4c. Its age and geographical distribution raise the possibility that C4c marked the Paleo-Indian group(s) that entered North America from Beringia through the ice-free corridor between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. The similarities in ages and geographical distributions for C4c and the previously analyzed X2a lineage provide support to the scenario of a dual origin for Paleo-Indians.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Mitochondrial+haplogroup+C4c%3A+A+rare+lineage+entering+America+through+the+ice-free+corridor%3F&rft.volume=147&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=34-39&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.21614&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22024980&rft.aulast=Kashani&rft.aufirst=Baharak+Hooshia&rft.au=Perego%2C+Ugo+A.&rft.au=Olivieri%2C+Anna&rft.au=Angerhofer%2C+Norman&rft.au=Gandini%2C+Francesca&rft.au=Carossa%2C+Valeria&rft.au=Lancioni%2C+Hovirag&rft.au=Semino%2C+Ornella&rft.au=Woodward%2C+Scott+R.&rft.au=Achilli%2C+Alessandro&rft.au=Torroni%2C+Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141009085241/http://webmuseum.mit.edu/detail.php?type=related&kv=87136&t=objects">"MIT Museum Collections – Objects"</a>. MIT Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webmuseum.mit.edu/detail.php?type=related&kv=87136&t=objects">the original</a> on October 9, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MIT+Museum+Collections+%E2%80%93+Objects&rft.pub=MIT+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebmuseum.mit.edu%2Fdetail.php%3Ftype%3Drelated%26kv%3D87136%26t%3Dobjects&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHristovGenovés_T.1999" class="citation cs2">Hristov, Romeo H.; Genovés T., Santiago (1999), "Mesoamerica evidence of pre-Columbian transoceanic contacts", Ancient Mesoamerica, 10 (2): 207–213, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0956536199102013">10.1017/S0956536199102013</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163071420">163071420</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Mesoamerica&rft.atitle=Mesoamerica+evidence+of+pre-Columbian+transoceanic+contacts&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=207-213&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0956536199102013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163071420%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hristov&rft.aufirst=Romeo+H.&rft.au=Genov%C3%A9s+T.%2C+Santiago&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJashemski2002" class="citation book cs1">Jashemski, Wilhelmina (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3xfjyTqqR7IC&pg=PA81">The natural history of Pompeii</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80054-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80054-9"><bdi>978-0-521-80054-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+natural+history+of+Pompeii&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80054-9&rft.aulast=Jashemski&rft.aufirst=Wilhelmina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3xfjyTqqR7IC%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins1951" class="citation journal cs1">Collins, J. L. 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V.; Carter, George F.; Cook, Warren L.; Covey, Cyclone; Jett, Stephen C.; Lee, Thomas A.; Mundkur, Balaji; Paulsen, Allison C.; Prem, Hanns J.; Reyman, Jonathan E.; Dorado, Miguel Rivera; Totten, Norman (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2741739">"Pre-Columbian Old World Coins in America: An Examination of the Evidence [and Comments and Reply]"</a>. Current Anthropology. 21 (1): 1–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F202398">10.1086/202398</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-3204">0011-3204</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2741739">2741739</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Pre-Columbian+Old+World+Coins+in+America%3A+An+Examination+of+the+Evidence+%5Band+Comments+and+Reply%5D&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=1980&rft.issn=0011-3204&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2741739%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F202398&rft.aulast=Epstein&rft.aufirst=Jeremiah+F.&rft.au=Buchanan%2C+Donal+B.&rft.au=Buttrey%2C+T.+V.&rft.au=Carter%2C+George+F.&rft.au=Cook%2C+Warren+L.&rft.au=Covey%2C+Cyclone&rft.au=Jett%2C+Stephen+C.&rft.au=Lee%2C+Thomas+A.&rft.au=Mundkur%2C+Balaji&rft.au=Paulsen%2C+Allison+C.&rft.au=Prem%2C+Hanns+J.&rft.au=Reyman%2C+Jonathan+E.&rft.au=Dorado%2C+Miguel+Rivera&rft.au=Totten%2C+Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2741739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/10/archives/an-expert-doubts-roman-coins-found-in-us-are-sealink-clue-vikings.html">"An Expert Doubts Roman Coins Found in U.S. Are Sea-Link Clue"</a>. The New York Times. December 10, 1978. Retrieved June 18, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=An+Expert+Doubts+Roman+Coins+Found+in+U.S.+Are+Sea-Link+Clue&rft.date=1978-12-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1978%2F12%2F10%2Farchives%2Fan-expert-doubts-roman-coins-found-in-us-are-sealink-clue-vikings.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Forbes, Jack D. 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Accessed: February 13, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120805122505/http://www.public.asu.edu/~mesmith9/tval/RomanFigurine.html">Archived</a> at WebCite, February 13, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orkneyjar.com/history/historicalfigures/henrysinclair/">"Earl Henry Sinclair"</a>. Orkneyjar. Retrieved February 3, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Earl+Henry+Sinclair&rft.pub=Orkneyjar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orkneyjar.com%2Fhistory%2Fhistoricalfigures%2Fhenrysinclair%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-forst-132"><a href="#cite_ref-forst_132-0">^</a> Johann Reinhold Forster, History of the Voyages and Discoveries Made in the North, Printed for G.G.J. and J. Robinson, London, 1786 </li> <li id="cite_note-ZENO,_NICOLÒ,-133"><a href="#cite_ref-ZENO,_NICOLÒ,_133-0">^</a> T. J. Oleson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/zeno_nicolo_1E.html">"Zeno, Nicolò"</a> in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 1, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–, accessed October 1, 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-biographi-134"><a href="#cite_ref-biographi_134-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOleson" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Oleson, T. J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=592">"Zeno, Nicolo and Antonio"</a>. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zeno%2C+Nicolo+and+Antonio&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Canadian+Biography+Online&rft.aulast=Oleson&rft.aufirst=T.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biographi.ca%2F009004-119.01-e.php%3F%26id_nbr%3D592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-THK-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-THK_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-THK_135-1">b</a> Christopher Knight and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lomas" title="Robert Lomas">Robert Lomas</a>. The Hiram Key. Fair Winds Press, 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931412-75-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-931412-75-8">1-931412-75-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurnbull2009" class="citation web cs1">Turnbull, Michael TRB (August 6, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/places/rosslynchapel_1.shtml">"Rosslyn Chapel"</a>. BBC. Retrieved December 14, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rosslyn+Chapel&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2009-08-06&rft.aulast=Turnbull&rft.aufirst=Michael+TRB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2Freligions%2Fchristianity%2Fplaces%2Frosslynchapel_1.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Mark Oxbrow & I. Robertson. Rosslyn and the Grail. Mainstream Publishing, 2005 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84596-076-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-84596-076-9">1-84596-076-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_ship_of_dreams-138"><a href="#cite_ref-The_ship_of_dreams_138-0">^</a> Historian Mark Oxbrow, quoted in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heritage.scotsman.com/myths.cfm?id=515952005">"The ship of dreams"</a> by Diane MacLean, Scotsman.com, May 13, 2005 </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouza1946" class="citation journal cs1">Souza, Thomas Oscar Marcondes de (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507682">"A Supposed Discovery of Brazil before 1448"</a>. 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The Christopher Columbus encyclopedia, Volume 1, University of Michigan press, republished by Simon & Schuster, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-142670-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-142670-2">0-13-142670-2</a>, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Seaver (1995) p. 222 </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Seaver, K.A.(1995) The Frozen Echo Stanford University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-3161-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-3161-6">0-8047-3161-6</a> p. 221. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Columbus, Christopher; Cohen, J. M. 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PLOS ONE. 9 (2): e87612. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PLoSO...987612D">2014PLoSO...987612D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0087612">10.1371/journal.pone.0087612</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3913659">3913659</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24503968">24503968</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Mitochondrial+Genome+Sequencing+in+Mesolithic+North+East+Europe+Unearths+a+New+Sub-Clade+within+the+Broadly+Distributed+Human+Haplogroup+C1&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e87612&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3913659%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24503968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0087612&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PLoSO...987612D&rft.aulast=Der+Sarkissian&rft.aufirst=Clio&rft.au=Brotherton%2C+Paul&rft.au=Balanovsky%2C+Oleg&rft.au=Templeton%2C+Jennifer+E.+L.&rft.au=Llamas%2C+Bastien&rft.au=Soubrier%2C+Julien&rft.au=Moiseyev%2C+Vyacheslav&rft.au=Khartanovich%2C+Valery&rft.au=Cooper%2C+Alan&rft.au=Haak%2C+Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3913659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17946/17946-h/17946-h.htm">Eirik the Red's Saga by John Sephton</a> paragraph 14 </li> <li id="cite_note-ADE163-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ADE163_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ADE163_168-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ADE163_168-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes2007" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Jack D. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd8yZn7MfSQC&q=American+Discovery+of+Europe">The American Discovery of Europe</a>. University of Illinois Press. p. 163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03152-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03152-6"><bdi>978-0-252-03152-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved December 20, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Discovery+of+Europe&rft.pages=163&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-252-03152-6&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Jack+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcd8yZn7MfSQC%26q%3DAmerican%2BDiscovery%2Bof%2BEurope&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ANA-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ANA_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ANA_169-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1993" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Jack D. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6aLAeB5QiHAC&q=Trondheim+cathedral+Inuit&pg=PA20">Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples</a>. University of Illinois Press. pp. 18–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06321-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06321-3"><bdi>978-0-252-06321-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved December 20, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africans+and+Native+Americans%3A+The+Language+of+Race+and+the+Evolution+of+Red-Black+Peoples&rft.pages=18-21&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06321-3&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Jack+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6aLAeB5QiHAC%26q%3DTrondheim%2Bcathedral%2BInuit%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Seaver (1995), p. 208 </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFossett2001" class="citation book cs1">Fossett, Renée (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yK7cac_mXGgC&q=Inuit+in+Europe+Trondheim&pg=PA80">In Order to Live Untroubled: Inuit of the Central Arctic, 1550–1940</a>. University of Manitoba Press. pp. 75–77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88755-647-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88755-647-0"><bdi>978-0-88755-647-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Order+to+Live+Untroubled%3A+Inuit+of+the+Central+Arctic%2C+1550%E2%80%931940&rft.pages=75-77&rft.pub=University+of+Manitoba+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-88755-647-0&rft.aulast=Fossett&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9e&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyK7cac_mXGgC%26q%3DInuit%2Bin%2BEurope%2BTrondheim%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elvirrey.com/libro/tupac-yupanqui-descubridor-de-oceania_70118589">"TÚPAC YUPANQUI, DESCUBRIDOR DE OCEANÍA - Librería el Virrey"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=T%C3%9APAC+YUPANQUI%2C+DESCUBRIDOR+DE+OCEAN%C3%8DA+-+Librer%C3%ADa+el+Virrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.elvirrey.com%2Flibro%2Ftupac-yupanqui-descubridor-de-oceania_70118589&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdel_Busto_Duthurburu2019" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">del Busto Duthurburu, José Antonio (2019). Túpac Yupanqui, descubridor de Oceanía. Nuku Hiva, Mangareva, Rapa Nui (in Spanish). 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June 28, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Quetzalc%C3%B3atl+%C2%BFblanco+y+de+ojos+azules%3F&rft.date=2016-06-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farqueologiamexicana.mx%2Fmexico-antiguo%2Fquetzalcoatl-blanco-y-de-ojos-azules&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gaceta.unam.mx/hernan-cortes-y-el-regreso-de-quetzalcoatl/">"Hernán Cortés y el regreso de Quetzalcóatl"</a>. Gaceta UNAM. April 9, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gaceta+UNAM&rft.atitle=Hern%C3%A1n+Cort%C3%A9s+y+el+regreso+de+Quetzalc%C3%B3atl&rft.date=2019-04-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gaceta.unam.mx%2Fhernan-cortes-y-el-regreso-de-quetzalcoatl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWirth2002" class="citation journal cs1">Wirth, Diane E. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jbms/vol11/iss1/3/">"Quetzalcoatl, the Maya Maize God, and Jesus Christ"</a>. Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 11 (1): 4–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5406%2Fjbookmormstud.11.1.0004">10.5406/jbookmormstud.11.1.0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:193717645">193717645</a>. 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Quest Books. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0835608077" title="Special:BookSources/978-0835608077"><bdi>978-0835608077</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Templars+and+the+Grail&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Quest+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0835608077&rft.au=Karen+Rall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGpLSrOvPhJUC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTim_Wallace-Murphy2004" class="citation book cs1">Tim Wallace-Murphy (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xf_uvy6h1OoC&pg=PA17">Templars in America</a>. Weiser Books. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1578633173" title="Special:BookSources/978-1578633173"><bdi>978-1578633173</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Templars+in+America&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Weiser+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1578633173&rft.au=Tim+Wallace-Murphy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxf_uvy6h1OoC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Finke,_1907-179"><a href="#cite_ref-Finke,_1907_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinke1907" class="citation book cs1">Finke, Heinrich (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kITUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA339">Papsttum und untergang des Templerordens</a>. Münster: verlag der Aschendorffschen buchh. pp. 338–39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780837069005" title="Special:BookSources/9780837069005"><bdi>9780837069005</bdi></a>. <q>Item dixit, quod potentes ordinis prescientes istam confusionem fugiunt et ipse obviavit fratri Girardo de Villariis ducenti quinquaginta equos, et audivit dici, quod intravit mare cum XVIII galeis, et frater Hugo de Cabilone fugiit cum tot thesauro fratris Hugonis de Peraudo.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Papsttum+und+untergang+des+Templerordens&rft.place=M%C3%BCnster&rft.pages=338-39&rft.pub=verlag+der+Aschendorffschen+buchh.