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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Factor affecting topical drug absorption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factor_affecting_topical_drug_absorption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_versus_systemic_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_versus_systemic_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Local versus systemic effect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_versus_systemic_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Choice_of_base_formulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Choice_of_base_formulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Choice of base formulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Choice_of_base_formulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formulations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Formulations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formulations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formulations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cream" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cream"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Cream</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cream-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Foam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Gel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Lotion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ointment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ointment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Ointment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ointment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Paste</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Powder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Powder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Powder</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Powder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shake_lotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shake_lotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Shake lotion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shake_lotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Solid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sponge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sponge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.10</span> <span>Sponge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sponge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tape" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.11</span> <span>Tape</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tincture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tincture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.12</span> <span>Tincture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tincture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topical_solution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topical_solution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.13</span> <span>Topical solution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topical_solution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transdermal_patch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transdermal_patch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.14</span> <span>Transdermal patch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transdermal_patch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vapor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vapor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.15</span> <span>Vapor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vapor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topical_Drug_Classification_System_(TCS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topical_Drug_Classification_System_(TCS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Topical Drug Classification System (TCS)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Topical_Drug_Classification_System_(TCS)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Topical Drug Classification System (TCS) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Topical_Drug_Classification_System_(TCS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Advantages_of_topical_drug_delivery_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages_of_topical_drug_delivery_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Advantages of topical drug delivery systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages_of_topical_drug_delivery_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disadvantages_of_topical_drug_delivery_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disadvantages_of_topical_drug_delivery_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Disadvantages of topical drug delivery systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages_of_topical_drug_delivery_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges_for_designing_topical_dosage_form" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges_for_designing_topical_dosage_form"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Challenges for designing topical dosage form</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenges_for_designing_topical_dosage_form-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>New developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B6%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="دواء موضعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دواء موضعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicaci%C3%B3_t%C3%B2pica" title="Medicació tòpica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Medicació tòpica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topikal_administration" title="Topikal administration – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Topikal administration" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lokaltherapie" title="Lokaltherapie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lokaltherapie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicaci%C3%B3n_t%C3%B3pica" title="Medicación tópica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Medicación tópica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B6%D8%B9%DB%8C" title="داروی موضعی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="داروی موضعی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9dicament_topique" title="Médicament topique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Médicament topique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lokalna_terapija" title="Lokalna terapija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Lokalna terapija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unguento" title="Unguento – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Unguento" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topikal" title="Topikal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Topikal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF_%E0%B2%94%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%A7" title="ಬಾಹ್ಯ ಔಷಧ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬಾಹ್ಯ ಔಷಧ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B6%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="ضماد – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ضماد" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E7%94%A8%E8%96%AC" title="外用薬 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="外用薬" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicamento_t%C3%B3pico" title="Medicamento tópico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Medicamento tópico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medica%C8%9Bie_topic%C4%83" title="Medicație topică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Medicație topică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Мазевые основы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мазевые основы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topi%C4%8Dna_uporaba_zdravila" title="Topična uporaba zdravila – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Topična uporaba zdravila" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topikalni_lek" title="Topikalni lek – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Topikalni lek" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topikalni_lek" title="Topikalni lek – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Topikalni lek" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Ліки місцевого застосування – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ліки місцевого застосування" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thu%E1%BB%91c_t%E1%BA%A1i_ch%E1%BB%97" title="Thuốc tại chỗ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thuốc tại chỗ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E7%94%A8%E8%97%A5%E7%89%A9" title="外用藥物 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="外用藥物" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q420054#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Topical+medication%22">"Topical medication"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Topical+medication%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Topical+medication%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Topical+medication%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Topical+medication%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Topical+medication%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2008</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Instilling_nasal_medication.