CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Groundwater pollution - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"a48ee70d-12af-4023-8153-a46e87dc9c63","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Groundwater_pollution","wgTitle":"Groundwater pollution","wgCurRevisionId":1278424716,"wgRevisionId":1278424716,"wgArticleId":44413707,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","CS1 maint: others","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use mdy dates from February 2023","Pages using sidebar with the child parameter","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from March 2017","Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017","Articles lacking reliable references from March 2015","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Liquid water","Aquifers","Hydrology","Hydraulic engineering","Sanitation","Water and the environment","Water","Lithosphere"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Groundwater_pollution","wgRelevantArticleId":44413707,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Groundwater_contamination","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Groundwater_pollution","wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q20113712","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false}; RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.20"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg/1200px-Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1061"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg/800px-Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="707"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg/640px-Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="566"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Groundwater pollution - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater_pollution"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater_pollution"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Groundwater_pollution rootpage-Groundwater_pollution skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Groundwater+pollution" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Groundwater+pollution" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Groundwater+pollution" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Groundwater+pollution" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Pollutant_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollutant_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Pollutant types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pollutant_types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Pollutant types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Pollutant_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arsenic_and_fluoride" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arsenic_and_fluoride"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Arsenic and fluoride</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arsenic_and_fluoride-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Pathogens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nitrate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nitrate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Nitrate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nitrate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organic_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organic_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Organic compounds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organic_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Metals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharmaceuticals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmaceuticals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Pharmaceuticals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pharmaceuticals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Naturally-occurring_(geogenic)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naturally-occurring_(geogenic)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Naturally-occurring (geogenic)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naturally-occurring_(geogenic)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On-site_sanitation_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On-site_sanitation_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>On-site sanitation systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On-site_sanitation_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sewage_and_sewage_sludge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sewage_and_sewage_sludge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Sewage and sewage sludge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sewage_and_sewage_sludge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fertilizers_and_pesticides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fertilizers_and_pesticides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Fertilizers and pesticides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fertilizers_and_pesticides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commercial_and_industrial_leaks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commercial_and_industrial_leaks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Commercial and industrial leaks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commercial_and_industrial_leaks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydraulic_fracturing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydraulic_fracturing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Hydraulic fracturing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydraulic_fracturing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landfill_leachate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landfill_leachate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Landfill leachate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landfill_leachate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Over-pumping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Over-pumping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Over-pumping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Over-pumping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mechanisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mechanisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interactions_with_surface_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions_with_surface_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Interactions with surface water</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactions_with_surface_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Prevention</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prevention subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Precautionary_principle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precautionary_principle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Precautionary principle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precautionary_principle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Groundwater_quality_monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Groundwater_quality_monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Groundwater quality monitoring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Groundwater_quality_monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_zoning_for_groundwater_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_zoning_for_groundwater_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Land zoning for groundwater protection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_zoning_for_groundwater_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aquifer_vulnerability_map" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aquifer_vulnerability_map"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Aquifer vulnerability map</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aquifer_vulnerability_map-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Source_protection_map" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Source_protection_map"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Source protection map</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Source_protection_map-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Locating_on-site_sanitation_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Locating_on-site_sanitation_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Locating on-site sanitation systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Locating_on-site_sanitation_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Legislation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Management</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Management subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Point-of-use_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Point-of-use_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Point-of-use treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Point-of-use_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Groundwater_remediation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Groundwater_remediation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Groundwater remediation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Groundwater_remediation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abandonment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abandonment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Abandonment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abandonment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lusaka,_Zambia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lusaka,_Zambia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Lusaka, Zambia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lusaka,_Zambia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Babati_town,_Tanzania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Babati_town,_Tanzania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Babati town, Tanzania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Babati_town,_Tanzania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hinkley,_U.S." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinkley,_U.S."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.1</span> <span>Hinkley, U.S.</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinkley,_U.S.-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norco,_California" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norco,_California"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Norco, California</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norco,_California-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Walkerton,_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Walkerton,_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span>Walkerton, Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Walkerton,_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Groundwater pollution</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تلوث المياه الجوفية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تلوث المياه الجوفية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3" title="ভূগর্ভস্থ পানি দূষণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূগর্ভস্থ পানি দূষণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B5hjaveereostus" title="Põhjaveereostus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Põhjaveereostus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contaminaci%C3%B3n_de_aguas_subterr%C3%A1neas" title="Contaminación de aguas subterráneas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Contaminación de aguas subterráneas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="آلودگی آب‌های زیرزمینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آلودگی آب‌های زیرزمینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%ED%95%98%EC%88%98_%EC%98%A4%EC%97%BC" title="지하수 오염 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지하수 오염" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mmet%E1%BB%8D_mmiri_d%E1%BB%8B_n%27okpuru_ala" title="Mmetọ mmiri dị n'okpuru ala – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Mmetọ mmiri dị n'okpuru ala" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B2_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="ഭൂഗർഭജല മലിനീകരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൂഗർഭജല മലിനീകരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E6%B0%B4%E6%B1%9A%E6%9F%93" title="地下水汚染 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地下水汚染" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%81%D9%85%DA%A9%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%90_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88_%DA%A9%DA%A9%DA%93%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="د ځمک‌لاندې اوبو ککړتیا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ځمک‌لاندې اوبو ککړتیا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%92%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Загађење подземних вода – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Загађење подземних вода" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D2%91%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Забруднення ґрунтових вод – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Забруднення ґрунтових вод" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%94_nhi%E1%BB%85m_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_ng%E1%BA%A7m" title="Ô nhiễm nước ngầm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ô nhiễm nước ngầm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E6%B0%B4%E6%B1%A1%E6%9F%93" title="地下水污染 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="地下水污染" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q20113712#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Groundwater_pollution" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Groundwater_pollution" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Groundwater_pollution" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&oldid=1278424716" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Groundwater_pollution&id=1278424716&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGroundwater_pollution"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGroundwater_pollution"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Groundwater_pollution&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Groundwater_pollution" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q20113712" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_contamination&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Groundwater contamination">Groundwater contamination</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ground released seep into groundwater</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_(3794846044).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg/220px-Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg/330px-Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg/440px-Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1535" data-file-height="1357" /></a><figcaption>Groundwater pollution in <a href="/wiki/Lusaka" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a>, Zambia, where the <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">pit latrine</a> in the background is polluting the <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">shallow well</a> in the foreground with pathogens and nitrate</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0; background:#fadcc5; color:#fadcc5"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/220px-Air_pollution3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/330px-Air_pollution3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/440px-Air_pollution3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Air pollution from a factory</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-exhaust_emissions" title="Non-exhaust emissions">Non-exhaust emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Digital</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_from_noise" title="Health effects from noise">Health effects from noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">Illegal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Solid waste</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Advertising clutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_blight" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban blight">Urban blight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">Biosolids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">Freshwater salinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sludge" title="Sludge">Sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Misc</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_rivers" title="List of most-polluted rivers">Most polluted rivers</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">By country</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/17px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/26px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/34px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/17px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/26px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/34px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Groundwater pollution</b> (also called <b>groundwater contamination</b>) occurs when <a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">pollutants</a> are released to the ground and make their way into <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. This type of <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant, or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as <a href="/wiki/Contamination" title="Contamination">contamination</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-site <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> systems, <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a> leachate, effluent from <a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Wastewater treatment plants">wastewater treatment plants</a>, leaking sewers, petrol <a href="/wiki/Filling_station" title="Filling station">filling stations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">hydraulic fracturing</a> (fracking) or from over application of <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> in <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as <a href="/wiki/Arsenic_contamination_of_groundwater" title="Arsenic contamination of groundwater">arsenic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> through poisoning or the spread of disease (<a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">water-borne diseases</a>). </p><p>The pollutant often produces a contaminant <a href="/wiki/Plume_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Plume (fluid dynamics)">plume</a> within an <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a>. Movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the pollutant over a wider area. Its advancing boundary, often called a plume edge, can intersect with <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">groundwater wells</a> and surface water, such as seeps and springs, making the water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a <a href="/wiki/Hydrological_transport_model" title="Hydrological transport model">hydrological transport model</a> or <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_model" title="Groundwater model">groundwater model</a>. Analysis of groundwater pollution may focus on <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> characteristics and site <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">hydrogeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>, and the nature of the contaminants. Different mechanisms have influence on the transport of pollutants, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a>, <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decay</a>, in the groundwater. </p><p>The interaction of groundwater contamination with surface waters is analyzed by use of hydrology transport models. Interactions between <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> are complex. For example, many rivers and lakes are fed by groundwater. This means that damage to groundwater aquifers e.g. by <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">fracking</a> or over abstraction, could therefore affect the rivers and lakes that rely on it. <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">Saltwater intrusion</a> into <a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">coastal</a> aquifers is an example of such interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prevention methods include: applying the <a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">precautionary principle</a>, groundwater quality monitoring, land zoning for groundwater protection, locating on-site sanitation systems correctly and applying legislation. When pollution has occurred, management approaches include <a href="/wiki/Portable_water_purification" title="Portable water purification">point-of-use water treatment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">groundwater remediation</a>, or as a last resort, abandonment. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pollutant_types">Pollutant types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Pollutant types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contaminants found in groundwater cover a broad range of physical, inorganic chemical, organic chemical, bacteriological, and radioactive parameters. Principally, many of the same pollutants that play a role in surface <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> may also be found in polluted groundwater, although their respective importance may differ. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arsenic_and_fluoride">Arsenic and fluoride</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Arsenic and fluoride"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arsenic_contamination_of_groundwater" title="Arsenic contamination of groundwater">Arsenic contamination of groundwater</a></div> <p>Arsenic and fluoride have been recognized by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) as the most serious inorganic contaminants in drinking-water on a worldwide basis.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inorganic arsenic is the most common type of arsenic in soil and water.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">metalloid</a> arsenic can occur naturally in groundwater, as seen most frequently in Asia, including in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, India and <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_Plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges Plain">Ganges Plain</a> of <a href="/wiki/Northern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern India">northern India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> severe <a href="/wiki/Arsenic_contamination_of_groundwater" title="Arsenic contamination of groundwater">contamination of groundwater by naturally occurring arsenic</a> affects 25% of <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">water wells</a> in the shallower of two regional <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>. Groundwater in these areas is also contaminated by the use of arsenic-based <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arsenic in groundwater can also be present where there are <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> operations or <a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">mine waste dumps</a> that will leach arsenic. </p><p>Natural <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a> in groundwater is of growing concern as deeper groundwater is being used, "with more than 200 million people at risk of <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> with elevated concentrations."<sup id="cite_ref-ICUN_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICUN-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fluoride can especially be released from acidic volcanic rocks and dispersed volcanic ash when water <a href="/wiki/Hard_water" title="Hard water">hardness</a> is low. High levels of fluoride in groundwater is a serious problem in the <a href="/wiki/Pampas" title="Pampas">Argentinean Pampas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Rift" title="East African Rift">East African Rift</a>, and some volcanic islands (<a href="/wiki/Tenerife" title="Tenerife">Tenerife</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-GEF_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GEF-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In areas that have naturally occurring high levels of <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a> in groundwater which is used for drinking water, both <a href="/wiki/Dental_fluorosis" title="Dental fluorosis">dental</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_fluorosis" title="Skeletal fluorosis">skeletal fluorosis</a> can be prevalent and severe.<sup id="cite_ref-WHOfluoride_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHOfluoride-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pathogens">Pathogens</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pathogens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png/220px-Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png/330px-Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png/440px-Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a> can be spread via a groundwater well which is contaminated with fecal pathogens from <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">pit latrines</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The lack of proper sanitation measures, as well as improperly placed <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">wells</a>, can lead to drinking water contaminated with <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a> carried in <a href="/wiki/Human_feces" title="Human feces">feces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a>. Such <a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal–oral transmitted</a> diseases include <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolf2015-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wolf2014_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolf2014-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the four <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> types that are present in feces (<a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Viruses">viruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Helminth" class="mw-redirect" title="Helminth">helminths</a> or helminth eggs), the first three can be commonly found in polluted groundwater, whereas the relatively large helminth eggs are usually filtered out by the soil matrix.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Deep, confined aquifers are usually considered the safest source of drinking water with respect to pathogens. Pathogens from treated or untreated wastewater can contaminate certain, especially shallow, aquifers.<sup id="cite_ref-Bacteria_and_Their_Effects_on_Ground-Water_Quality_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bacteria_and_Their_Effects_on_Ground-Water_Quality-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Banks_and_Battigelli_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banks_and_Battigelli-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nitrate">Nitrate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Nitrate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nitrate is the most common chemical contaminant in the world's groundwater and aquifers.<sup id="cite_ref-UNEP_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNEP-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some low-income countries, nitrate levels in groundwater are extremely high, causing significant health problems. It is also stable (it does not degrade) under high oxygen conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elevated nitrate levels in groundwater can be caused by on-site sanitation, sewage sludge disposal and agricultural activities.<sup id="cite_ref-AGW_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AGW-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can therefore have an urban or agricultural origin.<sup id="cite_ref-GEF_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GEF-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause "<a href="/wiki/Blue_baby_syndrome" title="Blue baby syndrome">blue baby syndrome</a>" (acquired <a href="/wiki/Methemoglobinemia" title="Methemoglobinemia">methemoglobinemia</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water_quality_standards" title="Drinking water quality standards">Drinking water quality standards</a> in the European Union stipulate less than 50 mg/L for nitrate in <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The linkages between nitrates in drinking water and blue baby syndrome have been disputed in other studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Fewtrell_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fewtrell-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vanGrinsven_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanGrinsven-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The syndrome outbreaks might be due to other factors than elevated nitrate concentrations in drinking water.<sup id="cite_ref-Ward_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ward-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organic_compounds">Organic compounds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Organic compounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/VOC_contamination_of_groundwater" title="VOC contamination of groundwater">VOC contamination of groundwater</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compounds</a> (VOCs) are a dangerous contaminant of groundwater. They are generally introduced to the environment through careless industrial practices. Many of these compounds were not known to be harmful until the late 1960s and it was some time before regular testing of groundwater identified these substances in drinking water sources.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Primary VOC pollutants found in groundwater include <a href="/wiki/Aromatic_hydrocarbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic hydrocarbon">aromatic hydrocarbons</a> such as <a href="/wiki/BTEX" class="mw-redirect" title="BTEX">BTEX</a> compounds (<a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toluene" title="Toluene">toluene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethylbenzene" title="Ethylbenzene">ethylbenzene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xylene" title="Xylene">xylenes</a>), and chlorinated solvents including <a href="/wiki/Tetrachloroethylene" title="Tetrachloroethylene">tetrachloroethylene</a> (PCE), <a href="/wiki/Trichloroethylene" title="Trichloroethylene">trichloroethylene</a> (TCE), and <a href="/wiki/Vinyl_chloride" title="Vinyl chloride">vinyl chloride</a> (VC). BTEX are important components of <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>. PCE and TCE are industrial solvents used in <a href="/wiki/Dry_cleaning" title="Dry cleaning">dry cleaning</a> processes and as a metal degreaser, respectively.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Other organic pollutants present in groundwater and derived from industrial operations are the <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> (PAHs). Due to its molecular weight, <a href="/wiki/Naphthalene" title="Naphthalene">naphthalene</a> is the most soluble and mobile PAH found in groundwater, whereas <a href="/wiki/Benzo(a)pyrene" title="Benzo(a)pyrene">benzo(a)pyrene</a> is the most toxic one. PAHs are generally produced as byproducts by incomplete combustion of organic matter.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Organic pollutants can also be found in groundwater as <a href="/wiki/Insecticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecticides">insecticides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbicides" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbicides">herbicides</a>. As many other synthetic organic compounds, most pesticides have very complex molecular structures. This complexity determines the water solubility, adsorption capacity, and mobility of pesticides in the groundwater system. Thus, some types of <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a> are more mobile than others so they can more easily reach a drinking-water source.<sup id="cite_ref-ICUN_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICUN-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metals">Metals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Metals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several trace metals occur naturally in certain rock formations and can enter in the environment from natural processes such as weathering. However, industrial activities such as <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid waste">solid waste</a> disposal, paint and enamel works, etc. can lead to elevated concentrations of toxic metals including <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>. These contaminants have the potential to make their way into groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-AGW_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AGW-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The migration of metals (and metalloids) in groundwater will be affected by several factors, in particular by chemical reactions which determine the partitioning of contaminants among different phases and species. Thus, the mobility of metals primarily depends on the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> and <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> state of groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-ICUN_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICUN-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pharmaceuticals">Pharmaceuticals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pharmaceuticals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_contamination_by_pharmaceuticals" title="Groundwater contamination by pharmaceuticals">Groundwater contamination by pharmaceuticals</a></div> <p>Trace amounts of <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">pharmaceuticals</a> from treated wastewater infiltrating into the aquifer are among emerging ground-water contaminants being studied throughout the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popular pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, antidepressants, decongestants, tranquilizers, etc. are normally found in treated wastewater.<sup id="cite_ref-static.azdeq.gov_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-static.azdeq.gov-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This wastewater is discharged from the treatment facility, and often makes its way into the aquifer or source of surface water used for drinking water.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Trace amounts of pharmaceuticals in both groundwater and surface water are far below what is considered dangerous or of concern in most areas, but it could be an increasing problem as population grows and more reclaimed wastewater is utilized for municipal water supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-static.azdeq.gov_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-static.azdeq.gov-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other organic pollutants include a range of <a href="/wiki/Organohalide" class="mw-redirect" title="Organohalide">organohalides</a> and other chemical compounds, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a>, various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and <a href="/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">cosmetic</a> products, drug pollution involving <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">pharmaceutical drugs</a> and their metabolites. Inorganic pollutants might include other nutrients such as <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radionuclides</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> (U) or <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> (Rn) naturally present in some geological formations. <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">Saltwater intrusion</a> is also an example of natural contamination, but is very often intensified by human activities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Groundwater pollution is a worldwide issue. A study of the groundwater quality of the principal aquifers of the United States conducted between 1991 and 2004, showed that 23% of domestic wells had contaminants at levels greater than human-health benchmarks.<sup id="cite_ref-USGS2009_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2009-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study suggested that the major groundwater pollution problems in Africa, considering the order of importance are: (1) nitrate pollution, (2) pathogenic agents, (3) organic pollution, (4) salinization, and (5) acid mine drainage.<sup id="cite_ref-Xu2006_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xu2006-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Causes of groundwater pollution include (further details below): </p> <ul><li>Naturally-occurring (geogenic)</li> <li>On-site sanitation systems</li> <li>Sewage and sewage sludge</li> <li>Fertilizers and pesticides</li> <li>Commercial and industrial leaks</li> <li>Hydraulic fracturing</li> <li>Landfill leachate</li> <li>Other</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naturally-occurring_(geogenic)"><span id="Naturally-occurring_.28geogenic.29"></span>Naturally-occurring (geogenic)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Naturally-occurring (geogenic)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Geogenic" refers to naturally occurring as a result from geological processes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The natural arsenic pollution occurs because aquifer sediments contain organic matter that generates <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">anaerobic</a> conditions in the aquifer. These conditions result in the microbial dissolution of <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxides</a> in the sediment and, thus, the release of the <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, normally strongly bound to iron oxides, into the water. As a consequence, arsenic-rich groundwater is often iron-rich, although secondary processes often obscure the association of dissolved arsenic and dissolved iron.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Arsenic is found in groundwater most commonly as the reduced species <a href="/wiki/Arsenite" title="Arsenite">arsenite</a> and the oxidized species arsenate, the acute toxicity of arsenite being somewhat greater than that of arsenate.<sup id="cite_ref-EAWAG2015_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EAWAG2015-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Investigations by WHO indicated that 20% of 25,000 boreholes tested in Bangladesh had arsenic concentrations exceeding 50 μg/L.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The occurrence of fluoride is close related to the abundance and solubility of fluoride-containing minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Fluorite" title="Fluorite">fluorite (CaF<sub>2</sub>)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EAWAG2015_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EAWAG2015-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Considerably high concentrations of fluoride in groundwater are typically caused by a lack of calcium in the aquifer.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Health problems associated with <a href="/wiki/Dental_fluorosis" title="Dental fluorosis">dental fluorosis</a> may occur when fluoride concentrations in groundwater exceed 1.5 mg/L, which is the WHO guideline value since 1984.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Institute_of_Aquatic_Science_and_Technology" title="Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology">Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG)</a> has recently developed the interactive Groundwater Assessment Platform (GAP), where the geogenic risk of contamination in a given area can be estimated using geological, topographical and other environmental data without having to test samples from every single groundwater resource. This tool also allows the user to produce probability risk mapping for both arsenic and fluoride.<sup id="cite_ref-GAPMaps_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GAPMaps-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>High concentrations of parameters like salinity, iron, manganese, uranium, radon and chromium, in groundwater, may also be of geogenic origin. This contaminants can be important locally but they are not as widespread as arsenic and fluoride.