&rft.date=1907&rft.isbn=9780837069005&rft.aulast=Finke&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkITUAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dafoe-180"><a href="#cite_ref-Dafoe_180-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDafoe" class="citation web cs1">Dafoe, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.templarhistory.com/2010/08/brethren-persecuted-part-2/">"Brethren Persecuted Part Two: Revenge Destroys Everything"</a>. Knight Templar Magazine, the official publication of the York Rite Masonry Grand Encampment of Knights Templar of the United States of America. Retrieved October 29, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Knight+Templar+Magazine%2C+the+official+publication+of+the+York+Rite+Masonry+Grand+Encampment+of+Knights+Templar+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Brethren+Persecuted+Part+Two%3A+Revenge+Destroys+Everything&rft.aulast=Dafoe&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.templarhistory.com%2F2010%2F08%2Fbrethren-persecuted-part-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Nicholson, Helen (2001). The Knights Templar: A New History. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton. pp. 12, 191–92. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-2517-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-2517-5">0-7509-2517-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-182">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_182-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_182-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/native-americans-jews-the-lost-tribes-episode/">"Native Americans and Jews: The Lost Tribes Episode"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Native+Americans+and+Jews%3A+The+Lost+Tribes+Episode&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.myjewishlearning.com%2Farticle%2Fnative-americans-jews-the-lost-tribes-episode%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029184039/http://olivercowdery.com/texts/1660Thor.htm">"Oliver's Bookshelf, The Premier Web-Site for Early Mormon History"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olivercowdery.com/texts/1660Thor.htm">the original</a> on October 29, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oliver%27s+Bookshelf%2C+The+Premier+Web-Site+for+Early+Mormon+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Folivercowdery.com%2Ftexts%2F1660Thor.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParfitt2003" class="citation book cs1">Parfitt, Tudor (2003). The Lost Tribes of Israel: The History of a Myth. Phoenix. p. 66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lost+Tribes+of+Israel%3A+The+History+of+a+Myth&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Parfitt&rft.aufirst=Tudor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParfitt2003" class="citation book cs1">Parfitt, Tudor (2003). The Lost Tribes of Israel: The History of a Myth. Phoenix. pp. 66, 76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lost+Tribes+of+Israel%3A+The+History+of+a+Myth&rft.pages=66%2C+76&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Parfitt&rft.aufirst=Tudor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoudinot1816" class="citation web cs1">Boudinot, Elias (1816). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tz_YAAAAMAAJ&q=A+Star+in+the+West,+or+a+Humble+Attempt+to+Discover+the+Long+Lost+Ten+Tribes+of+Israel,+Preparatory+to+Their+Return+to+Their+Beloved+City,+Jerusalem%3B">"A Star in the West: Or, A Humble Attempt to Discover the Long Lost Ten Tribes of Israel, Preparatory to Their Return to Their Beloved City, Jerusalem"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Star+in+the+West%3A+Or%2C+A+Humble+Attempt+to+Discover+the+Long+Lost+Ten+Tribes+of+Israel%2C+Preparatory+to+Their+Return+to+Their+Beloved+City%2C+Jerusalem&rft.date=1816&rft.aulast=Boudinot&rft.aufirst=Elias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtz_YAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DA%2BStar%2Bin%2Bthe%2BWest%2C%2Bor%2Ba%2BHumble%2BAttempt%2Bto%2BDiscover%2Bthe%2BLong%2BLost%2BTen%2BTribes%2Bof%2BIsrael%2C%2BPreparatory%2Bto%2BTheir%2BReturn%2Bto%2BTheir%2BBeloved%2BCity%2C%2BJerusalem%253B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mit.irr.org/national-geographic-society-statement-on-book-of-mormon">"National Geographic Society Statement on the Book of Mormon"</a>. August 12, 1998. Letter from Julie Crain addressed to Luke Wilson of the Institute for Religious Research. </li> <li id="cite_note-Givens2004-188"><a href="#cite_ref-Givens2004_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGivens2004" class="citation book cs1">Givens, Terryl (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IEEkTWyIpZkC&pg=PA145">The Latter-day Saint Experience in America</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 145–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32750-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32750-6"><bdi>978-0-313-32750-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved November 8, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Latter-day+Saint+Experience+in+America&rft.pages=145-&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32750-6&rft.aulast=Givens&rft.aufirst=Terryl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIEEkTWyIpZkC%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> *<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>Brewer, Stewart W., (1999); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://farms.byu.edu/display.php?table=jbms&id=180">"The History of an Idea: The Scene on Stela 5 from Izapa, Mexico, as a Representation of Lehi's Vision of the Tree of Life"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040915054621/http://farms.byu.edu/display.php?table=jbms&id=180">Archived</a> September 15, 2004, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, (p. 12) </li> <li id="cite_note-Paulson2000-190"><a href="#cite_ref-Paulson2000_190-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulson2000" class="citation book cs1">Paulson, Matthew A. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pbi_OfkPhzwC&pg=PA236">Breaking the Mormon Code</a>. WingSpan Press. pp. 236–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59594-067-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59594-067-4"><bdi>978-1-59594-067-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved November 8, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Breaking+the+Mormon+Code&rft.pages=236-&rft.pub=WingSpan+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-59594-067-4&rft.aulast=Paulson&rft.aufirst=Matthew+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPbi_OfkPhzwC%26pg%3DPA236&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLund2007" class="citation book cs1">Lund, John (November 22, 2007). MesoAmerica And The Book of Mormon. Granite Publishing & Distribution. p. 286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1891114403" title="Special:BookSources/978-1891114403"><bdi>978-1891114403</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MesoAmerica+And+The+Book+of+Mormon&rft.pages=286&rft.pub=Granite+Publishing+%26+Distribution&rft.date=2007-11-22&rft.isbn=978-1891114403&rft.aulast=Lund&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1989" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Joseph (June 15, 1989). Exploring the Lands of the Book of Mormon. S.A. Publishers. p. 437. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780842523936" title="Special:BookSources/9780842523936"><bdi>9780842523936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+the+Lands+of+the+Book+of+Mormon&rft.pages=437&rft.pub=S.A.+Publishers&rft.date=1989-06-15&rft.isbn=9780842523936&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wirth2007-193"><a href="#cite_ref-Wirth2007_193-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWirth2007" class="citation book cs1">Wirth, Diane (2007). Decoding Ancient America: A Guide to the Archaeology of the Book of Mormon. Horizon Publishers, an Imprint of Cedar Fort, Inc. pp. 150–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0882908205" title="Special:BookSources/978-0882908205"><bdi>978-0882908205</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decoding+Ancient+America%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Archaeology+of+the+Book+of+Mormon&rft.pages=150-&rft.pub=Horizon+Publishers%2C+an+Imprint+of+Cedar+Fort%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0882908205&rft.aulast=Wirth&rft.aufirst=Diane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-Columbian+transoceanic+contact+theories" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pre-Columbian_North_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#E8E6B4"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pre-Columbian_North_America" title="Template:Pre-Columbian North America"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pre-Columbian_North_America" title="Template talk:Pre-Columbian North America"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pre-Columbian_North_America" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pre-Columbian North America"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pre-Columbian_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era#North_America" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian North America</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#E8E6B4"><div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)" title="List of archaeological periods (North America)">Periods</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_(North_America)" title="Archaic period (North America)">Archaic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#E8E6B4;width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Archaeological cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alachua_culture" title="Alachua culture">Alachua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Beringian" title="Ancient Beringian">Ancient Beringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Ancestral Puebloans">Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avonlea_culture" title="Avonlea culture">Avonlea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baytown_culture" title="Baytown culture">Baytown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belle_Glade_culture" title="Belle Glade culture">Belle Glade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buttermilk_Creek_complex" title="Buttermilk Creek complex">Buttermilk Creek complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caborn-Welborn_culture" title="Caborn-Welborn culture">Caborn-Welborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cades_Pond_culture" title="Cades Pond culture">Cades Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calf_Creek_culture" title="Calf Creek culture">Calf Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caloosahatchee_culture" title="Caloosahatchee culture">Caloosahatchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coles_Creek_culture" title="Coles Creek culture">Coles Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comond%C3%BA_complex" title="Comondú complex">Comondú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deptford_culture" title="Deptford culture">Deptford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_tradition" title="Folsom tradition">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Ancient" title="Fort Ancient">Fort Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Walton_culture" title="Fort Walton culture">Fort Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fremont_culture" title="Fremont culture">Fremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacial_Kame_culture" title="Glacial Kame culture">Glacial Kame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glades_culture" title="Glades culture">Glades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam">Hohokam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hopewell_sites" title="List of Hopewell sites">List of Hopewell sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Jolla_complex" title="La Jolla