CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Plantation complexes in the Southern United States - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"c41016cb-8a8a-4b5e-8d8b-6dfa396d3291","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States","wgTitle":"Plantation complexes in the Southern United States","wgCurRevisionId":1254717882,"wgRevisionId":1254717882,"wgArticleId":31510137,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from February 2024","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use American English from September 2019","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","Use mdy dates from September 2019","All self-contradictory articles","Self-contradictory articles from November 2024", "All articles with failed verification","Articles with failed verification from May 2024","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from February 2021","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Plantations in the United States","Plantation houses in the United States","History of the Southern United States","History of agriculture in the United States","Antebellum architecture","Slave cabins and quarters in the United States","Pre-emancipation African-American history"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States","wgRelevantArticleId":31510137,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault" :true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q7201620","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user": "ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns", "ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg/1200px-StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="800"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg/800px-StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="533"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg/640px-StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="427"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States rootpage-Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Plantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Plantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Plantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Plantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-The_plantation_complex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_plantation_complex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>The plantation complex</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_plantation_complex-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The plantation complex subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_plantation_complex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slave_quarters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slave_quarters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Slave quarters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slave_quarters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_residential_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_residential_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Other residential structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_residential_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kitchen_yard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kitchen_yard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Kitchen yard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kitchen_yard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancillary_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancillary_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Ancillary structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancillary_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agricultural_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agricultural_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Agricultural structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agricultural_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_labor_organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_labor_organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Social and labor organization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_and_labor_organization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Social and labor organization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Social_and_labor_organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plantation_owner" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plantation_owner"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Plantation owner</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plantation_owner-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overseer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overseer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Overseer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overseer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enslaved_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enslaved_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Enslaved people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enslaved_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plantation_complexes_in_the_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plantation_complexes_in_the_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Plantation complexes in the 21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plantation_complexes_in_the_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Plantation complexes in the Southern United States</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 3 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-3" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">3 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompleks_perkebunan_di_Amerika_Serikat_Selatan" title="Kompleks perkebunan di Amerika Serikat Selatan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kompleks perkebunan di Amerika Serikat Selatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edifici_delle_piantagioni_degli_Stati_Uniti" title="Edifici delle piantagioni degli Stati Uniti – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Edifici delle piantagioni degli Stati Uniti" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_American_plantations" title="Southern American plantations – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Southern American plantations" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7201620#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&oldid=1254717882" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&id=1254717882&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPlantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPlantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Plantation_houses_in_the_United_States" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7201620" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg/300px-StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg/450px-StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg/600px-StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1790" data-file-height="1193" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stratford_Hall_(plantation)" title="Stratford Hall (plantation)">Stratford Hall</a> is a classic example of Southern plantation architecture, built on an H-plan and completed in 1738 near <a href="/wiki/Lerty,_Virginia" title="Lerty, Virginia">Lerty, Virginia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seward_Plantation_House,_Independence,_Texas_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Seward_Plantation_House%2C_Independence%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Seward_Plantation_House%2C_Independence%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Seward_Plantation_House%2C_Independence%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg/450px-Seward_Plantation_House%2C_Independence%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Seward_Plantation_House%2C_Independence%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg/600px-Seward_Plantation_House%2C_Independence%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="952" data-file-height="662" /></a><figcaption>The Seward Plantation is a historic Southern plantation-turned-ranch in <a href="/wiki/Independence,_Texas" title="Independence, Texas">Independence, Texas</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Plantation complexes were common on agricultural <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantations</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a> from the 17th into the 20th century. The complex included everything from the main residence down to the <a href="/wiki/Pen_(enclosure)" title="Pen (enclosure)">pens</a> for <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a>. Until the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a>, such plantations were generally self-sufficient settlements that relied on the <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor">forced labor</a> of enslaved people. </p><p>Plantations are an important aspect of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">history of the Southern United States</a>, particularly before the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>. The mild <a href="/wiki/Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">temperate climate</a>, plentiful rainfall, and fertile soils of the <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern United States</a> allowed the flourishing of large plantations, where large numbers of enslaved Africans were held captive and forced to produce crops to create wealth for a white <a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, as was also true in the past, there is a wide range of opinion as to what differentiated a plantation from a <a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">farm</a>. Typically, the focus of a farm was <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">subsistence agriculture</a>. In contrast, the primary focus of a plantation was the production of <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crops</a>, with enough <a href="/wiki/Staple_food" title="Staple food">staple food</a> crops produced to feed the population of the estate and the livestock.<sup id="cite_ref-lifelabor_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lifelabor-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common definition of what constituted a plantation is that it typically had 500 to 1,000 acres (2.0 to 4.0 km<sup>2</sup>) or more of land and produced one or two cash crops for sale.<sup id="cite_ref-eoaplanag_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoaplanag-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scholars have attempted to define it by the number of enslaved persons.<sup id="cite_ref-backbig_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-backbig-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_plantation_complex">The plantation complex</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: The plantation complex"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Afton_Villa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Afton_Villa.jpg/220px-Afton_Villa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Afton_Villa.jpg/330px-Afton_Villa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Afton_Villa.jpg/440px-Afton_Villa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption>The whimsical <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic Revival</a>-style <a href="/wiki/Afton_Villa" class="mw-redirect" title="Afton Villa">Afton Villa</a> in St. Francisville, Louisiana. Built from 1848 to 1856, the masonry structure burned in 1963.</figcaption></figure> <p>The vast majority of plantations did not have grand mansions centered on a huge acreage. These large estates did exist, but represented only a small percentage of the plantations that once existed in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-lifelabor_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lifelabor-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although many Southern farmers did enslave people before <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">emancipation</a> in 1862, few enslaved more than five. These farmers tended to work the fields alongside the people they enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeilly_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeilly-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the estimated 46,200 plantations existing in 1860, 20,700 had 20 to 30 enslaved people and 2,300 had a workforce of a hundred or more, with the rest somewhere in between.<sup id="cite_ref-backbig_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-backbig-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many plantations were operated by absentee-landowners and never had a main house on site. Just as vital and arguably more important to the complex were the many structures built for the processing and storage of crops, food preparation and storage, sheltering equipment and animals, and various other domestic and agricultural purposes. The value of the plantation came from its land and the enslaved people who toiled on it to produce crops for sale. These same people produced the built environment: the main house for the plantation owner, the <a href="/wiki/Slave_cabins" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave cabins">slave cabins</a>, barns, and other structures of the complex.<sup id="cite_ref-lostplan_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lostplan-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_Quarter_Smiths_Plantation_Port_Royal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Slave_Quarter_Smiths_Plantation_Port_Royal.jpg/220px-Slave_Quarter_Smiths_Plantation_Port_Royal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Slave_Quarter_Smiths_Plantation_Port_Royal.jpg/330px-Slave_Quarter_Smiths_Plantation_Port_Royal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Slave_Quarter_Smiths_Plantation_Port_Royal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="453" /></a><figcaption>1862 photograph of the <a href="/wiki/Slave_quarters_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave quarters (United States)">slave quarter</a> at Smiths Plantation in Port Royal, South Carolina. The slave house shown is of the saddlebag type.</figcaption></figure> <p>The materials for a plantation's buildings, for the most part, came from the lands of the estate. Lumber was obtained from the forested areas of the property.<sup id="cite_ref-lostplan_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lostplan-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on its intended use, it was either split, <a href="/wiki/Hewing" title="Hewing">hewn</a>, or sawn.<sup id="cite_ref-creolelexicon1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-creolelexicon1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bricks were most often produced onsite from sand and clay that was <a href="/wiki/Molding_(process)" title="Molding (process)">molded</a>, dried, and then fired in a <a href="/wiki/Kiln" title="Kiln">kiln</a>. If a suitable stone was available, it was used. <a href="/wiki/Tabby_(cement)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabby (cement)">Tabby</a> was often used on the southern <a href="/wiki/Sea_Islands" title="Sea Islands">Sea Islands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lostplan_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lostplan-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Freeman_Plantation_House,_Jefferson,_Texas_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Freeman_Plantation_House%2C_Jefferson%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Freeman_Plantation_House%2C_Jefferson%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Freeman_Plantation_House%2C_Jefferson%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Freeman_Plantation_House%2C_Jefferson%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Freeman_Plantation_House%2C_Jefferson%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Freeman_Plantation_House%2C_Jefferson%2C_Texas_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="559" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Freeman_Plantation" title="Freeman Plantation">Freeman Plantation</a> House in Jefferson, Texas</figcaption></figure> <p>Few plantation structures have survived into the modern era, with the vast majority destroyed through <a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">natural disaster</a>, neglect, or fire over the centuries. With the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">plantation economy</a> and subsequent Southern transition from a largely <a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">agrarian</a> to an <a href="/wiki/Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">industrial society</a>, plantations and their building complexes became obsolete. Although the majority have been destroyed, the most common structures to have survived are the <a href="/wiki/Plantation_houses" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantation houses">plantation houses</a>. As is true of buildings in general, the more substantially built and architecturally interesting buildings have tended to be the ones that survived into the modern age and are better documented than many of the smaller and simpler ones. Several plantation homes of important persons, including <a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon" title="Mount Vernon">Mount Vernon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monticello" title="Monticello">Monticello</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Hermitage_(Nashville,_Tennessee)" title="The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)">The Hermitage</a> have also been preserved. Less common are intact examples of slave housing. The rarest survivors of all are the agricultural and lesser domestic structures, especially those dating from the pre-Civil War era.<sup id="cite_ref-lostplan_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lostplan-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoaplanarch-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slave_quarters">Slave quarters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Slave quarters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slave_quarters_in_the_United_States" title="Slave quarters in the United States">Slave quarters in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hermitage_Slave_Quarters_(Savannah,_Georgia).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Hermitage_Slave_Quarters_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29.jpg/220px-Hermitage_Slave_Quarters_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Hermitage_Slave_Quarters_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29.jpg/330px-Hermitage_Slave_Quarters_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Hermitage_Slave_Quarters_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29.jpg/440px-Hermitage_Slave_Quarters_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1233" data-file-height="855" /></a><figcaption>1870s photo of the brick slave quarters at Hermitage Plantation (now destroyed) near Savannah, Georgia</figcaption></figure> <p>Housing for enslaved people, although once one of the most common and distinctive features of the plantation landscape, has largely disappeared in much of the South. Many of the structures were insubstantial to begin with.<sup id="cite_ref-virgslavquar_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-virgslavquar-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only the better-built examples tended to survive, and then usually only if they were put to other uses after emancipation. The quarters could be next to the main house, well away from it, or both.