<sup id="cite_ref-EAWAG2015_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EAWAG2015-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On-site_sanitation_systems">On-site sanitation systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: On-site sanitation systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shallow_water_well_in_traditional_house_(4359799047).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Shallow_water_well_in_traditional_house_%284359799047%29.jpg/220px-Shallow_water_well_in_traditional_house_%284359799047%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Shallow_water_well_in_traditional_house_%284359799047%29.jpg/330px-Shallow_water_well_in_traditional_house_%284359799047%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Shallow_water_well_in_traditional_house_%284359799047%29.jpg/440px-Shallow_water_well_in_traditional_house_%284359799047%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A traditional housing compound near Herat, Afghanistan, where a shallow water supply well (foreground) is in close proximity to the pit latrine (behind the white greenhouse) leading to contamination of the groundwater</figcaption></figure> <p>Groundwater pollution with pathogens and nitrate can also occur from the liquids infiltrating into the ground from on-site <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> systems such as <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">pit latrines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">septic tanks</a>, depending on the population density and the hydrogeological conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolf2015-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Factors controlling the fate and transport of pathogens are quite complex and the interaction among them is not well understood.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the local hydrogeological conditions (which can vary within a space of a few square kilometers) are ignored, simple on-site <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> infrastructures such as pit latrines can cause significant public health risks via contaminated groundwater.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Liquids leach from the pit and pass the unsaturated soil zone (which is not completely filled with water). Subsequently, these liquids from the pit enter the groundwater where they may lead to groundwater pollution. This is a problem if a nearby <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">water well</a> is used to supply groundwater for <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> purposes. During the passage in the soil, pathogens can die off or be adsorbed significantly, mostly depending on the travel time between the pit and the well.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most, but not all pathogens die within 50 days of travel through the subsurface.<sup id="cite_ref-Nick_2012_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nick_2012-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The degree of pathogen removal strongly varies with soil type, aquifer type, distance and other environmental factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Graham2013_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the unsaturated zone becomes "washed" during extended periods of heavy rain, providing hydraulic pathway for the quick pass of pathogens.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is difficult to estimate the safe distance between a pit latrine or a septic tank and a water source. In any case, such recommendations about the safe distance are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe. This results in groundwater pollution and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sewage_and_sewage_sludge">Sewage and sewage sludge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sewage and sewage sludge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Groundwater pollution can be caused by untreated waste discharge leading to diseases like skin lesions, bloody diarrhea and dermatitis. This is more common in locations having limited wastewater treatment infrastructure, or where there are systematic failures of the on-site sewage disposal system.<sup id="cite_ref-Graham2013_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with pathogens and nutrients, untreated sewage can also have an important load of heavy metals that may seep into the groundwater system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The treated effluent from <a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sewage treatment plant">sewage treatment plants</a> may also reach the aquifer if the effluent is infiltrated or discharged to local surface water bodies. Therefore, those substances that are not removed in conventional sewage treatment plants may reach the groundwater as well.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, detected concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in groundwater were in the order of 50 mg/L in several locations in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because in conventional sewage treatment plants, <a href="/wiki/Micropollutant" title="Micropollutant">micropollutants</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormones">hormones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">pharmaceutical</a> residues and other micropollutants contained in <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_feces" title="Human feces">feces</a> are only partially removed and the remainder is discharged into surface water, from where it may also reach the groundwater. </p><p>Groundwater pollution can also occur from leaking sewers which has been observed for example in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can also lead to potential cross-contamination of drinking-water supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-UNWATER2015_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNWATER2015-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spreading wastewater or <a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge" title="Sewage sludge">sewage sludge</a> in agriculture may also be included as sources of fecal contamination in groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fertilizers_and_pesticides">Fertilizers and pesticides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Fertilizers and pesticides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nitrate can also enter the groundwater via excessive use of fertilizers, including <a href="/wiki/Manure" title="Manure">manure</a> spreading. This is because only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to produce and other plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or lost as run-off.<sup id="cite_ref-Khan2014_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khan2014-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High application rates of nitrogen-containing fertilizers combined with the high water-solubility of nitrate leads to increased <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff#Agricultural_issues" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a> into <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">leaching</a> into groundwater, thereby causing groundwater pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-singh1995_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-singh1995-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached.<sup id="cite_ref-jackson2008_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson2008-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manure_spreading_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1241415.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Manure_spreading_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1241415.jpg/220px-Manure_spreading_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1241415.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Manure_spreading_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1241415.jpg/330px-Manure_spreading_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1241415.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Manure_spreading_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1241415.jpg/440px-Manure_spreading_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1241415.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Poor management practices in manure spreading can introduce both pathogens and nutrients (nitrate) in the groundwater system.</figcaption></figure> <p>The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater. The heavy use of nitrogenous fertilizers in cropping systems is the largest contributor to anthropogenic nitrogen in groundwater worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-suthar2009_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-suthar2009-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Feedlots/animal corrals can also lead to the potential leaching of nitrogen and metals to groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-UNWATER2015_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNWATER2015-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over application of animal <a href="/wiki/Manure" title="Manure">manure</a> may also result in groundwater pollution with <a href="/wiki/Environmental_persistent_pharmaceutical_pollutant" title="Environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutant">pharmaceutical residues</a> derived from veterinary drugs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">US Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) and the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> are seriously dealing with the nitrate problem related to agricultural development, as a major water supply problem that requires appropriate management and governance.<sup id="cite_ref-GEF_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GEF-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Runoff of pesticides may leach into groundwater causing human health problems from contaminated water wells.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pesticide concentrations found in groundwater are typically low, and often the regulatory human health-based limits exceeded are also very low.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The organophosphorus insecticide <a href="/wiki/Monocrotophos" title="Monocrotophos">monocrotophos</a> (MCP) appears to be one of a few hazardous, persistent, soluble and mobile (it does not bind with minerals in soils) pesticides able to reach a drinking-water source.<sup id="cite_ref-PPDB_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PPDB-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, more pesticide compounds are being detected as groundwater quality monitoring programs have become more extensive; however, much less monitoring has been conducted in developing countries due to the high analysis costs.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commercial_and_industrial_leaks">Commercial and industrial leaks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Commercial and industrial leaks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A wide variety of both inorganic and organic pollutants have been found in aquifers underlying commercial and industrial activities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Ore mining and metal processing facilities are the primary responsible of the presence of metals in groundwater of anthropogenic origin, including arsenic. The low pH associated with <a href="/wiki/Acid_mine_drainage" title="Acid mine drainage">acid mine drainage (AMD)</a> contributes to the solubility of potential toxic metals that can eventually enter the groundwater system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf/page1-220px-Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf/page1-330px-Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf/page1-440px-Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>Oil spills associated with underground pipelines and tanks can release benzene and other soluble petroleum hydrocarbons that rapidly percolate down into the aquifer.</figcaption></figure> <p>There is an increasing concern over the groundwater pollution by gasoline leaked from petroleum <a href="/wiki/Underground_storage_tank" title="Underground storage tank">underground storage tanks</a> (USTs) of <a href="/wiki/Filling_station" title="Filling station">gas stations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> BTEX compounds are the most common additives of the gasoline. BTEX compounds, including benzene, have densities lower than water (1 g/mL). Similar to the oil spills on the sea, the non-miscible phase, referred to as <a href="/wiki/Light_non-aqueous_phase_liquid" title="Light non-aqueous phase liquid">Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL)</a>, will "float" upon the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> in the aquifer.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chlorinated solvents are used in nearly any industrial practice where degreasing removers are required.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tetrachloroethylene" title="Tetrachloroethylene">PCE</a> is a highly utilized solvent in the dry cleaning industry because of its cleaning effectiveness and relatively low cost. It has also been used for metal-degreasing operations. Because it is highly volatile, it is more frequently found in groundwater than in surface water.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. webpage is for a public consultation (March 2017)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> TCE has historically been used as a metal cleaning. The military facility <a href="/wiki/Anniston_Army_Depot" title="Anniston Army Depot">Anniston Army Depot</a> (ANAD) in the United States was placed on the EPA <a href="/wiki/Superfund" title="Superfund">Superfund</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Priorities_List" title="National Priorities List">National Priorities List (NPL)</a> because of groundwater contamination with as much as 27 million pounds of TCE.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both PCE and TCE may degrade to <a href="/wiki/Vinyl_chloride" title="Vinyl chloride">vinyl chloride</a> (VC), the most toxic chlorinated hydrocarbon.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many types of solvents may have also been disposed illegally, leaking over time to the groundwater system.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chlorinated solvents such as PCE and TCE have densities higher than water and the non-miscible phase is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Dense_non-aqueous_phase_liquid" title="Dense non-aqueous phase liquid">Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPL)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once they reach the aquifer, they will "sink" and eventually accumulate on the top of low-permeability layers.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, wood-treating facilities have also release insecticides such as <a href="/wiki/Pentachlorophenol" title="Pentachlorophenol">pentachlorophenol</a> (PCP) and <a href="/wiki/Creosote" title="Creosote">creosote</a> into the environment, impacting the groundwater resources.<sup id="cite_ref-atlanticwood_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlanticwood-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PCP is a highly soluble and toxic obsolete pesticide recently listed in the <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Convention_on_Persistent_Organic_Pollutants" title="Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants">Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants</a>. PAHs and other semi-VOCs are the common contaminants associated with creosote. </p><p>Although non-miscible, both LNAPLs and DNAPLs still have the potential to slowly dissolve into the aqueous (miscible) phase to create a plume and thus become a long-term source of contamination. DNAPLs (chlorinated solvents, heavy PAHs, creosote, <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">PCBs</a>) tend to be difficult to manage as they can reside very deep in the groundwater system.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydraulic_fracturing">Hydraulic fracturing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hydraulic fracturing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">Hydraulic fracturing</a></div> <p>The recent growth of <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">hydraulic fracturing</a> ("Fracking") wells in the United States has raised concerns regarding its potential risks of contaminating groundwater resources.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> EPA, along with many other researchers, has been delegated to study the relationship between hydraulic fracturing and drinking water resources.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it is possible to perform hydraulic fracturing without having a relevant impact on groundwater resources if stringent controls and quality management measures are in place, there are a number of cases where groundwater pollution due to improper handling or technical failures was observed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While the EPA has not found significant evidence of a widespread, systematic <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_hydraulic_fracturing#Water_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing">impact on drinking water by hydraulic fracturing</a>, this may be due to insufficient systematic pre- and post- hydraulic fracturing data on drinking water quality, and the presence of other agents of <a href="/wiki/Contamination" title="Contamination">contamination</a> that preclude the link between <a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">shale gas</a> extraction and its impact.<sup id="cite_ref-EPAfracking_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPAfracking-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the EPA's lack of profound widespread evidence, other researchers have made significant observations of rising groundwater contamination in close proximity to major shale oil/gas drilling sites located in <a href="/wiki/Marcellus_natural_gas_trend" title="Marcellus natural gas trend">Marcellus</a><sup id="cite_ref-digiulio_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-digiulio-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, Canada). Within one kilometer of these specific sites, a subset of shallow drinking water consistently showed higher concentration levels of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethane" title="Ethane">ethane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">propane</a> concentrations than normal. An evaluation of higher <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">Helium</a> and other noble gas concentration along with the rise of hydrocarbon levels supports the distinction between hydraulic fracturing fugitive gas and naturally occurring "background" <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> content. This contamination is speculated to be the result of leaky, failing, or improperly installed gas well casings.<sup id="cite_ref-Vengosh_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vengosh-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, it is theorized that contamination could also result from the <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary migration</a> of deep residual hyper-saline water and hydraulic fracturing fluid, slowly flowing through faults and fractures until finally making contact with <a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">groundwater resources</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Vengosh_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vengosh-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, many researchers argue that the permeability of rocks overlying shale formations are too low to allow this to ever happen sufficiently.<sup id="cite_ref-Howarth_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howarth-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To ultimately prove this theory, there would have to be traces of toxic <a href="/wiki/Trihalomethane" title="Trihalomethane">trihalomethanes</a> (THM) since they are often associated with the presence of stray gas contamination, and typically co-occur with high halogen concentrations in hyper-saline waters.