complex">La Jolla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Las_Palmas_complex" title="Las Palmas complex">Las Palmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Archaic" title="Maritime Archaic">Maritime Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mississippian_sites" title="List of Mississippian sites">List of Mississippian sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogollon_culture" title="Mogollon culture">Mogollon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monongahela_culture" title="Monongahela culture">Monongahela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Cordilleran_culture" title="Old Cordilleran culture">Old Cordilleran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneota" title="Oneota">Oneota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Arctic_tradition" title="Paleo-Arctic tradition">Paleo-Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patayan" title="Patayan">Patayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_cultures" title="Plano cultures">Plano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaquemine_culture" title="Plaquemine culture">Plaquemine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_Point_culture" title="Poverty Point culture">Poverty Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Ocher_people" title="Red Ocher people">Red Ocher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_Harbor_culture" title="Safety Harbor culture">Safety Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Rosa-Swift_Creek_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Rosa-Swift Creek culture">Santa Rosa-Swift Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Johns_culture" title="St. Johns culture">St. Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steed-Kisker_culture" title="Steed-Kisker culture">Steed-Kisker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suwannee_Valley_culture" title="Suwannee Valley culture">Suwannee Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tchefuncte_site#Tchefuncte_culture" title="Tchefuncte site">Tchefuncte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troyville_culture" title="Troyville culture">Troyville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weeden_Island_culture" title="Weeden Island culture">Weeden Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#E8E6B4;width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Archaeological sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angel_Mounds" title="Angel Mounds">Angel Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anzick_site" title="Anzick site">Anzick site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandelier_National_Monument" title="Bandelier National Monument">Bandelier National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastian_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Bastian Site">Bastian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benson_Archeological_Site_(13WD50)" title="Benson Archeological Site (13WD50)">Benson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Spring_Heritage_Center" title="Blue Spring Heritage Center">Blue Spring Shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bluefish_Caves" title="Bluefish Caves">Bluefish Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bluff_Point_Stoneworks" title="The Bluff Point Stoneworks">The Bluff Point Stoneworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brewster_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Brewster Site">Brewster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahokia" title="Cahokia">Cahokia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candelaria_Cave" title="Candelaria Cave">Candelaria Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_Grande_Ruins_National_Monument" title="Casa Grande Ruins National Monument">Casa Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaco_Culture_National_Historical_Park" title="Chaco Culture National Historical Park">Chaco Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coso_Rock_Art_District" title="Coso Rock Art District">Coso Rock Art District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_River_Archaeological_State_Park" title="Crystal River Archaeological State Park">Crystal River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuarenta_Casas" title="Cuarenta Casas">Cuarenta Casas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cueva_de_la_Olla_(archaeological_site)" title="Cueva de la Olla (archaeological site)">Cueva de la Olla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutler_Fossil_Site" title="Cutler Fossil Site">Cutler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eaker_site" title="Eaker site">Eaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Fin_del_Mundo" title="El Fin del Mundo">El Fin del Mundo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Vallecito" title="El Vallecito">El Vallecito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effigy_Mounds_National_Monument" title="Effigy Mounds National Monument">Effigy Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etowah_Indian_Mounds" title="Etowah Indian Mounds">Etowah Indian Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eva_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Eva Site">Eva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_site" title="Folsom site">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Ancient_(Lebanon,_Ohio)" title="Fort Ancient (Lebanon, Ohio)">Fort Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Center" title="Fort Center">Fort Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Juelson" title="Fort Juelson">Fort Juelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mounds_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Mounds Site">Four Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gila_Cliff_Dwellings_National_Monument" title="Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument">Gila Cliff Dwellings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenwood_Archeological_District" title="Glenwood