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Instilling_nasal_medication.jpg/220px-Instilling_nasal_medication.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Instilling_nasal_medication.jpg/330px-Instilling_nasal_medication.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Instilling_nasal_medication.jpg/440px-Instilling_nasal_medication.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>A medical professional administering nose drops</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Instilling_eye_medication.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Instilling_eye_medication.jpg/220px-Instilling_eye_medication.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Instilling_eye_medication.jpg/330px-Instilling_eye_medication.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Instilling_eye_medication.jpg/440px-Instilling_eye_medication.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Instillation of eye drops</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>topical medication</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medication</a> that is applied to a particular place on or in the body. Most often topical medication means application to <a href="/wiki/Body_surface_area" title="Body surface area">body surfaces</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucous membranes</a> to treat ailments via a large range of classes including <a href="/wiki/Cream_(pharmaceutical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cream (pharmaceutical)">creams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foams" class="mw-redirect" title="Foams">foams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gels" class="mw-redirect" title="Gels">gels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotions">lotions</a>, and ointments.<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Maryland_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Maryland-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many topical medications are epicutaneous, meaning that they are applied directly to the skin. Topical medications may also be <a href="/wiki/Insufflation_(medicine)" title="Insufflation (medicine)">inhalational</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Asthma_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Asthma medication">asthma medications</a>, or applied to the surface of tissues other than the skin, such as <a href="/wiki/Eye_drops" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye drops">eye drops</a> applied to the <a href="/wiki/Conjunctiva" title="Conjunctiva">conjunctiva</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ear_drop" title="Ear drop">ear drops</a> placed in the ear, or medications applied to the surface of a <a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">tooth</a>. The word <i>topical</i> derives from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:τοπικός">τοπικός</a> <i>topikos</i>, "of a place". </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Justification">Justification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Justification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Topical drug delivery is a route of administering <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drugs</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">skin</a> to provide topical therapeutic effects. As skin is one of the largest and most superficial <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> body, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacist" title="Pharmacist">pharmacists</a> utilise it to deliver various drugs. This system usually provides a local effect on certain positions of the body. In ancient times, people used <a href="/wiki/Herb" title="Herb">herbs</a> to put on wounds for relieving the inflammatory effect or as pain relievers. The use of <a href="/wiki/Topical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Topical drug">topical drug</a> delivery system is much broader now, from <a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">smoking cessation</a> to beauty purposes. Nowadays, there are numerous <a href="/wiki/Dosage_form" title="Dosage form">dosage forms</a> that can be used topically, including <a href="/wiki/Cream_(pharmacy)" title="Cream (pharmacy)">cream</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ointment" class="mw-redirect" title="Ointment">ointment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lotion" title="Lotion">lotion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transdermal_patch" title="Transdermal patch">patches</a>, dusting powder and much more.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many advantages for this <a href="/wiki/Drug_delivery_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug delivery systems">drug delivery system</a> – avoiding <a href="/wiki/First-pass_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="First-pass metabolism">first pass metabolism</a> which can increase its <a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">bioavailability</a>, being convenient and easy to apply to a large area, being easy to terminate the medication and avoiding gastro-intestinal irritations. All these can increase patient compliance. However, there are several disadvantages to this system – causing <a href="/wiki/Skin_irritation" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin irritation">skin irritations</a> and symptoms like <a href="/wiki/Rash" title="Rash">rashes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Itchiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Itchiness">itchiness</a> may occur. Also, only small <a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a> can pass through the skin, which limits the choice of <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drugs</a>. Since skin is the main medium of the topical drug delivery system, its conditions determine the rate of skin penetration leading to affecting the <a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">pharmacokinetics</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drug</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/PH_value" class="mw-redirect" title="PH value">pH value</a>, and dryness of the skin need to be considered. There are some novel topical drugs in the market which can utilise the system as much as possible. </p><p>This localized system provides topical therapeutic effects via skin, <a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">eyes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">nose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">vagina</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to treat <a href="/wiki/Diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Diseases">diseases</a>. The most common usage is for local <a href="/wiki/Skin_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin infections">skin infection</a> problems. Dermatological products have various <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_formulation" title="Pharmaceutical formulation">formulations</a> and range in consistency though the most popular dermal products are semisolid dosage forms<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to provide topical treatment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Factor_affecting_topical_drug_absorption">Factor affecting topical drug absorption</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Factor affecting topical drug absorption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Topical drug absorption depends on two major factors – biological and physicochemical properties. </p><p>The first factor concerns body structure effects on the <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drugs</a>. The degradation of drugs can be affected by the site of applications. Some studies discovered different <a href="/wiki/Percutaneous" title="Percutaneous">Percutaneous</a> absorption patterns. Apart from the place, age also affects the absorption as the skin structure changes with age. The lowered <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> and broadened <a href="/wiki/Blood_capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood capillaries">blood capillary</a> networks happen with aging. These features alter the effectiveness of absorption of both hydrophilic and <a href="/wiki/Lipophilic_substance" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipophilic substance">lipophilic substances</a> into <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">stratum</a> corneum underneath the