<sup id="cite_ref-Howarth_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howarth-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides, highly saline waters are a common natural feature in deep groundwater systems.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While conclusions regarding groundwater pollution as the result to hydraulic fracturing fluid flow is restricted in both space and time, researchers have hypothesized that the potential for systematic stray gas contamination depends mainly on the integrity of the shale oil/gas well structure, along with its relative geological location to local fracture systems that could potentially provide flow paths for fugitive gas migration.<sup id="cite_ref-Vengosh_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vengosh-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Howarth_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howarth-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though widespread, systematic contamination by hydraulic fracturing has been heavily disputed, one major source of contamination that has the most consensus among researchers of being the most problematic is site-specific accidental spillage of <a href="/wiki/Fracking_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fracking fluid">hydraulic fracturing fluid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Produced_water" title="Produced water">produced water</a>. So far, a significant majority of groundwater contamination events are derived from surface-level <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a> routes rather than the subsurface flow from underlying <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shale</a> formations.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the damage can be obvious, and much more effort is being done to prevent these accidents from occurring so frequently, the lack of data from fracking oil spills continue to leave researchers in the dark. In many of these events, the data acquired from the leakage or spillage is often very vague, and thus would lead researchers to lacking conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers from the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Institute_for_Geosciences_and_Natural_Resources" title="Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources">Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR)</a> conducted a model study for a deep shale-gas formation in the North German Basin. They concluded that the probability is small that the rise of fracking fluids through the geological underground to the surface will impact shallow groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landfill_leachate">Landfill leachate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Landfill leachate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Leachate" title="Leachate">Leachate</a> from sanitary <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfills</a> can lead to groundwater pollution. Chemicals can reach into ground water through precipitation and runoff. New landfills are required to be lined with clay or another synthetic material, along with leachate to protect surrounding ground water. However, older landfills do not have these measures and are often close to surface waters and in permeable soils. Closed landfills can still pose a threat to ground water if they are not capped by an impermeable material before closure to prevent leaking of contaminants.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Love_Canal" title="Love Canal">Love Canal</a> was one of the most widely known examples of groundwater pollution. In 1978, residents of the Love Canal neighborhood in upstate <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> noticed high rates of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> and an alarming number of <a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">birth defects</a>. This was eventually traced to <a href="/wiki/VOC_contamination_of_groundwater" title="VOC contamination of groundwater">organic solvents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds" title="Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds">dioxins</a> from an industrial landfill that the neighborhood had been built over and around, which had then infiltrated into the water supply and evaporated in basements to further contaminate the air. Eight hundred families were reimbursed for their homes and moved, after extensive legal battles and media coverage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Over-pumping">Over-pumping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Over-pumping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Satellite data in the <a href="/wiki/Mekong_Delta" title="Mekong Delta">Mekong Delta</a> in Vietnam have provided evidence that over-pumping of groundwater leads to land <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> as well as consequential release of arsenic and possibly other heavy metals.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arsenic is found in <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> strata due to their high surface area to volume ratio relative to sand-sized particles. Most pumped groundwater travels through sands and gravels with low arsenic concentration. However, during over-pumping, a high vertical gradient pulls water from less-permeable clays, thus promoting arsenic release into the water.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Groundwater pollution can be caused by chemical spills from commercial or industrial operations, chemical spills occurring during transport (e.g. spillage of <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel</a> fuels), <a href="/wiki/Illegal_dumping" title="Illegal dumping">illegal waste dumping</a>, infiltration from <a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">urban runoff</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> operations, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">road salts</a>, <a href="/wiki/De-ice" class="mw-redirect" title="De-ice">de-icing chemicals</a> from airports and even <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">atmospheric contaminants</a> since groundwater is part of the <a href="/wiki/Hydrologic_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrologic cycle">hydrologic cycle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Herbicide use can contribute to groundwater contamination through arsenic infiltration. Herbicides contribute to arsenic desorption through mobilization and transportation of the contaminant. Chlorinated herbicides exhibit a lower impact on arsenic desorption than phosphate type herbicides. This can help to prevent arsenic contamination through choosing herbicides appropriate for different concentrations of arsenic present in certain soils.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The burial of corpses and their subsequent degradation may also pose a risk of pollution to groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The passage of water through the subsurface can provide a reliable natural barrier to contamination but it only works under favorable conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolf2015-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The stratigraphy of the area plays an important role in the transport of pollutants. An area can have layers of sandy soil, fractured bedrock, clay, or hardpan. Areas of karst topography on limestone bedrock are sometimes vulnerable to surface pollution from groundwater. Earthquake faults can also be entry routes for downward contaminant entry. Water table conditions are of great importance for drinking water supplies, agricultural irrigation, waste disposal (including nuclear waste), wildlife habitat, and other ecological issues.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemical change, especially over long periods of time in <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the <a href="/wiki/Chlorinated_hydrocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorinated hydrocarbons">chlorinated hydrocarbons</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Trichloroethylene" title="Trichloroethylene">trichloroethylene</a> (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and <a href="/wiki/Tetrachloroethylene" title="Tetrachloroethylene">tetrachloroethylene</a> used in the dry cleaning industry. Both of these chemicals, which are thought to be <a href="/wiki/Carcinogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcinogens">carcinogens</a> themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including <a href="/wiki/Dichloroethylene" class="mw-redirect" title="Dichloroethylene">dichloroethylene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vinyl_chloride" title="Vinyl chloride">vinyl chloride</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interactions_with_surface_water">Interactions with surface water</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Interactions with surface water"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although interrelated, <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources.<sup id="cite_ref-circ1139_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-circ1139-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interactions between <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> and surface water are complex. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. For example, many rivers and lakes are fed by groundwater. This means that damage to groundwater aquifers e.g. by <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">fracking</a> or over abstraction, could therefore affect the rivers and lakes that rely on it. <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">Saltwater intrusion</a> into <a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">coastal</a> aquifers is an example of such interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A spill or ongoing release of chemical or <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radionuclide</a> contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic <a href="/wiki/Plume_(hydrodynamics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Plume (hydrodynamics)">plume</a>. The movement of the plume, may be analyzed through a <a href="/wiki/Hydrological_transport_model" title="Hydrological transport model">hydrological transport model</a> or <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_model" title="Groundwater model">groundwater model</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Prevention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Safer_siting_of_sanitation_systems_-_schematic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Safer_siting_of_sanitation_systems_-_schematic.jpg/220px-Safer_siting_of_sanitation_systems_-_schematic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Safer_siting_of_sanitation_systems_-_schematic.jpg/330px-Safer_siting_of_sanitation_systems_-_schematic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Safer_siting_of_sanitation_systems_-_schematic.jpg/440px-Safer_siting_of_sanitation_systems_-_schematic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1958" data-file-height="1453" /></a><figcaption>Schematic showing that there is a lower risk of groundwater pollution with greater depth of the water well<sup id="cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolf2015-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precautionary_principle">Precautionary principle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Precautionary principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">Precautionary principle</a></div><p>The <a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">precautionary principle</a>, evolved from Principle 15 of the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Declaration_on_Environment_and_Development" title="Rio Declaration on Environment and Development">Rio Declaration on Environment and Development</a>, is important in protecting groundwater resources from pollution. The precautionary principle provides that "where there are threats of irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the six basic principles of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (EU) water policy is the application of the precautionary principle.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Groundwater_quality_monitoring">Groundwater quality monitoring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Groundwater quality monitoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Groundwater quality monitoring programs have been implemented regularly in many countries around the world. They are important components to understand the hydrogeological system, and for the development of conceptual models and aquifer vulnerability maps.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006b-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Groundwater quality must be regularly monitored across the aquifer to determine trends. Effective groundwater monitoring should be driven by a specific objective, for example, a specific contaminant of concern.<sup id="cite_ref-ICUN_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICUN-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contaminant levels can be compared to the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) guidelines for drinking-water quality.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not rare that limits of contaminants are reduced as more medical experience is gained.<sup id="cite_ref-GEF_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GEF-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sufficient investment should be given to continue monitoring over the long term. When a problem is found, action should be taken to correct it.<sup id="cite_ref-ICUN_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICUN-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Waterborne outbreaks in the United States decreased with the introduction of more stringent monitoring (and treatment) requirements in the early 90s.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The community can also help monitor the groundwater quality.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006b-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scientists have developed methods by which hazard maps could be produced for geogenic toxic substances in groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This provides an efficient way of determining which wells should be tested.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_zoning_for_groundwater_protection">Land zoning for groundwater protection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Land zoning for groundwater protection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of land-use zoning maps has been implemented by several water authorities at different scales around the world. There are two types of zoning maps: aquifer vulnerability maps and source protection maps.<sup id="cite_ref-ICUN_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICUN-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aquifer_vulnerability_map">Aquifer vulnerability map</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Aquifer vulnerability map"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It refers to the intrinsic (or natural) vulnerability of a groundwater system to pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-ICUN_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICUN-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intrinsically, some aquifers are more vulnerable to pollution than other aquifers.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006b-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shallow unconfined <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a> are more at risk of pollution because there are fewer layers to filter out contaminants.<sup id="cite_ref-ICUN_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICUN-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Vadose_zone" title="Vadose zone">unsaturated zone</a> can play an important role in retarding (and in some cases eliminating) pathogens and so must be considered when assessing aquifer vulnerability.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biological activity is greatest in the top soil layers where the attenuation of pathogens is generally most effective.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Preparation of the vulnerability maps typically involves overlaying several thematic maps of physical factors that have been selected to describe the aquifer vulnerability.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006b-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The index-based parametric mapping method GOD developed by Foster and Hirata (1988) uses three generally available or readily estimated parameters, the degree of <b>G</b>roundwater hydraulic confinement, geological nature of the <b>O</b>verlying strata and <b>D</b>epth to groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006b-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further approach developed by EPA, a rating system named "DRASTIC", employs seven hydrogeological factors to develop an index of vulnerability: <b>D</b>epth to water table, net <b>R</b>echarge, <b>A</b>quifer media, <b>S</b>oil media, <b>T</b>opography (slope), <b>I</b>mpact on the <a href="/wiki/Vadose_zone" title="Vadose zone">vadose zone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">hydraulic <b>C</b>onductivity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006b-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is a particular debate among hydrogeologists as to whether aquifer vulnerability should be established in a general (intrinsic) way for all contaminants, or specifically for each pollutant.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006b-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Source_protection_map">Source protection map</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Source protection map"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It refers to the capture areas around an individual groundwater source, such as a water well or a spring, to especially protect them from pollution. Thus, potential sources of degradable pollutants, such as pathogens, can be located at distances which travel times along the flowpaths are long enough for the pollutant to be eliminated through filtration or adsorption.<sup id="cite_ref-ICUN_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICUN-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Analytical methods using equations to define groundwater flow and contaminant transport are the most widely used.<sup id="cite_ref-WHOb_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHOb-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The WHPA is a semi-analytical groundwater flow simulation program developed by the US EPA for delineating capture zones in a wellhead protection area.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The simplest form of zoning employs fixed-distance methods where activities are excluded within a uniformly applied specified distance around abstraction points.<sup id="cite_ref-WHOb_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHOb-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Locating_on-site_sanitation_systems">Locating on-site sanitation systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Locating on-site sanitation systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the health effects of most toxic chemicals arise after prolonged exposure, risk to health from chemicals is generally lower than that from pathogens.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the quality of the source protection measures is an important component in controlling whether pathogens may be present in the final drinking-water.<sup id="cite_ref-WHOb_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHOb-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On-site sanitation systems can be designed in such a way that groundwater pollution from these sanitation systems is prevented from occurring.