Archeological District">Glenwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimes_Point" title="Grimes Point">Grimes Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Blazes_archaeological_site" title="Helen Blazes archaeological site">Helen Blazes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holly_Bluff_site" title="Holly Bluff site">Holly Bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_Culture_National_Historical_Park" title="Hopewell Culture National Historical Park">Hopewell Culture National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horr%27s_Island" title="Horr's Island">Horr's Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu%C3%A1poca" title="Huápoca">Huápoca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_Marco" title="Key Marco">Key Marco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimball_Village" title="Kimball Village">Kimball Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kincaid_Mounds_State_Historic_Site" title="Kincaid Mounds State Historic Site">Kincaid Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolomoki_Mounds" title="Kolomoki Mounds">Kolomoki Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Jackson_Mounds_Archaeological_State_Park" title="Lake Jackson Mounds Archaeological State Park">Lake Jackson Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehner_Mammoth-Kill_Site" title="Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site">Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynch_Quarry_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynch Quarry Site">Lynch Quarry Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marksville_culture" title="Marksville culture">Marksville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marmes_Rockshelter" title="Marmes Rockshelter">Marmes Rockshelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadowcroft_Rockshelter" title="Meadowcroft Rockshelter">Meadowcroft Rockshelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesa_Verde_National_Park" title="Mesa Verde National Park">Mesa Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moaning_Cavern" title="Moaning Cavern">Moaning Cavern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorehead_Circle" title="Moorehead Circle">Moorehead Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrison_Mounds" title="Morrison Mounds">Morrison Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moundville_Archaeological_Site" title="Moundville Archaeological Site">Moundville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy_Cave" title="Mummy Cave">Mummy Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nodena_site" title="Nodena site">Nodena site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocmulgee_Mounds_National_Historical_Park" title="Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park">Ocmulgee Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Stone_Fort_(Tennessee)" title="Old Stone Fort (Tennessee)">Old Stone Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orwell_Site_(Fergus_Falls,_Minnesota)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orwell Site (Fergus Falls, Minnesota)">Orwell site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casas_Grandes" title="Casas Grandes">Paquime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Bluff" title="Painted Bluff">Painted Bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkin_Archeological_State_Park" title="Parkin Archeological State Park">Parkin Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinson_Mounds" title="Pinson Mounds">Pinson Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plum_Bayou_Mounds_Archeological_State_Park" title="Plum Bayou Mounds Archeological State Park">Plum Bayou Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Earthworks" title="Portsmouth Earthworks">Portsmouth Earthworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_Point" title="Poverty Point">Poverty Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Bonito" title="Pueblo Bonito">Pueblo Bonito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rassawek" title="Rassawek">Rassawek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_Canyon" title="Recapture Canyon">Recapture Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_Styx_archaeological_site" title="River Styx archaeological site">River Styx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberts_Island_complex" title="Roberts Island complex">Roberts Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Eagle" title="Rock Eagle">Rock Eagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Hawk" title="Rock Hawk">Rock Hawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosenstock_Village_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosenstock Village Site">Rosenstock Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Cave_National_Monument" title="Russell Cave National Monument">Russell Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_Ruins" title="Salmon Ruins">Salmon Ruins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpent_Mound" title="Serpent Mound">Serpent Mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Paintings_of_Sierra_de_San_Francisco" title="Rock Paintings of Sierra de San Francisco">Sierra de San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shell_ring_sites" title="List of shell ring sites">Shell ring sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiro_Mounds" title="Spiro Mounds">Spiro Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stallings_Island" title="Stallings Island">Stallings Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SunWatch_Indian_Village" title="SunWatch Indian Village">SunWatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taos_Pueblo" title="Taos Pueblo">Taos Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_Creek_Indian_Mound" title="Town Creek Indian Mound">Town Creek Indian Mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_River_Mounds_State_Preserve" title="Turkey River Mounds State Preserve">Turkey River Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upward_Sun_River_site" title="Upward