surface of the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The skin surface integrity can also affect the permeability of drugs such as the density of <a href="/wiki/Hair_follicle" title="Hair follicle">hair follicles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweat_gland" title="Sweat gland">sweat glands</a> or disintegrated by <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">dehydration</a>. </p><p>The other factor concerns metabolism of medications on skin. When the percutaneous drug is applied on skin, it will be gradually absorbed down the skin. Normally, when the drugs are absorbed, they will be metabolised by various <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> in our body and the amount will be lower. The exact amount delivered to the target action site determines the potency and bioavailability of the drugs. If the <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> is too low, the therapeutic effect is impeded; if the concentration is too high, drug toxicity may happen to cause side effects or even do harm to our body. For the <a href="/wiki/Topical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Topical drug">topical drug</a> delivery way, degradation of drugs in skin is very low compared to <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>. The metabolism of drugs is mainly by metabolic enzyme <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_P450" title="Cytochrome P450">cytochrome P450</a>, and this enzyme is not active in skin. The <a href="/wiki/CYP450" class="mw-redirect" title="CYP450">CYP450</a> actively metabolized drugs can then maintain high concentration when being applied on skin. Despite <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_P450" title="Cytochrome P450">CYP450</a> enzyme action, the <a href="/wiki/Partition_coefficient" title="Partition coefficient">partition coefficient</a> (K) determines the activity of topical drugs. The ability of drug particles to go through the skin layer also affects the absorption of drugs. For transdermal activity, medicines with higher K value are harder to get rid of the <a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">lipid layer of skin cells</a>. The trapped molecules then cannot penetrate into the skin. This reduces the efficacy of the transdermal drugs. The drugs target cells underneath the skin or need to diffuse into <a href="/wiki/Blood_capillary" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood capillary">blood capillary</a> to exert their effect. Meanwhile, the size of particles affects this transdermal process. The smaller the drug molecules, the faster the rate of penetration. <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">Polarity</a> of the drugs can affect this diffusion rate too. If the drug shows lower degree of ionization, it is less polar. Therefore, it can have a faster absorption rate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_versus_systemic_effect">Local versus systemic effect</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Local versus systemic effect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The definition of the topical <a href="/wiki/Route_of_administration" title="Route of administration">route of administration</a> sometimes states that both the application location and the <a href="/wiki/Pharmacodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacodynamic">pharmacodynamic</a> effect thereof is local.<sup id="cite_ref-topical_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-topical-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Applying_transdermal_patch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Applying_transdermal_patch.jpg/220px-Applying_transdermal_patch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Applying_transdermal_patch.jpg/330px-Applying_transdermal_patch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Applying_transdermal_patch.jpg/440px-Applying_transdermal_patch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="3655" /></a><figcaption>A transdermal patch which delivers medication is applied to the skin. The patch is labelled with the time and date of administration as well as the administrator's initials.</figcaption></figure> <p>In other cases, <i>topical</i> is defined as applied to a localized area of the body or to the surface of a body part regardless of the location of the effect.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this definition, topical administration also includes <a href="/wiki/Transdermal" title="Transdermal">transdermal</a> application, where the substance is administered onto the skin but is <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(skin)" title="Absorption (skin)">absorbed</a> into the body to attain <a href="/wiki/Systemic_administration" title="Systemic administration">systemic</a> distribution. Such medications are generally <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobe" title="Hydrophobe">hydrophobic</a> chemicals, such as <a href="/wiki/Steroid_hormone" title="Steroid hormone">steroid hormones</a>. Specific types include <a href="/wiki/Transdermal_patch" title="Transdermal patch">transdermal patches</a> which have become a popular means of administering some drugs for <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormone_therapy" title="Hormone therapy">hormone replacement therapy</a>, and prevention of <a href="/wiki/Motion_sickness" title="Motion sickness">motion sickness</a>. One example of an <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotic</a> that may be applied topically is <a href="/wiki/Chloramphenicol" title="Chloramphenicol">chloramphenicol</a>. </p><p>If defined strictly as having a local effect, the topical <a href="/wiki/Route_of_administration" title="Route of administration">route of administration</a> can also include <a href="/wiki/Enteral_administration" title="Enteral administration">enteral administration</a> of medications that are poorly absorbable by the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>. One poorly absorbable antibiotic is <a href="/wiki/Vancomycin" title="Vancomycin">vancomycin</a>, which is recommended by mouth as a treatment for severe <a href="/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile_infection" title="Clostridioides difficile infection"><i>Clostridioides difficile</i> colitis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AHFS2015_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHFS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Choice_of_base_formulation">Choice of base formulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Choice of base formulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A medication's potency often is changed with its base. For example, some <a href="/wiki/Topical_steroid" title="Topical steroid">topical steroids</a> will be classified one or two strengths higher when moving from cream to ointment. As a rule of thumb, an ointment base is more occlusive and will drive the medication into the skin more rapidly than a solution or cream base.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolverton,_SE_2001._pp563-572_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolverton,_SE_2001._pp563-572-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The manufacturer of each topical product has total control over the content of the base of a medication. Although containing the same active ingredients, one manufacturer's cream might be more acidic than the next, which could cause skin irritation or change its absorption rate. For example, a vaginal formulation of <a href="/wiki/Miconazole" title="Miconazole">miconazole</a> antifungal cream might irritate the skin less than an athlete's foot formulation of miconazole cream. These variations can, on occasion, result in different <a href="/wiki/Clinical_outcome" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical outcome">clinical outcomes</a>, even though the active ingredient is the same. No comparative potency labeling exists to ensure equal efficacy between brands of topical steroids (percentage of oil vs water dramatically affect the potency of topical steroid). Studies have confirmed that the potency of some topical steroid products may differ according to manufacturer or brand. An example of this is the case of brand name <a href="/wiki/Valisone" class="mw-redirect" title="Valisone">Valisone</a> cream and <a href="/wiki/Kenalog" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenalog">Kenalog</a> cream in clinical studies have demonstrated significantly better vasoconstrictions than some forms of this drug produced by <a href="/wiki/Generic_drug" title="Generic drug">generic drug</a> manufacturers.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolverton,_SE_2001._pp563-572_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolverton,_SE_2001._pp563-572-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in a simple base like an ointment, much less variation between manufacturers is common. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">dermatology</a>, the base of a topical medication is often as important as the medication itself. It is extremely important to receive a medication in the correct base, before applying to the skin. A pharmacist should not substitute an ointment for a cream, or vice versa, as the potency of the medication can change. Some physicians use a thick ointment to replace the waterproof barrier of the inflamed skin in the treatment of eczema, and a cream might not accomplish the same clinical intention. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formulations">Formulations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Formulations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are many general classes, with no clear dividing line among similar formulations. As a result, what the manufacturer's marketing department chooses to list on the label of a topical medication might be completely different from what the form would normally be called. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cream">Cream</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cream"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cream_(pharmacy)" title="Cream (pharmacy)">Cream (pharmacy)</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Cream_(pharmaceutical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cream (pharmaceutical)">cream</a> is an emulsion of oil and water in approximately equal proportions. It penetrates the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">stratum corneum</a> outer layer of skin wall. Cream is thicker than lotion, and maintains its shape when removed from its container. It tends to be moderate in moisturizing tendency. For topical steroid products, oil-in-water emulsions are common. Creams have a significant risk of causing <a href="/wiki/Immunological_sensitization" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunological sensitization">immunological sensitization</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Preservative" title="Preservative">preservatives</a> and have a high rate of acceptance by patients. There is a great variation in ingredients, composition, pH, and tolerance among generic brands.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolverton_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolverton-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foam">Foam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Foam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Topical corticosteroid foams are suitable for treating a range of skin conditions that respond to corticosteroids. These foams are typically simple to apply, which can lead to better patient compliance and, in turn, improve treatment results for those who favor a more convenient and cleaner topical option. <a href="/wiki/Foam" title="Foam">Foam</a> can be typically seen with topical steroids marketed for the scalp.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gel">Gel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Topical_gels" title="Topical gels">Topical gels</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gel" title="Gel">Gels</a> are thicker than liquids. Gels are often a semisolid <a href="/wiki/Emulsion" title="Emulsion">emulsion</a> and sometimes use alcohol as a solvent for the active ingredient; some gels liquefy at body temperature. Gel tends to be cellulose cut with alcohol or acetone. Gels tend to be self-drying, tend to have greatly variable ingredients between brands, and carry a significant risk of inducing hypersensitivity due to fragrances and preservatives. Gel is useful for hairy areas and body folds. In applying gel one should avoid fissures in the skin, due to the stinging effect of the alcohol base. Gel enjoys a high rate of acceptance due to its cosmetic elegance.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolverton_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolverton-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lotion">Lotion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Lotion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SPF15SunBlock.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/SPF15SunBlock.JPG/220px-SPF15SunBlock.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/SPF15SunBlock.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>Tube of factor 15 sun block lotion.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Lotion" title="Lotion">Lotions</a> are similar to solution but are thicker and tend to be more <a href="/wiki/Emollient" class="mw-redirect" title="Emollient">emollient</a> in nature than the solution. They are usually oil mixed with water, and more often than not have less alcohol than solution. Lotions can be drying if they contain a high amount of alcohol. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ointment">Ointment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ointment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CruzRojaPomada.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/CruzRojaPomada.JPG/220px-CruzRojaPomada.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/CruzRojaPomada.JPG/330px-CruzRojaPomada.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/CruzRojaPomada.JPG/440px-CruzRojaPomada.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="1293" /></a><figcaption>Metal case for Cruz Roja ointment from Mexico (beginning of the 20th century) from the permanent collection of the <a href="/wiki/Museo_del_Objeto_del_Objeto" title="Museo del Objeto del Objeto">Museo del Objeto del Objeto</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>ointment</b> is a homogeneous, viscous, semi-solid preparation; most commonly a greasy, thick water-in-oil emulsion (80% oil, 20% water) having a high viscosity, that is intended for external application to the skin or mucous membranes. Ointments have a water number that defines the maximum amount of water that they can contain. They are used as <a href="/wiki/Emollient" class="mw-redirect" title="Emollient">emollients</a> or for the application of active ingredients to the skin for protective, therapeutic, or prophylactic purposes and where a degree of occlusion is desired. </p><p>Ointments are used topically on a variety of body surfaces. These include the <a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">skin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucous membranes</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">eye</a> (an <i>eye ointment</i>), <a href="/wiki/Chest_rub" title="Chest rub">chest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">vulva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">anus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">nose</a>. An ointment may or may not be medicated. </p><p>Ointments are usually very moisturizing, and good for dry skin. They have a low risk of sensitization due to having few ingredients beyond the base oil or fat, and low irritation risk. There is typically little variability between brands of drugs. They are often disliked by patients due to greasiness.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolverton_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolverton-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vehicle of an ointment is known as the <i>ointment base</i>. The choice of a base depends upon the clinical indication for the ointment. The different types of ointment bases are: </p> <ul><li>Absorption bases, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Beeswax" title="Beeswax">beeswax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wool_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Wool fat">wool fat</a></li> <li>Emulsifying bases, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Cetrimide" title="Cetrimide">cetrimide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emulsifying_wax" title="Emulsifying wax">emulsifying wax</a></li> <li>Hydrocarbon bases, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Ceresine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceresine">ceresine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microcrystalline_wax" title="Microcrystalline wax">microcrystalline wax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">hard paraffin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_jelly" title="Petroleum jelly">soft paraffin</a></li> <li>Vegetable oil bases, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Almond_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Almond oil">almond oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coconut_oil" title="Coconut oil">coconut oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peanut_oil" title="Peanut oil">peanut oil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sesame_oil" title="Sesame oil">sesame oil</a></li> <li>Water-soluble bases, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Macrogol" title="Macrogol">macrogols</a> 200, 300, 400</li></ul> <p>The medicaments are dispersed in the base and are divided after penetrating the living cells of the skin. </p><p>The water number of an ointment is the maximum quantity of water that 100g of a base can contain at 20 °C. </p><p>Ointments are formulated using hydrophobic, hydrophilic, or water-emulsifying bases to provide preparations that are immiscible, miscible, or emulsifiable with <a href="/wiki/Skin_secretions_(human)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin secretions (human)">skin secretions</a>. They can also be derived from hydrocarbon (fatty), absorption, water-removable, or water-soluble bases. </p><p>Evaluation of ointments:<sup id="cite_ref-:3_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Drug content</li> <li>Release of medicament from base</li> <li>Medicament penetration</li> <li>Consistency of the preparation</li> <li>Absorption of medicament into blood stream</li> <li>Irritant effect</li></ol> <p>Properties which affect choice of an ointment base are:<sup id="cite_ref-:3_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Stability</li> <li>Penetrability</li> <li>Solvent property</li> <li>Irritant effects</li> <li>Ease of application and removal</li></ol> <p>Methods of preparation of ointments: </p> <ul><li><b>Fusion</b>: In this method the ingredients are melted together in descending order of their melting points and stirred to ensure homogeneity.