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Category:All_self-contradictory_articles" title="Category:All self-contradictory articles"><span title="This text contradicts material elsewhere on this page. (November 2024)">contradictory</span></a></i>]</sup> On large plantations they were often arranged in a village-like grouping along an avenue away from the main house, but sometimes were scattered around the plantation on the edges of the fields where the enslaved people toiled, like most of the sharecropper cabins that were to come later.<sup id="cite_ref-backbig2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-backbig2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woodland_Plantation_Plaquemine_Parish_-_Slave_Cabin_and_Sugar_Kettle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Woodland_Plantation_Plaquemine_Parish_-_Slave_Cabin_and_Sugar_Kettle.jpg/220px-Woodland_Plantation_Plaquemine_Parish_-_Slave_Cabin_and_Sugar_Kettle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Woodland_Plantation_Plaquemine_Parish_-_Slave_Cabin_and_Sugar_Kettle.jpg/330px-Woodland_Plantation_Plaquemine_Parish_-_Slave_Cabin_and_Sugar_Kettle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Woodland_Plantation_Plaquemine_Parish_-_Slave_Cabin_and_Sugar_Kettle.jpg/440px-Woodland_Plantation_Plaquemine_Parish_-_Slave_Cabin_and_Sugar_Kettle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Slave house with a sugar kettle in the foreground at <a href="/wiki/Woodland_Plantation_(West_Pointe_a_la_Hache,_Louisiana)" title="Woodland Plantation (West Pointe a la Hache, Louisiana)">Woodland Plantation</a> in West Pointe a la Hache, Louisiana</figcaption></figure> <p>Houses for enslaved people were often of the most basic construction. Meant for little more than sleeping, they were usually rough log or frame one-room cabins; early examples often had chimneys made of clay and sticks.<sup id="cite_ref-virgslavquar_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-virgslavquar-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-monthist_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-monthist-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hall and parlor houses (two rooms) were also represented on the plantation landscape, offering a separate room for eating and sleeping. Sometimes dormitories and two-story dwellings were also used to house enslaved people. Earlier examples rested on the ground with a dirt floor, but later examples were usually raised on piers for ventilation. Most of these represent the dwellings constructed for enslaved people who worked in the fields. Rarely though, such as at the former <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Plantation_(Georgia)" title="Hermitage Plantation (Georgia)">Hermitage Plantation</a> in Georgia and <a href="/wiki/Boone_Hall" title="Boone Hall">Boone Hall</a> in South Carolina, even those who worked in the fields were provided with brick cabins.<sup id="cite_ref-backbig3_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-backbig3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More fortunate in their accommodations were those who served in the enslavers' houses or were skilled laborers. They usually resided either in a part of the main house or in their own houses, which were normally more comfortable dwellings than those of their counterparts who worked in the fields.<sup id="cite_ref-monthist_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-monthist-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-backbig3_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-backbig3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few enslavers went further in providing housing for the household servants. When <a href="/wiki/Waldwic" title="Waldwic">Waldwic</a> in Alabama was remodeled in the Gothic Revival style in the 1852, the enslaved people serving the household were provided with larger accommodations that matched the architecture of the main house. This model, however, was exceedingly rare.<sup id="cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoaplanarch-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faunsdale_Plantation_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Faunsdale_Plantation_03.jpg/220px-Faunsdale_Plantation_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Faunsdale_Plantation_03.jpg/330px-Faunsdale_Plantation_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Faunsdale_Plantation_03.jpg/440px-Faunsdale_Plantation_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Remnants of the slave quarter at <a href="/wiki/Faunsdale_Plantation" title="Faunsdale Plantation">Faunsdale Plantation</a> near Faunsdale, Alabama</figcaption></figure> <p>Famous landscape designer <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Law_Olmsted" title="Frederick Law Olmsted">Frederick Law Olmsted</a> had this recollection of a visit to plantations along the Georgia coast in 1855: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the afternoon, I left the main road, and, towards night, reached a much more cultivated district. The forest of pines extended uninterruptedly on one side of the way, but on the other was a continued succession of very large fields, or rich dark soil – evidently reclaimed swamp-land – which had been cultivated the previous year, in Sea Island cotton, or maize. Beyond them, a flat surface of still lower land, with a silver thread of water curling through it, extended, Holland-like, to the horizon. Usually at as great a distance as a quarter of a mile from the road, and from a half mile to a mile apart, were the residences of the planters – large white houses, with groves of evergreen trees about them; and between these and the road were little villages of slave-cabins ... The cottages were framed buildings, boarded on the outside, with shingle roofs and brick chimneys; they stood fifty feet apart, with gardens and pig-yards ... At the head of the settlement, in a garden looking down the street, was an overseer's house, and here the road divided, running each way at right angles; on one side to barns and a landing on the river, on the other toward the mansion ...</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Frederick Law Olmsted, <i>A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States</i><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_residential_structures">Other residential structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Other residential structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overseer%27s_house_at_Oakland_Plantation,_Natchitoches_Parish_IMG_3483.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Overseer%27s_house_at_Oakland_Plantation%2C_Natchitoches_Parish_IMG_3483.JPG/220px-Overseer%27s_house_at_Oakland_Plantation%2C_Natchitoches_Parish_IMG_3483.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Overseer%27s_house_at_Oakland_Plantation%2C_Natchitoches_Parish_IMG_3483.JPG/330px-Overseer%27s_house_at_Oakland_Plantation%2C_Natchitoches_Parish_IMG_3483.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Overseer%27s_house_at_Oakland_Plantation%2C_Natchitoches_Parish_IMG_3483.JPG/440px-Overseer%27s_house_at_Oakland_Plantation%2C_Natchitoches_Parish_IMG_3483.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3904" data-file-height="2868" /></a><figcaption>Overseer's house at <a href="/wiki/Oakland_Plantation_(Natchitoches,_Louisiana)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oakland Plantation (Natchitoches, Louisiana)">Oakland Plantation</a> near Natchitoches, Louisiana</figcaption></figure> <p>A crucial residential structure on larger plantations was an overseer's house. The overseer was largely responsible for the success or failure of an estate, making sure that quotas were met and sometimes meting out punishment for infractions by the enslaved. The overseer was responsible for healthcare, with enslaved people and slave houses inspected routinely. He was also the record keeper of most crop inventories and held the keys to various storehouses.<sup id="cite_ref-lsu1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lsu1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Houmas_House_Plantation_Bachelor%27s_Quarters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Houmas_House_Plantation_Bachelor%27s_Quarters.jpg/220px-Houmas_House_Plantation_Bachelor%27s_Quarters.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Houmas_House_Plantation_Bachelor%27s_Quarters.jpg/330px-Houmas_House_Plantation_Bachelor%27s_Quarters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Houmas_House_Plantation_Bachelor%27s_Quarters.jpg/440px-Houmas_House_Plantation_Bachelor%27s_Quarters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="767" data-file-height="971" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_pad" title="Bachelor pad">garçonnière</a> (bachelor's quarters) at <a href="/wiki/The_Houmas" title="The Houmas">The Houmas</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Burnside,_Louisiana" title="Burnside, Louisiana">Burnside, Louisiana</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The overseer's house was usually a modest dwelling, not far from the cabins of the enslaved workers. The overseer and his family, even when white and southern, did not freely mingle with the planter and his family. They were in a different social stratum than that of the owner and were expected to know their place. In village-type slave quarters on plantations with overseers, his house was usually at the head of the slave village rather than near the main house, at least partially due to his social position. It was also part of an effort to keep the enslaved people compliant and prevent the beginnings of a slave rebellion, a very real fear in the minds of most plantation owners.<sup id="cite_ref-lsu1_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lsu1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economic studies indicate that fewer than 30 percent of planters employed white supervisors for their slave labor.<sup id="cite_ref-amercivwar_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amercivwar-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (May 2024)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> Some planters appointed a trusted slave as the overseer, and in Louisiana <a href="/wiki/Free_negro" class="mw-redirect" title="Free negro">free black</a> overseers were also used.<sup id="cite_ref-lsu1_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lsu1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another residential structure largely unique to plantation complexes was the <i>garconnière</i> or bachelors' quarters. Mostly built by <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a>, but occasionally found in other parts of the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a> formerly under the dominion of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>, they were structures that housed the adolescent or unmarried sons of plantation owners. At some plantations it was a free-standing structure and at others it was attached to the main house by side-wings. It developed from the <a href="/wiki/Acadians" title="Acadians">Acadian</a> tradition of using the loft of the house as a bedroom for young men.<sup id="cite_ref-creolelexicon2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-creolelexicon2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kitchen_yard">Kitchen yard</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Kitchen yard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lowry-Ford-Henry_House_Kitchen_Building.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Lowry-Ford-Henry_House_Kitchen_Building.jpg/220px-Lowry-Ford-Henry_House_Kitchen_Building.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Lowry-Ford-Henry_House_Kitchen_Building.jpg/330px-Lowry-Ford-Henry_House_Kitchen_Building.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Lowry-Ford-Henry_House_Kitchen_Building.jpg/440px-Lowry-Ford-Henry_House_Kitchen_Building.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4560" data-file-height="3152" /></a><figcaption>The detached brick kitchen building at the former <a href="/wiki/Henry_House_(Marion,_Alabama)" title="Henry House (Marion, Alabama)">Lowry Plantation</a> outside of Marion, Alabama. The main house is wood-frame with brick columns and piers.</figcaption></figure> <p>A variety of domestic and lesser agricultural structures surrounded the main house on all plantations. Most plantations possessed some, if not all, of these <a href="/wiki/Outbuildings" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbuildings">outbuildings</a>, often called dependencies, commonly arranged around a <a href="/wiki/Courtyard" title="Courtyard">courtyard</a> to the rear of the main house known as the kitchen yard. They included a <a href="/wiki/Cookhouse" title="Cookhouse">cookhouse</a> (separate kitchen building), <a href="/wiki/Pantry" title="Pantry">pantry</a>, washhouse (<a href="/wiki/Laundry" title="Laundry">laundry</a>), <a href="/wiki/Smokehouse" title="Smokehouse">smokehouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chicken_coop" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicken coop">chicken house</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spring_house" title="Spring house">spring house</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ice_house_(building)" title="Ice house (building)">ice house</a>, milkhouse (<a href="/wiki/Dairy" title="Dairy">dairy</a>), covered <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">well</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">cistern</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Outhouse" title="Outhouse">privies</a> would have been located some distance away from the <a href="/wiki/Plantation_house" title="Plantation house">plantation house</a> and kitchen yard.<sup id="cite_ref-plancooking_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plancooking-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cookhouse or kitchen was almost always in a separate building in the South until modern times, sometimes connected to the main house by a covered walkway. This separation was partially due to the cooking fire generating heat all day long in an already hot and humid climate. It also reduced the risk of fire. Indeed, on many plantations the cookhouse was built of brick while when the main house was of wood-frame construction. Another reason for the separation was to prevent the noise and smells of cooking activities from reaching the main house. Sometimes the cookhouse contained two rooms, one for the actual kitchen and the other to serve as the residence for the cook. Still other arrangements had the kitchen in one room, a laundry in the other, and a second story for servant quarters.<sup id="cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoaplanarch-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-plancooking_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plancooking-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pantry could be in its own structure or in a cool part of the cookhouse or a storehouse and would have secured items such as barrels of <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">flour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornmeal" title="Cornmeal">cornmeal</a> and the like.<sup id="cite_ref-pantry_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pantry-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melrose_Wash_House.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Melrose_Wash_House.jpg/220px-Melrose_Wash_House.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Melrose_Wash_House.jpg/330px-Melrose_Wash_House.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Melrose_Wash_House.jpg/440px-Melrose_Wash_House.jpg 2x" data-file-width="517" data-file-height="374" /></a><figcaption>1940 photograph of the washhouse (laundry) at <a href="/wiki/Melrose_Plantation" title="Melrose Plantation">Melrose Plantation</a> in Melrose, Louisiana</figcaption></figure> <p>The washhouse is where clothes, tablecloths, and bed-covers were cleaned and ironed. It also sometimes had living quarters for the <a href="/wiki/Laundrywoman" class="mw-redirect" title="Laundrywoman">laundrywoman</a>. Cleaning laundry in this period was labor-intensive for the domestic slaves that performed it. It required various <a href="/wiki/Gadget" title="Gadget">gadgets</a> to accomplish the task. The wash boiler was a cast iron or copper cauldron in which clothes or other fabrics and soapy water were heated over an open fire. The wash-stick was a wooden stick with a handle at its uppermost part and four to five prongs at its base. It was simultaneously pounded up and down and rotated in the washing tub to <a href="/wiki/Aerate" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerate">aerate</a> the wash solution and loosen any dirt. The items would then be vigorously rubbed on a corrugated wash board until clean. By the 1850s, they would have been passed through a <a href="/wiki/Mangle_(machine)" title="Mangle (machine)">mangle</a>. Prior to that time, wringing out the items was done by hand. The items would then be ready to be hung out to dry or, in inclement weather, placed on a <a href="/wiki/Clotheshorse" class="mw-redirect" title="Clotheshorse">drying rack</a>. Ironing would have been done with a metal <a href="/wiki/Iron_(appliance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron (appliance)">flat iron</a>, often heated in the fireplace, and various other devices.<sup id="cite_ref-laundry_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-laundry-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wheatlands-sevier-smokehouse-tn1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Wheatlands-sevier-smokehouse-tn1.jpg/220px-Wheatlands-sevier-smokehouse-tn1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Wheatlands-sevier-smokehouse-tn1.jpg/330px-Wheatlands-sevier-smokehouse-tn1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Wheatlands-sevier-smokehouse-tn1.jpg/440px-Wheatlands-sevier-smokehouse-tn1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Smokehouse at <a href="/wiki/Wheatlands_(Sevierville,_Tennessee)" title="Wheatlands (Sevierville, Tennessee)">Wheatlands</a> near Sevierville, Tennessee</figcaption></figure> <p>The milkhouse would have been used by enslaved people to make <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a> into <a href="/wiki/Cream" title="Cream">cream</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butter" title="Butter">butter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Buttermilk" title="Buttermilk">buttermilk</a>. The process started with separating the milk into <a href="/wiki/Skim_milk" class="mw-redirect" title="Skim milk">skim milk</a> and cream. It was done by pouring the whole milk into a container and allowing the cream to naturally rise to the top. This was collected into another container daily until several gallons had accumulated. During this time the cream would sour slightly through naturally occurring bacteria. This increased the efficiency of the <a href="/wiki/Churning_(butter)" title="Churning (butter)">churning</a> to come. Churning was an arduous task performed with a <a href="/wiki/Butter_churn" title="Butter churn">butter churn</a>. Once firm enough to separate out, but soft enough to stick together, the butter was taken out of the churn, washed in very cold water, and salted. The churning process also produced buttermilk as a by-product. It was the remaining liquid after the butter was removed from the churn.<sup id="cite_ref-butter_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-butter-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of the products of this process would have been stored in the <a href="/wiki/Spring_house" title="Spring house">spring house</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ice_house_(building)" title="Ice house (building)">ice house</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-plancooking_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plancooking-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uncle_Sam_Plantation_09_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Uncle_Sam_Plantation_09_cropped.jpg/220px-Uncle_Sam_Plantation_09_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Uncle_Sam_Plantation_09_cropped.jpg/330px-Uncle_Sam_Plantation_09_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Uncle_Sam_Plantation_09_cropped.jpg/440px-Uncle_Sam_Plantation_09_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2552" data-file-height="2136" /></a><figcaption>1937 photograph of one of two identical <i><a href="/wiki/Dovecote" title="Dovecote">pigeonniers</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam_Plantation" title="Uncle Sam Plantation">Uncle Sam Plantation</a> in Convent, Louisiana. One of the most ornate and complete plantation complexes left at that time, it was bulldozed in 1940 for <a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">levee</a> construction.