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class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-level_assemblers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 High-level assemblers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-level_assemblers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assembly_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assembly_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Assembly language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assembly_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Language design </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Language_design-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Language design subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Language_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basic_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Basic elements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opcode_mnemonics_and_extended_mnemonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opcode_mnemonics_and_extended_mnemonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Opcode mnemonics and extended mnemonics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opcode_mnemonics_and_extended_mnemonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_directives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_directives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Data directives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_directives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assembly_directives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assembly_directives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 Assembly directives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assembly_directives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Macros" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macros"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Macros </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macros-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Support_for_structured_programming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Support_for_structured_programming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Support for structured programming </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Support_for_structured_programming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_of_assembly_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_of_assembly_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Use of assembly language </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Use_of_assembly_language-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Use of assembly language subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Use_of_assembly_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Current_usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Current usage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typical_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typical_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Typical applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typical_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Assembly language</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 71 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-71" aria-hidden="true" > 71 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B9" title="لغة التجميع – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة التجميع" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llinguaxe_ensamblador" title="Llinguaxe ensamblador – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llinguaxe ensamblador" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembler" title="Assembler – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Assembler" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="অ্যাসেম্বলি ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যাসেম্বলি ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Мова асэмблера – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мова асэмблера" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Мова асэмблера – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мова асэмблера" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Асемблерен език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Асемблерен език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asembler" title="Asembler – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Asembler" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llenguatge_d%27assemblador" title="Llenguatge d'assemblador – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llenguatge d'assemblador" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazyk_symbolick%C3%BDch_adres" title="Jazyk symbolických adres – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jazyk symbolických adres" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assemblersprog" title="Assemblersprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Assemblersprog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assemblersprache" title="Assemblersprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Assemblersprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assemblerkeel" title="Assemblerkeel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Assemblerkeel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_(%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D)" title="Assembly (γλώσσα προγραμματισμού) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Assembly (γλώσσα προγραμματισμού)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguaje_ensamblador" title="Lenguaje ensamblador – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguaje ensamblador" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asembla_lingvo" title="Asembla lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Asembla lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihiztadura-lengoaia" title="Mihiztadura-lengoaia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mihiztadura-lengoaia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%84%DB%8C" title="زبان اسمبلی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان اسمبلی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembleur" title="Assembleur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Assembleur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teanga_d%C3%ADolama" title="Teanga díolama – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teanga díolama" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguaxe_ensambladora" title="Linguaxe ensambladora – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguaxe ensambladora" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B4%EC%85%88%EB%B8%94%EB%A6%AC%EC%96%B4" title="어셈블리어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="어셈블리어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BD%D5%BD%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%A2%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%80_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Ասսեմբլեր լեզու – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ասսեմբլեր լեզու" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="असेम्बली भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="असेम्बली भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asemblerski_jezik" title="Asemblerski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Asemblerski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asemblolinguo" title="Asemblolinguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Asemblolinguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_rakitan" title="Bahasa rakitan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa rakitan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smalam%C3%A1l" title="Smalamál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Smalamál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguaggio_assembly" title="Linguaggio assembly – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Linguaggio assembly" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%A1%D7%A3" title="שפת סף – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שפת סף" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ასემბლი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ასემბლი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%83_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Ассемблерлеу тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ассемблерлеу тілі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly" title="Assembly – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Assembly" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_coactionis" title="Lingua coactionis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua coactionis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asamblervaloda" title="Asamblervaloda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Asamblervaloda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asemblerio_kalba" title="Asemblerio kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Asemblerio kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly" title="Assembly – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Assembly" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly" title="Assembly – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Assembly" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="അസെംബ്ലി ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അസെംബ്ലി ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_himpunan" title="Bahasa himpunan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa himpunan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguaige_de_montaige" title="Lenguaige de montaige – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Lenguaige de montaige" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Ассемблер хэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ассемблер хэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembleertaal" title="Assembleertaal – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Assembleertaal" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%BB%E3%83%B3%E3%83%96%E3%83%AA%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E" title="アセンブリ言語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アセンブリ言語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembler" title="Assembler – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Assembler" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembler" title="Assembler – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Assembler" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਅਸੈਂਬਲੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਸੈਂਬਲੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguagem_assembly" title="Linguagem assembly – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Linguagem assembly" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbaj_de_asamblare" title="Limbaj de asamblare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limbaj de asamblare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Язык ассемблера – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Язык ассемблера" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assemmly_leid" title="Assemmly leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Assemmly leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly" title="Assembly – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Assembly" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%87%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ඇසෙම්බ්ලි භාෂාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඇසෙම්බ්ලි භාෂාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Assembly language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazyk_symbolick%C3%BDch_in%C5%A1trukci%C3%AD" title="Jazyk symbolických inštrukcií – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jazyk symbolických inštrukcií" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zbirni_jezik" title="Zbirni jezik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zbirni jezik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" 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data-title="Assembly (ohjelmointikieli)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembler" title="Assembler – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Assembler" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%80_%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B7" title="అసెంబ్లీ భాష – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అసెంబ్లీ భాష" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5" title="ภาษาแอสเซมบลี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาแอสเซมบลี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Ассембли – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ассембли" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly" title="Assembly – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Assembly" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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.infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Assembly language</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Motorola_6800_Assembly_Language.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Motorola_6800_Assembly_Language.png/300px-Motorola_6800_Assembly_Language.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="478" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Motorola_6800_Assembly_Language.png/450px-Motorola_6800_Assembly_Language.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Motorola_6800_Assembly_Language.png/600px-Motorola_6800_Assembly_Language.png 2x" data-file-width="1013" data-file-height="1613" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Typical secondary output from an assembler—showing original assembly language (right) for the <a href="/wiki/Motorola" title="Motorola">Motorola</a> <a href="/wiki/MC6800" class="mw-redirect" title="MC6800">MC6800</a> and the assembled form</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Paradigm</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">Imperative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unstructured_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Unstructured programming">unstructured</a>, often <a href="/wiki/Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">metaprogramming</a> (through <a href="/wiki/Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macros</a>), certain assemblers are <a href="/wiki/Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">structured</a> or <a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First appeared</th><td class="infobox-data">1947; 77 years ago (1947)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">Typing discipline</a></th><td class="infobox-data">None</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Filename_extension" title="Filename extension">Filename extensions</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><code>.asm</code>, <code>.s</code>, <code>.S</code>, <code>.inc</code>, <code>.wla</code>, <code>.SRC</code> as well as several others depending on the assembler</td></tr></tbody></table> In <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">computer programming</a>, assembly language (alternatively assembler language<a href="#cite_note-IBM_2014_ASM-1">[1]</a> or symbolic machine code),<a href="#cite_note-Ohio_2016-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Archer_2016-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Streib_2020_p.-4">[4]</a> often referred to simply as assembly and commonly abbreviated as ASM or asm, is any <a href="/wiki/Low-level_programming_language" title="Low-level programming language">low-level programming language</a> with a very strong correspondence between the instructions in the language and the <a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">architecture's</a> <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a> <a href="/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture">instructions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Saxon_1962-5">[5]</a> Assembly language usually has one <a href="/wiki/Statement_(computer_science)" title="Statement (computer science)">statement</a> per machine instruction (1:1), but constants, <a href="/wiki/Comment_(computer_programming)" title="Comment (computer programming)">comments</a>, assembler <a href="/wiki/Directive_(programming)" title="Directive (programming)">directives</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Kornelis_2010-6">[6]</a> symbolic <a href="/wiki/Label_(computer_science)" title="Label (computer science)">labels</a> of, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Memory_location" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory location">memory locations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Processor_register" title="Processor register">registers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Macro_instruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Macro instruction">macros</a><a href="#cite_note-IBM_2014_Macro-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-IBM_2014_ASM-1">[1]</a> are generally also supported. The first assembly code in which a language is used to represent machine code instructions is found in <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Booth" title="Kathleen Booth">Kathleen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Donald_Booth" title="Andrew Donald Booth">Andrew Donald Booth</a>'s 1947 work, Coding for A.R.C..