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Trituration" title="Trituration">Trituration</a></b>: In this finely subdivided insoluble medicaments are evenly distributed by grinding with a small amount of the base followed by dilution with gradually increasing amounts of the base.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paste">Paste</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Paste"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Paste_(rheology)" title="Paste (rheology)">Paste</a> combines three agents – oil, water, and powder. It is an ointment in which a powder is suspended. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Powder">Powder</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Powder"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Powder_(substance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Powder (substance)">Powder</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is either the pure drug by itself (talcum powder), or is made of the drug mixed in a carrier such as <a href="/wiki/Corn_starch" title="Corn starch">corn starch</a> or corn cob powder (Zeosorb AF – miconazole powder). Can be used as an inhaled topical (<a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a> powder used in nasal surgery). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shake_lotion">Shake lotion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Shake lotion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A shake lotion is a mixture that separates into two or three parts over time. Frequently, an oil mixed with a water-based solution needs to be shaken into suspension before use and includes the instructions: "Shake well before use".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solid">Solid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Solid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medication may be placed in a solid form. Examples are deodorants, antiperspirants, astringents, and hemostatic agents. Some solids melt when they reach body temperature (e.g. rectal suppositories). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sponge">Sponge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sponge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Certain contraceptive methods rely on <a href="/wiki/Sponge_(tool)" title="Sponge (tool)">sponge</a> as a carrier of liquid medicine. <a href="/wiki/Lemon_juice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemon juice">Lemon juice</a> embedded in a sponge has been used as a primitive contraception in some cultures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tape">Tape</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tape"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cordran tape is an example of a topical steroid applied under <a href="/wiki/Occlusive_dressing" title="Occlusive dressing">occlusion</a> by tape. This greatly increases the potency and absorption of the topical steroid and is used to treat inflammatory skin diseases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tincture">Tincture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tincture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Tincture" title="Tincture">tincture</a> is a skin preparation that has a high percentage of alcohol. It would normally be used as a drug vehicle if drying of the area is desired. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topical_solution">Topical solution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Topical solution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Topical solutions can be marketed as drops, rinses, or sprays, are generally of low viscosity, and often use alcohol or water in the base.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are usually a powder dissolved in alcohol, water, and sometimes oil; although a solution that uses alcohol as a base ingredient, as in topical steroids, can cause drying of the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-AllenAnsel2013_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllenAnsel2013-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There is significant variability among brands, and some solutions may cause irritation, depending on the preservative(s) and fragrances used in the base. </p><p>Some examples of topical solutions are given below: </p> <ol><li>Aluminium acetate topical solution: This is colorless, with a faint acetous odour and sweetish taste. It is applied topically as an astringent after dilution with 10-40 parts of water. This is used in many types of dermatologic creams, lotions, and pastes. Commercial premeasured and packed tablets and powders are available for this preparation.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Povidone iodine topical solution: This is a chemical complex of iodine with polyvinylpyrrolidone. The agent is a polymer with an average molecular weight of 40,000. The povidone iodine contains 10% available iodine, slowly released when applied to skin. This preparation is employed topically as a surgical scrub and non irritating antiseptic solution; its effectiveness is directly attributed to the presence and release of iodine from the complex. Commercial product: <a href="/wiki/Betadine" class="mw-redirect" title="Betadine">Betadine</a> solution.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transdermal_patch">Transdermal patch</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Transdermal patch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Transdermal_patch" title="Transdermal patch">Transdermal patches</a> can be a very precise time released method of delivering a drug. Cutting a patch in half might affect the dose delivered. The release of the active component from a transdermal delivery system (patch) may be controlled by diffusion through the adhesive which covers the whole patch, by diffusion through a membrane which may only have adhesive on the patch rim or drug release may be controlled by release from a polymer matrix. Cutting a patch might cause rapid dehydration of the base of the medicine and affect the rate of diffusion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vapor">Vapor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Vapor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some medications are applied as an ointment or gel, and reach the mucous membrane via vaporization. Examples are nasal <a href="/wiki/Topical_decongestant" title="Topical decongestant">topical decongestants</a> and smelling salt. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topical_Drug_Classification_System_(TCS)"><span id="Topical_Drug_Classification_System_.28TCS.29"></span>Topical Drug Classification System (TCS)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Topical Drug Classification System (TCS)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1-s2.0-S0378517315005220-fx1_lrg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/1-s2.0-S0378517315005220-fx1_lrg.jpg/288px-1-s2.0-S0378517315005220-fx1_lrg.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/1-s2.0-S0378517315005220-fx1_lrg.jpg/432px-1-s2.0-S0378517315005220-fx1_lrg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/1-s2.0-S0378517315005220-fx1_lrg.jpg/576px-1-s2.0-S0378517315005220-fx1_lrg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2213" data-file-height="886" /></a><figcaption>Graphical abstract of Topical Drug Classification System<sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Topical drug classification system (TCS) is proposed by the <a href="/wiki/FDA" class="mw-redirect" title="FDA">FDA</a>. It is designed from the <a href="/wiki/Biopharmaceutics_Classification_System" title="Biopharmaceutics Classification System">Biopharmaceutics Classification System</a> (BCS) for oral immediate release solid drug products which is very successful for decades. There are 3 aspects to assess and 4 classes in total. The 3 aspects include qualitative (Q1), quantitative (Q2) and similarity of <a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a> release (IVR) rate (Q3).