</figcaption></figure> <p>The smokehouse was utilized to preserve meat, usually <a href="/wiki/Pork" title="Pork">pork</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beef" title="Beef">beef</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton" title="Lamb and mutton">mutton</a>. It was commonly built of hewn logs or brick. Following the <a href="/wiki/Animal_slaughter" title="Animal slaughter">slaughter</a> in the fall or early winter, <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a> were applied to the meat at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Curing_(food_preservation)" title="Curing (food preservation)">curing</a> process, and then the meat was slowly dried and smoked in the smokehouse by a fire that did not add any heat to the smokehouse itself.<sup id="cite_ref-smoke_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smoke-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If it was cool enough, the meat could also be stored there until it was consumed.<sup id="cite_ref-plancooking_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plancooking-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chicken house was a building where <a href="/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">chickens</a> were kept. Its design could vary, depending on whether the chickens were kept for egg production, meat, or both. If for eggs, there were often <a href="/wiki/Nest_box" title="Nest box">nest boxes</a> for egg laying and perches on which the birds to sleep. Eggs were collected daily.<sup id="cite_ref-plancooking_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plancooking-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some plantations also had <i>pigeonniers</i> (<a href="/wiki/Dovecote" title="Dovecote">dovecotes</a>) that, in Louisiana, sometimes took the form of monumental towers set near the main house. The <a href="/wiki/Pigeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigeon">pigeons</a> were raised to be eaten as a delicacy and their droppings were used as fertilizer.<sup id="cite_ref-pigeonniers_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pigeonniers-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Few functions could take place on a plantation without a reliable water supply. Every plantation had at least one, and sometimes several, <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">wells</a>. These were usually roofed and often partially enclosed by latticework to exclude animals. Since the well water in many areas was distasteful due to mineral content, the <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">potable</a> water on many plantations came from cisterns that were supplied with rainwater by a pipe from a rooftop catchment. These could be huge aboveground wooden barrels capped by metal domes, such as was often seen in Louisiana and coastal areas of Mississippi, or underground brick masonry domes or vaults, common in other areas.<sup id="cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoaplanarch-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-watersources_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-watersources-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancillary_structures">Ancillary structures<span class="anchor" id="Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States#Ancillary_structures"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ancillary structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thornhill_Schoolhouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Thornhill_Schoolhouse.jpg/220px-Thornhill_Schoolhouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Thornhill_Schoolhouse.jpg/330px-Thornhill_Schoolhouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Thornhill_Schoolhouse.jpg/440px-Thornhill_Schoolhouse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="3582" /></a><figcaption>Schoolhouse for the owner's children at <a href="/wiki/Thornhill_(Forkland,_Alabama)" title="Thornhill (Forkland, Alabama)">Thornhill</a> near Forkland, Alabama</figcaption></figure> <p>Some structures on plantations provided subsidiary functions; again, the term <a href="/wiki/Dependency_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependency (architecture)">dependency</a> can be applied to these buildings. A few were common, such as the <a href="/wiki/Carriage_house" title="Carriage house">carriage house</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blacksmith" title="Blacksmith">blacksmith</a> shop; but most varied widely among plantations and were largely a function of what the <a href="/wiki/Planter_(American_South)" class="mw-redirect" title="Planter (American South)">planter</a> wanted, needed, or could afford to add to the complex. These buildings might include <a href="/wiki/One-room_school" title="One-room school">schoolhouses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Office" title="Office">offices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">churches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commissary_(store)" title="Commissary (store)">commissary stores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gristmill" title="Gristmill">gristmills</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmills</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoaplanarch-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jamesriverplan_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jamesriverplan-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Found on some plantations in every Southern state, plantation schoolhouses served as a place for the hired <a href="/wiki/Tutor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutor">tutor</a> or <a href="/wiki/Governess" title="Governess">governess</a> to educate the planter's children, and sometimes even those of other planters in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoaplanarch-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On most plantations, however, a room in the main house was sufficient for schooling, rather than a separate dedicated building. Paper was precious, so the children often recited their lessons until they memorized them. The usual texts in the beginning were the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Primer_(textbook)" title="Primer (textbook)">primer</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Hornbook" title="Hornbook">hornbook</a>. As the children grew older their schooling began to prepare them for their adult roles on the plantation. Boys studied <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academic</a> subjects, proper <a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">social etiquette</a>, and plantation management, while girls learned <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, and the domestic skills suited to the mistress of a plantation.<sup id="cite_ref-stratfordschool_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stratfordschool-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waverley_Plantation_Office.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Waverley_Plantation_Office.jpg/220px-Waverley_Plantation_Office.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Waverley_Plantation_Office.jpg/330px-Waverley_Plantation_Office.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Waverley_Plantation_Office.jpg/440px-Waverley_Plantation_Office.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Plantation office at <a href="/wiki/Waverley_(West_Point,_Mississippi)" title="Waverley (West Point, Mississippi)">Waverley</a> near West Point, Mississippi</figcaption></figure> <p>Most plantation owners maintained an office for keeping records, transacting business, writing correspondence, and the like.<sup id="cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoaplanarch-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it, like the schoolroom, was most often within the main house or another structure, it was not at all rare for a complex to have a separate plantation office. <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a> used his plantation office at his <a href="/wiki/Fort_Hill_(Clemson,_South_Carolina)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Hill (Clemson, South Carolina)">Fort Hill</a> plantation in Clemson, South Carolina as a private sanctuary of sorts, with it utilized as both <a href="/wiki/Study_(room)" title="Study (room)">study</a> and <a href="/wiki/Library" title="Library">library</a> during his twenty-five year residency.<sup id="cite_ref-forthillmarker_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forthillmarker-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Negro_Baptist_Church_Silver_Hill_Plantation_tightly_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Negro_Baptist_Church_Silver_Hill_Plantation_tightly_cropped.jpg/220px-Negro_Baptist_Church_Silver_Hill_Plantation_tightly_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Negro_Baptist_Church_Silver_Hill_Plantation_tightly_cropped.jpg/330px-Negro_Baptist_Church_Silver_Hill_Plantation_tightly_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Negro_Baptist_Church_Silver_Hill_Plantation_tightly_cropped.jpg/440px-Negro_Baptist_Church_Silver_Hill_Plantation_tightly_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="509" /></a><figcaption>The "Negro Baptist Church" at <a href="/wiki/Friendfield_Plantation" title="Friendfield Plantation">Friendfield Plantation</a> near Georgetown, South Carolina</figcaption></figure> <p>Another structure found on some estates was a plantation <a href="/wiki/Chapel" title="Chapel">chapel</a> or church. These were built for a variety of reasons. In many cases the planter built a church or chapel for the use of the plantation slaves, although they usually recruited a white minister to conduct the services.<sup id="cite_ref-waldeck_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waldeck-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some were built to exclusively serve the plantation family, but many more were built to serve the family and others in the area who shared the same faith. This seems to be especially true with planters within the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopal</a> denomination. Early records indicate that at <a href="/wiki/Faunsdale_Plantation" title="Faunsdale Plantation">Faunsdale Plantation</a> the mistress of the estate, Louisa Harrison, gave regular instruction to her slaves by reading the services of the church and teaching the Episcopal <a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">catechism</a> to their children. Following the death of her first husband, she had a large <a href="/wiki/Carpenter_Gothic" title="Carpenter Gothic">Carpenter Gothic</a> church built, St. Michael's Church. She latter remarried to Rev. William A. Stickney, who served as the Episcopal minister of St. Michael's and was later appointed by Bishop Richard Wilmer as a "Missionary to the Negroes," after which Louisa joined him as an unofficial fellow minister among the African Americans of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_(region_of_Alabama)" title="Black Belt (region of Alabama)">Black Belt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-faunsdale_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faunsdale-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chapel_of_the_Cross_03_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Chapel_of_the_Cross_03_cropped.jpg/220px-Chapel_of_the_Cross_03_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Chapel_of_the_Cross_03_cropped.jpg/330px-Chapel_of_the_Cross_03_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Chapel_of_the_Cross_03_cropped.jpg/440px-Chapel_of_the_Cross_03_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2049" data-file-height="1534" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chapel_of_the_Cross_(Mannsdale,_Mississippi)" title="Chapel of the Cross (Mannsdale, Mississippi)">Chapel of the Cross</a> at <a href="/wiki/Annandale_Plantation" title="Annandale Plantation">Annandale Plantation</a> near Madison, Mississippi</figcaption></figure> <p>Most plantation churches were of wood-frame construction, although some were built in brick, often <a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">stuccoed</a>. Early examples tended towards the vernacular or neoclassicism, but later examples were almost always in the Gothic Revival style. A few rivaled those built by southern town congregations. Two of the most elaborate extant examples in the Deep South are the <a href="/wiki/Chapel_of_the_Cross_(Mannsdale,_Mississippi)" title="Chapel of the Cross (Mannsdale, Mississippi)">Chapel of the Cross</a> at <a href="/wiki/Annandale_Plantation" title="Annandale Plantation">Annandale Plantation</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Mary%27s_Chapel_(Laurel_Hill_Plantation)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="St. Mary's Chapel (Laurel Hill Plantation) (page does not exist)">St. Mary's Chapel</a> at <a href="/wiki/Laurel_Hill_Plantation_(Adams_County,_Mississippi)" title="Laurel Hill Plantation (Adams County, Mississippi)">Laurel Hill Plantation</a>, both Episcopalian structures in Mississippi. In both cases the original <a href="/wiki/Plantation_houses" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantation houses">plantation houses</a> have been destroyed, but the quality and design of the churches can give some insight into how elaborate some plantation complexes and their buildings could be. St. Mary Chapel, in Natchez, dates to 1839, built in stuccoed brick with large <a href="/wiki/Ogive" title="Ogive">Gothic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Four-centred_arch" title="Four-centred arch">Tudor</a> arch windows, <a href="/wiki/Hood_moulding" class="mw-redirect" title="Hood moulding">hood mouldings</a> over the doors and windows, <a href="/wiki/Buttress" title="Buttress">buttresses</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Battlement" title="Battlement">crenelated</a> roof-line, and a small <a href="/wiki/Spire#Gothic_and_neo-gothic_spires" title="Spire">Gothic spire</a> crowning the whole.<sup id="cite_ref-stmarychapel_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stmarychapel-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although construction records are very sketchy, the Chapel of the Cross, built from 1850 to 1852 near Madison, may be attributable to <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wills_(architect)" title="Frank Wills (architect)">Frank Wills</a> or <a href="/wiki/Richard_Upjohn" title="Richard Upjohn">Richard Upjohn</a>, both of whom designed almost identical churches in the North during the same time period that the Chapel of the Cross was built.<sup id="cite_ref-cotc_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cotc-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mdah_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mdah-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plantation_store_at_Oakland_Plantation_near_Natchitoches,_Louisiana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Plantation_store_at_Oakland_Plantation_near_Natchitoches%2C_Louisiana.jpg/220px-Plantation_store_at_Oakland_Plantation_near_Natchitoches%2C_Louisiana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Plantation_store_at_Oakland_Plantation_near_Natchitoches%2C_Louisiana.jpg/330px-Plantation_store_at_Oakland_Plantation_near_Natchitoches%2C_Louisiana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Plantation_store_at_Oakland_Plantation_near_Natchitoches%2C_Louisiana.jpg/440px-Plantation_store_at_Oakland_Plantation_near_Natchitoches%2C_Louisiana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="934" data-file-height="740" /></a><figcaption>Plantation store at <a href="/wiki/Oakland_Plantation_(Natchitoches,_Louisiana)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oakland Plantation (Natchitoches, Louisiana)">Oakland Plantation</a> near Natchitoches, Louisiana</figcaption></figure> <p>Another secondary structure on many plantations during the height of the <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecropping</a>-era was the plantation store or commissary. Although some prewar plantations had a commissary that distributed food and supplies to enslaved people, the plantation store was essentially a postwar addition to the plantation complex. In addition to the share of their crop already owed to the plantation owner for the use of his or her land, tenants and sharecroppers purchased, usually on credit against their next crop, the food staples and equipment that they relied on for their existence.<sup id="cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoaplanarch-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-newplansouth_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newplansouth-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This type of <a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">debt bondage</a>, for blacks and poor whites, led to a <a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_Alliance" title="Farmers' Alliance">populist movement</a> in the late 19th century that began to bring blacks and whites together for a common cause. This early populist movement is largely credited with helping to cause state governments in the South, mostly controlled by the planter elite, to enact various laws that disenfranchised poor whites and blacks, through <a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">grandfather clauses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">literacy tests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">poll taxes</a>, and various other laws.<sup id="cite_ref-newplansouth_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newplansouth-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agricultural_structures">Agricultural structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Agricultural structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melrose_Carriage_House.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Melrose_Carriage_House.jpg/220px-Melrose_Carriage_House.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Melrose_Carriage_House.jpg/330px-Melrose_Carriage_House.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Melrose_Carriage_House.jpg/440px-Melrose_Carriage_House.jpg 2x" data-file-width="912" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>Carriage house (left) and stable (right) at <a href="/wiki/Melrose_(Natchez,_Mississippi)" title="Melrose (Natchez, Mississippi)">Melrose</a> in Natchez, Mississippi</figcaption></figure> <p>The agricultural structures on plantations had some basic structures in common and others that varied widely. They depended on what crops and animals were raised on the plantation. Common crops included <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gossypium_hirsutum" title="Gossypium hirsutum">upland cotton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gossypium_barbadense" title="Gossypium barbadense">sea island cotton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>. Besides those mentioned earlier, <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goat" title="Goat">goats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domestic_pig" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic pig">hogs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">sheep</a> were raised for their derived products and/or meat. All estates would have possessed various types of animal pens, <a href="/wiki/Stable" title="Stable">stables</a>, and a variety of <a href="/wiki/Barn" title="Barn">barns</a>. Many plantations utilized a number of specialized structures that were crop-specific and only found on that type of plantation.