<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Assembly code is converted into executable machine code by a <a href="/wiki/Utility_software" title="Utility software">utility program</a> referred to as an <a href="/wiki/Assembler_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assembler (computing)">assembler</a>. The term "assembler" is generally attributed to <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkes" title="Maurice Wilkes">Wilkes</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Wheeler_(computer_scientist)" title="David Wheeler (computer scientist)">Wheeler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Gill" title="Stanley Gill">Gill</a> in their 1951 book <a href="/wiki/The_Preparation_of_Programs_for_an_Electronic_Digital_Computer" title="The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer">The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Wilkes_1951-9">[9]</a> who, however, used the term to mean "a program that assembles another program consisting of several sections into a single program".<a href="#cite_note-Fairhead_2017-10">[10]</a> The conversion process is referred to as assembly, as in assembling the <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a>. The computational step when an assembler is processing a program is called assembly time. Because assembly depends on the machine code instructions, each assembly language<a href="#cite_note-11">[nb 1]</a> is specific to a particular <a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">computer architecture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OS360_2011-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Austerlitz_2003_pp._326–360-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carnes_2022-14">[13]</a> Sometimes there is more than one assembler for the same architecture, and sometimes an assembler is specific to an <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> or to particular operating systems. Most assembly languages do not provide specific <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a> for operating system calls, and most assembly languages can be used universally with any operating system,<a href="#cite_note-15">[nb 2]</a> as the language provides access to all the real capabilities of the <a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">processor</a>, upon which all <a href="/wiki/System_call" title="System call">system call</a> mechanisms ultimately rest. In contrast to assembly languages, most <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a> are generally <a href="/wiki/Porting" title="Porting">portable</a> across multiple architectures but require <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreting</a> or <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiling</a>, much more complicated tasks than assembling. In the first decades of computing, it was commonplace for both <a href="/wiki/Systems_programming" title="Systems programming">systems programming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Application_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Application programming">application programming</a> to take place entirely in assembly language. While still irreplaceable for some purposes, the majority of programming is now conducted in higher-level interpreted and compiled languages. In "<a href="/wiki/No_Silver_Bullet" title="No Silver Bullet">No Silver Bullet</a>", <a href="/wiki/Fred_Brooks" title="Fred Brooks">Fred Brooks</a> summarised the effects of the switch away from assembly language programming: "Surely the most powerful stroke for software productivity, reliability, and simplicity has been the progressive use of high-level languages for programming. Most observers credit that development with at least a factor of five in productivity, and with concomitant gains in reliability, simplicity, and comprehensibility."<a href="#cite_note-Brooks_1986_NSB-16">[14]</a> Today, it is typical to use small amounts of assembly language code within larger systems implemented in a higher-level language, for performance reasons or to interact directly with hardware in ways unsupported by the higher-level language. For instance, just under 2% of version 4.9 of the <a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel" title="Linux kernel">Linux kernel</a> source code is written in assembly; more than 97% is written in <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Anguiano_kernel_sloccount-17">[15]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Assembly_language_syntax">Assembly language syntax</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Assembly language syntax">edit</a>]</div> Assembly language uses a <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> to represent, e.g., each low-level <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine instruction</a> or <a href="/wiki/Opcode" title="Opcode">opcode</a>, each <a href="/wiki/Directive_(programming)" title="Directive (programming)">directive</a>, typically also each <a href="/wiki/Register_(computing)#ARCHITECTURAL" class="mw-redirect" title="Register (computing)">architectural register</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bit_field" title="Bit field">flag</a>, etc. Some of the mnemonics may be built-in and some user-defined. Many operations require one or more <a href="/wiki/Operand#Computer_science" title="Operand">operands</a> in order to form a complete instruction. Most assemblers permit named constants, registers, and <a href="/wiki/Label_(computer_science)" title="Label (computer science)">labels</a> for program and memory locations, and can calculate <a href="/wiki/Expression_(computer_science)" title="Expression (computer science)">expressions</a> for operands. Thus, programmers are freed from tedious repetitive calculations and assembler programs are much more readable than machine code. Depending on the architecture, these elements may also be combined for specific instructions or <a href="/wiki/Addressing_mode" title="Addressing mode">addressing modes</a> using <a href="/wiki/Offset_(computer_science)" title="Offset (computer science)">offsets</a> or other data as well as fixed addresses. Many assemblers offer additional mechanisms to facilitate program development, to control the assembly process, and to aid <a href="/wiki/Debugging" title="Debugging">debugging</a>. Some are column oriented, with specific fields in specific columns; this was very common for machines using <a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched cards</a> in the 1950s and early 1960s. Some assemblers have free-form syntax, with fields separated by delimiters, e.g., punctuation, <a href="/wiki/Whitespace_character" title="Whitespace character">white space</a>. Some assemblers are hybrid, with, e.g., labels, in a specific column and other fields separated by delimiters; this became more common than column-oriented syntax in the 1960s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>A macro assembler is an assembler that includes a <a href="/wiki/Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macroinstruction</a> facility so that (parameterized) assembly language text can be represented by a name, and that name can be used to insert the expanded text into other code. <ul><li>Open code refers to any assembler input outside of a macro definition.</li></ul></li> <li>A cross assembler (see also <a href="/wiki/Cross_compiler" title="Cross compiler">cross compiler</a>) is an assembler that is run on a computer or <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> (the host system) of a different type from the system on which the resulting code is to run (the target system). Cross-assembling facilitates the development of programs for systems that do not have the resources to support software development, such as an <a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">embedded system</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontroller</a>. In such a case, the resulting <a href="/wiki/Object_code" title="Object code">object code</a> must be transferred to the target system, via <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only memory</a> (ROM, <a href="/wiki/EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a>, etc.), a <a href="/wiki/Programmer_(hardware)" title="Programmer (hardware)">programmer</a> (when the read-only memory is integrated in the device, as in microcontrollers), or a data link using either an exact bit-by-bit copy of the object code or a text-based representation of that code (such as <a href="/wiki/Intel_hex" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel hex">Intel hex</a> or <a href="/wiki/Motorola_S-record" class="mw-redirect" title="Motorola S-record">Motorola S-record</a>).</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/High-level_assembler" title="High-level assembler">high-level assembler</a> is a program that provides language abstractions more often associated with high-level languages, such as advanced control structures (<a href="/wiki/Conditional_(computer_programming)#If–then(–else)" title="Conditional (computer programming)">IF/THEN/ELSE</a>, DO CASE, etc.) and high-level abstract data types, including structures/records, unions, classes, and sets.</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Microassembler" title="Microassembler">microassembler</a> is a program that helps prepare a <a href="/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode">microprogram</a> to control the low level operation of a computer.</li> <li>A meta-assembler is "a program that accepts the syntactic and semantic description of an assembly language, and generates an assembler for that language",<a href="#cite_note-Daintith_2019-18">[16]</a> or that accepts an assembler source file along with such a description and assembles the source file in accordance with that description. "Meta-Symbol" assemblers for the <a href="/wiki/SDS_9_Series" title="SDS 9 Series">SDS 9 Series</a> and <a href="/wiki/SDS_Sigma_series" title="SDS Sigma series">SDS Sigma series</a> of computers are meta-assemblers.<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sperry_Univac" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperry Univac">Sperry Univac</a> also provided a Meta-Assembler for the <a href="/wiki/UNIVAC_1100/2200_series" title="UNIVAC 1100/2200 series">UNIVAC 1100/2200 series</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inline_assembler" title="Inline assembler">inline assembler</a> (or embedded assembler) is assembler code contained within a high-level language program.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> This is most often used in systems programs which need direct access to the hardware.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_concepts">Key concepts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Key concepts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assembler">Assembler</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Assembler">edit</a>]</div> An assembler program creates <a href="/wiki/Object_code" title="Object code">object code</a> by <a href="/wiki/Translator_(computing)" title="Translator (computing)">translating</a> combinations of <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a> for operations and addressing modes into their numerical equivalents. This representation typically includes an operation code ("<a href="/wiki/Opcode" title="Opcode">opcode</a>") as well as other control <a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bits</a> and data. The assembler also calculates constant expressions and resolves <a href="/wiki/Identifier" title="Identifier">symbolic names</a> for memory locations and other entities.<a href="#cite_note-Salomon_1992-22">[20]</a> The use of symbolic references is a key feature of assemblers, saving tedious calculations and manual address updates after program modifications. Most assemblers also include <a href="/wiki/Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macro</a> facilities for performing textual substitution – e.g., to generate common short sequences of instructions as <a href="/wiki/Inline_expansion" title="Inline expansion">inline</a>, instead of called <a href="/wiki/Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">subroutines</a>. Some assemblers may also be able to perform some simple types of <a href="/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture">instruction set</a>-specific <a href="/wiki/Compiler_optimization" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler optimization">optimizations</a>. One concrete example of this may be the ubiquitous <a href="/wiki/X86" title="X86">x86</a> assemblers from various vendors. Called <a href="/wiki/Jump-sizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Jump-sizing">jump-sizing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Salomon_1992-22">[20]</a> most of them are able to perform jump-instruction replacements (long jumps replaced by short or relative jumps) in any number of passes, on request. Others may even do simple rearrangement or insertion of instructions, such as some assemblers for <a href="/wiki/RISC_architectures" class="mw-redirect" title="RISC architectures">RISC architectures</a> that can help optimize a sensible <a href="/wiki/Instruction_scheduling" title="Instruction scheduling">instruction scheduling</a> to exploit the <a href="/wiki/CPU_pipeline" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU pipeline">CPU pipeline</a> as efficiently as possible.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> Assemblers have been available since the 1950s, as the first step above machine language and before <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a>, <a href="/wiki/ALGOL" title="ALGOL">Algol</a>, <a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>. There have also been several classes of translators and semi-automatic <a href="/wiki/Code_generation_(compiler)" title="Code generation (compiler)">code generators</a> with properties similar to both assembly and high-level languages, with <a href="/wiki/Speedcode" class="mw-redirect" title="Speedcode">Speedcode</a> as perhaps one of the better-known examples. There may be several assemblers with different <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a> for a particular <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a> or <a href="/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture">instruction set architecture</a>. For instance, an instruction to add memory data to a register in a <a href="/wiki/X86" title="X86">x86</a>-family processor might be <code>add eax,[ebx]</code>, in original <a href="/wiki/Intel_syntax" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel syntax">Intel syntax</a>, whereas this would be written <code>addl (%ebx),%eax</code> in the <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_syntax" class="mw-redirect" title="AT&T syntax">AT&T syntax</a> used by the <a href="/wiki/GNU_Assembler" title="GNU Assembler">GNU Assembler</a>. Despite different appearances, different syntactic forms generally generate the same numeric <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a>. A single assembler may also have different modes in order to support variations in syntactic forms as well as their exact semantic interpretations (such as <a href="/wiki/FASM" title="FASM">FASM</a>-syntax, <a href="/wiki/TASM" class="mw-redirect" title="TASM">TASM</a>-syntax, ideal mode, etc., in the special case of <a href="/wiki/X86_assembly_language" title="X86 assembly language">x86 assembly</a> programming). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Number_of_passes"> Number of passes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Number of passes">edit</a>]</div> There are two types of assemblers based on how many passes through the source are needed (how many times the assembler reads the source) to produce the object file. <ul><li>One-pass assemblers process the source code once. For symbols used before they are defined, the assembler will emit <a href="/wiki/Erratum" title="Erratum">"errata"</a> after the eventual definition, telling the <a href="/wiki/Linker_(computing)" title="Linker (computing)">linker</a> or the loader to patch the locations where the as yet undefined symbols had been used.</li> <li>Multi-pass assemblers create a table with all symbols and their values in the first passes, then use the table in later passes to generate code.</li></ul> In both cases, the assembler must be able to determine the size of each instruction on the initial passes in order to calculate the addresses of subsequent symbols. This means that if the size of an operation referring to an operand defined later depends on the type or distance of the operand, the assembler will make a pessimistic estimate when first encountering the operation, and if necessary, pad it with one or more "<a href="/wiki/NOP_(code)" title="NOP (code)">no-operation</a>" instructions in a later pass or the errata. In an assembler with <a href="/wiki/Peephole_optimization" title="Peephole optimization">peephole optimization</a>, addresses may be recalculated between passes to allow replacing pessimistic code with code tailored to the exact distance from the target. The original reason for the use of one-pass assemblers was memory size and speed of assembly – often a second pass would require storing the symbol table in memory (to handle <a href="/wiki/Forward_reference" class="mw-redirect" title="Forward reference">forward references</a>), rewinding and rereading the program source on <a href="/wiki/Magnetic-tape_data_storage" title="Magnetic-tape data storage">tape</a>, or rereading a deck of <a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">cards</a> or <a href="/wiki/Punched_tape" title="Punched tape">punched paper tape</a>. Later computers with much larger memories (especially disc storage), had the space to perform all necessary processing without such re-reading. The advantage of the multi-pass assembler is that the absence of errata makes the <a href="/wiki/Linker_(computing)" title="Linker (computing)">linking process</a> (or the <a href="/wiki/Loader_(computing)" title="Loader (computing)">program load</a> if the assembler directly produces executable code) faster.<a href="#cite_note-Beck_1996-24">[22]</a> Example: in the following code snippet, a one-pass assembler would be able to determine the address of the backward reference <var>BKWD</var> when assembling statement <var>S2</var>, but would not be able to determine the address of the forward reference <var>FWD</var> when assembling the branch statement <var>S1</var>; indeed, <var>FWD</var> may be undefined. A two-pass assembler would determine both addresses in pass 1, so they would be known when generating code in pass 2. <pre><var style="padding-right: 1px;">S1</var> B <var style="padding-right: 1px;">FWD</var> ... <var style="padding-right: 1px;">FWD</var> EQU * ... <var style="padding-right: 1px;">BKWD</var> EQU * ... <var style="padding-right: 1px;">S2</var> B <var style="padding-right: 1px;">BKWD</var> </pre> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="High-level_assemblers">High-level assemblers</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: High-level assemblers">edit</a>]</div> More sophisticated <a href="/wiki/High-level_assembler" title="High-level assembler">high-level assemblers</a> provide language abstractions such as: <ul><li>High-level procedure/function declarations and invocations</li> <li>Advanced control structures (IF/THEN/ELSE, SWITCH)</li> <li>High-level abstract data types, including structures/records, unions, classes, and sets</li> <li>Sophisticated macro processing (although available on ordinary assemblers since the late 1950s for, e.g., the <a href="/wiki/IBM_700/7000_series" title="IBM 700/7000 series">IBM 700 series</a> and <a href="/wiki/IBM_700/7000_series" title="IBM 700/7000 series">IBM 7000 series</a>, and since the 1960s for <a href="/wiki/IBM_System/360" title="IBM System/360">IBM System/360</a> (S/360), amongst other machines)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented programming</a> features such as <a href="/wiki/Class_(computer_programming)" title="Class (computer programming)">classes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Object_(computer_science)" title="Object (computer science)">objects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">abstraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(computer_science)" title="Polymorphism (computer science)">polymorphism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a><a href="#cite_note-Hyde_2003-25">[23]</a></li></ul> See <a href="#Language_design">Language design</a> below for more details. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assembly_language">Assembly language</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Assembly language">edit</a>]</div> A program written in assembly language consists of a series of <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> processor instructions and meta-statements (known variously as declarative operations, directives, pseudo-instructions, pseudo-operations and pseudo-ops), comments and data. Assembly language instructions usually consist of an <a href="/wiki/Opcode" title="Opcode">opcode</a> mnemonic followed by an <a href="/wiki/Operand#Computer_science" title="Operand">operand</a>, which might be a list of data, arguments or parameters.<a href="#cite_note-Intel_1999-26">[24]</a> Some instructions may be "implied", which means the data upon which the instruction operates is implicitly defined by the instruction itself—such an instruction does not take an operand. The resulting statement is translated by an <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language_assembler" class="mw-redirect" title="Assembly language assembler">assembler</a> into <a href="/wiki/Machine_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine language">machine language</a> instructions that can be loaded into memory and executed. For example, the instruction below tells an <a href="/wiki/X86" title="X86">x86</a>/<a href="/wiki/IA-32" title="IA-32">IA-32</a> processor to move an <a href="/wiki/Constant_(computer_programming)" title="Constant (computer programming)">immediate 8-bit value</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Processor_register" title="Processor register">register</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Binary_code" title="Binary code">binary code</a> for this instruction is 10110 followed by a 3-bit identifier for which register to use. The identifier for the AL register is 000, so the following <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a> loads the AL register with the data 01100001.<a href="#cite_note-Intel_1999-26">[24]</a> <pre>10110000 01100001 </pre> This binary computer code can be made more human-readable by expressing it in <a href="/wiki/Hexadecimal" title="Hexadecimal">hexadecimal</a> as follows. <pre>B0 61 </pre> Here, <code>B0</code> means "Move a copy of the following value into AL", and <code>61</code> is a hexadecimal representation of the value 01100001, which is 97 in <a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal</a>. Assembly language for the 8086 family provides the <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> <a href="/wiki/MOV_(x86_instruction)" class="mw-redirect" title="MOV (x86 instruction)">MOV</a> (an abbreviation of move) for instructions such as this, so the machine code above can be written as follows in assembly language, complete with an explanatory comment if required, after the semicolon. This is much easier to read and to remember. <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-nasm mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>MOV AL, 61h ; Load AL with 97 decimal (61 hex) </pre></div> In some assembly languages (including this one) the same mnemonic, such as MOV, may be used for a family of related instructions for loading, copying and moving data, whether these are immediate values, values in registers, or memory locations pointed to by values in registers or by immediate (a.k.a. direct) addresses. Other assemblers may use separate opcode mnemonics such as L for "move memory to register", ST for "move register to memory", LR for "move register to register", MVI for "move immediate operand to memory", etc. If the same mnemonic is used for different instructions, that means that the mnemonic corresponds to several different binary instruction codes, excluding data (e.g. the <code>61h</code> in this example), depending on the operands that follow the mnemonic. For example, for the x86/IA-32 CPUs, the Intel assembly language syntax <code>MOV AL, AH</code> represents an instruction that moves the contents of register AH into register AL. The<a href="#cite_note-NB3-27">[nb 3]</a> hexadecimal form of this instruction is: <pre>88 E0 </pre> The first byte, 88h, identifies a move between a byte-sized register and either another register or memory, and the second byte, E0h, is encoded (with three bit-fields) to specify that both operands are registers, the source is AH, and the destination is AL. In a case like this where the same mnemonic can represent more than one binary instruction, the assembler determines which instruction to generate by examining the operands. In the first example, the operand <code>61h</code> is a valid hexadecimal numeric constant and is not a valid register name, so only the <code>B0</code> instruction can be applicable. In the second example, the operand <code>AH</code> is a valid register name and not a valid numeric constant (hexadecimal, decimal, octal, or binary), so only the <code>88</code> instruction can be applicable. Assembly languages are always designed so that this sort of lack of ambiguity is universally enforced by their syntax. For example, in the Intel x86 assembly language, a hexadecimal constant must start with a numeral digit, so that the hexadecimal number 'A' (equal to decimal ten) would be written as <code>0Ah</code> or <code>0AH</code>, not <code>AH</code>, specifically so that it cannot appear to be the name of register AH. (The same rule also prevents ambiguity with the names of registers BH, CH, and DH, as well as with any user-defined symbol that ends with the letter H and otherwise contains only characters that are hexadecimal digits, such as the word "BEACH".) Returning to the original example, while the x86 opcode 10110000 (<code>B0</code>) copies an 8-bit value into the AL register, 10110001 (<code>B1</code>) moves it into CL and 10110010 (<code>B2</code>) does so into DL. Assembly language examples for these follow.<a href="#cite_note-Intel_1999-26">[24]</a> <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-nasm mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>MOV AL, 1h ; Load AL with immediate value 1 MOV CL, 2h ; Load CL with immediate value 2 MOV DL, 3h ; Load DL with immediate value 3 </pre></div> The syntax of MOV can also be more complex as the following examples show.<a href="#cite_note-Evans_2006-28">[25]</a> <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-nasm mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>MOV EAX, [EBX] ; Move the 4 bytes in memory at the address contained in EBX into EAX MOV [ESI+EAX], CL ; Move the contents of CL into the byte at address ESI+EAX MOV DS, DX ; Move the contents of DX into segment register DS </pre></div> In each case, the MOV mnemonic is translated directly into one of the opcodes 88-8C, 8E, A0-A3, B0-BF, C6 or C7 by an assembler, and the programmer normally does not have to know or remember which.<a href="#cite_note-Intel_1999-26">[24]</a> Transforming assembly language into machine code is the job of an assembler, and the reverse can at least partially be achieved by a <a href="/wiki/Disassembler" title="Disassembler">disassembler</a>. Unlike <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level languages</a>, there is a <a href="/wiki/Bijection" title="Bijection">one-to-one correspondence</a> between many simple assembly statements and machine language instructions. However, in some cases, an assembler may provide pseudoinstructions (essentially macros) which expand into several machine language instructions to provide commonly needed functionality. For example, for a machine that lacks a "branch if greater or equal" instruction, an assembler may provide a pseudoinstruction that expands to the machine's "set if less than" and "branch if zero (on the result of the set instruction)". Most full-featured assemblers also provide a rich <a href="/wiki/Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macro</a> language (discussed below) which is used by vendors and programmers to generate more complex code and data sequences. Since the information about pseudoinstructions and macros defined in the assembler environment is not present in the object program, a disassembler cannot reconstruct the macro and pseudoinstruction invocations but can only disassemble the actual machine instructions that the assembler generated from those abstract assembly-language entities. Likewise, since comments in the assembly language source file are ignored by the assembler and have no effect on the object code it generates, a disassembler is always completely unable to recover source comments. Each <a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">computer architecture</a> has its own machine language. Computers differ in the number and type of operations they support, in the different sizes and numbers of registers, and in the representations of data in storage. While most general-purpose computers are able to carry out essentially the same functionality, the ways they do so differ; the corresponding assembly languages reflect these differences. Multiple sets of <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonics</a> or assembly-language syntax may exist for a single instruction set, typically instantiated in different assembler programs. In these cases, the most popular one is usually that supplied by the CPU manufacturer and used in its documentation. Two examples of CPUs that have two different sets of mnemonics are the Intel 8080 family and the Intel 8086/8088. Because Intel claimed copyright on its assembly language mnemonics (on each page of their documentation published in the 1970s and early 1980s, at least), some companies that independently produced CPUs compatible with Intel instruction sets invented their own mnemonics. The <a href="/wiki/Zilog_Z80" title="Zilog Z80">Zilog Z80</a> CPU, an enhancement of the <a href="/wiki/Intel_8080A" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel 8080A">Intel 8080A</a>, supports all the 8080A instructions plus many more; Zilog invented an entirely new assembly language, not only for the new instructions but also for all of the 8080A instructions. For example, where Intel uses the mnemonics MOV, MVI, LDA, STA, LXI, LDAX, STAX, LHLD, and SHLD for various data transfer instructions, the Z80 assembly language uses the mnemonic LD for all of them. A similar case is the <a href="/wiki/NEC_V20" title="NEC V20">NEC V20</a> and <a href="/wiki/NEC_V30" class="mw-redirect" title="NEC V30">V30</a> CPUs, enhanced copies of the Intel 8086 and 8088, respectively. Like Zilog with the Z80, NEC invented new mnemonics for all of the 8086 and 8088 instructions, to avoid accusations of infringement of Intel's copyright. (It is questionable whether such copyrights can be valid, and later CPU companies such as <a href="/wiki/AMD" title="AMD">AMD</a><a href="#cite_note-NB1-29">[nb 4]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyrix" title="Cyrix">Cyrix</a> republished Intel's x86/IA-32 instruction mnemonics exactly with neither permission nor legal penalty.) It is doubtful whether in practice many people who programmed the V20 and V30 actually wrote in NEC's assembly language rather than Intel's; since any two assembly languages for the same instruction set architecture are isomorphic (somewhat like English and <a href="/wiki/Pig_Latin" title="Pig Latin">Pig Latin</a>), there is no requirement to use a manufacturer's own published assembly language with that manufacturer's products. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_design">Language design</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Language design">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_elements">Basic elements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Basic elements">edit</a>]</div> There is a large degree of diversity in the way the authors of assemblers categorize statements and in the nomenclature that they use. In particular, some describe anything other than a machine mnemonic or extended mnemonic as a pseudo-operation (pseudo-op). A typical assembly language consists of 3 types of instruction statements that are used to define program operations: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opcode" title="Opcode">Opcode</a> mnemonics</li> <li>Data definitions</li> <li>Assembly directives</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Opcode_mnemonics_and_extended_mnemonics">Opcode mnemonics and extended mnemonics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Opcode mnemonics and extended mnemonics">edit</a>]</div> Instructions (statements) in assembly language are generally very simple, unlike those in <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level languages</a>. Generally, a mnemonic is a symbolic name for a single executable machine language instruction (an <a href="/wiki/Opcode" title="Opcode">opcode</a>), and there is at least one opcode mnemonic defined for each machine language instruction. Each instruction typically consists of an operation or opcode plus zero or more <a href="/wiki/Operand" title="Operand">operands</a>. Most instructions refer to a single value or a pair of values. Operands can be immediate (value coded in the instruction itself), registers specified in the instruction or implied, or the addresses of data located elsewhere in storage. This is determined by the underlying processor architecture: the assembler merely reflects how this architecture works. Extended mnemonics are often used to specify a combination of an opcode with a specific operand, e.g., the System/360 assemblers use <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">B</code> as an extended mnemonic for <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">BC</code> with a mask of 15 and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">NOP</code> ("NO OPeration" – do nothing for one step) for <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">BC</code> with a mask of 0. Extended mnemonics are often used to support specialized uses of instructions, often for purposes not obvious from the instruction name. For example, many CPU's do not have an explicit NOP instruction, but do have instructions that can be used for the purpose. In 8086 CPUs the instruction <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-asm mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">xchg ax,ax</code> is used for <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">nop</code>, with <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">nop</code> being a pseudo-opcode to encode the instruction <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-asm mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">xchg ax,ax</code>. Some disassemblers recognize this and will decode the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-asm mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">xchg ax,ax</code> instruction as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">nop</code>. Similarly, IBM assemblers for <a href="/wiki/IBM_System/360" title="IBM System/360">System/360</a> and <a href="/wiki/IBM_System/370" title="IBM System/370">System/370</a> use the extended mnemonics <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">NOP</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">NOPR</code> for <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">BC</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">BCR</code> with zero masks. For the SPARC architecture, these are known as synthetic instructions.<a href="#cite_note-SPARC_1992-30">[26]</a> Some assemblers also support simple built-in macro-instructions that generate two or more machine instructions. For instance, with some Z80 assemblers the instruction <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">ld hl,bc</code> is recognized to generate <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">ld l,c</code> followed by <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">ld h,b</code>.<a href="#cite_note-Moxham_1996-31">[27]</a> These are sometimes known as pseudo-opcodes. Mnemonics are arbitrary symbols; in 1985 the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">IEEE</a> published Standard 694 for a uniform set of mnemonics to be used by all assemblers. The standard has since been withdrawn. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Data_directives">Data directives</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Data directives">edit</a>]</div> There are instructions used to define data elements to hold data and variables. They define the type of data, the length and the <a href="/wiki/Data_structure_alignment" title="Data structure alignment">alignment</a> of data. These instructions can also define whether the data is available to outside programs (programs assembled separately) or only to the program in which the data section is defined. Some assemblers classify these as pseudo-ops. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Assembly_directives">Assembly directives</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Assembly directives">edit</a>]</div> Assembly directives, also called pseudo-opcodes, pseudo-operations or pseudo-ops, are commands given to an assembler "directing it to perform operations other than assembling instructions".<a href="#cite_note-Salomon_1992-22">[20]</a> Directives affect how the assembler operates and "may affect the object code, the symbol table, the listing file, and the values of internal assembler parameters". Sometimes the term pseudo-opcode is reserved for directives that generate object code, such as those that generate data.<a href="#cite_note-Hyde_MASM-32">[28]</a> The names of pseudo-ops often start with a dot to distinguish them from machine instructions. Pseudo-ops can make the assembly of the program dependent on parameters input by a programmer, so that one program can be assembled in different ways, perhaps for different applications. Or, a pseudo-op can be used to manipulate presentation of a program to make it easier to read and maintain. Another common use of pseudo-ops is to reserve storage areas for run-time data and optionally initialize their contents to known values. Symbolic assemblers let programmers associate arbitrary names (<a href="/wiki/Label_(computer_science)" title="Label (computer science)">labels</a> or symbols) with memory locations and various constants. Usually, every constant and variable is given a name so instructions can reference those locations by name, thus promoting <a href="/wiki/Self-documenting_code" title="Self-documenting code">self-documenting code</a>. In executable code, the name of each subroutine is associated with its entry point, so any calls to a subroutine can use its name. Inside subroutines, <a href="/wiki/GOTO" class="mw-redirect" title="GOTO">GOTO</a> destinations are given labels. Some assemblers support local symbols which are often lexically distinct from normal symbols (e.g., the use of "10$" as a GOTO destination). Some assemblers, such as <a href="/wiki/Netwide_Assembler" title="Netwide Assembler">NASM</a>, provide flexible symbol management, letting programmers manage different <a href="/wiki/Namespace" title="Namespace">namespaces</a>, automatically calculate offsets within <a href="/wiki/Data_structure" title="Data structure">data structures</a>, and assign labels that refer to literal values or the result of simple computations performed by the assembler. Labels can also be used to initialize constants and variables with relocatable addresses. Assembly languages, like most other computer languages, allow comments to be added to program <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> that will be ignored during assembly. Judicious commenting is essential in assembly language programs, as the meaning and purpose of a sequence of binary machine instructions can be difficult to determine. The "raw" (uncommented) assembly language generated by compilers or disassemblers is quite difficult to read when changes must be made. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macros">Macros</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Macros">edit</a>]</div> Many assemblers support predefined macros, and others support programmer-defined (and repeatedly re-definable) macros involving sequences of text lines in which variables and constants are embedded. The macro definition is most commonly<a href="#cite_note-NB4-33">[nb 5]</a> a mixture of assembler statements, e.g., directives, symbolic machine instructions, and templates for assembler statements. This sequence of text lines may include opcodes or directives. Once a macro has been defined its name may be used in place of a mnemonic. When the assembler processes such a statement, it replaces the statement with the text lines associated with that macro, then processes them as if they existed in the source code file (including, in some assemblers, expansion of any macros existing in the replacement text). Macros in this sense date to IBM <a href="/wiki/Autocoder" title="Autocoder">autocoders</a> of the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-Autocoder-34">[29]</a> Macro assemblers typically have directives to, e.g., define macros, define variables, set variables to the result of an arithmetic, logical or string expression, iterate, conditionally generate code. Some of those directives may be restricted to use within a macro definition, e.g., MEXIT in <a href="/wiki/HLASM" class="mw-redirect" title="HLASM">HLASM</a>, while others may be permitted within open code (outside macro definitions), e.g., AIF and COPY in HLASM. In assembly language, the term "macro" represents a more comprehensive concept than it does in some other contexts, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pre-processor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-processor">pre-processor</a> in the <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C programming language</a>, where its #define directive typically is used to create short single line macros. Assembler macro instructions, like macros in <a href="/wiki/PL/I" title="PL/I">PL/I</a> and some other languages, can be lengthy "programs" by themselves, executed by interpretation by the assembler during assembly. Since macros can have 'short' names but expand to several or indeed many lines of code, they can be used to make assembly language programs appear to be far shorter, requiring fewer lines of source code, as with higher level languages. They can also be used to add higher levels of structure to assembly programs, optionally introduce embedded debugging code via parameters and other similar features. Macro assemblers often allow macros to take <a href="/wiki/Parameter_(computer_programming)" title="Parameter (computer programming)">parameters</a>. Some assemblers include quite sophisticated macro languages, incorporating such high-level language elements as optional parameters, symbolic variables, conditionals, string manipulation, and arithmetic operations, all usable during the execution of a given macro, and allowing macros to save context or exchange information. Thus a macro might generate numerous assembly language instructions or data definitions, based on the macro arguments. This could be used to generate record-style data structures or "<a href="/wiki/Loop_unrolling" title="Loop unrolling">unrolled</a>" loops, for example, or could generate entire algorithms based on complex parameters. For instance, a "sort" macro could accept the specification of a complex sort key and generate code crafted for that specific key, not needing the run-time tests that would be required for a general procedure interpreting the specification. An organization using assembly language that has been heavily extended using such a macro suite can be considered to be working in a higher-level language since such programmers are not working with a computer's lowest-level conceptual elements. Underlining this point, macros were used to implement an early <a href="/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">virtual machine</a> in <a href="/wiki/SNOBOL4" class="mw-redirect" title="SNOBOL4">SNOBOL4</a> (1967), which was written in the SNOBOL Implementation Language (SIL), an assembly language for a virtual machine. The target machine would translate this to its native code using a <a href="/wiki/Macro_assembler" class="mw-redirect" title="Macro assembler">macro assembler</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Griswold_1972-35">[30]</a> This allowed a high degree of portability for the time. Macros were used to customize large scale software systems for specific customers in the mainframe era and were also used by customer personnel to satisfy their employers' needs by making specific versions of manufacturer operating systems. This was done, for example, by systems programmers working with <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>'s Conversational Monitor System / Virtual Machine (<a href="/wiki/VM_(operating_system)" title="VM (operating system)">VM/CMS</a>) and with IBM's "real time transaction processing" add-ons, Customer Information Control System <a href="/wiki/CICS" title="CICS">CICS</a>, and <a href="/wiki/IBM_Airline_Control_Program" title="IBM Airline Control Program">ACP</a>/<a href="/wiki/Transaction_Processing_Facility" title="Transaction Processing Facility">TPF</a>, the airline/financial system that began in the 1970s and still runs many large <a href="/wiki/Computer_reservation_system" title="Computer reservation system">computer reservation systems</a> (CRS) and credit card systems today. It is also possible to use solely the macro processing abilities of an assembler to generate code written in completely different languages, for example, to generate a version of a program in <a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a> using a pure macro assembler program containing lines of COBOL code inside assembly time operators instructing the assembler to generate arbitrary code. IBM <a href="/wiki/OS/360_and_successors" title="OS/360 and successors">OS/360</a> uses macros to perform <a href="/wiki/System_generation" title="System generation">system generation</a>. The user specifies options by coding a series of assembler macros. Assembling these macros generates a <a href="/wiki/Job_stream" title="Job stream">job stream</a> to build the system, including <a href="/wiki/Job_control_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Job control language">job control language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Support_programs_for_OS/360_and_successors" title="Support programs for OS/360 and successors">utility</a> control statements. This is because, as was realized in the 1960s, the concept of "macro processing" is independent of the concept of "assembly", the former being in modern terms more word processing, text processing, than generating object code. The concept of macro processing appeared, and appears, in the C programming language, which supports "preprocessor instructions" to set variables, and make conditional tests on their values. Unlike certain previous macro processors inside assemblers, the C preprocessor is not <a href="/wiki/Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing-complete</a> because it lacks the ability to either loop or "go to", the latter allowing programs to loop. Despite the power of macro processing, it fell into disuse in many high level languages (major exceptions being <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> and PL/I) while remaining a perennial for assemblers. Macro parameter substitution is strictly by name: at macro processing time, the value of a parameter is textually substituted for its name. The most famous class of bugs resulting was the use of a parameter that itself was an expression and not a simple name when the macro writer expected a name. In the macro: <pre>foo: macro a load a*b </pre> the intention was that the caller would provide the name of a variable, and the "global" variable or constant b would be used to multiply "a". If foo is called with the parameter <code>a-c</code>, the macro expansion of <code>load a-c*b</code> occurs. To avoid any possible ambiguity, users of macro processors can parenthesize formal parameters inside macro definitions, or callers can parenthesize the input parameters.