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advantages_of_topical_drug_delivery_systems">Advantages of topical drug delivery systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Advantages of topical drug delivery systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 1970s, the <a href="/wiki/Alza_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Alza Corporation">Alza Corporation</a>, through their founder <a href="/wiki/Alejandro_Zaffaroni" title="Alejandro Zaffaroni">Alejandro Zaffaroni</a>, filed the first US patents describing transdermal delivery systems for <a href="/wiki/Scopolamine" title="Scopolamine">scopolamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitroglycerin" title="Nitroglycerin">nitroglycerin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Transdermal_patches:_history,_devel_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transdermal_patches:_history,_devel-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People found that applying medicines on the body surfaces is beneficial in many aspects. Skin medicines can give faster onset and local effect on our body as the surface cream can bypass first pass metabolism such as hepatic and intestinal metabolism. Apart from the absorption, dermal drugs effectively prevent oral delivery limitations such as <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a> and poor appliances due to unpalatable tastes of the drugs . Topical application is an easy way for patients to tackle skin infections in a painless and non-invasive way. From a patient perspective, applying drugs on skin also provides stable dosage in blood so as to give the optimal <a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">bioavailability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_effect" title="Therapeutic effect">therapeutic effects</a>. In case of <a href="/wiki/Overdose" class="mw-redirect" title="Overdose">overdose</a> or unwanted side effects, patients can take off or wash out the medicines quickly to eliminate <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> by simply removing the patch to stop the delivery of drugs.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disadvantages_of_topical_drug_delivery_systems">Disadvantages of topical drug delivery systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Disadvantages of topical drug delivery systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The site of putting the patches for topical drugs may get irritated and have <a href="/wiki/Rash" title="Rash">rashes</a> and feel itchy. Hence, some topical drugs including <a href="/wiki/Nicotine_patch" title="Nicotine patch">nicotine patches</a> for <a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">smoking cessation</a> are advised to change places for each application to avoid continuous irritation of the skin. Also, since the drug needs to penetrate the skin, some drugs may not be able to pass through the skin. Some drugs are then “wasted” and the bioavailability of the drug will decrease. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Challenges_for_designing_topical_dosage_form">Challenges for designing topical dosage form</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Challenges for designing topical dosage form"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Skin penetration is the main challenge for any topical dosage form. The drug needs to penetrate the skin in order to get into the body to apply its function. The drug follows Fick's first law of diffusion.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most common versions of <a href="/wiki/Fick%27s_laws_of_diffusion" title="Fick's laws of diffusion">Fick's first law of diffusion</a> is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle J=-D{dc \over dx}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>J</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle J=-D{dc \over dx}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fc5acd4c37dc13f99ebf17e5c7493f37ad57bf48" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:11.684ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle J=-D{dc \over dx}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <ul><li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">J</span> is the <b><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_flux" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion flux">diffusion flux</a></b>.</li> <li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">D</span> is the <b><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion coefficient">diffusion coefficient</a></b>.</li> <li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">dc/dx</span> is the <b><a href="/wiki/Concentration_gradient" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentration gradient">concentration gradient</a></b>.</li></ul> <p>For <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">D</span> is described by the <b><a href="/wiki/Stokes%E2%80%93Einstein_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Stokes–Einstein equation">Stokes–Einstein equation</a></b>. The equation is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D={\frac {RT}{6\pi \eta rN_{A}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>R</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>6</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mi>η</mi> <mi>r</mi> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D={\frac {RT}{6\pi \eta rN_{A}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/384b97e994cc2e96552c45427e22b5dfe4fa4299" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:13.902ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D={\frac {RT}{6\pi \eta rN_{A}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <ul><li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">R</span> is the <b><a href="/wiki/Gas_constant" title="Gas constant">gas constant</a></b>.</li> <li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">T</span> is the <b><a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a></b>.</li> <li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">η</span> is the <b><a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a></b>.</li> <li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">r</span> is the <b><a href="/wiki/Radius" title="Radius">radius</a></b> of the solute.</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N_{A}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N_{A}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9fa9233ef6a6a2c0576dbf65490ddb8307fde494" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.331ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N_{A}}"></span> is the <b><a href="/wiki/Avogadro_constant" title="Avogadro constant">Avogadro constant</a></b>.</li></ul> <p>Assuming <a href="/wiki/Concentration_gradient" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentration gradient">concentration gradient</a> is constant for all newly applied topical drugs and the temperature is constant (normal body temperature: 37 °C), the viscosity and radius of the drug determine the flux of diffusion. The higher the <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> or the larger the radius of the drug is, the lower the <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_flux" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion flux">diffusion flux</a> of the drug is.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_developments">New developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: New developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are many factors for drug developers to consider in developing new topical formulations. </p><p>The first one is the effect of the drug vehicle. The medium to carry the topical drugs can affect the penetration of the drug <a href="/wiki/Active_ingredient" title="Active ingredient">active ingredient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Efficacy" title="Efficacy">efficacy</a>. For example, this carrier can have a cooling, drying, emollient or protective action to suit the required conditions of the application site such as applying <a href="/wiki/Gel" title="Gel">gel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lotion" title="Lotion">lotion</a> for hairy areas. Meanwhile, scientists need to match the type of preparation with the type of lesions. For example, they need to avoid oily <a href="/wiki/Ointments" class="mw-redirect" title="Ointments">ointments</a> for acute weepy <a href="/wiki/Dermatitis" title="Dermatitis">dermatitis</a>. Chemists also need to consider the <a href="/wiki/Irritation" title="Irritation">irritation</a> or any <a href="/wiki/Sensitization" title="Sensitization">sensitization</a> potential to ensure that the topical application can be stable during storage and transport to maintain its efficacy.