<sup id="cite_ref-louisianabuild_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-louisianabuild-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plantation barns can be <a href="/wiki/Functionally_classified_barn" title="Functionally classified barn">classified by function</a>, depending on what type of crop and livestock were raised.<sup id="cite_ref-npsbarns_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npsbarns-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the upper South, like their counterparts in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">North</a>, barns had to provide basic shelter for the animals and storage of <a href="/wiki/Fodder" title="Fodder">fodder</a>. Unlike the upper regions, most plantations in the lower South did not have to provide substantial shelter to their animals during the winter. Animals were often kept in fattening pens with a simple <a href="/wiki/Shed" title="Shed">shed</a> for shelter, with the main barn or barns being utilized for crop storage or processing only.<sup id="cite_ref-louisianabuild_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-louisianabuild-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stables were an essential type of barn on the plantation, used to house both <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mule" title="Mule">mules</a>. These were usually separate, one for each type of animal. The mule stable was the most important on the vast majority of estates, since the mules did most of the work, pulling the <a href="/wiki/Plow" class="mw-redirect" title="Plow">plows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cart" title="Cart">carts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-louisianabuild_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-louisianabuild-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Field_of_burley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Field_of_burley.jpg/220px-Field_of_burley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Field_of_burley.jpg/330px-Field_of_burley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Field_of_burley.jpg/440px-Field_of_burley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="948" data-file-height="655" /></a><figcaption>Tobacco barn near Lexington, Kentucky</figcaption></figure> <p>Barns not involved in <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a> were most commonly the crib barn (<a href="/wiki/Corn_crib" title="Corn crib">corn cribs</a> or other types of <a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">granaries</a>), storage barns, or processing barns. Crib barns were typically built of <a href="/wiki/Log_cabin" title="Log cabin">unchinked logs</a>, although they were sometimes covered with vertical wood siding. Storage barns often housed unprocessed crops or those awaiting consumption or transport to market. Processing barns were specialized structures that were necessary for helping to actually process the crop.<sup id="cite_ref-npsbarns_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npsbarns-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tobacco plantations were most common in certain parts of Georgia, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, Tennessee, South Carolina, and Virginia. The first agricultural plantations in Virginia were founded on the growing of tobacco. Tobacco production on plantations was very labor-intensive. It required the entire year to gather seeds, start them growing in <a href="/wiki/Cold_frame" title="Cold frame">cold frames</a>, and then transplant the plants to the fields once the soil had warmed. Then the enslaved people had to weed the fields all summer and remove the flowers from the tobacco plants in order to force more energy into the leaves. Harvesting was done by plucking individual leaves over several weeks as they ripened, or cutting entire tobacco plants and hanging them in vented <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_barn" title="Tobacco barn">tobacco barns</a> to dry, called <a href="/wiki/Curing_of_tobacco" title="Curing of tobacco">curing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tob_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tob-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tobaccofarm_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tobaccofarm-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Winnowing_house_Mansfield_Plantation_Georgetown_County.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Winnowing_house_Mansfield_Plantation_Georgetown_County.jpg/220px-Winnowing_house_Mansfield_Plantation_Georgetown_County.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Winnowing_house_Mansfield_Plantation_Georgetown_County.jpg/330px-Winnowing_house_Mansfield_Plantation_Georgetown_County.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Winnowing_house_Mansfield_Plantation_Georgetown_County.jpg/440px-Winnowing_house_Mansfield_Plantation_Georgetown_County.jpg 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption>Winnowing barn (foreground) and rice pounding mill (background) at <a href="/wiki/Mansfield_Plantation" title="Mansfield Plantation">Mansfield Plantation</a> near Georgetown, South Carolina</figcaption></figure> <p>Rice plantations were common in the <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Lowcountry" title="South Carolina Lowcountry">South Carolina Lowcountry</a>. Until the 19th century, rice was threshed from the stalks and the husk was pounded from the grain by hand, a very labor-intensive endeavor. <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam-powered</a> rice pounding mills had become common by the 1830s. They were used to <a href="/wiki/Threshing" title="Threshing">thresh</a> the <a href="/wiki/Grain" title="Grain">grain</a> from the inedible <a href="/wiki/Chaff" title="Chaff">chaff</a>. A separate chimney, required for the fires powering the steam engine, was adjacent to the pounding mill and often connected by an underground system. The <a href="/wiki/Winnowing_barn" title="Winnowing barn">winnowing barn</a>, a building raised roughly a story off of the ground on posts, was used to separate the lighter chaff and dust from the rice.<sup id="cite_ref-npsriceplan_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npsriceplan-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ricefarm_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ricefarm-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruined_mill_at_the_Laurel_Valley_Sugar_Plantation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Ruined_mill_at_the_Laurel_Valley_Sugar_Plantation.jpg/220px-Ruined_mill_at_the_Laurel_Valley_Sugar_Plantation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Ruined_mill_at_the_Laurel_Valley_Sugar_Plantation.jpg/330px-Ruined_mill_at_the_Laurel_Valley_Sugar_Plantation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Ruined_mill_at_the_Laurel_Valley_Sugar_Plantation.jpg/440px-Ruined_mill_at_the_Laurel_Valley_Sugar_Plantation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4384" data-file-height="3397" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of a sugar mill at <a href="/wiki/Laurel_Valley_Sugar_Plantation" title="Laurel Valley Sugar Plantation">Laurel Valley Plantation</a> in Thibodaux, Louisiana</figcaption></figure> <p>Sugar plantations were most commonly found in Louisiana. In fact, Louisiana produced almost all of the sugar grown in the United States during the prewar period. From one-quarter to one-half of all sugar consumed in the United States came from Louisiana sugar plantations. Plantations grew sugarcane from Louisiana's colonial era onward, but large scale production did not begin until the 1810s and 1820s. A successful sugar plantation required a skilled retinue of hired labor and enslaved people.<sup id="cite_ref-louisianasugar_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-louisianasugar-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most specialized structure on a sugar plantation was the <a href="/wiki/Cane_sugar_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Cane sugar mill">sugar mill</a> (sugar house), where, by the 1830s, the steam-powered mill crushed the sugarcane stalks between rollers. This squeezed the juice from the stalks and the cane juice would run out the bottom of the mill through a strainer to be collected into a tank. From there the juice went through a process that removed impurities from the liquid and thickened it through evaporation. It was steam-heated in vats where additional impurities were removed by adding lime to the syrup and then the mixture was strained. At this point the liquid had been transformed into <a href="/wiki/Molasses" title="Molasses">molasses</a>. It was then placed into a closed vessel known as a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_evaporation" title="Vacuum evaporation">vacuum pan</a>, where it was boiled until the sugar in the syrup was crystallized. The crystallized sugar was then cooled and separated from any remaining molasses in a process known as purging. The final step was packing the sugar into <a href="/wiki/Hogshead" title="Hogshead">hogshead</a> barrels for transport to market.<sup id="cite_ref-louisianasugarhouse_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-louisianasugarhouse-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norfleet_Plantation,_Cotton_Press,_Albermarle_Street_(moved_from_Norfleet_Plantation),_Tarboro_(Edgecombe_County,_North_Carolina).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Norfleet_Plantation%2C_Cotton_Press%2C_Albermarle_Street_%28moved_from_Norfleet_Plantation%29%2C_Tarboro_%28Edgecombe_County%2C_North_Carolina%29.jpg/220px-Norfleet_Plantation%2C_Cotton_Press%2C_Albermarle_Street_%28moved_from_Norfleet_Plantation%29%2C_Tarboro_%28Edgecombe_County%2C_North_Carolina%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Norfleet_Plantation%2C_Cotton_Press%2C_Albermarle_Street_%28moved_from_Norfleet_Plantation%29%2C_Tarboro_%28Edgecombe_County%2C_North_Carolina%29.jpg/330px-Norfleet_Plantation%2C_Cotton_Press%2C_Albermarle_Street_%28moved_from_Norfleet_Plantation%29%2C_Tarboro_%28Edgecombe_County%2C_North_Carolina%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Norfleet_Plantation%2C_Cotton_Press%2C_Albermarle_Street_%28moved_from_Norfleet_Plantation%29%2C_Tarboro_%28Edgecombe_County%2C_North_Carolina%29.jpg/440px-Norfleet_Plantation%2C_Cotton_Press%2C_Albermarle_Street_%28moved_from_Norfleet_Plantation%29%2C_Tarboro_%28Edgecombe_County%2C_North_Carolina%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="547" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption>Cotton press from the Norfleet Plantation, now relocated to Tarboro, North Carolina</figcaption></figure> <p>Cotton plantations, the most common type of plantation in the South prior to the Civil War, were the last type of plantation to fully develop. Cotton production was a very labor-intensive crop to harvest, with the fibers having to be hand-picked from the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/boll" class="extiw" title="wikt:boll">bolls</a>. This was coupled with the equally laborious removal of seeds from fiber by hand.<sup id="cite_ref-slaveamerica_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-slaveamerica-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a>, cotton plantations sprang up all over the South and cotton production soared, along with the expansion of slavery. Cotton also caused plantations to grow in size. During the financial panics of 1819 and 1837, when demand by British mills for cotton dropped, many small planters went bankrupt and their land and slaves were bought by larger plantations. As cotton-producing estates grew in size, so did the number of slaveholders and the average number of enslaved people held.<sup id="cite_ref-slaveala_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-slaveala-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-slaveamerica_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-slaveamerica-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A cotton plantation normally had a cotton gin house, where the cotton gin was used to remove the seeds from raw cotton. After ginning, the cotton had to be baled before it could be <a href="/wiki/Warehouse" title="Warehouse">warehoused</a> and transported to market. This was accomplished with a cotton press, an early type of <a href="/wiki/Baler" title="Baler">baler</a> that was usually powered by two mules walking in a circle with each attached to an overhead arm that turned a huge wooden screw. The downward action of this screw compressed the processed cotton into a uniform bale-shaped wooden enclosure, where the bale was secured with twine.<sup id="cite_ref-africanamer_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-africanamer-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_and_labor_organization">Social and labor organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Social and labor organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plantation_owner">Plantation owner</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Plantation owner"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:-Three_Planters-_MET_DP338158.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/-Three_Planters-_MET_DP338158.jpg/220px--Three_Planters-_MET_DP338158.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/-Three_Planters-_MET_DP338158.jpg/330px--Three_Planters-_MET_DP338158.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/-Three_Planters-_MET_DP338158.jpg/440px--Three_Planters-_MET_DP338158.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3488" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Three planters, after 1845, The Metropolitan Museum of Art</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Old_Plantation_title_page.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/The_Old_Plantation_title_page.png/220px-The_Old_Plantation_title_page.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="377" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/The_Old_Plantation_title_page.png/330px-The_Old_Plantation_title_page.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/The_Old_Plantation_title_page.png/440px-The_Old_Plantation_title_page.png 2x" data-file-width="1946" data-file-height="3333" /></a><figcaption><i>The Old Plantation: How We Lived in Great House and Cabin before the War</i>, 1901, by Confederate chaplain and planter <a href="/wiki/James_Battle_Avirett" title="James Battle Avirett">James Battle Avirett</a></figcaption></figure> <p>An individual who owned a plantation was known as a <a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">planter</a>. Historians of the prewar South have generally defined "planter" most precisely as a person owning property (real estate) and keeping 20 or more people <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">enslaved</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the "<a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_(geological_formation)" title="Black Belt (geological formation)">Black Belt</a>" counties of <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, the terms "planter" and "farmer" were often synonymous.<sup id="cite_ref-Oakes_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oakes-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The historians <a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Robert Fogel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Engerman" title="Stanley Engerman">Stanley Engerman</a> define large planters as those who enslaved over 50 people, and medium planters as those who enslaved between 16 and 50 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Fogel_and_Engerman_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fogel_and_Engerman-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian David Williams, in <i>A People's History of the Civil War: Struggles for the Meaning of Freedom</i>, suggests that the minimum requirement for planter status was twenty people enslaved, especially since a Southern planter could exempt Confederate duty for one white male per twenty people owned.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his study of Black Belt counties in Alabama, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Weiner" title="Jonathan Weiner">Jonathan Weiner</a> defines planters by ownership of real property, rather than of slaves. A planter, for Weiner, owned at least $10,000 worth of real estate in 1850 and $32,000 worth in 1860, equivalent to about the top eight percent of landowners.<sup id="cite_ref-Wiener_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wiener-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his study of southwest Georgia, Lee Formwalt defines planters in terms of size of land holdings rather than in terms of numbers of people enslaved. Formwalt's planters are in the top 4.5% of landowners, translating into real estate worth $6,000 or more in 1850, $24,000 or more in 1860, and $11,000 or more in 1870.<sup id="cite_ref-Formwalt_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Formwalt-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his study of <a href="/wiki/Harrison_County,_Texas" title="Harrison County, Texas">Harrison County, Texas</a>, Randolph B. Campbell classifies large planters as owners of 20 people, and small planters as owners of between 10 and 19 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Chicot_County,_Arkansas" title="Chicot County, Arkansas">Chicot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phillips_County,_Arkansas" title="Phillips County, Arkansas">Phillips</a> Counties, Arkansas, Carl H. Moneyhon defines large planters as owners of 20 or more people, and of 600 acres (240 ha) or more.<sup id="cite_ref-Moneyhon_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moneyhon-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many nostalgic memoirs about plantation life were published in the postwar South.<sup id="cite_ref-downmemorylane_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-downmemorylane-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/James_Battle_Avirett" title="James Battle Avirett">James Battle Avirett</a>, who grew up on the <a href="/wiki/Avirett-Stephens_Plantation" class="mw-redirect" title="Avirett-Stephens Plantation">Avirett-Stephens Plantation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Onslow_County,_North_Carolina" title="Onslow County, North Carolina">Onslow County, North Carolina</a>, and served as an Episcopal chaplain in the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate States Army</a>, published <i>The Old Plantation: How We Lived in Great House and Cabin before the War</i> in 1901.<sup id="cite_ref-downmemorylane_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-downmemorylane-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such memoirs often included descriptions of Christmas as the epitome of anti-modern order exemplified by the "great house" and extended family.<sup id="cite_ref-nostalgiaforchristmasanderson_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nostalgiaforchristmasanderson-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Novels, often adapted into <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">films</a>, presented a <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">romantic</a>, sanitized view of plantation life and ignored or glorified <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>. The most popular of these were <i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a></i> (1916), based on <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dixon_Jr." title="Thomas Dixon Jr.">Thomas Dixon Jr.