Sun River site">Upward Sun River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velda_Mound" title="Velda Mound">Velda Mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Oak_Forest_Earthlodge_Site" title="West Oak Forest Earthlodge Site">West Oak Forest Earthlodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wickiup_Hill" title="Wickiup Hill">Wickiup Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windover_Archeological_Site" title="Windover Archeological Site">Windover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winterville_site" title="Winterville site">Winterville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wupatki_National_Monument" title="Wupatki National Monument">Wupatki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#E8E6B4;width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Human remains</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anzick-1" title="Anzick-1">Anzick-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arlington_Springs_Man" title="Arlington Springs Man">Arlington Springs Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhl_Woman" title="Buhl Woman">Buhl Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennewick_Man" title="Kennewick Man">Kennewick Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Brea_Woman" title="La Brea Woman">La Brea Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanderthal_Lady" title="Leanderthal Lady">Leanderthal Lady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melbourne_Bone_Bed#Melbourne_Man" title="Melbourne Bone Bed">Melbourne Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Woman" title="Minnesota Woman">Minnesota Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1on_woman" title="Peñon woman">Peñon woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_Cave_mummy" title="Spirit Cave mummy">Spirit Cave mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vero_man" title="Vero man">Vero man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#E8E6B4;width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aridoamerica" title="Aridoamerica">Aridoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballgame" title="Mesoamerican ballgame">Ballgame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Black drink">Black drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_pipe" title="Ceremonial pipe">Ceremonial pipe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chanunpa" title="Chanunpa">Chanunpa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunkey" title="Chunkey">Chunkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_Revolution_(pottery)" class="mw-redirect" title="Container Revolution (pottery)">Container Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex" title="Eastern Agricultural Complex">Eastern Agricultural Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effigy_mound" title="Effigy mound">Effigy mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Ceremonial_Complex#Birdman" title="Southeastern Ceremonial Complex">Falcon dancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony" title="Green Corn Ceremony">Green Corn Ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horned_Serpent" title="Horned Serpent">Horned Serpent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_wheel" title="Medicine wheel">Medicine wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America#North_America" title="Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_hieroglyphic_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing">Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">N.A.G.P.R.A.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse colonization of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oasisamerica" title="Oasisamerica">Oasisamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piasa" title="Piasa">Piasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Ceremonial_Complex" title="Southeastern Ceremonial Complex">Southeastern Ceremonial Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_North_American_stickball" title="Indigenous North American stickball">Stickball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">Three Sisters agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderbird_(mythology)" title="Thunderbird (mythology)">Thunderbird</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Transoceanic contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_panther" title="Underwater panther">Underwater panther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_glyphs" title="Water glyphs">Water glyphs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#E8E6B4"><div> <dl><dt>Related</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetic history</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_seafaring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template talk:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Propulsion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portolan_chart" title="Portolan chart">Portolan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutter_(nautical)" title="Rutter (nautical)">Rutter (nautical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (Podouke)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> (Kadaram)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Mediterranean:   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age#Economy_of_Iron_Age_Britain" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo-Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Ra and Ra II</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesian replicas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Maritime_Museum#Seaworthy_ships" title="New Zealand Maritime Museum">Aotearoa One</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)">Ivlia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Legend_and_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Legend and literature</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks 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