<sup id="cite_ref-Transdermal_patches:_history,_devel_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transdermal_patches:_history,_devel-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another potential material is nanofiber-based dispersion to improve the adhesion of active ingredients on the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to enhance drug penetration into the skin, scientists have several ways to achieve their purposes by using chemical, biochemical, physical, and <a href="/wiki/Super_saturation" class="mw-redirect" title="Super saturation">super saturation</a> enhancement. Advanced Emulgel technology is a breakthrough in painkilling topical drugs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It helps the gel to enter deeply down the skin layer to strengthen the delivery of diclofenac to the point of pain so as to achieve better <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_effect" title="Therapeutic effect">therapeutic effects</a> by modifying the above properties.<sup id="cite_ref-Transdermal_patches:_history,_devel_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Transdermal_patches:_history,_devel-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" 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corticosteroids">Topical corticosteroids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unguent" title="Unguent">Unguent</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goodman_%26_Gilman%27s_The_Pharmacological_Basis_of_Therapeutics" title="Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics">Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics</a></li> <li>Dr. David Edwards – Dentistry Microbiology Lecture series</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-University_of_Maryland-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-University_of_Maryland_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style 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no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-07-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster+dictionary&rft.atitle=topical&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Ftopical&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATopical+medication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/topical">thefreedictionary.com > topical</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101205213439/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/topical">Archived</a> 2010-12-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Citing: The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, 2000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionary.com/browse/topical">"topical"</a>. <i>dictionary.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170730214617/http://www.dictionary.com/browse/topical">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-07-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-07-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dictionary.com&rft.atitle=topical&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Ftopical&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATopical+medication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AHFS2015-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AHFS2015_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugs.com/monograph/vancocin.html">"Vancocin"</a>. 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(2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4403087">"Transdermal patches: history, development and pharmacology"</a>. <i>British Journal of Pharmacology</i>. <b>172</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">2179–</span>2209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fbph.13059">10.1111/bph.13059</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4403087">4403087</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25560046">25560046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Transdermal+patches%3A+history%2C+development+and+pharmacology&rft.volume=172&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2179-%3C%2Fspan%3E2209&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4403087%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25560046&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fbph.13059&rft.aulast=Pastore&rft.aufirst=M.+N.&rft.au=Kalia%2C+Y.+N.&rft.au=Horstmann%2C+M.&rft.au=Roberts%2C+M.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4403087&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATopical+medication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhaoChenBaiSong2024" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Lin; Chen, Jiamei; Bai, Bai; Song, Guili; Zhang, Jingwen; Yu, Han; Huang, Shiwei; Wang, Zhang; Lu, Guanghua (2024-01-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10825035">"Topical drug delivery strategies for enhancing drug effectiveness by skin barriers, drug delivery systems and individualized dosing"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Pharmacology</i>. <b>14</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffphar.2023.1333986">10.3389/fphar.2023.1333986</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1663-9812">1663-9812</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10825035">10825035</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38293666">38293666</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Topical+drug+delivery+strategies+for+enhancing+drug+effectiveness+by+skin+barriers%2C+drug+delivery+systems+and+individualized+dosing&rft.volume=14&rft.date=2024-01-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10825035%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1663-9812&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F38293666&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffphar.2023.1333986&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Lin&rft.au=Chen%2C+Jiamei&rft.au=Bai%2C+Bai&rft.au=Song%2C+Guili&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Jingwen&rft.au=Yu%2C+Han&rft.au=Huang%2C+Shiwei&rft.au=Wang%2C+Zhang&rft.au=Lu%2C+Guanghua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10825035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATopical+medication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Florence, A. T., & Attwood, D. (2016). Physicochemical principles of pharmacy in manufacture, formulation and clinical use. London: (PhP) Pharmaceutical Press.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050513193634/http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/pdfs/mussheet06.pdf">History of ointments</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mouthwash" title="Mouthwash">Mouthwash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toothpaste" title="Toothpaste">Toothpaste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topical" class="mw-redirect" title="Topical">Ointment</a></li> <li>Spray</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Respiratory tract</a> (<a href="/wiki/Inhalation" title="Inhalation">inhalation</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">Solids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dry-powder_inhaler" title="Dry-powder inhaler">Dry-powder inhaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking" title="Smoking">Smoking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anesthetic_vaporizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Anesthetic vaporizer">Anesthetic vaporizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heated_humidified_high-flow_therapy" title="Heated humidified high-flow therapy">Heated humidified high-flow therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_inhalants" title="List of medical inhalants">Medical inhalants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metered-dose_inhaler" title="Metered-dose inhaler">Metered-dose inhaler</a> (MDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebulizer" title="Nebulizer">Nebulizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaporizer_(inhalation_device)" title="Vaporizer (inhalation device)">Vaporizer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_mask" title="Oxygen mask">Oxygen mask</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nasal_cannula" title="Nasal cannula">Nasal cannula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_concentrator" title="Oxygen concentrator">Oxygen concentrator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaesthetic_machine" title="Anaesthetic machine">Anaesthetic machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_inhalants" title="List of medical inhalants">Medical inhalants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_analgesia_machine" title="Relative analgesia machine">Relative analgesia machine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration" title="Ophthalmic drug administration">Ophthalmic</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">otic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasal_administration" title="Nasal administration">nasal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Action_photo_of_nasal_spray_on_a_black_background.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Action_photo_of_nasal_spray_on_a_black_background.jpg/30px-Action_photo_of_nasal_spray_on_a_black_background.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Action_photo_of_nasal_spray_on_a_black_background.jpg/45px-Action_photo_of_nasal_spray_on_a_black_background.