</a>,'s best-selling novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Clansman" class="mw-redirect" title="The Clansman">The Clansman</a></i> (1905), and <i><a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a></i> (1939), based on the best-selling <a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(novel)" title="Gone with the Wind (novel)">novel of the same name</a> (1936) by <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mitchell" title="Margaret Mitchell">Margaret Mitchell</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overseer">Overseer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Overseer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cotton_pickers_and_overseer_around_1850.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Cotton_pickers_and_overseer_around_1850.jpg/240px-Cotton_pickers_and_overseer_around_1850.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Cotton_pickers_and_overseer_around_1850.jpg/360px-Cotton_pickers_and_overseer_around_1850.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Cotton_pickers_and_overseer_around_1850.jpg/480px-Cotton_pickers_and_overseer_around_1850.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1990" data-file-height="1434" /></a><figcaption>An overseer on horseback observes the enslaved people picking cotton, c. 1850</figcaption></figure> <p>On larger plantations an <a href="/wiki/Supervisor" title="Supervisor">overseer</a> represented the planter in matters of daily management. Usually perceived as uncouth, ill-educated, and low-class, he had the often despised task of meting out <a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States#Punishment_and_abuse" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">punishments</a> in order to keep up discipline and secure the profit of his employer.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (February 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enslaved_people">Enslaved people</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Enslaved people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves in the United States</a></div> <p>Southern plantations depended upon slaves to do the agricultural work. "Honestly, 'plantation' and 'slavery' is one and the same," said an employee of the <a href="/wiki/Whitney_Plantation" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitney Plantation">Whitney Plantation</a> in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-Knowles_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knowles-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plantation_complexes_in_the_21st_century">Plantation complexes in the 21st century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Plantation complexes in the 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Jefferson%27s_Monticello_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Thomas_Jefferson%27s_Monticello_%28cropped%29.JPG/250px-Thomas_Jefferson%27s_Monticello_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Thomas_Jefferson%27s_Monticello_%28cropped%29.JPG/375px-Thomas_Jefferson%27s_Monticello_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Thomas_Jefferson%27s_Monticello_%28cropped%29.JPG/500px-Thomas_Jefferson%27s_Monticello_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2727" data-file-height="1078" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monticello" title="Monticello">Monticello</a>, located outside Charlottesville, Virginia, was the primary plantation house of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Many manor houses survive, and in some cases former slave dwellings have been rebuilt or renovated. To pay for the upkeep, some, like the <a href="/wiki/Monmouth_(Natchez,_Mississippi)" title="Monmouth (Natchez, Mississippi)">Monmouth Plantation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Natchez,_Mississippi" title="Natchez, Mississippi">Natchez, Mississippi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lipscomb_House" title="Lipscomb House">Lipscomb Plantation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Durham,_North_Carolina" title="Durham, North Carolina">Durham, North Carolina</a>, have become small luxury hotels or <a href="/wiki/Bed_and_breakfast" title="Bed and breakfast">bed and breakfasts</a>. Not only Monticello and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon" title="Mount Vernon">Mount Vernon</a> but some 375 former <a href="/wiki/Plantation_houses" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantation houses">plantation houses</a> are museums that can be visited. There are examples in every Southern state. Centers of plantation life such as Natchez run plantation tours. Traditionally the museum houses presented an idyllic, dignified "<a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">lost cause</a>" vision of the <a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">antebellum South</a>. Recently, and to different degrees, some have begun to acknowledge the "horrors of slavery" which made that life possible.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In late 2019, after contact initiated by <a href="/wiki/Color_of_Change" title="Color of Change">Color of Change</a>, "five major websites often used for wedding planning have pledged to cut back on promoting and romanticizing weddings at former slave plantations". The <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i>, earlier in 2019, "decided...to exclude couples who were being married on plantations from wedding announcements and other wedding coverage".<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Many plantations, including <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">George Washington</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon" title="Mount Vernon">Mount Vernon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Thomas Jefferson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Monticello" title="Monticello">Monticello</a>, are working to present a more accurate image of what life was like for slaves and slave owners", <i>The Washington Post</i> wrote in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-Gillian_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gillian-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hannah Knowles in <i>The Washington Post</i> wrote, "The changes have begun to draw people long alienated by the sites' <a href="/wiki/Whitewashing_(censorship)" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitewashing (censorship)">whitewashing</a> of the past and to satisfy what staff call a hunger for real history, as plantations add slavery-focused tours, rebuild cabins and reconstruct the lives of the enslaved with help from their descendants."<sup id="cite_ref-Knowles_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knowles-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some white visitors to the plantations have pushed back against hearing about slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-Gillian_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gillian-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/McLeod_Plantation" title="McLeod Plantation">McLeod Plantation</a> focuses primarily on slavery, with Knowles writing, "McLeod focuses on bondage, talking bluntly about 'slave <a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">labor camps</a>' and shunning the big white house for the fields."<sup id="cite_ref-Knowles_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knowles-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "'I was depressed by the time I left and questioned why anyone would want to live in South Carolina", read one review [of a tour].<sup id="cite_ref-Gillian_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gillian-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African-American history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_gentry" title="American gentry">American gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa-Grande_%26_Senzala" title="Casa-Grande & Senzala">Casa-Grande & Senzala</a> (similar concept in <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazilian</a> plantations)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">History of the Southern United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_a_Residence_on_a_Georgian_Plantation_in_1838%E2%80%931839" title="Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839">Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">List of plantations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plain_Folk_of_the_Old_South" title="Plain Folk of the Old South">Plain Folk of the Old South</a></i> (1949 book by historian Frank Lawrence Owsley)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation-era_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantation-era songs">Plantation-era songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_house" title="Plantation house">Plantation house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_tradition" title="Plantation tradition">Plantation tradition</a> (genre of literature)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantations_of_Leon_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantations of Leon County">Plantations of Leon County</a> (Florida)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">Sharecropping</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_Tuckahoe_plantation" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery at Tuckahoe plantation">Slavery at Tuckahoe plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Old_maps_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Old maps of plantations in the United States">Commons:Category:Old maps of plantations in the United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGuelzo2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Allen_C._Guelzo" title="Allen C. Guelzo">Guelzo, Allen C.</a> (2012). <i>Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War and Reconstruction</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 33–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-984328-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-984328-2"><bdi>978-0-19-984328-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fateful+Lightning%3A+A+New+History+of+the+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=33-36&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-984328-2&rft.aulast=Guelzo&rft.aufirst=Allen+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lifelabor-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lifelabor_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lifelabor_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1929" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.229114"><i>Life and Labor in the Old South</i></a>. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.229114/page/n348">338</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-70607-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-316-70607-0"><bdi>978-0-316-70607-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+Labor+in+the+Old+South&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=338&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown%2C+and+Company&rft.date=1929&rft.isbn=978-0-316-70607-0&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Ulrich+Bonnell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.229114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eoaplanag-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eoaplanag_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_J._Vejnar_II2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Robert J. Vejnar II (November 6, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1832">"Plantation Agriculture"</a>. <i>The Encyclopedia of Alabama</i>. Auburn University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plantation+Agriculture&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Alabama&rft.pub=Auburn+University&rft.date=2008-11-06&rft.au=Robert+J.+Vejnar+II&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofalabama.org%2Fface%2FArticle.jsp%3Fid%3Dh-1832&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-backbig-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-backbig_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-backbig_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVlach1993" class="citation book cs1">Vlach, John Michael (1993). <i>Back of the Big House, The Architecture of Plantation Slavery</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4412-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4412-0"><bdi>978-0-8078-4412-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Back+of+the+Big+House%2C+The+Architecture+of+Plantation+Slavery&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4412-0&rft.aulast=Vlach&rft.aufirst=John+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McNeilly-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McNeilly_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeilly2000" class="citation book cs1">McNeilly, Donald P. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sm5wwjIN6sgC&q=These+farmers+tended+to+work+the+fields+alongside+their+slaves&pg=PA129"><i>Old South Frontier: Cotton Plantations and the Formation of Arkansas Society</i></a>. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1557286192" title="Special:BookSources/978-1557286192"><bdi>978-1557286192</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+South+Frontier%3A+Cotton+Plantations+and+the+Formation+of+Arkansas+Society&rft.place=Fayetteville&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=University+of+Arkansas+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1557286192&rft.aulast=McNeilly&rft.aufirst=Donald+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dsm5wwjIN6sgC%26q%3DThese%2Bfarmers%2Btended%2Bto%2Bwork%2Bthe%2Bfields%2Balongside%2Btheir%2Bslaves%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lostplan-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lostplan_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lostplan_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lostplan_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lostplan_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatrana2009" class="citation book cs1">Matrana, Marc R. (2009). <i>Lost Plantations of the South</i>. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. pp. xi–xv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57806-942-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57806-942-2"><bdi>978-1-57806-942-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Plantations+of+the+South&rft.place=Jackson&rft.pages=xi-xv&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-57806-942-2&rft.aulast=Matrana&rft.aufirst=Marc+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-creolelexicon1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-creolelexicon1_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsNicolas_Kariouk_Pecquet_du_Bellay_de_Verton2004" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Jay Dearborn; Nicolas Kariouk Pecquet du Bellay de Verton (2004). <i>A Creole lexicon: Architecture, Landscape, People</i>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. pp. 153–157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-2764-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-2764-3"><bdi>978-0-8071-2764-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Creole+lexicon%3A+Architecture%2C+Landscape%2C+People&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pages=153-157&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-2764-3&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Jay+Dearborn&rft.au=Nicolas+Kariouk+Pecquet+du+Bellay+de+Verton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eoaplanarch-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eoaplanarch_8-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Gamble2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Robert Gamble (September 2, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1671">"Plantation Architecture in Alabama"</a>. <i>The Encyclopedia of Alabama</i>. Auburn University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plantation+Architecture+in+Alabama&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Alabama&rft.pub=Auburn+University&rft.date=2008-09-02&rft.au=Robert+Gamble&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofalabama.org%2Farticle%2Fh-1671&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-virgslavquar-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-virgslavquar_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-virgslavquar_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_E._Davidson" class="citation web cs1">Thomas E. Davidson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyisfun.org/slave-quarter.htm">"The Evolution of the Slave Quarter in Tidewater Virginia"</a>. <i>Jamestown Settlement and Yorktown Victory Center</i>. Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jamestown+Settlement+and+Yorktown+Victory+Center&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+the+Slave+Quarter+in+Tidewater+Virginia&rft.au=Thomas+E.+Davidson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyisfun.org%2Fslave-quarter.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-backbig2-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-backbig2_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVlach1993" class="citation book cs1">Vlach, John Michael (1993). <i>Back of the Big House, The Architecture of Plantation Slavery</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 10, 12, 192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4412-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4412-0"><bdi>978-0-8078-4412-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Back+of+the+Big+House%2C+The+Architecture+of+Plantation+Slavery&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pages=10%2C+12%2C+192&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4412-0&rft.aulast=Vlach&rft.aufirst=John+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-monthist-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-monthist_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-monthist_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Watson" class="citation web cs1">Mark Watson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101125062955/http://montgomeryhistory.org/mc/english/slavery2.html">"Slave Housing"</a>. <i>Slave Housing in Montgomery County</i>. Montgomery County Historical Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.montgomeryhistory.org/mc/english/slavery2.html">the original</a> on November 25, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Slave+Housing+in+Montgomery+County&rft.atitle=Slave+Housing&rft.au=Mark+Watson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.montgomeryhistory.org%2Fmc%2Fenglish%2Fslavery2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-backbig3-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-backbig3_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-backbig3_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVlach1993" class="citation book cs1">Vlach, John Michael (1993). <i>Back of the Big House, The Architecture of Plantation Slavery</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 155–159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4412-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4412-0"><bdi>978-0-8078-4412-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Back+of+the+Big+House%2C+The+Architecture+of+Plantation+Slavery&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pages=155-159&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4412-0&rft.aulast=Vlach&rft.aufirst=John+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlmsted1968" class="citation book cs1">Olmsted, Frederick Law (1968). <i>A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States</i>. New York: Negro University Press. pp. 416–417.