<a href="#cite_note-Microsoft_2012_Macros-36">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Support_for_structured_programming">Support for structured programming</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Support for structured programming">edit</a>]</div> Packages of macros have been written providing <a href="/wiki/Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">structured programming</a> elements to encode execution flow. The earliest example of this approach was in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Concept-14_macro_set&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Concept-14 macro set (page does not exist)">Concept-14 macro set</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Kessler_1970-37">[32]</a> originally proposed by <a href="/wiki/Harlan_Mills" title="Harlan Mills">Harlan Mills</a> (March 1970), and implemented by Marvin Kessler at IBM's Federal Systems Division, which provided IF/ELSE/ENDIF and similar control flow blocks for OS/360 assembler programs. This was a way to reduce or eliminate the use of <a href="/wiki/GOTO" class="mw-redirect" title="GOTO">GOTO</a> operations in assembly code, one of the main factors causing <a href="/wiki/Spaghetti_code" title="Spaghetti code">spaghetti code</a> in assembly language. This approach was widely accepted in the early 1980s (the latter days of large-scale assembly language use). IBM's High Level Assembler Toolkit<a href="#cite_note-38">[33]</a> includes such a macro package. Another design was <a href="/w/index.php?title=A-Natural&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A-Natural (page does not exist)">A-Natural</a>,<a href="#cite_note-39">[34]</a> a "stream-oriented" assembler for 8080/<a href="/wiki/Zilog_Z80" title="Zilog Z80">Z80</a> processors from <a href="/wiki/Whitesmiths" title="Whitesmiths">Whitesmiths Ltd.</a> (developers of the <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a>-like <a href="/wiki/Idris_(operating_system)" title="Idris (operating system)">Idris</a> operating system, and what was reported to be the first commercial <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a>). The language was classified as an assembler because it worked with raw machine elements such as <a href="/wiki/Opcode" title="Opcode">opcodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Processor_register" title="Processor register">registers</a>, and memory references; but it incorporated an expression syntax to indicate execution order. Parentheses and other special symbols, along with block-oriented structured programming constructs, controlled the sequence of the generated instructions. A-natural was built as the object language of a C compiler, rather than for hand-coding, but its logical syntax won some fans. There has been little apparent demand for more sophisticated assemblers since the decline of large-scale assembly language development.<a href="#cite_note-assembly-language?cat=technology-40">[35]</a> In spite of that, they are still being developed and applied in cases where resource constraints or peculiarities in the target system's architecture prevent the effective use of higher-level languages.<a href="#cite_note-Provinciano_2005-41">[36]</a> Assemblers with a strong macro engine allow structured programming via macros, such as the switch macro provided with the Masm32 package (this code is a complete program): <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-nasm mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>include \masm32\include\masm32rt.inc ; use the Masm32 library .code demomain: REPEAT 20 switch rv(nrandom, 9) ; generate a number between 0 and 8 mov ecx, 7 case 0 print "case 0" case ecx ; in contrast to most other programming languages, print "case 7" ; the Masm32 switch allows "variable cases" case 1 .. 3 .if eax==1 print "case 1" .elseif eax==2 print "case 2" .else print "cases 1 to 3: other" .endif case 4, 6, 8 print "cases 4, 6 or 8" default mov ebx, 19 ; print 20 stars .Repeat print "*" dec ebx .Until Sign? ; loop until the sign flag is set endsw print chr$(13, 10) ENDM exit end demomain </pre></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_of_assembly_language">Use of assembly language</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Use of assembly language">edit</a>]</div> When the <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a> was introduced programs were written in machine code, and loaded into the computer from punched paper tape or toggled directly into memory from console switches.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Booth" title="Kathleen Booth">Kathleen Booth</a> "is credited with inventing assembly language"<a href="#cite_note-Dufresne_2018-42">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Booth_1947-43">[38]</a> based on theoretical work she began in 1947, while working on the <a href="/wiki/APEXC" title="APEXC">ARC2</a> at <a href="/wiki/Birkbeck,_University_of_London" title="Birkbeck, University of London">Birkbeck, University of London</a> following consultation by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Donald_Booth" title="Andrew Donald Booth">Andrew Booth</a> (later her husband) with mathematician <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> and physicist <a href="/wiki/Herman_Goldstine" title="Herman Goldstine">Herman Goldstine</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study" title="Institute for Advanced Study">Institute for Advanced Study</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Booth_1947-43">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-Kelly_1982-44">[39]</a> In late 1948, the <a href="/wiki/EDSAC" title="EDSAC">Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator</a> (EDSAC) had an assembler (named "initial orders") integrated into its <a href="/wiki/Booting" title="Booting">bootstrap</a> program. It used one-letter mnemonics developed by <a href="/wiki/David_Wheeler_(computer_scientist)" title="David Wheeler (computer scientist)">David Wheeler</a>, who is credited by the IEEE Computer Society as the creator of the first "assembler".<a href="#cite_note-Salomon_1992-22">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-Kelly_1980-45">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_1985-46">[41]</a> Reports on the EDSAC introduced the term "assembly" for the process of combining fields into an instruction word.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkes_1949-47">[42]</a> SOAP (<a href="/wiki/Symbolic_Optimal_Assembly_Program" title="Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program">Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program</a>) was an assembly language for the <a href="/wiki/IBM_650" title="IBM 650">IBM 650</a> computer written by Stan Poley in 1955.<a href="#cite_note-Cruz_2019-48">[43]</a> Assembly languages eliminated much of the error-prone, tedious, and time-consuming <a href="/wiki/First-generation_language" class="mw-redirect" title="First-generation language">first-generation</a> programming needed with the earliest computers, freeing programmers from tedium such as remembering numeric codes and calculating addresses. They were once widely used for all sorts of programming. By the late 1950s their use had largely been supplanted by higher-level languages in the search for improved <a href="/wiki/Programming_productivity" title="Programming productivity">programming productivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[44]</a> Today, assembly language is still used for direct hardware manipulation, access to specialized processor instructions, or to address critical performance issues.<a href="#cite_note-50">[45]</a> Typical uses are <a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">device drivers</a>, low-level <a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">embedded systems</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">real-time</a> systems (see <a href="#Current_usage">§ Current usage</a>). Numerous programs were written entirely in assembly language. The <a href="/wiki/Burroughs_MCP" title="Burroughs MCP">Burroughs MCP</a> (1961) was the first computer for which an operating system was not developed entirely in assembly language; it was written in <a href="/wiki/Executive_Systems_Problem_Oriented_Language" title="Executive Systems Problem Oriented Language">Executive Systems Problem Oriented Language</a> (ESPOL), an Algol dialect. Many commercial applications were written in assembly language as well, including a large amount of the <a href="/wiki/IBM_mainframe" title="IBM mainframe">IBM mainframe</a> software developed by large corporations. <a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a>, <a href="/wiki/FORTRAN" class="mw-redirect" title="FORTRAN">FORTRAN</a> and some PL/I eventually displaced assembly language, although a number of large organizations retained assembly-language application infrastructures well into the 1990s. Assembly language was the primary development language for 8-bit home computers such as the <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers" title="Atari 8-bit computers">Atari 8-bit computers</a>, <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum">ZX Spectrum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Commodore_64" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a>. <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreted</a> <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> on these systems did not offer maximum execution speed and full use of facilities to take full advantage of the available hardware. Assembly language was the default choice for programming 8-bit consoles such as the <a href="/wiki/Atari_2600" title="Atari 2600">Atari 2600</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System" title="Nintendo Entertainment System">Nintendo Entertainment System</a>. Key software for <a href="/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM PC compatible">IBM PC compatibles</a> such as <a href="/wiki/MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turbo_Pascal" title="Turbo Pascal">Turbo Pascal</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3" title="Lotus 1-2-3">Lotus 1-2-3</a> spreadsheet was written in assembly language. As computer speed grew exponentially, assembly language became a tool for speeding up parts of programs, such as the rendering of <a href="/wiki/Doom_(1993_video_game)" title="Doom (1993 video game)">Doom</a>, rather than a dominant development language. In the 1990s, assembly language was used to maximise performance from systems such as the <a href="/wiki/Sega_Saturn" title="Sega Saturn">Sega Saturn</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Pettus_2008-51">[46]</a> and as the primary language for arcade hardware using the <a href="/wiki/TMS34010" title="TMS34010">TMS34010</a> integrated CPU/GPU such as <a href="/wiki/Mortal_Kombat_(1992_video_game)" title="Mortal Kombat (1992 video game)">Mortal Kombat</a> and <a href="/wiki/NBA_Jam_(1993_video_game)" title="NBA Jam (1993 video game)">NBA Jam</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_usage">Current usage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Current usage">edit</a>]</div> There has been debate over the usefulness and performance of assembly language relative to high-level languages.<a href="#cite_note-Kauler_1997-52">[47]</a> Although assembly language has specific niche uses where it is important (see below), there are other tools for optimization.<a href="#cite_note-Hsieh_2020-53">[48]</a> As of July 2017<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit">[update]</a>, the <a href="/wiki/TIOBE_index" title="TIOBE index">TIOBE index</a> of programming language popularity ranks assembly language at 11, ahead of <a href="/wiki/Visual_Basic" title="Visual Basic">Visual Basic</a>, for example.<a href="#cite_note-tiobe-54">[49]</a> Assembler can be used to optimize for speed or optimize for size. In the case of speed optimization, modern <a href="/wiki/Optimizing_compiler" title="Optimizing compiler">optimizing compilers</a> are claimed<a href="#cite_note-Rusling_2012-55">[50]</a> to render high-level languages into code that can run as fast as hand-written assembly, despite some counter-examples.<a href="#cite_note-Markoff_2005-56">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-bit-field-57">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-gcc-mess-58">[53]</a> The complexity of modern processors and memory sub-systems makes effective optimization increasingly difficult for compilers and assembly programmers alike.<a href="#cite_note-Hyde_2008-59">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-compiler-fails1-60">[55]</a> Increasing processor performance has meant that most CPUs sit idle most of the time,<a href="#cite_note-Click_2014-61">[56]</a> with delays caused by predictable bottlenecks such as cache misses, <a href="/wiki/Input/output" title="Input/output">I/O</a> operations and <a href="/wiki/Memory_paging" title="Memory paging">paging</a>, making raw code execution speed a non-issue for many programmers. There are still situations in which developers might choose to use assembly language: <ul><li>Writing code for systems with older processors[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] that have limited high-level language options such as the <a href="/wiki/Atari_2600" title="Atari 2600">Atari 2600</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commodore_64" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Graphing_calculator" title="Graphing calculator">graphing calculators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fargo_2008-62">[57]</a> Programs for these computers of the 1970s and 1980s are often written in the context of <a href="/wiki/Demoscene" title="Demoscene">demoscene</a> or <a href="/wiki/Retrogaming" title="Retrogaming">retrogaming</a> subcultures.</li> <li>Code that must interact directly with the hardware, for example in <a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">device drivers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interrupt_handler" title="Interrupt handler">interrupt handlers</a>.</li> <li>In an embedded processor or <a href="/wiki/Digital_Signal_Processor" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Signal Processor">DSP</a>, high-repetition interrupts require the shortest number of cycles per interrupt, such as an interrupt that occurs 1000 or 10000 times a second.</li> <li>Programs that need to use processor-specific instructions not implemented in a compiler. A common example is the <a href="/wiki/Circular_shift" title="Circular shift">bitwise rotation</a> instruction at the core of many encryption algorithms, as well as querying the parity of a byte or the 4-bit carry of an addition.</li> <li>Stand-alone executables that are required to execute without recourse to the <a href="/wiki/Run-time_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Run-time system">run-time</a> components or <a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">libraries</a> associated with a high-level language, such as the firmware for telephones, automobile fuel and ignition systems, air-conditioning control systems,and security systems.</li> <li>Programs with performance-sensitive inner loops, where assembly language provides optimization opportunities that are difficult to achieve in a high-level language. For example, <a href="/wiki/Linear_algebra" title="Linear algebra">linear algebra</a> with <a href="/wiki/Basic_Linear_Algebra_Subprograms" title="Basic Linear Algebra Subprograms">BLAS</a><a href="#cite_note-Markoff_2005-56">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-BLAS_2008-63">[58]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">discrete cosine transformation</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Single_instruction,_multiple_data" title="Single instruction, multiple data">SIMD</a> assembly version from <a href="/wiki/X264" title="X264">x264</a><a href="#cite_note-Videolan_2010-64">[59]</a>).</li> <li>Programs that create vectorized functions for programs in higher-level languages such as C. In the higher-level language this is sometimes aided by compiler <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_function" title="Intrinsic function">intrinsic functions</a> which map directly to SIMD mnemonics, but nevertheless result in a one-to-one assembly conversion specific for the given vector processor.