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Action_photo_of_nasal_spray_on_a_black_background.jpg/60px-Action_photo_of_nasal_spray_on_a_black_background.jpg 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_spray" title="Nasal spray">Nasal spray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_drop" title="Ear drop">Ear drops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_drop" title="Eye drop">Eye drops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topical" class="mw-redirect" title="Topical">Ointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogel" title="Hydrogel">Hydrogel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insufflation_(medicine)" title="Insufflation (medicine)">Insufflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioadhesive" title="Bioadhesive">Mucoadhesive microdisc</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">Urogenital</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Topical" class="mw-redirect" title="Topical">Ointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pessary" title="Pessary">Pessary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_ring" title="Vaginal ring">Vaginal ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douche" title="Douche">Douche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrauterine_device" title="Intrauterine device">Intrauterine device</a> (IUD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extra-amniotic_administration" title="Extra-amniotic administration">Extra-amniotic infusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">Intravesical infusion</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rectal_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rectal (medicine)">Rectal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Enteral_administration" title="Enteral administration">enteral</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glycerin_suppositories.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Glycerin_suppositories.jpg/30px-Glycerin_suppositories.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Glycerin_suppositories.jpg/45px-Glycerin_suppositories.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Glycerin_suppositories.jpg/60px-Glycerin_suppositories.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2126" data-file-height="1623" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Topical" class="mw-redirect" title="Topical">Ointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppository" title="Suppository">Suppository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enema" title="Enema">Enema</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">Solution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogel" title="Hydrogel">Hydrogel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murphy_drip" title="Murphy drip">Murphy drip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_enema" title="Nutrient enema">Nutrient enema</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">Dermal</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">topical</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SPF15SunBlock.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/SPF15SunBlock.JPG/40px-SPF15SunBlock.JPG" decoding="async" width="40" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/SPF15SunBlock.JPG/60px-SPF15SunBlock.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/SPF15SunBlock.JPG/80px-SPF15SunBlock.JPG 2x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <li><a href="/wiki/Topical" class="mw-redirect" title="Topical">Ointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topical_cream" class="mw-redirect" title="Topical cream">Topical cream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topical_gel" class="mw-redirect" title="Topical gel">Topical gel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liniment" title="Liniment">Liniment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paste_(rheology)" title="Paste (rheology)">Paste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_film_drug_delivery" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin film drug delivery">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_sulfoxide" title="Dimethyl sulfoxide">DMSO</a> solution</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iontophoresis" title="Iontophoresis">Iontophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogel" title="Hydrogel">Hydrogel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liposome" title="Liposome">Liposomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfersome" title="Transfersome">Transfersome vesicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cream_(pharmaceutical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cream (pharmaceutical)">Cream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotion" title="Lotion">Lotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lip_balm" title="Lip balm">Lip balm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shampoo" title="Shampoo">Medicated shampoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermal_patch" title="Dermal patch">Dermal patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transdermal_patch" title="Transdermal patch">Transdermal patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transdermal_spray" title="Transdermal spray">Transdermal spray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_injector" title="Jet injector">Jet injector</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parenteral" class="mw-redirect" title="Parenteral">Parenterals</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Injection_(medicine)" title="Injection (medicine)">Injections</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Infusion_pump" title="Infusion pump">infusions</a></li></ul></div><br /><small><i>(into tissue/blood)</i></small></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Transdermal" title="Transdermal">transdermal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Intradermal_injection" title="Intradermal injection">Intradermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_injection" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcutaneous injection">Subcutaneous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injector_pen" title="Injector pen">Injector pen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transdermal_implant" title="Transdermal implant">Transdermal implant</a></li> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Injection_Syringe_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Injection_Syringe_01.jpg/60px-Injection_Syringe_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Injection_Syringe_01.jpg/90px-Injection_Syringe_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Injection_Syringe_01.jpg/120px-Injection_Syringe_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1002" data-file-height="1386" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy#Major_organ_systems" title="Human anatomy">Organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intracavernous_injection" title="Intracavernous injection">Intracavernous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intravitreal_administration" title="Intravitreal administration">Intravitreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intra-articular_injection" class="mw-redirect" title="Intra-articular injection">Intra-articular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">Central nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intracerebral_injection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intracerebral injection (page does not exist)">Intracerebral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrathecal_administration" title="Intrathecal administration">Intrathecal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidural_administration" title="Epidural administration">Epidural</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Human_musculoskeletal_system" title="Human musculoskeletal system">musculoskeletal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intravenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous">Intravenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intracardiac_injection" title="Intracardiac injection">Intracardiac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intramuscular_injection" title="Intramuscular injection">Intramuscular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraosseous_infusion" title="Intraosseous infusion">Intraosseous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraperitoneal_injection" title="Intraperitoneal injection">Intraperitoneal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanocell" title="Nanocell">Nanocell injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient-controlled_analgesia" title="Patient-controlled analgesia">Patient-controlled analgesia</a> pump</li> <li><a href="/wiki/PIC_line" class="mw-redirect" title="PIC line">PIC line</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&oldid=1269361866">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Topical_medication&oldid=1269361866</a>"</div></div> <div 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