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Journey+in+the+Seaboard+Slave+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=416-417&rft.pub=Negro+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Olmsted&rft.aufirst=Frederick+Law&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lsu1-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lsu1_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lsu1_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lsu1_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110727064247/http://appl027.lsu.edu/rlm/rurallifeweb.nsf/$Content/History+Online/$file/Overseer.pdf">"Overseer's House at the Rural Life Museum"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Rural Life Museum</i>. Louisiana State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://appl027.lsu.edu/rlm/rurallifeweb.nsf/$Content/History+Online/$file/Overseer.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on July 27, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rural+Life+Museum&rft.atitle=Overseer%27s+House+at+the+Rural+Life+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fappl027.lsu.edu%2Frlm%2Frurallifeweb.nsf%2F%24Content%2FHistory%2BOnline%2F%24file%2FOverseer.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amercivwar-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-amercivwar_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatherine_Clinton" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Catherine Clinton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilwarhome.com/plantation.htm">"The Southern Plantation"</a>. <i>Macmillan Information Now Encyclopedia</i>. Civil War Potpourri<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Southern+Plantation&rft.btitle=Macmillan+Information+Now+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Civil+War+Potpourri&rft.au=Catherine+Clinton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.civilwarhome.com%2Fplantation.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-creolelexicon2-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-creolelexicon2_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsNicolas_Kariouk_Pecquet_du_Bellay_de_Verton2004" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Jay Dearborn; Nicolas Kariouk Pecquet du Bellay de Verton (2004). <i>A Creole lexicon: Architecture, Landscape, People</i>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-2764-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-2764-3"><bdi>978-0-8071-2764-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Creole+lexicon%3A+Architecture%2C+Landscape%2C+People&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-2764-3&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Jay+Dearborn&rft.au=Nicolas+Kariouk+Pecquet+du+Bellay+de+Verton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-plancooking-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-plancooking_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-plancooking_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-plancooking_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-plancooking_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-plancooking_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary2000" class="citation book cs1">Mary, Gunderson (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/southernplantati0000gund/page/10"><i>Southern Plantation Cooking</i></a>. Mankato, Minn: Blue Earth Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/southernplantati0000gund/page/10">10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7368-0357-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7368-0357-1"><bdi>978-0-7368-0357-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southern+Plantation+Cooking&rft.place=Mankato%2C+Minn&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Blue+Earth+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7368-0357-1&rft.aulast=Mary&rft.aufirst=Gunderson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsouthernplantati0000gund%2Fpage%2F10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pantry-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pantry_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPond2007" class="citation book cs1">Pond, Catherine Seiberling (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pantryitshistory00pond"><i>The Pantry: Its History and Modern Uses</i></a></span>. Layton, Utah: Gibbs Smith. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pantryitshistory00pond/page/23">23</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4236-0004-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4236-0004-6"><bdi>978-1-4236-0004-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pantry%3A+Its+History+and+Modern+Uses&rft.place=Layton%2C+Utah&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Gibbs+Smith&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4236-0004-6&rft.aulast=Pond&rft.aufirst=Catherine+Seiberling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpantryitshistory00pond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-laundry-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-laundry_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaeta_Bell" class="citation web cs1">Gaeta Bell. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110411054810/http://www.ebparks.org/files/Laundry_19th_Century_06-01-09.pdf">"Laundry in the 19th Century"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. East Bay Regional Park District. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ebparks.org/files/Laundry_19th_Century_06-01-09.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on April 11, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Laundry+in+the+19th+Century&rft.pub=East+Bay+Regional+Park+District&rft.au=Gaeta+Bell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ebparks.org%2Ffiles%2FLaundry_19th_Century_06-01-09.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-butter-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-butter_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_B._Fankhauser" class="citation web cs1">David B. Fankhauser. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070828061724/http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Fankhauser/Cheese/BUTTERMILK.HTM">"Making Buttermilk"</a>. University of Cincinnati Clermont College. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biology.clc.uc.edu/fankhauser/cheese/buttermilk.htm">the original</a> on August 28, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Making+Buttermilk&rft.pub=University+of+Cincinnati+Clermont+College&rft.au=David+B.+Fankhauser&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiology.clc.uc.edu%2Ffankhauser%2Fcheese%2Fbuttermilk.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-smoke-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-smoke_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudith_Quinn" class="citation web cs1">Judith Quinn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dspace.udel.edu:8080/dspace/bitstream/handle/19716/3124/Mechanics%20and%20Functions%20of%20a%20Smokehouse-OCR.pdf">"Mechanics and Functions of a Smokehouse"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University of Delaware Library<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mechanics+and+Functions+of+a+Smokehouse&rft.pub=University+of+Delaware+Library&rft.au=Judith+Quinn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdspace.udel.edu%3A8080%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F19716%2F3124%2FMechanics%2520and%2520Functions%2520of%2520a%2520Smokehouse-OCR.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2024">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pigeonniers-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pigeonniers_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/louisiana/architecture.htm">"French Creole Architecture"</a>. <i>Louisiana Division of Historic Preservation</i>. National Park Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Louisiana+Division+of+Historic+Preservation&rft.atitle=French+Creole+Architecture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fnr%2Ftravel%2Flouisiana%2Farchitecture.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-watersources-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-watersources_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez2007" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007). <i>Slavery in the United States: A social, political, and historical encyclopedia, Volume 2</i>. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. p. 671. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-544-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-544-5"><bdi>978-1-85109-544-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+United+States%3A+A+social%2C+political%2C+and+historical+encyclopedia%2C+Volume+2&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+Calif&rft.pages=671&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-544-5&rft.aulast=Rodriguez&rft.aufirst=Junius+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jamesriverplan-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jamesriverplan_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsElizabeth_Kedash1990" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Bruce; Elizabeth Kedash (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/plantationhomeso00robe"><i>Plantation homes of the James River</i></a></span>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/plantationhomeso00robe/page/4">4–6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4278-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4278-2"><bdi>978-0-8078-4278-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plantation+homes+of+the+James+River&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pages=4-6&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4278-2&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft.au=Elizabeth+Kedash&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplantationhomeso00robe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stratfordschool-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stratfordschool_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110926144151/http://www.stratfordhall.org/learn/teacher/education.php">"Colonial Education"</a>. <i>Stratford Hall Plantation</i>. Robert E. Lee Memorial Association, Inc., Stratford Hall. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stratfordhall.org/learn/teacher/education.php">the original</a> on September 26, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stratford+Hall+Plantation&rft.atitle=Colonial+Education&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stratfordhall.org%2Flearn%2Fteacher%2Feducation.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-forthillmarker-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-forthillmarker_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=9566">"Fort Hill Plantation Office"</a>. <i>South Carolina Historical Society</i>. The Historical Marker Database<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=South+Carolina+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Fort+Hill+Plantation+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hmdb.org%2Fmarker.asp%3Fmarker%3D9566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-waldeck-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-waldeck_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiana_J._Kleiner" class="citation web cs1">Diana J. Kleiner. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/acw01">"Waldeck Plantation"</a>. Texas State Historical Association<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Waldeck+Plantation&rft.pub=Texas+State+Historical+Association&rft.au=Diana+J.+Kleiner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftshaonline.org%2Fhandbook%2Fonline%2Farticles%2Facw01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-faunsdale-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-faunsdale_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110807191748/http://www.birminghamarchives.org/forms/AR765.pdf">"Faunsdale Plantation Papers, 1805-1975"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Department of Archives and Manuscripts</i>. Birmingham Public Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.birminghamarchives.org/forms/AR765.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on August 7, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Department+of+Archives+and+Manuscripts&rft.atitle=Faunsdale+Plantation+Papers%2C+1805-1975&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.birminghamarchives.org%2Fforms%2FAR765.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stmarychapel-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stmarychapel_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stmarybasilicaarchives.org/fromthearchivedesk/laurelhillplantation/laurelhillplantation.html">"St. Mary Chapel, located on Laurel Hill Plantation in Adams County, approximately eight (8) miles south of Natchez. This property was an English land grant to the Richard Ellis family and continues to be owned by his descendants. {Note that there is also a Laurel Hill Plantation in Jefferson County that was owned by the Rush Nutt family}"</a>. <i>St. Mary Basilica Archives</i>. Episcopal Diocese of Jackson: St. Mary Basilica Archives<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=St.+Mary+Basilica+Archives&rft.atitle=St.+Mary+Chapel%2C+located+on+Laurel+Hill+Plantation+in+Adams+County%2C+approximately+eight+%288%29+miles+south+of+Natchez.+This+property+was+an+English+land+grant+to+the+Richard+Ellis+family+and+continues+to+be+owned+by+his+descendants.+%7BNote+that+there+is+also+a+Laurel+Hill+Plantation+in+Jefferson+County+that+was+owned+by+the+Rush+Nutt+family%7D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stmarybasilicaarchives.org%2Ffromthearchivedesk%2Flaurelhillplantation%2Flaurelhillplantation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cotc-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cotc_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100613023931/http://chapelofthecrossms.org/about/history.html">"History of The Chapel of the Cross"</a>. <i>Chapel of the Cross</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chapelofthecrossms.org/about/history.html">the original</a> on June 13, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chapel+of+the+Cross&rft.atitle=History+of+The+Chapel+of+the+Cross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chapelofthecrossms.org%2Fabout%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mdah-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mdah_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120225003122/http://mdah.state.ms.us/manuscripts/z1892.html">"Chapel Of The Cross"</a>. <i>Mississippi Department of Archives and History</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mdah.state.ms.us/manuscripts/z1892.html">the original</a> on February 25, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mississippi+Department+of+Archives+and+History&rft.atitle=Chapel+Of+The+Cross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmdah.state.ms.us%2Fmanuscripts%2Fz1892.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-newplansouth-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-newplansouth_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-newplansouth_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhayne1990" class="citation book cs1">Whayne, Jeannie M. (1990). <i>A New Plantation South: Land, Labor, and Federal Favor in Twentieth-century Arkansas</i>. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. pp. 55–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-1655-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-1655-2"><bdi>978-0-8139-1655-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Plantation+South%3A+Land%2C+Labor%2C+and+Federal+Favor+in+Twentieth-century+Arkansas&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pages=55-57&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8139-1655-2&rft.aulast=Whayne&rft.aufirst=Jeannie+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-louisianabuild-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-louisianabuild_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-louisianabuild_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-louisianabuild_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoeschBarbara_SoRelle_Bacot1997" class="citation book cs1">Poesch, Jessie J.; Barbara SoRelle Bacot (1997). <i>Louisiana Buildings, 1720-1940: The Historic American Buildings Survey</i>. Baton Rouge: LSU Press. pp. 157–165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-2054-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-2054-5"><bdi>978-0-8071-2054-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Louisiana+Buildings%2C+1720-1940%3A+The+Historic+American+Buildings+Survey&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pages=157-165&rft.pub=LSU+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-2054-5&rft.aulast=Poesch&rft.aufirst=Jessie+J.&rft.au=Barbara+SoRelle+Bacot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-npsbarns-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-npsbarns_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-npsbarns_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110219092447/http://www.cr.nps.gov/hps/tps/briefs/brief20.htm">"The Preservation of Historic Barns"</a>. <i>National Park Service</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cr.nps.gov/hps/tps/briefs/brief20.htm">the original</a> on February 19, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=The+Preservation+of+Historic+Barns&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cr.nps.gov%2Fhps%2Ftps%2Fbriefs%2Fbrief20.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tob-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tob_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartMather1961" class="citation journal cs1">Hart, John Fraser; Mather, Eugene Cotton (September 1961). "The Character of Tobacco Barns and Their Role in the Tobacco Economy of the United States". <i>Annals of the Association of American Geographers</i>. <b>51</b> (3): 274–293. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8306.1961.tb00379.x">10.1111/j.1467-8306.1961.tb00379.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Association+of+American+Geographers&rft.atitle=The+Character+of+Tobacco+Barns+and+Their+Role+in+the+Tobacco+Economy+of+the+United+States&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=274-293&rft.date=1961-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8306.1961.tb00379.x&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=John+Fraser&rft.au=Mather%2C+Eugene+Cotton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tobaccofarm-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tobaccofarm_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.virginiaplaces.org/agriculture/tobaccostaple.html">"Tobacco and Staple Agriculture"</a>. <i>Tobacco in Virginia</i>. Virginia Places<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tobacco+in+Virginia&rft.atitle=Tobacco+and+Staple+Agriculture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.virginiaplaces.org%2Fagriculture%2Ftobaccostaple.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-npsriceplan-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-npsriceplan_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NRHP/64500563_text">"Georgetown County Rice Culture, c. 1750-c. 1910"</a>. <i>National Register of Historic Places</i>. National Park Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Register+of+Historic+Places&rft.atitle=Georgetown+County+Rice+Culture%2C+c.+1750-c.+1910&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnpgallery.nps.gov%2FNRHP%2FGetAsset%2FNRHP%2F64500563_text&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ricefarm-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ricefarm_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRob_Martin" class="citation web cs1">Rob Martin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110625151040/http://freespace.virgin.net/robmar.tin/rice/farming.htm">"The Farming and Processing of Rice"</a>. Isle of Wight History Centre. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://freespace.virgin.net/robmar.tin/rice/farming.htm">the original</a> on June 25, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Farming+and+Processing+of+Rice&rft.pub=Isle+of+Wight+History+Centre&rft.au=Rob+Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffreespace.virgin.net%2Frobmar.tin%2Frice%2Ffarming.