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time</a> programs such as simulations, flight navigation systems, and medical equipment. For example, in a <a href="/wiki/Fly-by-wire" title="Fly-by-wire">fly-by-wire</a> system, telemetry must be interpreted and acted upon within strict time constraints. Such systems must eliminate sources of unpredictable delays, which may be created by interpreted languages, automatic <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collection</a>, paging operations, or <a href="/wiki/Preemptive_multitasking" class="mw-redirect" title="Preemptive multitasking">preemptive multitasking</a>. Choosing assembly or <a href="/wiki/Low-level_programming_language" title="Low-level programming language">lower-level languages</a> for such systems gives programmers greater visibility and control over processing details.</li> <li>Cryptographic algorithms that must always take strictly the same time to execute, preventing <a href="/wiki/Timing_attack" title="Timing attack">timing attacks</a>.</li> <li>Video encoders and decoders such as rav1e (an encoder for <a href="/wiki/AV1" title="AV1">AV1</a>)<a href="#cite_note-65">[60]</a> and dav1d (the reference decoder for AV1)<a href="#cite_note-66">[61]</a> contain assembly to leverage <a href="/wiki/AVX2" class="mw-redirect" title="AVX2">AVX2</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neon_(instruction_set)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neon (instruction set)">ARM Neon</a> instructions when available.</li> <li>Modify and extend legacy code written for IBM mainframe computers.<a href="#cite_note-Bosworth_2016-67">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[63]</a></li> <li>Situations where complete control over the environment is required, in extremely high-security situations where <a href="/wiki/Trusting_trust#Reflections_on_Trusting_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Trusting trust">nothing can be taken for granted</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">Computer viruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bootloader" title="Bootloader">bootloaders</a>, certain <a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">device drivers</a>, or other items very close to the hardware or low-level operating system.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instruction_set_simulator" title="Instruction set simulator">Instruction set simulators</a> for monitoring, tracing and <a href="/wiki/Debugging" title="Debugging">debugging</a> where additional overhead is kept to a minimum.</li> <li>Situations where no high-level language exists, on a new or specialized processor for which no <a href="/wiki/Cross_compiler" title="Cross compiler">cross compiler</a> is available.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_engineering" title="Reverse engineering">Reverse engineering</a> and modifying program files such as: <ul><li>existing <a href="/wiki/Binary_file" title="Binary file">binaries</a> that may or may not have originally been written in a high-level language, for example when trying to recreate programs for which source code is not available or has been lost, or cracking copy protection of proprietary software.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a> (also termed <a href="/wiki/ROM_hacking" title="ROM hacking">ROM hacking</a>), which is possible via several methods. The most widely employed method is altering program code at the assembly language level.</li></ul></li></ul> Assembly language is still taught in most <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">electronic engineering</a> programs. Although few programmers today regularly work with assembly language as a tool, the underlying concepts remain important. Such fundamental topics as <a href="/wiki/Binary_arithmetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary arithmetic">binary arithmetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memory_management" title="Memory management">memory allocation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stack_(abstract_data_type)" title="Stack (abstract data type)">stack processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Character_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Character set">character set</a> encoding, <a href="/wiki/Interrupt" title="Interrupt">interrupt</a> processing, and <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> design would be hard to study in detail without a grasp of how a computer operates at the hardware level. Since a computer's behaviour is fundamentally defined by its instruction set, the logical way to learn such concepts is to study an assembly language. Most modern computers have similar instruction sets. Therefore, studying a single assembly language is sufficient to learn the basic concepts, recognize situations where the use of assembly language might be appropriate, and to see how efficient executable code can be created from high-level languages.<a href="#cite_note-Hyde_2003-25">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typical_applications">Typical applications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Typical applications">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Assembly language is typically used in a system's <a href="/wiki/Booting" title="Booting">boot</a> code, the low-level code that initializes and tests the system hardware prior to booting the operating system and is often stored in <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a>. (<a href="/wiki/BIOS" title="BIOS">BIOS</a> on <a href="/wiki/IBM-compatible_PC" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM-compatible PC">IBM-compatible PC</a> systems and <a href="/wiki/CP/M" title="CP/M">CP/M</a> is an example.)</li> <li>Assembly language is often used for low-level code, for instance for <a href="/wiki/Operating_system_kernel" class="mw-redirect" title="Operating system kernel">operating system kernels</a>, which cannot rely on the availability of pre-existing system calls and must indeed implement them for the particular processor architecture on which the system will be running.</li> <li>Some compilers translate high-level languages into assembly first before fully compiling, allowing the assembly code to be viewed for <a href="/wiki/Debugging" title="Debugging">debugging</a> and optimization purposes.</li> <li>Some compilers for relatively low-level languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a> or <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, allow the programmer to embed assembly language directly in the source code (so called <a href="/wiki/Inline_assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Inline assembly">inline assembly</a>). Programs using such facilities can then construct abstractions using different assembly language on each hardware platform. The system's <a href="/wiki/Software_portability" title="Software portability">portable code</a> can then use these processor-specific components through a uniform interface.</li> <li>Assembly language is useful in <a href="/wiki/Reverse_engineering" title="Reverse engineering">reverse engineering</a>. Many programs are distributed only in machine code form which is straightforward to translate into assembly language by a <a href="/wiki/Disassembler" title="Disassembler">disassembler</a>, but more difficult to translate into a higher-level language through a <a href="/wiki/Decompiler" title="Decompiler">decompiler</a>. Tools such as the <a href="/wiki/Interactive_Disassembler" title="Interactive Disassembler">Interactive Disassembler</a> make extensive use of disassembly for such a purpose. This technique is used by hackers to crack commercial software, and competitors to produce software with similar results from competing companies.</li> <li>Assembly language is used to enhance speed of execution, especially in early personal computers with limited processing power and RAM.</li> <li>Assemblers can be used to generate blocks of data, with no high-level language overhead, from formatted and commented source code, to be used by other code.<a href="#cite_note-Paul_2001_NECPINW-69">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Paul_2002_CPI-70">[65]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Octicons-terminal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Octicons-terminal.svg/24px-Octicons-terminal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Octicons-terminal.svg/37px-Octicons-terminal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Octicons-terminal.svg/49px-Octicons-terminal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="896" data-file-height="1024" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Computer_programming" title="Portal:Computer programming">Computer programming portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_assemblers" title="Comparison of assemblers">Comparison of assemblers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disassembler" title="Disassembler">Disassembler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexadecimal" title="Hexadecimal">Hexadecimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture">Instruction set architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_man_computer" title="Little man computer">Little man computer</a> – an educational computer model with a base-10 assembly language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibble" title="Nibble">Nibble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typed_assembly_language" title="Typed assembly language">Typed assembly language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Other than meta-assemblers </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> However, that does not mean that the assembler programs implementing those languages are universal. </li> <li id="cite_note-NB3-27"><a href="#cite_ref-NB3_27-0">^</a> This is one of two redundant forms of this instruction that operate identically. The 8086 and several other CPUs from the late 1970s/early 1980s have redundancies in their instruction sets, because it was simpler for engineers to design these CPUs (to fit on silicon chips of limited sizes) with the redundant codes than to eliminate them (see <a href="/wiki/Don%27t-care_term" title="Don't-care term">don't-care terms</a>). Each assembler will typically generate only one of two or more redundant instruction encodings, but a disassembler will usually recognize any of them. </li> <li id="cite_note-NB1-29"><a href="#cite_ref-NB1_29-0">^</a> AMD manufactured second-source Intel 8086, 8088, and 80286 CPUs, and perhaps 8080A and 8085A CPUs, under license from Intel, but starting with the 80386, Intel refused to share their x86 CPU designs with anyone—AMD sued about this for breach of contract—and AMD designed, made, and sold 32-bit and 64-bit x86-family CPUs without Intel's help or endorsement. </li> <li id="cite_note-NB4-33"><a href="#cite_ref-NB4_33-0">^</a> In 7070 Autocoder, a macro definition is a 7070 macro generator program that the assembler calls; Autocoder provides special macros for macro generators to use. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-IBM_2014_ASM-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IBM_2014_ASM_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IBM_2014_ASM_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/SSLTBW_2.1.0/com.ibm.zos.v2r1.asma400/asmr102112.htm">"Assembler language"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SSLTBW_2.1.0/com.ibm.zos.v2r1.asma400/toc.htm">High Level Assembler for z/OS & z/VM & z/VSE Language Reference Version 1 Release 6</a>. <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>. 2014 [1990]. SC26-4940-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Assembler+language&rft.btitle=High+Level+Assembler+for+z%2FOS+%26+z%2FVM+%26+z%2FVSE+Language+Reference+Version+1+Release+6&rft.pub=IBM&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fsupport%2Fknowledgecenter%2FSSLTBW_2.1.0%2Fcom.ibm.zos.v2r1.asma400%2Fasmr102112.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ohio_2016-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Ohio_2016_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.cse.ohio-state.edu/~sivilotti.1/teaching/3903.recent/lectures/lecture14.pdf">"Assembly: Review"</a> (PDF). Computer Science and Engineering. College of Engineering, <a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_University" title="Ohio State University">Ohio State University</a>. 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200324153925/http://web.cse.ohio-state.edu/~sivilotti.1/teaching/3903.recent/lectures/lecture14.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2020-03-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Assembly%3A+Review&rft.series=Computer+Science+and+Engineering&rft.pub=College+of+Engineering%2C+Ohio+State+University&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.cse.ohio-state.edu%2F~sivilotti.1%2Fteaching%2F3903.recent%2Flectures%2Flecture14.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Archer_2016-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Archer_2016_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcher2016" class="citation book cs1">Archer, Benjamin (November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=3125846">Assembly Language For Students</a>. North Charleston, South Carolina, US: <a href="/wiki/CreateSpace_Independent_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="CreateSpace Independent Publishing">CreateSpace Independent Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5403-7071-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5403-7071-6"><bdi>978-1-5403-7071-6</bdi></a>. <q>Assembly language may also be called symbolic machine code.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assembly+Language+For+Students&rft.place=North+Charleston%2C+South+Carolina%2C+US&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing&rft.date=2016-11&rft.isbn=978-1-5403-7071-6&rft.aulast=Archer&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fcitation.cfm%3Fid%3D3125846&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Streib_2020_p.-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Streib_2020_p._4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStreib2020" class="citation book cs1">Streib, James T. (2020). "Guide to Assembly Language". Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science. Cham: Springer International Publishing. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-35639-2">10.1007/978-3-030-35639-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-35638-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-35638-5"><bdi>978-3-030-35638-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1863-7310">1863-7310</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195930813">195930813</a>. <q>Programming in assembly language has the same benefits as programming in machine language, except it is easier.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Guide+to+Assembly+Language&rft.btitle=Undergraduate+Topics+in+Computer+Science&rft.place=Cham&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-35639-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A195930813%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1863-7310&rft.isbn=978-3-030-35638-5&rft.aulast=Streib&rft.aufirst=James+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saxon_1962-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Saxon_1962_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaxonPlette1962" class="citation book cs1">Saxon, James A.; Plette, William S. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015000480718;view=2up;seq=6">Programming the IBM 1401, a self-instructional programmed manual</a>. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, US: <a href="/wiki/Prentice-Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Prentice-Hall">Prentice-Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/62-20615">62-20615</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Programming+the+IBM+1401%2C+a+self-instructional+programmed+manual&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+New+Jersey%2C+US&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F62-20615&rft.aulast=Saxon&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft.au=Plette%2C+William+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015000480718%3Bview%3D2up%3Bseq%3D6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> (NB. Use of the term assembly program.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Kornelis_2010-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Kornelis_2010_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKornelis2010" class="citation web cs1">Kornelis, A. F. (2010) [2003]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bixoft.nl/english/opcd00.htm">"High Level Assembler – Opcodes overview, Assembler Directives"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200324151326/http://www.bixoft.nl/english/opcd00.