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolf2015-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nick_2012_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nick_2012-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detailed guidelines have been developed to estimate safe distances to protect <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> sources from pollution from on-site <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following criteria have been proposed for safe siting (i.e. deciding on the location) of on-site sanitation systems:<sup id="cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolf2015-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Horizontal distance between the drinking water source and the sanitation system <ul><li>Guideline values for horizontal separation distances between on-site sanitation systems and water sources vary widely (e.g. 15 to 100 m horizontal distance between <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">pit latrine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">groundwater wells</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Graham2013_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Vertical distance between drinking water well and sanitation system</li> <li>Aquifer type</li> <li>Groundwater flow direction</li> <li>Impermeable layers</li> <li>Slope and surface drainage</li> <li>Volume of leaking wastewater</li> <li>Superposition, i.e. the need to consider a larger planning area</li></ul> <p>As a very general guideline it is recommended that the bottom of the pit should be at least 2 m above groundwater level, and a minimum horizontal distance of 30 m between a pit and a water source is normally recommended to limit exposure to microbial contamination.<sup>[1] </sup>However, no general statement should be made regarding the minimum lateral separation distances required to prevent contamination of a well from a pit latrine.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolf2015-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, even 50 m lateral separation distance might not be sufficient in a strongly <a href="/wiki/Karst" title="Karst">karstified</a> system with a downgradient supply well or spring, while 10 m lateral separation distance is completely sufficient if there is a well developed clay cover layer and the annular space of the groundwater well is well sealed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legislation">Legislation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Legislation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Institutional and legal issues are critical in determining the success or failure of groundwater protection policies and strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2006_4-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States the <a href="/wiki/Resource_Conservation_and_Recovery_Act" title="Resource Conservation and Recovery Act">Resource Conservation and Recovery Act</a> protects groundwater by regulating the disposal of solid waste and <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous waste</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Environmental_Response,_Compensation,_and_Liability_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act">Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act</a>, also known as "Superfund", requires remediation of abandoned hazardous waste sites.<sup id="cite_ref-RCRA_statute_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RCRA_statute-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blaues_Hinweisschild_Wasserschutzgebiet.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Blaues_Hinweisschild_Wasserschutzgebiet.JPG/220px-Blaues_Hinweisschild_Wasserschutzgebiet.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Blaues_Hinweisschild_Wasserschutzgebiet.JPG/330px-Blaues_Hinweisschild_Wasserschutzgebiet.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Blaues_Hinweisschild_Wasserschutzgebiet.JPG/440px-Blaues_Hinweisschild_Wasserschutzgebiet.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Sign near Mannheim, Germany, indicating a zone as a dedicated "groundwater protection zone"</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Options for remediation of contaminated groundwater can be grouped into the following categories: </p> <ul><li>containing the pollutants to prevent them from migrating further</li> <li>removing the pollutants from the aquifer</li> <li>remediating the aquifer by either immobilizing or detoxifying the contaminants while they are still in the aquifer (in-situ)</li> <li>treating the groundwater at its point of use</li> <li>abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (March 2015)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Point-of-use_treatment">Point-of-use treatment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Point-of-use treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Portable_water_purification" title="Portable water purification">Portable water purification</a></div> <p>Portable water purification devices or "point-of-use" (POU) water treatment systems and field water disinfection techniques can be used to remove some forms of groundwater pollution prior to drinking, namely any fecal pollution. Many commercial portable water purification systems or chemical additives are available which can remove pathogens, chlorine, bad taste, odors, and heavy metals like lead and mercury.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Techniques include boiling, filtration, activated charcoal absorption, chemical disinfection, ultraviolet purification, ozone water disinfection, solar water disinfection, solar distillation, homemade water filters.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Arsenic removal filters (ARF) are dedicated technologies typically installed to remove arsenic. Many of these technologies require a capital investment and long-term maintenance. Filters in Bangladesh are usually abandoned by the users due to their high cost and complicated maintenance, which is also quite expensive.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Groundwater_remediation">Groundwater remediation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Groundwater remediation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">Groundwater remediation</a></div> <p>Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>. Non-porous aquifers such as <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clays</a> partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity; however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to <a href="/wiki/Soil_contaminant" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil contaminant">soil contaminants</a>. Groundwater that moves through open <a href="/wiki/Fracture_(geology)" title="Fracture (geology)">fractures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caverns" class="mw-redirect" title="Caverns">caverns</a> is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural <a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">sinkholes</a> as dumps in areas of <a href="/wiki/Karst_topography" class="mw-redirect" title="Karst topography">karst topography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pollutants and contaminants can be removed from ground water by applying various techniques thereby making it safe for use. Ground water treatment (or remediation) techniques span biological, chemical, and physical treatment technologies. Most ground water treatment techniques utilize a combination of technologies. Some of the biological treatment techniques include <a href="/wiki/Bioaugmentation" title="Bioaugmentation">bioaugmentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioventing" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioventing">bioventing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biosparging" class="mw-redirect" title="Biosparging">biosparging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioslurping" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioslurping">bioslurping</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">phytoremediation</a>. Some chemical treatment techniques include ozone and oxygen gas injection, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_precipitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical precipitation">chemical precipitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Membrane_technology" title="Membrane technology">membrane separation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_exchange" title="Ion exchange">ion exchange</a>, carbon absorption, aqueous chemical oxidation, and surfactant-enhanced recovery. Some chemical techniques may be implemented using <a href="/wiki/Nanoremediation" title="Nanoremediation">nanomaterials</a>. Physical treatment techniques include, but are not limited to, pump and treat, <a href="/wiki/Air_sparging" title="Air sparging">air sparging</a>, and dual phase extraction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abandonment">Abandonment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Abandonment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If treatment or remediation of the polluted groundwater is deemed to be too difficult or expensive, then abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water is the only other option. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lusaka,_Zambia"><span id="Lusaka.2C_Zambia"></span>Lusaka, Zambia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Lusaka, Zambia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Zambia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Zambia">Water supply and sanitation in Zambia</a></div> <p>The peri-urban areas of Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, have ground conditions which are strongly karstified and for this reason – together with the increasing population density in these peri-urban areas – pollution of water wells from pit latrines is a major public health threat there.<sup id="cite_ref-EPA_gw-rule_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPA_gw-rule-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Babati_town,_Tanzania"><span id="Babati_town.2C_Tanzania"></span>Babati town, Tanzania</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Babati town, Tanzania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Tanzania" title="Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania">Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania</a></div> <p>In Tanzania, many residents rely on groundwater sources, mainly from shallow on-site wells, for drinking and other domestic purposes. The cost of the official water supply has resulted in many households relying on private wells rather than Babati's urban water and sanitation facilities. The consumption of water from temporary water sources of unknown quality (mainly shallow wells) has resulted in large numbers of people suffering from water-borne diseases. In Tanzania, 23,900 children under the age of 5 are reported to die each year from dysentery and diarrhoea associated with drinking unsafe water.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India">India</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">Water supply and sanitation in India</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganga River Basin (GRB)</a> which is a sacred body of water for the Hindus is facing severe <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> contamination. India covers 79% of the GRB, and thus numerous states have been affected. Affected states include <a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jharkhand" title="Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarh" title="Chhattisgarh">Chhattisgarh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>. The arsenic levels are up to 4730 μg/L in the groundwater, ~1000 μg/L in irrigation water, and up to 3947 μg/kg in food materials all of which all exceed the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization</a>'s standard for irrigation water and the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>'s standards for drinking water. As a result, individuals who are exposed suffer from diseases that affect their dermal, neurological, reproductive and cognitive functioning, and can even result in cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In India the government has proceeded to promote sanitation development in order to combat the rise in ground water contamination in several regions of the country. The effort has proved to show results and has decreased the groundwater pollution and has decreased the chance of sickness for mothers and children who were mainly affected by this issue. This was something greatly needed as according to the study, over 117,000 children under five die every year due to consuming polluted water. The countries effort has seen success in the more economically developed sections of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Canada" title="Water supply and sanitation in Canada">Water supply and sanitation in Canada</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hinkley,_U.S."><span id="Hinkley.2C_U.S."></span>Hinkley, U.S.</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Hinkley, U.S."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The town of Hinkley, California (U.S.), had <a href="/wiki/Hinkley_groundwater_contamination" title="Hinkley groundwater contamination">its groundwater contaminated</a> with <a href="/wiki/Hexavalent_chromium" title="Hexavalent chromium">hexavalent chromium</a> starting in 1952, resulting in a legal case against <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Gas_%26_Electric" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Gas & Electric">Pacific Gas & Electric</a> (PG&E) and a multimillion-dollar settlement in 1996. The legal case was dramatized in the film <i><a href="/wiki/Erin_Brockovich_(film)" title="Erin Brockovich (film)">Erin Brockovich</a></i>, released in 2000. </p><p><b>San Joaquin, U.S.</b> </p><p>Intensive pumping in San Joaquin county, California, has resulted in arsenic pollution. San Joaquin county has faced serious intensive pumping which has caused the ground below San Joaquin to sink and in turn damaged infrastructure. This intensive pumping into groundwater has allowed arsenic to move into groundwater aquifers which supply drinking water to at least a million residents and used in irrigation for crops in some of the richest farmland in the US. Aquifers are made up of sand and gravel that are separated by thin layers of clay which acts as a sponge that holds onto water and arsenic. When water is pumped intensively, the aquifer compresses and ground sinks which leads to the clay releasing arsenic. Study shows that aquifers contaminated as a result from over pumping, they can recover if withdrawals stop.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norco,_California"><span id="Norco.2C_California"></span>Norco, California</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Norco, California"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The town of <a href="/wiki/Norco,_California" title="Norco, California">Norco, California</a> was affected by <a href="/wiki/Trichloroethylene" title="Trichloroethylene">Trichloroethylene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrazine" title="Hydrazine">Hydrazine</a> <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Groundwater contamination">groundwater contamination</a> as a result of improper and negligent hazardous material handling and disposal practices from the <a href="/wiki/Wyle_Laboratories" title="Wyle Laboratories">Wyle Laboratories</a> facility, which was located next to the <a href="/wiki/Norco_High_School" title="Norco High School">Norco High School</a>. Trichlorethylene levels were detected as high as 128 times higher than the states safe limit for drinking water and Hydrazine was found in 2 nearby wells. <sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The site is no longer in operation, and is an active hazmat cleanup site. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Walkerton,_Canada"><span id="Walkerton.2C_Canada"></span>Walkerton, Canada</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Walkerton, Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the year 2000, groundwater pollution occurred in the small town of Walkerton, Canada leading to seven deaths in what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Walkerton_E._coli_outbreak" title="Walkerton E. coli outbreak">Walkerton <i>E. Coli</i> outbreak</a>. The water supply which was drawn from <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> became contaminated with the highly dangerous <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli_O157:H7" title="Escherichia coli O157:H7">O157:H7</a> strain of <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a></i> bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This contamination was due to farm runoff into an adjacent <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">water well</a> that was vulnerable to groundwater pollution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAdelana2014" class="citation book cs1">Adelana, Segun Michael (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/915416488"><i>Groundwater: Hydrogeochemistry, Environmental Impacts and Management Practices</i></a>. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63321-791-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-63321-791-1"><bdi>978-1-63321-791-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/915416488">915416488</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groundwater%3A+Hydrogeochemistry%2C+Environmental+Impacts+and+Management+Practices.&rft.pub=Nova+Science+Publishers%2C+Inc&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F915416488&rft.isbn=978-1-63321-791-1&rft.aulast=Adelana&rft.aufirst=Segun+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F915416488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCostallHarrisTeoSchaa2020" class="citation journal cs1">Costall, A. R.; Harris, B. D.; Teo, B.; Schaa, R.; Wagner, F. M.; Pigois, J. P. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7300005">"Groundwater Throughflow and Seawater Intrusion in High Quality Coastal Aquifers"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Reports" title="Scientific Reports">Scientific Reports</a></i>. <b>10</b> (1): 9866. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatSR..10.9866C">2020NatSR..10.9866C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-020-66516-6">10.1038/s41598-020-66516-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7300005">7300005</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32555499">32555499</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Groundwater+Throughflow+and+Seawater+Intrusion+in+High+Quality+Coastal+Aquifers&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=9866&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7300005%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NatSR..10.9866C&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32555499&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-020-66516-6&rft.issn=2045-2322&rft.aulast=Costall&rft.aufirst=A.+R.&rft.au=Harris%2C+B.+D.&rft.au=Teo%2C+B.&rft.au=Schaa%2C+R.&rft.au=Wagner%2C+F.+M.&rft.au=Pigois%2C+J.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7300005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHanSongCurrellYang2014" class="citation journal cs1">Han, D.M.; Song, X.F.; Currell, Matthew J.; Yang, J.L.; Xiao, G.Q. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169413007695">"Chemical and isotopic constraints on evolution of groundwater salinization in the coastal plain aquifer of Laizhou Bay, China"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Hydrology" title="Journal of Hydrology">Journal of Hydrology</a></i>. <b>508</b>: <span class="nowrap">12–</span>27. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014JHyd..508...12H">2014JHyd..508...12H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhydrol.2013.10.040">10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.10.040</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hydrology&rft.atitle=Chemical+and+isotopic+constraints+on+evolution+of+groundwater+salinization+in+the+coastal+plain+aquifer+of+Laizhou+Bay%2C+China&rft.volume=508&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E12-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jhydrol.2013.10.040&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014JHyd..508...12H&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=D.M.&rft.au=Song%2C+X.F.&rft.au=Currell%2C+Matthew+J.&rft.au=Yang%2C+J.L.&rft.au=Xiao%2C+G.Q.