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-louisianasugar-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-louisianasugar_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110526125430/http://lsm.crt.state.la.us/cabildo/cab9.htm">"Antebellum Louisiana: Agrarian Life"</a>. <i>The Cabildo: Two Centuries of Louisiana History</i>. Louisiana State Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lsm.crt.state.la.us/cabildo/cab9.htm">the original</a> on May 26, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Cabildo%3A+Two+Centuries+of+Louisiana+History&rft.atitle=Antebellum+Louisiana%3A+Agrarian+Life&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flsm.crt.state.la.us%2Fcabildo%2Fcab9.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-louisianasugarhouse-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-louisianasugarhouse_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111120025951/http://www.crt.state.la.us/archaeology/virtualbooks/greathou/sugar.htm">"Sugarhouse and Sugar Production at Ashland"</a>. <i>Beyond The Great House: Archaeology at Ashland-Belle Helene Plantation</i>. Louisiana Division of Archaeology. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crt.state.la.us/archaeology/virtualbooks/greathou/sugar.htm">the original</a> on November 20, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Beyond+The+Great+House%3A+Archaeology+at+Ashland-Belle+Helene+Plantation&rft.atitle=Sugarhouse+and+Sugar+Production+at+Ashland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crt.state.la.us%2Farchaeology%2Fvirtualbooks%2Fgreathou%2Fsugar.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-slaveamerica-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-slaveamerica_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-slaveamerica_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJean_M._West" class="citation web cs1">Jean M. West. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110903073654/http://www.slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_cotton.htm">"King Cotton: The Fiber of Slavery"</a>. Encyclopedia of Slavery in America. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_cotton.htm">the original</a> on September 3, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=King+Cotton%3A+The+Fiber+of+Slavery&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+of+Slavery+in+America&rft.au=Jean+M.+West&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slaveryinamerica.org%2Fhistory%2Fhs_es_cotton.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-slaveala-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-slaveala_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSellers1950" class="citation book cs1">Sellers, James Benson (1950). <i>Slavery in Alabama</i>. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. pp. 19–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8173-0594-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8173-0594-7"><bdi>0-8173-0594-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+Alabama&rft.place=Tuscaloosa&rft.pages=19-43&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=0-8173-0594-7&rft.aulast=Sellers&rft.aufirst=James+Benson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-africanamer-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-africanamer_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3h506.html">"The Cotton Press"</a>. <i>Africans in America</i>. Public Broadcasting Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Africans+in+America&rft.atitle=The+Cotton+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart3%2F3h506.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Kolchin, <i>American Slavery 1619–1877</i>, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, xiii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oakes-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oakes_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oakes, <i>Ruling Race</i>, 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fogel_and_Engerman-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fogel_and_Engerman_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFogelEngerman1974" class="citation book cs1">Fogel, Robert William; Engerman, Stanley L. (1974). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timeoncrossec00foge"><i>Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery</i></a></span>. Boston: Little, Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780316287005" title="Special:BookSources/9780316287005"><bdi>9780316287005</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/311437227">311437227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+on+the+Cross%3A+The+Economics+of+American+Negro+Slavery&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F311437227&rft.isbn=9780316287005&rft.aulast=Fogel&rft.aufirst=Robert+William&rft.au=Engerman%2C+Stanley+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftimeoncrossec00foge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Williams, <i>A People's History of the Civil War: Struggles for the Meaning of Freedom</i>, New York: The New Press, 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wiener-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wiener_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiener1976" class="citation journal cs1">Wiener, Jonathan M. (Autumn 1976). "Planter Persistence and Social Change: Alabama, 1850–1870". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Interdisciplinary_History" title="Journal of Interdisciplinary History">Journal of Interdisciplinary History</a></i>. <b>7</b> (2): 235–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F202735">10.2307/202735</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/202735">202735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=Planter+Persistence+and+Social+Change%3A+Alabama%2C+1850%E2%80%931870&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=235-60&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F202735&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F202735%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wiener&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Formwalt-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Formwalt_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFormwalt1981" class="citation journal cs1">Formwalt, Lee W. (October 1981). "Antebellum Planter Persistence: Southwest Georgia—A Case Study". <i>Plantation Society in the Americas</i>. <b>1</b> (3): 410–29. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0192-5059">0192-5059</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/571605035">571605035</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plantation+Society+in+the+Americas&rft.atitle=Antebellum+Planter+Persistence%3A+Southwest+Georgia%E2%80%94A+Case+Study&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=410-29&rft.date=1981-10&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F571605035&rft.issn=0192-5059&rft.aulast=Formwalt&rft.aufirst=Lee+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Campbell-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell,_Randolph_B1982" class="citation journal cs1">Campbell, Randolph B (May 1982). "Population Persistence and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century Texas: Harrison County, 1850–1880". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Southern_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Southern History">Journal of Southern History</a></i>. <b>48</b> (2): 185–204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2207106">10.2307/2207106</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2207106">2207106</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=Population+Persistence+and+Social+Change+in+Nineteenth-Century+Texas%3A+Harrison+County%2C+1850%E2%80%931880&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=185-204&rft.date=1982-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2207106&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2207106%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Randolph+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moneyhon-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moneyhon_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoneyhon1992" class="citation journal cs1">Moneyhon, Carl H. (1992). "The Impact of the Civil War in Arkansas: The Mississippi River Plantation Counties". <i><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Historical_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="Arkansas Historical Quarterly">Arkansas Historical Quarterly</a></i>. <b>51</b> (2): 105–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F40025847">10.2307/40025847</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40025847">40025847</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arkansas+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+the+Civil+War+in+Arkansas%3A+The+Mississippi+River+Plantation+Counties&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=105-18&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F40025847&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40025847%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Moneyhon&rft.aufirst=Carl+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-downmemorylane-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-downmemorylane_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-downmemorylane_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2005" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, David (February 2005). "Down Memory Lane: Nostalgia for the Old South in Post-Civil War Plantation Reminiscences". <i>The Journal of Southern History</i>. <b>71</b> (1): 105–136. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27648653">27648653</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=Down+Memory+Lane%3A+Nostalgia+for+the+Old+South+in+Post-Civil+War+Plantation+Reminiscences&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=105-136&rft.date=2005-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27648653%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nostalgiaforchristmasanderson-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nostalgiaforchristmasanderson_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2014" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, David J. (Fall 2014). "Nostalgia for Christmas in Postbellum Plantation Reminiscences". <i>Southern Studies</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 39–73.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+Studies&rft.atitle=Nostalgia+for+Christmas+in+Postbellum+Plantation+Reminiscences&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=39-73&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichter2009" class="citation book cs1">Richter, William L. (August 20, 2009). "Overseers". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-VTh1AIqB5EC"><i>The A to Z of the Old South</i></a>. The A to Z Guide Series. Vol. 51. Lanham, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Scarecrow_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarecrow Press">Scarecrow Press</a> (published 2009). p. 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810870000" title="Special:BookSources/9780810870000"><bdi>9780810870000</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 29,</span> 2016</span>. <q>On larger plantations, the planter's direct representative in day-to-day management of the crops, care of the land, livestock, farm implements, and slaves was the white overseer. It was his job to work the labor force to produce a profitable crop. He was an indispensable cog in the plantation machinery. [...] The overseer has usually been portrayed as an uncouth, uneducated character of low class whose main purpose was to harass the slaves and get in the way of the planter's progressive goals of production. More than that, the overseer had a position between master and slave in which it was hard to win. Directing slave labor was looked down upon by a large number of people, North and South. He was faced with planter demands that were at times unreasonable. He was forbidden to fraternize with the slaves. He had no chance of advancement unless he left the profession. He was bombarded with incessant complaints from masters, who did not appreciate the task he faced, and slaves, who sought to play off master and overseer against each other to avoid work and gain privileges. [...] The very nature of the job was difficult. The overseer had to care for the slaves and gain the largest crop possible. These were often contradictory goals.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Overseers&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+the+Old+South&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.series=The+A+to+Z+Guide+Series&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009-08-20&rft.isbn=9780810870000&rft.aulast=Richter&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-VTh1AIqB5EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knowles-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Knowles_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knowles_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knowles_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnowles2019" class="citation news cs1">Knowles, Hannah (September 8, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2019/09/08/plantations-are-talking-more-about-slavery-grappling-with-visitors-who-talk-back/">"As plantations talk more honestly about slavery, some visitors are pushing back"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=As+plantations+talk+more+honestly+about+slavery%2C+some+visitors+are+pushing+back&rft.date=2019-09-08&rft.aulast=Knowles&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fhistory%2F2019%2F09%2F08%2Fplantations-are-talking-more-about-slavery-grappling-with-visitors-who-talk-back%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolpuch2019" class="citation news cs1">Holpuch, Amanda (August 15, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/aug/15/slavery-400-plantations-south-history-america">"Do idyllic southern plantations really tell the story of slavery?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Do+idyllic+southern+plantations+really+tell+the+story+of+slavery%3F&rft.date=2019-08-15&rft.aulast=Holpuch&rft.aufirst=Amanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fnews%2F2019%2Faug%2F15%2Fslavery-400-plantations-south-history-america&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2019" class="citation news cs1">Murphy, Heather (December 5, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/05/style/plantation-weddings-pinterest-knot-zola.html">"Pinterest and The Knot Pledge to Stop Promoting Plantation Weddings"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Pinterest+and+The+Knot+Pledge+to+Stop+Promoting+Plantation+Weddings&rft.date=2019-12-05&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F12%2F05%2Fstyle%2Fplantation-weddings-pinterest-knot-zola.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gillian-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gillian_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gillian_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gillian_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrockell2019" class="citation news cs1">Brockell, Gillian (August 8, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2019/08/08/some-white-people-dont-want-hear-about-slavery-plantations-built-by-slaves/">"Some white people don't want to hear about slavery at plantations built by slaves"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Some+white+people+don%27t+want+to+hear+about+slavery+at+plantations+built+by+slaves&rft.date=2019-08-08&rft.aulast=Brockell&rft.aufirst=Gillian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fhistory%2F2019%2F08%2F08%2Fsome-white-people-dont-want-hear-about-slavery-plantations-built-by-slaves%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography of slavery in the United States</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Plantation_houses_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Plantation houses in the United States">Plantation houses in the United States</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blassingame" title="Blassingame">Blassingame</a>, John W. <i>The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South</i> (1979)</li> <li>* Evans, Chris, "The Plantation Hoe: The Rise and Fall of an Atlantic Commodity, 1650–1850," <i>William and Mary Quarterly</i>, (2012) 69#1 pp 71–100.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Bonnell_Phillips" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulrich Bonnell Phillips">Phillips, Ulrich B.</a> <i>American Negro Slavery; a Survey of the Supply, Employment, and Control of Negro Labor, as Determined by the Plantation Regime</i>. (1918; reprint 1966)<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11490">online at Project Gutenberg</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6DEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR7">google edition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Bonnell_Phillips" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulrich Bonnell Phillips">Phillips, Ulrich B.</a> <i>Life and Labor in the Old South</i>. (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R44EqSwR_0kC&pg=PP1">excerpts and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Bonnell_Phillips" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulrich Bonnell Phillips">Phillips, Ulrich B.</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips,_Ulrich_B.1905" class="citation journal cs1">Phillips, Ulrich B. (1905). "The Economic Cost of Slaveholding in the Cotton Belt". <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>. <b>20</b> (2): 257–275. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2140400">10.2307/2140400</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fhvd.32044082042185">2027/hvd.32044082042185</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2140400">2140400</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Science+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Economic+Cost+of+Slaveholding+in+the+Cotton+Belt&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=257-275&rft.date=1905&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fhvd.32044082042185&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2140400%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2140400&rft.au=Phillips%2C+Ulrich+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Silkenat, David. <i>Scars on the Land: An Environmental History of Slavery in the American South</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, 2022.</li> <li>Thompson, Edgar Tristram. <i>The Plantation</i> edited by Sidney Mintz and George Baca (University of South Carolina Press; 2011) 176 pages; 1933 dissertation</li> <li>Weiner, Marli Frances. <i>Mistresses and Slaves: Plantation Women in South Carolina, 1830-80</i> (1997)</li> <li>White, Deborah G. <i>Aren't I a Woman?: Female Slaves in the Plantation South</i> (2nd ed. 1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Arnt-Woman-Female-Slaves-Plantation/dp/0393314812/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2017" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Julia Floyd (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/AA/00/06/19/96/00001/9781947372627_Smith.pdf"><i>Slavery and plantation growth in Antebellum Florida, 1821-1860</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Florida_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Florida Press">University of Florida Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+plantation+growth+in+Antebellum+Florida%2C+1821-1860&rft.pub=University+of+Florida+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Julia+Floyd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu%2FAA%2F00%2F06%2F19%2F96%2F00001%2F9781947372627_Smith.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Bonnell_Phillips" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulrich Bonnell Phillips">Phillips, Ulrich B., ed.