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2020-03-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=High+Level+Assembler+%E2%80%93+Opcodes+overview%2C+Assembler+Directives&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Kornelis&rft.aufirst=A.+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bixoft.nl%2Fenglish%2Fopcd00.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IBM_2014_Macro-7"><a href="#cite_ref-IBM_2014_Macro_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SSLTBW_2.1.0/com.ibm.zos.v2r1.asma400/asmr102115.htm">"Macro instructions"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SSLTBW_2.1.0/com.ibm.zos.v2r1.asma400/toc.htm">High Level Assembler for z/OS & z/VM & z/VSE Language Reference Version 1 Release 6</a>. <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>. 2014 [1990]. SC26-4940-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Macro+instructions&rft.btitle=High+Level+Assembler+for+z%2FOS+%26+z%2FVM+%26+z%2FVSE+Language+Reference+Version+1+Release+6&rft.pub=IBM&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fsupport%2Fknowledgecenter%2Fen%2FSSLTBW_2.1.0%2Fcom.ibm.zos.v2r1.asma400%2Fasmr102115.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoothBritten1947" class="citation book cs1">Booth, Andrew D; Britten, Kathleen HV (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://albert.ias.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.12111/7941/Booth_Britten_Coding_for_ARC_1947.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Coding for A.R.C.</a> (PDF). Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. Retrieved 2022-11-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coding+for+A.R.C.&rft.pub=Institute+for+Advanced+Study%2C+Princeton&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Booth&rft.aufirst=Andrew+D&rft.au=Britten%2C+Kathleen+HV&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falbert.ias.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12111%2F7941%2FBooth_Britten_Coding_for_ARC_1947.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilkes_1951-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Wilkes_1951_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkesWheelerGill1951" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Vincent_Wilkes" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurice Vincent Wilkes">Wilkes, Maurice Vincent</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_John_Wheeler" class="mw-redirect" title="David John Wheeler">Wheeler, David John</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stanley_J._Gill" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley J. Gill">Gill, Stanley J.</a> (1951). The preparation of programs for an electronic digital computer (Reprint 1982 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Tomash_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomash Publishers">Tomash Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-93822803-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-93822803-5"><bdi>978-0-93822803-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/313593586">313593586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+preparation+of+programs+for+an+electronic+digital+computer&rft.edition=Reprint+1982&rft.pub=Tomash+Publishers&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F313593586&rft.isbn=978-0-93822803-5&rft.aulast=Wilkes&rft.aufirst=Maurice+Vincent&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+David+John&rft.au=Gill%2C+Stanley+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fairhead_2017-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Fairhead_2017_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairhead2017" class="citation web cs1">Fairhead, Harry (2017-11-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200102192823/https://www.i-programmer.info/history/57-computer-languages/471-the-classical-decade.html">"History of Computer Languages - The Classical Decade, 1950s"</a>. I Programmer. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.i-programmer.info/history/57-computer-languages/471-the-classical-decade.html">the original</a> on 2020-01-02. Retrieved 2020-03-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=I+Programmer&rft.atitle=History+of+Computer+Languages+-+The+Classical+Decade%2C+1950s&rft.date=2017-11-16&rft.aulast=Fairhead&rft.aufirst=Harry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.i-programmer.info%2Fhistory%2F57-computer-languages%2F471-the-classical-decade.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OS360_2011-12"><a href="#cite_ref-OS360_2011_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stackoverflow.com/questions/6859348/how-do-assembly-languages-depend-on-operating-systems">"How do assembly languages depend on operating systems?"</a>. Stack Exchange. <a href="/wiki/Stack_Exchange_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Stack Exchange Inc.">Stack Exchange Inc.</a> 2011-07-28. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200324152747/https://stackoverflow.com/questions/6859348/how-do-assembly-languages-depend-on-operating-systems">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2020-03-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stack+Exchange&rft.atitle=How+do+assembly+languages+depend+on+operating+systems%3F&rft.date=2011-07-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstackoverflow.com%2Fquestions%2F6859348%2Fhow-do-assembly-languages-depend-on-operating-systems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> (NB. System calls often vary, e.g. for <a href="/wiki/OS/360_and_successors" title="OS/360 and successors">MVS</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/DOS/360_and_successors" title="DOS/360 and successors">VSE</a> vs. VM/CMS; the binary/executable formats for different operating systems may also vary.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Austerlitz_2003_pp._326–360-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Austerlitz_2003_pp._326–360_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAusterlitz2003" class="citation book cs1">Austerlitz, Howard (2003). "Computer Programming Languages". Data Acquisition Techniques Using PCs. Elsevier. pp. 326–360. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-012068377-2%2F50013-9">10.1016/b978-012068377-2/50013-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780120683772" title="Special:BookSources/9780120683772"><bdi>9780120683772</bdi></a>. <q>Assembly language (or Assembler) is a compiled, low-level computer language. It is processor-dependent since it basically translates the Assembler's mnemonics directly into the commands a particular CPU understands, on a one-to-one basis. These Assembler mnemonics are the instruction set for that processor.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Computer+Programming+Languages&rft.btitle=Data+Acquisition+Techniques+Using+PCs&rft.pages=326-360&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-012068377-2%2F50013-9&rft.isbn=9780120683772&rft.aulast=Austerlitz&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carnes_2022-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Carnes_2022_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarnes2022" class="citation web cs1">Carnes, Beau (2022-04-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freecodecamp.org/news/learn-assembly-language-programming-with-arm/">"Learn Assembly Language Programming with ARM"</a>. freeCodeCamp.org. Retrieved 2022-06-21. <q>Assembly language is often specific to a particular computer architecture so there are multiple types of assembly languages. ARM is an increasingly popular assembly language.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=freeCodeCamp.org&rft.atitle=Learn+Assembly+Language+Programming+with+ARM&rft.date=2022-04-27&rft.aulast=Carnes&rft.aufirst=Beau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.freecodecamp.org%2Fnews%2Flearn-assembly-language-programming-with-arm%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brooks_1986_NSB-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Brooks_1986_NSB_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Brooks1986" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Brooks" title="Fred Brooks">Brooks, Frederick P.</a> (1986). "No Silver Bullet—Essence and Accident in Software Engineering". Proceedings of the IFIP Tenth World Computing Conference. pp. 1069–1076.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=No+Silver+Bullet%E2%80%94Essence+and+Accident+in+Software+Engineering&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+IFIP+Tenth+World+Computing+Conference&rft.pages=1069-1076&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=Frederick+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anguiano_kernel_sloccount-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Anguiano_kernel_sloccount_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnguiano" class="citation web cs1">Anguiano, Ricardo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gist.github.com/ricardoanguiano/18125b7eb3f26cf83724fb60662bdd2c">"linux kernel mainline 4.9 sloccount.txt"</a>. Gist. Retrieved 2022-05-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gist&rft.atitle=linux+kernel+mainline+4.9+sloccount.txt&rft.aulast=Anguiano&rft.aufirst=Ricardo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgist.github.com%2Fricardoanguiano%2F18125b7eb3f26cf83724fb60662bdd2c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daintith_2019-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Daintith_2019_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaintith2019" class="citation web cs1">Daintith, John, ed. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O11-metaassembler.html">"meta-assembler"</a>. A Dictionary of Computing. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200324154503/https://www.encyclopedia.com/computing/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/meta-assembler">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2020-03-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=A+Dictionary+of+Computing&rft.atitle=meta-assembler&rft.date=2019&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fdoc%2F1O11-metaassembler.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXerox_Data_Systems1975" class="citation book cs1">Xerox Data Systems (Oct 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bitsavers.org/pdf/sds/sigma/lang/900952G_metaSymbolLangRef_Oct75.pdf">Xerox Meta-Symbol Sigma 5-9 Computers Language and Operations Reference Manual</a> (PDF). p. vi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/sds/sigma/lang/900952G_metaSymbolLangRef_Oct75.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2020-06-07. <q>Used as a meta-assembler, it enables the user to design his own programming languages and to generate processors for such languages with a minimum of effort.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Xerox+Meta-Symbol+Sigma+5-9+Computers+Language+and+Operations+Reference+Manual&rft.pages=vi&rft.date=1975-10&rft.au=Xerox+Data+Systems&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbitsavers.org%2Fpdf%2Fsds%2Fsigma%2Flang%2F900952G_metaSymbolLangRef_Oct75.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperry_Univac_Computer_Systems1977" class="citation book cs1">Sperry Univac Computer Systems (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/univac/1100/asm/UP-8453_MASM_Programmers_Ref_1977.pdf">Sperry Univac Computer Systems Meta-Assembler (MASM) Programmer Reference</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/univac/1100/asm/UP-8453_MASM_Programmers_Ref_1977.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2020-06-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sperry+Univac+Computer+Systems+Meta-Assembler+%28MASM%29+Programmer+Reference&rft.date=1977&rft.au=Sperry+Univac+Computer+Systems&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bitsavers.org%2Fpdf%2Funivac%2F1100%2Fasm%2FUP-8453_MASM_Programmers_Ref_1977.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc/Using-Assembly-Language-with-C.html">"How to Use Inline Assembly Language in C Code"</a>. gnu.org. Retrieved 2020-11-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gnu.org&rft.atitle=How+to+Use+Inline+Assembly+Language+in+C+Code&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgcc.gnu.org%2Fonlinedocs%2Fgcc%2FUsing-Assembly-Language-with-C.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Salomon_1992-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Salomon_1992_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salomon_1992_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salomon_1992_22-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salomon_1992_22-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalomon1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-location-test">Salomon, David (February 1993) [1992]. Written at California State University, Northridge, California, US. Chivers, Ian D. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.davidsalomon.name/assem.advertis/asl.pdf">Assemblers and Loaders</a> (PDF). Ellis Horwood Series In Computers And Their Applications (1 ed.). Chicester, West Sussex, UK: <a href="/wiki/Ellis_Horwood_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellis Horwood Limited">Ellis Horwood Limited</a> / <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster_International_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon & Schuster International Group">Simon & Schuster International Group</a>. pp. 7, 237–238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-052564-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-052564-2"><bdi>0-13-052564-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200323010358/http://www.davidsalomon.name/assem.advertis/asl.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2008-10-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assemblers+and+Loaders&rft.place=Chicester%2C+West+Sussex%2C+UK&rft.series=Ellis+Horwood+Series+In+Computers+And+Their+Applications&rft.pages=7%2C+237-238&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Ellis+Horwood+Limited+%2F+Simon+%26+Schuster+International+Group&rft.date=1993-02&rft.isbn=0-13-052564-2&rft.aulast=Salomon&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.davidsalomon.name%2Fassem.advertis%2Fasl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> (xiv+294+4 pages) </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinlaysonDavisGavinUh2013" class="citation conference cs1">Finlayson, Ian; Davis, Brandon; Gavin, Peter; Uh, Gang-Ryung; Whalley, David; Själander, Magnus; Tyson, Gary (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262389375">"Improving processor efficiency by statically pipelining instructions"</a>. Proceedings of the 14th ACM SIGPLAN/SIGBED conference on Languages, compilers and tools for embedded systems. pp. 33–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2465554.2465559">10.1145/2465554.2465559</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781450320856" title="Special:BookSources/9781450320856"><bdi>9781450320856</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8015812">8015812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Improving+processor+efficiency+by+statically+pipelining+instructions&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+14th+ACM+SIGPLAN%2FSIGBED+conference+on+Languages%2C+compilers+and+tools+for+embedded+systems&rft.pages=33-44&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8015812%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2465554.2465559&rft.isbn=9781450320856&rft.aulast=Finlayson&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Davis%2C+Brandon&rft.au=Gavin%2C+Peter&rft.au=Uh%2C+Gang-Ryung&rft.au=Whalley%2C+David&rft.au=Sj%C3%A4lander%2C+Magnus&rft.au=Tyson%2C+Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F262389375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beck_1996-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Beck_1996_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck1996" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Leland L. (1996). "2". System Software: An Introduction to Systems Programming. <a href="/wiki/Addison_Wesley" class="mw-redirect" title="Addison Wesley">Addison Wesley</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2&rft.btitle=System+Software%3A+An+Introduction+to+Systems+Programming&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Leland+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hyde_2003-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hyde_2003_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hyde_2003_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyde2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Randall_Hyde" title="Randall Hyde">Hyde, Randall</a> (September 2003) [1996-09-30]. 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Retrieved 2020-06-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foreword+%28%22Why+would+anyone+learn+this+stuff%3F%22%29+%2F+Chapter+12+%E2%80%93+Classes+and+Objects&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Assembly+Language&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=No+Starch+Press&rft.date=2003-09&rft.isbn=1-886411-97-2&rft.aulast=Hyde&rft.aufirst=Randall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nostarch.com%3A80%2Fframeset.php%3Fstartat%3Dassembly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> Errata: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200323150730/http://www.plantation-productions.com/Webster/www.artofasm.com/AoAErrata.html">[1]</a> (928 pages) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200323151406/http://www.plantation-productions.com/Webster/www.artofasm.com/index.html">[2]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090720021936/http://www.arl.wustl.edu/~lockwood/class/cs306/books/artofasm/toc.html">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Intel_1999-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Intel_1999_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Intel_1999_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Intel_1999_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Intel_1999_26-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090611193346/http://download.intel.com/design/PentiumII/manuals/24319102.PDF">Intel Architecture Software Developer's Manual, Volume 2: Instruction Set Reference</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 2023-02-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GitHub&rft.atitle=rav1e%2FREADME.md+at+v0.6.3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fxiph%2Frav1e%2Fblob%2Fv0.6.3%2FREADME.md%23features-1%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://code.videolan.org/videolan/dav1d/-/blob/1.1.0/README.md">"README.md · 1.1.0 · VideoLAN / dav1d"</a>. 2023-02-13. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230222004317/https://code.videolan.org/videolan/dav1d/-/blob/1.1.0/README.md">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-22. Retrieved 2023-02-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=README.md+%C2%B7+1.1.0+%C2%B7+VideoLAN+%2F+dav1d&rft.date=2023-02-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcode.videolan.org%2Fvideolan%2Fdav1d%2F-%2Fblob%2F1.1.0%2FREADME.md&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bosworth_2016-67"><a href="#cite_ref-Bosworth_2016_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth2016" class="citation web cs1">Bosworth, Edward (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edwardbosworth.com/My3121Textbook_HTM/MyText3121_Ch01_V01.htm">"Chapter 1 – Why Study Assembly Language"</a>. www.edwardbosworth.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200324154257/http://www.edwardbosworth.com/My3121Textbook_HTM/MyText3121_Ch01_V01.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2016-06-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.edwardbosworth.com&rft.atitle=Chapter+1+%E2%80%93+Why+Study+Assembly+Language&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edwardbosworth.com%2FMy3121Textbook_HTM%2FMyText3121_Ch01_V01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www-01.ibm.com/servers/resourcelink/svc00100.nsf/pages/zOSV2R3sc236852/$file/idad500_v2r3.pdf">"z/OS Version 2 Release 3 DFSMS Macro Instructions for Data Sets"</a> (PDF). IBM. 2019-02-15. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210625140314/https://www-01.ibm.com/servers/resourcelink/svc00100.nsf/pages/zOSV2R3sc236852/$file/idad500_v2r3.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2021-06-25. Retrieved 2021-09-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=z%2FOS+Version+2+Release+3+DFSMS+Macro+Instructions+for+Data+Sets&rft.pub=IBM&rft.date=2019-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww-01.ibm.com%2Fservers%2Fresourcelink%2Fsvc00100.nsf%2Fpages%2FzOSV2R3sc236852%2F%24file%2Fidad500_v2r3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paul_2001_NECPINW-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Paul_2001_NECPINW_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul2001" class="citation cs2">Paul, Matthias R. (2001) [1996], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/micro/pc-stuff/freedos/files/util/print/cpi/NECPI208.ZIP">"Specification and reference documentation for NECPINW"</a>, NECPINW.CPI - DOS code page switching driver for <a href="/wiki/NEC_Pinwriter" class="mw-redirect" title="NEC Pinwriter">NEC Pinwriters</a> (2.08 ed.), FILESPEC.TXT, NECPINW.ASM, EUROFONT.INC from NECPI208.ZIP, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170910202610/http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/micro/pc-stuff/freedos/files/util/print/cpi/NECPI208.ZIP">archived</a> from the original on 2017-09-10, retrieved 2013-04-22</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NECPINW.CPI+-+DOS+code+page+switching+driver+for+NEC+Pinwriters&rft.atitle=Specification+and+reference+documentation+for+NECPINW&rft.pages=FILESPEC.TXT%2C+NECPINW.ASM%2C+EUROFONT.INC+from+NECPI208.ZIP&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.aufirst=Matthias+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fpub%2Fmicro%2Fpc-stuff%2Ffreedos%2Ffiles%2Futil%2Fprint%2Fcpi%2FNECPI208.ZIP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paul_2002_CPI-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Paul_2002_CPI_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul2002" class="citation web cs1">Paul, Matthias R. (2002-05-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://marc.info/?l=freedos-dev&m=102133580113139&w=2">"[fd-dev] mkeyb"</a>. freedos-dev. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20180910213410/https://marc.info/?l=freedos-dev&m=102133580113139&w=2">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-09-10. Retrieved 2018-09-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=freedos-dev&rft.atitle=%5Bfd-dev%5D+mkeyb&rft.date=2002-05-13&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.aufirst=Matthias+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmarc.info%2F%3Fl%3Dfreedos-dev%26m%3D102133580113139%26w%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartlett2004" class="citation book cs1">Bartlett, Jonathan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://programminggroundup.blogspot.com/">Programming from the Ground Up - An introduction to programming using linux assembly language</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bartlett_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartlett Publishing">Bartlett Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9752838-4-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-9752838-4-7"><bdi>0-9752838-4-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200324110645/http://programminggroundup.blogspot.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2020-03-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Programming+from+the+Ground+Up+-+An+introduction+to+programming+using+linux+assembly+language&rft.pub=Bartlett+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-9752838-4-7&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprogramminggroundup.blogspot.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090206015549/http://download.savannah.gnu.org/releases-noredirect/pgubook/ProgrammingGroundUp-1-0-booksize.pdf">[4]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBritton2003" class="citation book cs1">Britton, Robert (2003). MIPS Assembly Language Programming. <a href="/wiki/Prentice_Hall" title="Prentice Hall">Prentice Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-142044-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-142044-5"><bdi>0-13-142044-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MIPS+Assembly+Language+Programming&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-13-142044-5&rft.aulast=Britton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalingaert1979" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-location-test">Calingaert, Peter (1979) [1978-11-05]. Written at <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Chapel_Hill" title="University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill">University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ellis_Horowitz" title="Ellis Horowitz">Horowitz, Ellis</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/assemblerscompil00cali">Assemblers, Compilers, and Program Translation</a>. Computer software engineering series (1st printing, 1st ed.). Potomac, Maryland, US: <a href="/wiki/Computer_Science_Press,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Science Press, Inc.">Computer Science Press, Inc.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-914894-23-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-914894-23-4"><bdi>0-914894-23-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0888-2088">0888-2088</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/78-21905">78-21905</a>. Retrieved 2020-03-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assemblers%2C+Compilers%2C+and+Program+Translation&rft.place=Potomac%2C+Maryland%2C+US&rft.series=Computer+software+engineering+series&rft.edition=1st+printing%2C+1st&rft.pub=Computer+Science+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1979&rft.issn=0888-2088&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F78-21905&rft.isbn=0-914894-23-4&rft.aulast=Calingaert&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fassemblerscompil00cali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> (2+xiv+270+6 pages)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuntemann2000" class="citation book cs1">Duntemann, Jeff (2000). Assembly Language Step-by-Step. <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-37523-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-37523-3"><bdi>0-471-37523-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assembly+Language+Step-by-Step&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-471-37523-3&rft.aulast=Duntemann&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyde2010" class="citation book cs1">Hyde, Randall (2010). The Art of Assembly Language (2nd ed.). No Starch Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1593272074" title="Special:BookSources/978-1593272074"><bdi>978-1593272074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Assembly+Language&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=No+Starch+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1593272074&rft.aulast=Hyde&rft.aufirst=Randall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJorgensen" class="citation web cs1">Jorgensen, Ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.egr.unlv.edu/~ed/assembly64.pdf">"x86-64 Assembly Language Programming with Ubuntu"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=x86-64+Assembly+Language+Programming+with+Ubuntu&rft.aulast=Jorgensen&rft.aufirst=Ed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.egr.unlv.edu%2F~ed%2Fassembly64.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKann2015" class="citation web cs1">Kann, Charles W. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cupola.gettysburg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=oer">"Introduction to MIPS Assembly Language Programming"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200324110918/https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1001&context=oer">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2020-03-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+MIPS+Assembly+Language+Programming&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Kann&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcupola.gettysburg.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1001%26context%3Doer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKann2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kann, Charles W. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/oer/8/">"Introduction to Assembly Language Programming: From Soup to Nuts: ARM Edition"</a>. Open Educational Resources.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Open+Educational+Resources&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Assembly+Language+Programming%3A+From+Soup+to+Nuts%3A+ARM+Edition&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Kann&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcupola.gettysburg.edu%2Foer%2F8%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNortonSocha1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Norton" title="Peter Norton">Norton, Peter</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Socha" title="John Socha">Socha, John</a> (1986). Peter Norton's Assembly Language Book for the IBM PC. New York, US: Brady Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peter+Norton%27s+Assembly+Language+Book+for+the+IBM+PC&rft.place=New+York%2C+US&rft.pub=Brady+Books&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Norton&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Socha%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger1980" class="citation book cs1">Singer, Michael (1980). PDP-11. Assembler Language Programming and Machine Organization. New York, US: <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=PDP-11.+Assembler+Language+Programming+and+Machine+Organization&rft.place=New+York%2C+US&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweetman1999" class="citation book cs1">Sweetman, Dominic (1999). See MIPS Run. <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers" title="Morgan Kaufmann Publishers">Morgan Kaufmann Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55860-410-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-55860-410-3"><bdi>1-55860-410-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=See+MIPS+Run&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-55860-410-3&rft.aulast=Sweetman&rft.aufirst=Dominic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldron1998" class="citation book cs1">Waldron, John (1998). Introduction to RISC Assembly Language Programming. <a href="/wiki/Addison_Wesley" class="mw-redirect" title="Addison Wesley">Addison Wesley</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-39828-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-39828-1"><bdi>0-201-39828-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+RISC+Assembly+Language+Programming&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-201-39828-1&rft.aulast=Waldron&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130530074022/http://www.asmcommunity.net/book/">"ASM Community Book"</a>. 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asmcommunity.net/book/">the original</a> on 2013-05-30. Retrieved 2013-05-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ASM+Community+Book&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asmcommunity.net%2Fbook%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAssembly+language" class="Z3988"> ("An online book full of helpful ASM info, tutorials and code examples" by the ASM Community, archived at the internet archive.)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Assembly_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Assembly language at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/assembly_language" class="extiw" title="wikt:assembly language">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Assembly_languages" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Assembly languages">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Assembly_language" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Assembly language">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Assembly_languages" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Assembly languages">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/assembly_language" class="extiw" title="v:assembly language">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wiki.c2.com/?AssemblyLanguage">Assembly Language</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wiki.c2.com/?LearningAssemblyLanguage">Learning Assembly Language</a> pages on <a href="/wiki/WikiWikiWeb" title="WikiWikiWeb">WikiWikiWeb</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/asmexample.html">Assembly Language Programming Examples</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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