</a> <i>Plantation and Frontier Documents, 1649–1863; Illustrative of Industrial History in the Colonial and Antebellum South: Collected from MSS. and Other Rare Sources.</i> 2 Volumes. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FCNY3KQhoJ0C&pg=PA9">online edition</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JfyQULiq394">"The Plantation System in Southern Life. Short documentary"</a>. <i>YouTube</i>. 1950. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/JfyQULiq394">Archived</a> from the original on November 7, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 1,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=The+Plantation+System+in+Southern+Life.+Short+documentary&rft.date=1950&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DJfyQULiq394&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlantation+complexes+in+the+Southern+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" title="Template:Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" title="Template talk:Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">The plantation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_planter" title="Ancient planter">Ancient planter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">Plantation economy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plantation complexes in the Southern United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_house" title="Plantation house">Plantation house</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cash crops</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_Cotton" title="King Cotton">King Cotton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">Hemp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigo_dye" title="Indigo dye">Indigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">Sugarcane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">Tobacco</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slavery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_negro" class="mw-redirect" title="House negro">House negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_health_on_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Slave health on plantations in the United States">Slave health on plantations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li>Slave trade <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States#Slave_trade" title="Slavery in the United States">Internal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interregional_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Interregional slave trade">Interregional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive slave laws">Fugitive slave laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other labor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharecropping#United_States" title="Sharecropping">Sharecropping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">Lists of plantations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Alabama" title="List of plantations in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Plantations_in_Florida" title="Category:Plantations in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plantations_of_Leon_County,_Florida" title="Plantations of Leon County, Florida">Leon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="List of plantations in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Kentucky" title="List of plantations in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Louisiana" title="List of plantations in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Mississippi" title="List of plantations in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_North_Carolina" title="List of plantations in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_South_Carolina" title="List of plantations in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Virginia" title="List of plantations in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_West_Virginia" title="List of plantations in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slavery_in_the_United_States" style="text-align:left;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavery_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alabama" title="History of slavery in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alaska" title="History of slavery in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arizona" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arkansas" title="History of slavery in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_California" title="History of slavery in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Colorado" title="History of slavery in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Connecticut" title="History of slavery in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Delaware" title="History of slavery in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Florida" title="History of slavery in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Idaho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Idaho (page does not exist)">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Illinois" title="History of slavery in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Indiana" title="History of slavery in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Iowa" title="History of slavery in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kansas" title="History of slavery in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kentucky" title="History of slavery in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana" title="History of slavery in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Maine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Maine (page does not exist)">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Maryland" title="History of slavery in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Massachusetts" title="History of slavery in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Michigan" title="History of slavery in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Minnesota" title="History of slavery in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Mississippi" title="History of slavery in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Missouri" title="History of slavery in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Montana" title="History of slavery in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Nebraska" title="History of slavery in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Nevada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Nevada (page does not exist)">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Hampshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Jersey" title="History of slavery in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Mexico" title="History of slavery in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Carolina" title="History of slavery in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Dakota" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Oklahoma" title="History of slavery in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Oregon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Oregon (page does not exist)">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Pennsylvania" title="History of slavery in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Rhode_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Carolina" title="History of slavery in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Dakota" title="History of slavery in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Tennessee" title="History of slavery in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Texas" title="History of slavery in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Utah" title="History of slavery in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Vermont" title="History of slavery in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia" title="History of slavery in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Washington_(state)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Washington (state) (page does not exist)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_West_Virginia" title="History of slavery in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Wyoming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Wyoming (page does not exist)">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_district" title="Federal district">Federal district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands#Danish_period" title="United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery among Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_Spain" title="Slavery in New Spain">Slavery in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">Slavery in New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">Indentured servitude in British America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Slave trade in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_markets_and_slave_jails_in_the_United_States" title="Slave markets and slave jails in the United States">Slave markets and slave jails in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_into_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Kidnapping into slavery in the United States">Kidnapping into slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">Slave states and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_labor_on_United_States_military_installations_1799%E2%80%931863" title="Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863">Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_American_colleges_and_universities" title="Slavery at American colleges and universities">Slavery at American colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_American_slavery" title="Glossary of American slavery">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural and<br />social history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_proslavery_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="American proslavery movement">American proslavery movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Slavery as a positive good in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treatment_of_the_slaves_in_the_United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treatment of the slaves in the United States (page does not exist)">Treatment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_health_on_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Slave health on plantations in the United States">Health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-literacy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-literacy laws in the United States">Mandatory illiteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_quarters_in_the_United_States" title="Slave quarters in the United States">Slave quarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Domestic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_slave_traders" class="mw-redirect" title="List of American slave traders">List of American slave traders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runaway_slave_ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway slave ad">Runaway slave ad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">Freedmen's towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Canadians" title="Black Canadians">Black Canadians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">List of abolitionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_system" title="Gang system">Gang system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_system" title="Task system">Task system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">List of plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">Amerindian slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_slave_owners" title="African-American slave owners">African-American slave owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Slavery and the United States Constitution">Slavery and the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_slave_court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="American slave court cases">American slave court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Freedom_suits_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Freedom suits in the United States">Freedom suits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_and_free_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave and free states">Slave and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="History of slavery in the United States by state">History of slavery by U.S. state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1793" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1793">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> (1808)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">Gag rule (1836–1840)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullifier_Party" title="Nullifier Party">Nullifier Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_to_reopen_the_transatlantic_slave_trade" title="Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade">Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Presidents and slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">George Washington and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Thomas Jefferson and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_and_slavery" title="James Madison and slavery">James Madison and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">John Quincy Adams and abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler_and_slavery" title="John Tyler and slavery">John Tyler and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor_and_slavery" title="Zachary Taylor and slavery">Zachary Taylor and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Abraham Lincoln and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Johnson and slavery">Andrew Johnson and slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of vice presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Vice presidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress_who_owned_slaves" title="List of members of the United States Congress who owned slaves">Members of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices_who_owned_slaves" title="List of United States Supreme Court Justices who owned slaves">Supreme Court Justices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marriage,<br />sexual slavery<br />and procreation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">Female slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States#Sexual_relations_and_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Sexual relations and rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pla%C3%A7age" title="Plaçage">Plaçage</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_family" title="Shadow family">Shadow family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War and after</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery during the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="End of slavery in the United States">End of slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation_in_the_United_States" title="Compensated emancipation in the United States">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">Contraband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">Colored Troops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_reunification_ads_after_emancipation" title="Family reunification ads after emancipation">Family reunification ads after emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_town" title="Freedmen's town">Freedmen's town</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&oldid=1254717882">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&oldid=1254717882</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Plantations in the United States">Plantations in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Plantation_houses_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Plantation houses in the United States">Plantation houses in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="Category:History of the Southern United States">History of the Southern United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Category:History of agriculture in the United States">History of agriculture in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Antebellum_architecture" title="Category:Antebellum architecture">Antebellum architecture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Slave_cabins_and_quarters_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Slave cabins and quarters in the United States">Slave cabins and quarters in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pre-emancipation_African-American_history" title="Category:Pre-emancipation African-American history">Pre-emancipation African-American history</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_February_2024" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from February 2024">Articles with dead external links from February 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_September_2019" title="Category:Use American English from September 2019">Use American English from September 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_September_2019" title="Category:Use mdy dates from September 2019">Use mdy dates from September 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_self-contradictory_articles" title="Category:All self-contradictory articles">All self-contradictory articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Self-contradictory_articles_from_November_2024" title="Category:Self-contradictory articles from November 2024">Self-contradictory articles from November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_failed_verification" title="Category:All articles with failed verification">All articles with failed verification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_failed_verification_from_May_2024" title="Category:Articles with failed verification from May 2024">Articles with failed verification from May 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_February_2021" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from February 2021">Articles lacking reliable references from February 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 1 November 2024, at 09:52<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-gzbbg","wgBackendResponseTime":170,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.041","walltime":"1.250","ppvisitednodes":{"value":5015,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":212674,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":12519,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":12,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":241185,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 970.358 1 -total"," 45.47% 441.218 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.95% 203.316 20 Template:Cite_book"," 10.67% 103.557 23 Template:Cite_web"," 9.55% 92.645 1 Template:Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States"," 9.37% 90.906 1 Template:Navbox"," 8.60% 83.495 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.95% 57.698 4 Template:Fix"," 5.69% 55.189 2 Template:Pagetype"," 5.57% 54.082 1 Template:Commons_category"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.570","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":8838591,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-849f99967d-5xjtb","timestamp":"20241123105646","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Plantation complexes in the Southern United States","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7201620","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7201620","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2011-04-15T21:31:52Z","dateModified":"2024-11-01T09:52:39Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/ef\/StratfordHallPlantationPanoCropped.jpg","headline":"type of plantation in the American South"}</script> </body> </html>