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0022169413007695&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO2006-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006_4-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization_(WHO)" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/PGWsection1.pdf">"Section 1:Managing the Quality of Drinking-water Sources"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality oPublishing for WHO</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Section+1%3AManaging+the+Quality+of+Drinking-water+Sources&rft.btitle=Protecting+Groundwater+for+Health%3A+Managing+the+Quality+oPublishing+for+WHO&rft.au=World+Health+Organization+%28WHO%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fwater_sanitation_health%2Fpublications%2FPGWsection1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrindhaElango2011" class="citation book cs1">Brindha, K.; Elango, L. (2011). "Fluoride in groundwater: causes, implications and mitigation measures". <i>Fluoride properties, applications and environmental management</i>. Vol. 1. pp. <span class="nowrap">111–</span>136.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fluoride+in+groundwater%3A+causes%2C+implications+and+mitigation+measures&rft.btitle=Fluoride+properties%2C+applications+and+environmental+management&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E111-%3C%2Fspan%3E136&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Brindha&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Elango%2C+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonHiltbold1969" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson LR, Hiltbold AE (1969). "Arsenic Content of Soil and Crops Following Use of Methanearsonate Herbicides". <i><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America_Journal" title="Soil Science Society of America Journal">Soil Science Society of America Journal</a></i>. <b>33</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">279–</span>282. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969SSASJ..33..279J">1969SSASJ..33..279J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2136%2Fsssaj1969.03615995003300020032x">10.2136/sssaj1969.03615995003300020032x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1435-0661">1435-0661</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soil+Science+Society+of+America+Journal&rft.atitle=Arsenic+Content+of+Soil+and+Crops+Following+Use+of+Methanearsonate+Herbicides&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E279-%3C%2Fspan%3E282&rft.date=1969&rft.issn=1435-0661&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2136%2Fsssaj1969.03615995003300020032x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969SSASJ..33..279J&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=LR&rft.au=Hiltbold%2C+AE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRavenscroft2007" class="citation web cs1">Ravenscroft P (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170319023736/http://users.physics.harvard.edu/~wilson/arsenic/references/Ravenscroft_Prediction.pdf">"Predicting the global extent of arsenic pollution of groundwater and its potential impact on human health"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.physics.harvard.edu/~wilson/arsenic/references/Ravenscroft_Prediction.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 19, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Predicting+the+global+extent+of+arsenic+pollution+of+groundwater+and+its+potential+impact+on+human+health&rft.pub=UNICEF&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Ravenscroft&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.physics.harvard.edu%2F~wilson%2Farsenic%2Freferences%2FRavenscroft_Prediction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbedinFeldmannMeharg2002" class="citation journal cs1">Abedin MJ, Feldmann J, Meharg AA (March 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC152223">"Uptake kinetics of arsenic species in rice plants"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Plant_Physiology_(journal)" title="Plant Physiology (journal)">Plant Physiology</a></i>. <b>128</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">1120–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1104%2Fpp.010733">10.1104/pp.010733</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC152223">152223</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11891266">11891266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Physiology&rft.atitle=Uptake+kinetics+of+arsenic+species+in+rice+plants&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1120-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2002-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC152223%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11891266&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1104%2Fpp.010733&rft.aulast=Abedin&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.au=Feldmann%2C+J&rft.au=Meharg%2C+AA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC152223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICUN-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ICUN_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICUN_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICUN_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICUN_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICUN_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICUN_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICUN_9-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICUN_9-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICUN_9-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmithCrossPadenLaben2016" class="citation book cs1">Smith M, Cross K, Paden M, Laben P, eds. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2016-039.pdf"><i>Spring - managing groundwater sustainably</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/IUCN" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN">IUCN</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-8317-1789-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-8317-1789-0"><bdi>978-2-8317-1789-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spring+-+managing+groundwater+sustainably&rft.pub=IUCN&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-2-8317-1789-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fportals.iucn.org%2Flibrary%2Fsites%2Flibrary%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2F2016-039.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GEF-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GEF_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GEF_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GEF_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GEF_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCustodio2013" class="citation book cs1">Custodio E, ed. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180921022542/http://www.groundwatergovernance.org/fileadmin/user_upload/groundwatergovernance/docs/Thematic_papers/GWG_Thematic_Paper_1.pdf"><i>Trends in groundwater pollution: Loss of groundwater quality & related services - Groundwater Governance</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Global Environmental Facility (GEF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.groundwatergovernance.org/fileadmin/user_upload/groundwatergovernance/docs/Thematic_papers/GWG_Thematic_Paper_1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on September 21, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trends+in+groundwater+pollution%3A+Loss+of+groundwater+quality+%26+related+services+-+Groundwater+Governance&rft.pub=Global+Environmental+Facility+%28GEF%29&rft.date=2013&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.groundwatergovernance.org%2Ffileadmin%2Fuser_upload%2Fgroundwatergovernance%2Fdocs%2FThematic_papers%2FGWG_Thematic_Paper_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHOfluoride-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WHOfluoride_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFawellBaileyChiltonDahi2006" class="citation book cs1">Fawell J, Bailey K, Chilton J, Dahi E (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/fluoride_drinking_water_full.pdf"><i>Fluoride in drinking-water</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Geneva: IWA for <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9241563192" title="Special:BookSources/978-9241563192"><bdi>978-9241563192</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fluoride+in+drinking-water&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=IWA+for+WHO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-9241563192&rft.aulast=Fawell&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Bailey%2C+K&rft.au=Chilton%2C+J&rft.au=Dahi%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fwater_sanitation_health%2Fpublications%2Ffluoride_drinking_water_full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wolf2015-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolf2015_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWolfNickCronin2015" class="citation book cs1">Wolf L, Nick A, Cronin A (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2155"><i>How to keep your groundwater drinkable: Safer siting of sanitation systems</i></a>. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance Working Group 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+keep+your+groundwater+drinkable%3A+Safer+siting+of+sanitation+systems&rft.pub=Sustainable+Sanitation+Alliance+Working+Group+11&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Nick%2C+A&rft.au=Cronin%2C+A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.susana.org%2Fen%2Fresources%2Flibrary%2Fdetails%2F2155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wolf2014-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wolf2014_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWolfPrüss-UstünCummingBartram2014" class="citation journal cs1">Wolf J, Prüss-Ustün A, Cumming O, Bartram J, Bonjour S, Cairncross S, et al. (August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/51912/1/Wolf_2014_Assessing_impact_of_drinking_water.pdf">"Assessing the impact of drinking water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease in low- and middle-income settings: systematic review and meta-regression"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Medicine_%26_International_Health" title="Tropical Medicine & International Health">Tropical Medicine & International Health</a></i>. <b>19</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">928–</span>42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Ftmi.12331">10.1111/tmi.12331</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24811732">24811732</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22903164">22903164</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tropical+Medicine+%26+International+Health&rft.atitle=Assessing+the+impact+of+drinking+water+and+sanitation+on+diarrhoeal+disease+in+low-+and+middle-income+settings%3A+systematic+review+and+meta-regression&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E928-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.date=2014-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22903164%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24811732&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Ftmi.12331&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Pr%C3%BCss-Ust%C3%BCn%2C+A&rft.au=Cumming%2C+O&rft.au=Bartram%2C+J&rft.au=Bonjour%2C+S&rft.au=Cairncross%2C+S&rft.au=Clasen%2C+T&rft.au=Colford%2C+JM&rft.au=Curtis%2C+V&rft.au=De+France%2C+J&rft.au=Fewtrell%2C+L&rft.au=Freeman%2C+MC&rft.au=Gordon%2C+B&rft.au=Hunter%2C+PR&rft.au=Jeandron%2C+A&rft.au=Johnston%2C+RB&rft.au=M%C3%A4usezahl%2C+D&rft.au=Mathers%2C+C&rft.au=Neira%2C+M&rft.au=Higgins%2C+JP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fueaeprints.uea.ac.uk%2F51912%2F1%2FWolf_2014_Assessing_impact_of_drinking_water.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bacteria_and_Their_Effects_on_Ground-Water_Quality-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bacteria_and_Their_Effects_on_Ground-Water_Quality_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mi.water.usgs.gov/h2oqual/GWBactHOWeb.html">"Bacteria and Their Effects on Ground-Water Quality"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michigan_Water_Science_Center&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michigan Water Science Center (page does not exist)">Michigan Water Science Center</a></i>. Lansing, MI: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a> (USGS). January 4, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Michigan+Water+Science+Center&rft.atitle=Bacteria+and+Their+Effects+on+Ground-Water+Quality&rft.date=2017-01-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmi.water.usgs.gov%2Fh2oqual%2FGWBactHOWeb.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Banks_and_Battigelli-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Banks_and_Battigelli_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBanksBattigelli2002" class="citation report cs1">Banks WS, Battigelli DA (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/wri01-4216/wrir-01-4216.pdf">Occurrence and Distribution of Microbiological Contamination and Enteric Viruses in Shallow Ground Water in Baltimore and Harford Counties, Maryland</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Baltimore, MD: <a href="/wiki/USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a>. Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4216.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Occurrence+and+Distribution+of+Microbiological+Contamination+and+Enteric+Viruses+in+Shallow+Ground+Water+in+Baltimore+and+Harford+Counties%2C+Maryland&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+MD&rft.pub=USGS&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Banks&rft.aufirst=WS&rft.au=Battigelli%2C+DA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fwri%2Fwri01-4216%2Fwrir-01-4216.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNEP-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UNEP_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoss2010" class="citation book cs1">Ross N, ed. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190605003128/http://www.cep.unep.org/meetings/documents/19fa8807cd439e60dc1125fdea9f6ca1"><i>Clearing the waters a focus on water quality solutions</i></a>. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-807-3074-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-807-3074-6"><bdi>978-92-807-3074-6</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cep.unep.org/meetings/documents/19fa8807cd439e60dc1125fdea9f6ca1">the original</a> on June 5, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clearing+the+waters+a+focus+on+water+quality+solutions&rft.place=Nairobi%2C+Kenya&rft.pub=UNEP&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-92-807-3074-6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cep.unep.org%2Fmeetings%2Fdocuments%2F19fa8807cd439e60dc1125fdea9f6ca1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AGW-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AGW_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AGW_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAGW-Net2016" class="citation book cs1">AGW-Net (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151013005259/http://www.agw-net.org/resources/docs/Literature/GW_RBO_Training_Manual/English_version/08_Training_Manual_en.pdf"><i>Integration of Groundwater Management into Transboundary Basin Organizations in Africa: Groundwater Hazards - a Training Manual by AGW-Net, BGR, IWMI, CapNet, ANBO, & IGRAC</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agw-net.org/resources/docs/Literature/GW_RBO_Training_Manual/English_version/08_Training_Manual_en.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on October 13, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Integration+of+Groundwater+Management+into+Transboundary+Basin+Organizations+in+Africa%3A+Groundwater+Hazards+-+a+Training+Manual+by+AGW-Net%2C+BGR%2C+IWMI%2C+CapNet%2C+ANBO%2C+%26+IGRAC.&rft.date=2016&rft.au=AGW-Net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.agw-net.org%2Fresources%2Fdocs%2FLiterature%2FGW_RBO_Training_Manual%2FEnglish_version%2F08_Training_Manual_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKnobelochSalnaHoganPostle2000" class="citation journal cs1">Knobeloch L, Salna B, Hogan A, Postle J, Anderson H (July 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1638204">"Blue babies and nitrate-contaminated well water"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Health_Perspectives" title="Environmental Health Perspectives">Environmental Health Perspectives</a></i>. <b>108</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">675–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000EnvHP.108..675K">2000EnvHP.108..675K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.00108675">10.1289/ehp.00108675</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1638204">1638204</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10903623">10903623</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Blue+babies+and+nitrate-contaminated+well+water&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E675-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2000-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1638204%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10903623&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.00108675&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000EnvHP.108..675K&rft.aulast=Knobeloch&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Salna%2C+B&rft.au=Hogan%2C+A&rft.au=Postle%2C+J&rft.au=Anderson%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1638204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/1998/83/2015-10-27">"Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption, ANNEX I: PARAMETERS AND PARAMETRIC VALUES, PART B: Chemical parameters"</a>. <i>EUR-Lex</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 30,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EUR-Lex&rft.atitle=Council+Directive+98%2F83%2FEC+of+3+November+1998+on+the+quality+of+water+intended+for+human+consumption%2C+ANNEX+I%3A+PARAMETERS+AND+PARAMETRIC+VALUES%2C+PART+B%3A+Chemical+parameters&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdata.europa.eu%2Feli%2Fdir%2F1998%2F83%2F2015-10-27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fewtrell-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fewtrell_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFewtrell2004" class="citation journal cs1">Fewtrell L (October 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1247562">"Drinking-water nitrate, methemoglobinemia, and global burden of disease: a discussion"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Health_Perspectives" title="Environmental Health Perspectives">Environmental Health Perspectives</a></i>. <b>112</b> (14): <span class="nowrap">1371–</span>4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004EnvHP.112.1371F">2004EnvHP.112.1371F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.7216">10.1289/ehp.7216</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1247562">1247562</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15471727">15471727</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Drinking-water+nitrate%2C+methemoglobinemia%2C+and+global+burden+of+disease%3A+a+discussion&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1371-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=2004-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1247562%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15471727&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.7216&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004EnvHP.112.1371F&rft.aulast=Fewtrell&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1247562&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vanGrinsven-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vanGrinsven_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFvan_GrinsvenWardBenjaminde_Kok2006" class="citation journal cs1">van Grinsven HJ, Ward MH, Benjamin N, de Kok TM (September 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1586190">"Does the evidence about health risks associated with nitrate ingestion warrant an increase of the nitrate standard for drinking water?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Health_(journal)" title="Environmental Health (journal)">Environmental Health</a></i>. <b>5</b> (1): 26. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006EnvHe...5...26V">2006EnvHe...5...26V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1476-069X-5-26">10.1186/1476-069X-5-26</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1586190">1586190</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16989661">16989661</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health&rft.atitle=Does+the+evidence+about+health+risks+associated+with+nitrate+ingestion+warrant+an+increase+of+the+nitrate+standard+for+drinking+water%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=26&rft.date=2006-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1586190%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16989661&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1476-069X-5-26&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006EnvHe...5...26V&rft.aulast=van+Grinsven&rft.aufirst=HJ&rft.au=Ward%2C+MH&rft.au=Benjamin%2C+N&rft.au=de+Kok%2C+TM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1586190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ward-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ward_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWarddeKokLevalloisBrender2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ward MH, deKok TM, Levallois P, Brender J, Gulis G, Nolan BT, VanDerslice J (November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1310926">"Workgroup report: Drinking-water nitrate and health--recent findings and research needs"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Health_Perspectives" title="Environmental Health Perspectives">Environmental Health Perspectives</a></i>. <b>113</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1607–</span>14. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005EnvHP.113.1607W">2005EnvHP.113.1607W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.8043">10.1289/ehp.8043</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1310926">1310926</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263519">16263519</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Workgroup+report%3A+Drinking-water+nitrate+and+health--recent+findings+and+research+needs&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1607-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.date=2005-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1310926%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16263519&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.8043&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005EnvHP.113.1607W&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=MH&rft.au=deKok%2C+TM&rft.au=Levallois%2C+P&rft.au=Brender%2C+J&rft.au=Gulis%2C+G&rft.au=Nolan%2C+BT&rft.au=VanDerslice%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1310926&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBexfieldToccalinoBelitzForeman2019" class="citation journal cs1">Bexfield, Laura M.; Toccalino, Patricia L.; Belitz, Kenneth; Foreman, William T.; Furlong, Edward T. (March 19, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.est.8b05592">"Hormones and Pharmaceuticals in Groundwater Used As a Source of Drinking Water Across the United States"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Science_%26_Technology" title="Environmental Science & Technology">Environmental Science & Technology</a></i>. <b>53</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">2950–</span>2960. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019EnST...53.2950B">2019EnST...53.2950B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.est.8b05592">10.1021/acs.est.8b05592</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-936X">0013-936X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30834750">30834750</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Hormones+and+Pharmaceuticals+in+Groundwater+Used+As+a+Source+of+Drinking+Water+Across+the+United+States&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2950-%3C%2Fspan%3E2960&rft.date=2019-03-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facs.est.8b05592&rft.issn=0013-936X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30834750&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019EnST...53.2950B&rft.aulast=Bexfield&rft.aufirst=Laura+M.&rft.au=Toccalino%2C+Patricia+L.&rft.au=Belitz%2C+Kenneth&rft.au=Foreman%2C+William+T.&rft.au=Furlong%2C+Edward+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1021%252Facs.est.8b05592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-static.azdeq.gov-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-static.azdeq.gov_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-static.azdeq.gov_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://static.azdeq.gov/wqd/apec_emerging_cont_final.pdf">"Emerging Contaminants In Arizona Water"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. September 2016. p. 4.3.1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Emerging+Contaminants+In+Arizona+Water&rft.pages=4.3.1&rft.date=2016-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstatic.azdeq.gov%2Fwqd%2Fapec_emerging_cont_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBenottiFisherTerracciano2006" class="citation report cs1">Benotti MJ, Fisher SC, Terracciano SA (September 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1297/OFR2006-1297.pdf">Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals in Shallow Ground Water of Suffolk County, New York, 2002–2005</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Reston, VA: <a href="/wiki/USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a>. Open-File Report 2006–1297.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Occurrence+of+Pharmaceuticals+in+Shallow+Ground+Water+of+Suffolk+County%2C+New+York%2C+2002%E2%80%932005&rft.place=Reston%2C+VA&rft.pub=USGS&rft.date=2006-09&rft.aulast=Benotti&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.au=Fisher%2C+SC&rft.au=Terracciano%2C+SA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fof%2F2006%2F1297%2FOFR2006-1297.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USGS2009-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USGS2009_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeSimoneHamiltonGilliom2009" class="citation book cs1">DeSimone LA, Hamilton PA, Gilliom RJ (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1332/includes/circ1332.pdf"><i>Quality of water from domestic wells in principal aquifers of the United States, 1991-2004: overview of major findings</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Reston, VA: <a href="/wiki/USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781411323506" title="Special:BookSources/9781411323506"><bdi>9781411323506</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quality+of+water+from+domestic+wells+in+principal+aquifers+of+the+United+States%2C+1991-2004%3A+overview+of+major+findings&rft.place=Reston%2C+VA&rft.pub=USGS&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781411323506&rft.aulast=DeSimone&rft.aufirst=LA&rft.au=Hamilton%2C+PA&rft.au=Gilliom%2C+RJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fcirc%2Fcirc1332%2Fincludes%2Fcirc1332.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xu2006-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Xu2006_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFXuUsher2006" class="citation book cs1">Xu Y, Usher B, eds. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292226330"><i>Groundwater pollution in Africa</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-41167-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-41167-7"><bdi>978-0-415-41167-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groundwater+pollution+in+Africa&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-41167-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F292226330&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EAWAG2015-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EAWAG2015_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EAWAG2015_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EAWAG2015_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEAWAG2015" class="citation book cs1">EAWAG (2015). Johnson CA, Brezler A (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511010040/https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Forschung/Menschen/Trinkwasser/Wrq/Handbook/geogenic-contamination-handbook.pdf"><i>Geogenic Contamination Handbook - Addressing Arsenic and Fluoride in Drinking Water</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Forschung/Menschen/Trinkwasser/Wrq/Handbook/geogenic-contamination-handbook.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on May 11, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geogenic+Contamination+Handbook+-+Addressing+Arsenic+and+Fluoride+in+Drinking+Water&rft.pub=Swiss+Federal+Institute+of+Aquatic+Science+and+Technology+%28EAWAG%29&rft.date=2015&rft.au=EAWAG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eawag.ch%2Ffileadmin%2FDomain1%2FForschung%2FMenschen%2FTrinkwasser%2FWrq%2FHandbook%2Fgeogenic-contamination-handbook.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GAPMaps-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GAPMaps_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gapmaps.org">"Groundwater Assessment Platform"</a>. <i>GAP Maps</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GAP+Maps&rft.atitle=Groundwater+Assessment+Platform&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gapmaps.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/en/technical-rule/dvgw-w-101/92562980">Guidelines on drinking water protection areas – Part 1: Groundwater protection areas</a>. <i>Technical rule number W101:2006-06</i> (Report). Bonn: Deutsche Vereinigung des Gas- und Wasserfaches e.V. 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Guidelines+on+drinking+water+protection+areas+%E2%80%93+Part+1%3A+Groundwater+protection+areas&rft.place=Bonn&rft.pub=Deutsche+Vereinigung+des+Gas-+und+Wasserfaches+e.V.&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.beuth.de%2Fen%2Ftechnical-rule%2Fdvgw-w-101%2F92562980&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nick_2012-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nick_2012_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nick_2012_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNickFoppenKulabakoLo2012" class="citation web cs1">Nick A, Foppen JW, Kulabako R, Lo D, Samwel M, Wagner F, Wolf L (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/98">"Sustainable sanitation and groundwater protection"</a>. <i>Factsheet of Working Group 11</i>. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Factsheet+of+Working+Group+11&rft.atitle=Sustainable+sanitation+and+groundwater+protection&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Nick&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Foppen%2C+JW&rft.au=Kulabako%2C+R&rft.au=Lo%2C+D&rft.au=Samwel%2C+M&rft.au=Wagner%2C+F&rft.au=Wolf%2C+L&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.susana.org%2Fen%2Fresources%2Flibrary%2Fdetails%2F98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graham2013-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Graham2013_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Graham2013_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Graham2013_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrahamPolizzotto2013" class="citation journal cs1">Graham JP, Polizzotto ML (May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3673197">"Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Health_Perspectives" title="Environmental Health Perspectives">Environmental Health Perspectives</a></i>. <b>121</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">521–</span>30. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013EnvHP.121..521G">2013EnvHP.121..521G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1206028">10.1289/ehp.1206028</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3673197">3673197</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23518813">23518813</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Pit+latrines+and+their+impacts+on+groundwater+quality%3A+a+systematic+review&rft.volume=121&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E521-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.date=2013-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3673197%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23518813&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.1206028&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013EnvHP.121..521G&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=JP&rft.au=Polizzotto%2C+ML&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3673197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPhillipsChalmersGrayKolpin2012" class="citation journal cs1">Phillips PJ, Chalmers AT, Gray JL, Kolpin DW, Foreman WT, Wall GR (May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3352270">"Combined sewer overflows: an environmental source of hormones and wastewater micropollutants"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Science_%26_Technology" title="Environmental Science & Technology">Environmental Science & Technology</a></i>. <b>46</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">5336–</span>43. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012EnST...46.5336P">2012EnST...46.5336P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes3001294">10.1021/es3001294</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3352270">3352270</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22540536">22540536</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Combined+sewer+overflows%3A+an+environmental+source+of+hormones+and+wastewater+micropollutants&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5336-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=2012-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3352270%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22540536&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fes3001294&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012EnST...46.5336P&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=PJ&rft.au=Chalmers%2C+AT&rft.au=Gray%2C+JL&rft.au=Kolpin%2C+DW&rft.au=Foreman%2C+WT&rft.au=Wall%2C+GR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3352270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinker2009" class="citation thesis cs1">Winker M (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1007"><i>Pharmaceutical residues in urine and potential risks related to usage as fertiliser in agriculture</i></a> (PhD). Hamburg: <a href="/wiki/Hamburg_University_of_Technology" title="Hamburg University of Technology">Hamburg University of Technology</a> (TUHH), Hamburg, Germany. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-930400-41-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-930400-41-6"><bdi>978-3-930400-41-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Pharmaceutical+residues+in+urine+and+potential+risks+related+to+usage+as+fertiliser+in+agriculture&rft.inst=Hamburg+University+of+Technology+%28TUHH%29%2C+Hamburg%2C+Germany&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-930400-41-6&rft.aulast=Winker&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.susana.org%2Fen%2Fresources%2Flibrary%2Fdetails%2F1007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTellamRivettIsrafilovHerringshaw2006" class="citation book cs1">Tellam JH, Rivett MO, Israfilov RG, Herringshaw LG (2006). Tellam JH, Rivett MO, Israfilov RG, Herringshaw LG (eds.). <i>Urban Groundwater Management and Sustainability</i>. NATO Science Series. Vol. 74. Springer Link, NATO Science Series Volume 74 2006. p. 490. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-5175-1">10.1007/1-4020-5175-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5175-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5175-3"><bdi>978-1-4020-5175-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:140583063">140583063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urban+Groundwater+Management+and+Sustainability&rft.series=NATO+Science+Series&rft.pages=490&rft.pub=Springer+Link%2C+NATO+Science+Series+Volume+74+2006&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A140583063%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F1-4020-5175-1&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-5175-3&rft.aulast=Tellam&rft.aufirst=JH&rft.au=Rivett%2C+MO&rft.au=Israfilov%2C+RG&rft.au=Herringshaw%2C+LG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNWATER2015-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNWATER2015_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNWATER2015_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUN-Water2015" class="citation web cs1">UN-Water (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161130125232/http://www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/UN-Water_Analytical_Brief_Wastewater_Management.pdf">"Wastewater Management - A UN-Water Analytical Brief"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/UN-Water_Analytical_Brief_Wastewater_Management.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on November 30, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wastewater+Management+-+A+UN-Water+Analytical+Brief&rft.date=2015&rft.au=UN-Water&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unwater.org%2Ffileadmin%2Fuser_upload%2Funwater_new%2Fdocs%2FUN-Water_Analytical_Brief_Wastewater_Management.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khan2014-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Khan2014_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKhanMohammad2014" class="citation book cs1">Khan MN, Mohammad F (2014). "Eutrophication: Challenges and Solutions". In Ansari AA, Gill SS (eds.). <i>Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7813-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7813-9"><bdi>978-94-007-7813-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eutrophication%3A+Challenges+and+Solutions&rft.btitle=Eutrophication%3A+Causes%2C+Consequences+and+Control&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-94-007-7813-9&rft.aulast=Khan&rft.aufirst=MN&rft.au=Mohammad%2C+F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-singh1995-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-singh1995_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSinghSinghSekhon1995" class="citation journal cs1">Singh B, Singh Y, Sekhon GS (1995). "Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Contaminant_Hydrology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Contaminant Hydrology (page does not exist)">Journal of Contaminant Hydrology</a></i>. <b>20</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">167–</span>184. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995JCHyd..20..167S">1995JCHyd..20..167S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0169-7722%2895%2900067-4">10.1016/0169-7722(95)00067-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contaminant+Hydrology&rft.atitle=Fertilizer-N+use+efficiency+and+nitrate+pollution+of+groundwater+in+developing+countries&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E167-%3C%2Fspan%3E184&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0169-7722%2895%2900067-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995JCHyd..20..167S&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Singh%2C+Y&rft.au=Sekhon%2C+GS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jackson2008-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jackson2008_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJacksonBurgerCavagnaro2008" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson LE, Burger M, Cavagnaro TR (2008). "Roots, nitrogen transformations, and ecosystem services". <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Plant_Biology" title="Annual Review of Plant Biology">Annual Review of Plant Biology</a></i>. <b>59</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">341–</span>63. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AnRPB..59..341J">2008AnRPB..59..341J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.arplant.59.032607.092932">10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18444903">18444903</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6817866">6817866</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Plant+Biology&rft.atitle=Roots%2C+nitrogen+transformations%2C+and+ecosystem+services&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E341-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.arplant.59.032607.092932&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6817866%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18444903&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008AnRPB..59..341J&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=LE&rft.au=Burger%2C+M&rft.au=Cavagnaro%2C+TR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-suthar2009-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-suthar2009_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSutharBishnoiSinghMutiyar2009" class="citation journal cs1">Suthar S, Bishnoi P, Singh S, Mutiyar PK, Nema AK, Patil NS (November 2009). "Nitrate contamination in groundwater of some rural areas of Rajasthan, India". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Hazardous_Materials" title="Journal of Hazardous Materials">Journal of Hazardous Materials</a></i>. <b>171</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">189–</span>99. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JHzM..171..189S">2009JHzM..171..189S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhazmat.2009.05.111">10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.05.111</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19545944">19545944</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hazardous+Materials&rft.atitle=Nitrate+contamination+in+groundwater+of+some+rural+areas+of+Rajasthan%2C+India&rft.volume=171&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E189-%3C%2Fspan%3E99&rft.date=2009-11&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19545944&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jhazmat.2009.05.111&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009JHzM..171..189S&rft.aulast=Suthar&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Bishnoi%2C+P&rft.au=Singh%2C+S&rft.au=Mutiyar%2C+PK&rft.au=Nema%2C+AK&rft.au=Patil%2C+NS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31991L0676">Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PPDB-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PPDB_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ppdb/en/">"PPDB: Pesticide Properties DataBase"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_Hertfordshire" title="University of Hertfordshire">University of Hertfordshire</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 23,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Hertfordshire&rft.atitle=PPDB%3A+Pesticide+Properties+DataBase&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsitem.herts.ac.uk%2Faeru%2Fppdb%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHealth_Canada2014" class="citation web cs1">Health Canada (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/consult/_2014/tetrachloroethylene/draft-ebauche-eng.php">"Tetrachloroethylene in Drinking Water"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tetrachloroethylene+in+Drinking+Water&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Health+Canada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hc-sc.gc.ca%2Fewh-semt%2Fconsult%2F_2014%2Ftetrachloroethylene%2Fdraft-ebauche-eng.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFATSDR_(US_Agency_for_Toxic_Substance_&_Disease_Registry)2008" class="citation web cs1">ATSDR (US Agency for Toxic Substance & Disease Registry) (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/pha/AnnistonArmyDepot093008/Anniston%20Army%20Depot%20HC%20093008.pdf">"Follow-up Health Consultation: Anniston Army Depot"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Follow-up+Health+Consultation%3A+Anniston+Army+Depot.&rft.date=2008&rft.au=ATSDR+%28US+Agency+for+Toxic+Substance+%26+Disease+Registry%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atsdr.cdc.gov%2Fhac%2Fpha%2FAnnistonArmyDepot093008%2FAnniston%2520Army%2520Depot%2520HC%2520093008.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/remedytech/citizens-guide-drycleaner-cleanup">"A Citizen's Guide to Drycleaner Cleanup"</a>. <i>Technologies for Cleaning Up Contaminated Sites</i>. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). August 2011. EPA 542-F-11-013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Technologies+for+Cleaning+Up+Contaminated+Sites&rft.atitle=A+Citizen%27s+Guide+to+Drycleaner+Cleanup&rft.date=2011-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fremedytech%2Fcitizens-guide-drycleaner-cleanup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-atlanticwood-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-atlanticwood_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0302836">"Superfund Site: Atlantic Wood Industries, Inc"</a>. <i>Superfund</i>. Philadelphia, PA: <a href="/wiki/EPA" class="mw-redirect" title="EPA">EPA</a>. October 23, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Superfund&rft.atitle=Superfund+Site%3A+Atlantic+Wood+Industries%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2018-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcumulis.epa.gov%2Fsupercpad%2Fcursites%2Fcsitinfo.cfm%3Fid%3D0302836&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJacksonVengoshCareyDavies2014" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, Robert B.; Vengosh, Avner; Carey, J. William; Davies, Richard J.; Darrah, Thomas H.; O'Sullivan, Francis; Pétron, Gabrielle (October 17, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-environ-031113-144051">"The Environmental Costs and Benefits of Fracking"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Environment_and_Resources" title="Annual Review of Environment and Resources">Annual Review of Environment and Resources</a></i>. <b>39</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">327–</span>362. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-environ-031113-144051">10.1146/annurev-environ-031113-144051</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1543-5938">1543-5938</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Environment+and+Resources&rft.atitle=The+Environmental+Costs+and+Benefits+of+Fracking&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E327-%3C%2Fspan%3E362&rft.date=2014-10-17&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-environ-031113-144051&rft.issn=1543-5938&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rft.au=Vengosh%2C+Avner&rft.au=Carey%2C+J.+William&rft.au=Davies%2C+Richard+J.&rft.au=Darrah%2C+Thomas+H.&rft.au=O%27Sullivan%2C+Francis&rft.au=P%C3%A9tron%2C+Gabrielle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.annualreviews.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-environ-031113-144051&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOfficeRidley" class="citation web cs1">Office, US EPA National Center for Environmental Assessment, Immediate; Ridley, Caroline. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/hfstudy/recordisplay.cfm?deid=332990">"Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)"</a>. <i>cfpub.epa.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 1,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cfpub.epa.gov&rft.atitle=Hydraulic+Fracturing+for+Oil+and+Gas%3A+Impacts+from+the+Hydraulic+Fracturing+Water+Cycle+on+Drinking+Water+Resources+in+the+United+States+%28Final+Report%29&rft.aulast=Office&rft.aufirst=US+EPA+National+Center+for+Environmental+Assessment%2C+Immediate&rft.au=Ridley%2C+Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcfpub.epa.gov%2Fncea%2Fhfstudy%2Frecordisplay.cfm%3Fdeid%3D332990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EPAfracking-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EPAfracking_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/hfstudy/recordisplay.cfm?deid=332990">Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)</a> (Report). Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/EPA" class="mw-redirect" title="EPA">EPA</a>. 2016. EPA 600/R-16/236F.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Hydraulic+Fracturing+for+Oil+and+Gas%3A+Impacts+from+the+Hydraulic+Fracturing+Water+Cycle+on+Drinking+Water+Resources+in+the+United+States+%28Final+Report%29&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=EPA&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcfpub.epa.gov%2Fncea%2Fhfstudy%2Frecordisplay.cfm%3Fdeid%3D332990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-digiulio-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-digiulio_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDiGiulioJackson2016" class="citation journal cs1">DiGiulio DC, Jackson RB (April 2016). "Impact to Underground Sources of Drinking Water and Domestic Wells from Production Well Stimulation and Completion Practices in the Pavillion, Wyoming, Field". <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Science_%26_Technology" title="Environmental Science & Technology">Environmental Science & Technology</a></i>. <b>50</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">4524–</span>36. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016EnST...50.4524D">2016EnST...50.4524D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.est.5b04970">10.1021/acs.est.5b04970</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27022977">27022977</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206553782">206553782</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Impact+to+Underground+Sources+of+Drinking+Water+and+Domestic+Wells+from+Production+Well+Stimulation+and+Completion+Practices+in+the+Pavillion%2C+Wyoming%2C+Field&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4524-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.date=2016-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facs.est.5b04970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206553782%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27022977&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016EnST...50.4524D&rft.aulast=DiGiulio&rft.aufirst=DC&rft.au=Jackson%2C+RB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEllsworth2013" class="citation journal cs1">Ellsworth WL (July 2013). "Injection-induced earthquakes". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>341</b> (6142): 1225942. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1225942">10.1126/science.1225942</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23846903">23846903</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206543048">206543048</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Injection-induced+earthquakes&rft.volume=341&rft.issue=6142&rft.pages=1225942&rft.date=2013-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206543048%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23846903&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1225942&rft.aulast=Ellsworth&rft.aufirst=WL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vengosh-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vengosh_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vengosh_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vengosh_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVengoshJacksonWarnerDarrah2014" class="citation journal cs1">Vengosh A, Jackson RB, Warner N, Darrah TH, Kondash A (2014). "A critical review of the risks to water resources from unconventional shale gas development and hydraulic fracturing in the United States". <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Science_%26_Technology" title="Environmental Science & Technology">Environmental Science & Technology</a></i>. <b>48</b> (15): <span class="nowrap">8334–</span>48. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014EnST...48.8334V">2014EnST...48.8334V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes405118y">10.1021/es405118y</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24606408">24606408</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22857048">22857048</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=A+critical+review+of+the+risks+to+water+resources+from+unconventional+shale+gas+development+and+hydraulic+fracturing+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8334-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fes405118y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22857048%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24606408&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014EnST...48.8334V&rft.aulast=Vengosh&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Jackson%2C+RB&rft.au=Warner%2C+N&rft.au=Darrah%2C+TH&rft.au=Kondash%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Howarth-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Howarth_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howarth_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howarth_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHowarthIngraffeaEngelder2011" class="citation journal cs1">Howarth RW, Ingraffea A, Engelder T (September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F477271a">"Natural gas: Should fracking stop?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>477</b> (7364): <span class="nowrap">271–</span>5. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.477..271H">2011Natur.477..271H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F477271a">10.1038/477271a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21921896">21921896</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205067220">205067220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Natural+gas%3A+Should+fracking+stop%3F&rft.volume=477&rft.issue=7364&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E271-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=2011-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F477271a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205067220%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21921896&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Natur.477..271H&rft.aulast=Howarth&rft.aufirst=RW&rft.au=Ingraffea%2C+A&rft.au=Engelder%2C+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F477271a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDrolletteHoelzerWarnerDarrah2015" class="citation journal cs1">Drollette BD, Hoelzer K, Warner NR, Darrah TH, Karatum O, O'Connor MP, et al. (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4629325">"Elevated levels of diesel range organic compounds in groundwater near Marcellus gas operations are derived from surface activities"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>112</b> (43): <span class="nowrap">13184–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PNAS..11213184D">2015PNAS..11213184D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1511474112">10.1073/pnas.1511474112</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4629325">4629325</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26460018">26460018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Elevated+levels+of+diesel+range+organic+compounds+in+groundwater+near+Marcellus+gas+operations+are+derived+from+surface+activities&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=43&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13184-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2015-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4629325%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26460018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1511474112&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PNAS..11213184D&rft.aulast=Drollette&rft.aufirst=BD&rft.au=Hoelzer%2C+K&rft.au=Warner%2C+NR&rft.au=Darrah%2C+TH&rft.au=Karatum%2C+O&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+MP&rft.au=Nelson%2C+RK&rft.au=Fernandez%2C+LA&rft.au=Reddy%2C+CM&rft.au=Vengosh%2C+A&rft.au=Jackson%2C+RB&rft.au=Elsner%2C+M&rft.au=Plata%2C+DL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4629325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2016/01/22/lack-of-data-on-fracking-spills-leaves-researchers-in-the-dark-on-water-contamination/">"Lack of data on fracking spills leaves researchers in the dark on water contamination"</a>. <i>StateImpact Pennsylvania</i>. January 22, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=StateImpact+Pennsylvania&rft.atitle=Lack+of+data+on+fracking+spills+leaves+researchers+in+the+dark+on+water+contamination&rft.date=2016-01-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstateimpact.npr.org%2Fpennsylvania%2F2016%2F01%2F22%2Flack-of-data-on-fracking-spills-leaves-researchers-in-the-dark-on-water-contamination%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPfuntHoubenHimmelsbach2016" class="citation journal cs1">Pfunt H, Houben G, Himmelsbach T (2016). "Numerical modeling of fracking fluid migration through fault zones and fractures in the North German Basin". <i><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology_Journal" title="Hydrogeology Journal">Hydrogeology Journal</a></i>. <b>24</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1343–</span>1358. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016HydJ...24.1343P">2016HydJ...24.1343P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10040-016-1418-7">10.1007/s10040-016-1418-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:133308889">133308889</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrogeology+Journal&rft.atitle=Numerical+modeling+of+fracking+fluid+migration+through+fault+zones+and+fractures+in+the+North+German+Basin&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1343-%3C%2Fspan%3E1358&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A133308889%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10040-016-1418-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016HydJ...24.1343P&rft.aulast=Pfunt&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Houben%2C+G&rft.au=Himmelsbach%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEnvironmental_Protection_Agency" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-08/documents/mgwc-gwc1.pdf">"Getting up to Speed: Ground Water Contamination"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>EPA</i>. <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 30,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EPA&rft.atitle=Getting+up+to+Speed%3A+Ground+Water+Contamination&rft.au=Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fsites%2Fproduction%2Ffiles%2F2015-08%2Fdocuments%2Fmgwc-gwc1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFErbanGorelickZebker2014" class="citation journal cs1">Erban LE, Gorelick SM, Zebker HA (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F9%2F8%2F084010">"Groundwater extraction, land subsidence, and sea-level rise in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Research_Letters" title="Environmental Research Letters">Environmental Research Letters</a></i>. <b>9</b> (8): 084010. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ERL.....9h4010E">2014ERL.....9h4010E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F9%2F8%2F084010">10.1088/1748-9326/9/8/084010</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1748-9326">1748-9326</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Groundwater+extraction%2C+land+subsidence%2C+and+sea-level+rise+in+the+Mekong+Delta%2C+Vietnam&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=084010&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=1748-9326&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F9%2F8%2F084010&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014ERL.....9h4010E&rft.aulast=Erban&rft.aufirst=LE&rft.au=Gorelick%2C+SM&rft.au=Zebker%2C+HA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1748-9326%252F9%252F8%252F084010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmithKnightFendorf2018" class="citation journal cs1">Smith R, Knight R, Fendorf S (June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5988660">"Overpumping leads to California groundwater arsenic threat"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Communications" title="Nature Communications">Nature Communications</a></i>. <b>9</b> (1): 2089. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018NatCo...9.2089S">2018NatCo...9.2089S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-018-04475-3">10.1038/s41467-018-04475-3</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5988660">5988660</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29872050">29872050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Overpumping+leads+to+California+groundwater+arsenic+threat&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2089&rft.date=2018-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5988660%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29872050&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-018-04475-3&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018NatCo...9.2089S&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Knight%2C+R&rft.au=Fendorf%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5988660&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.groundwater.org/get-informed/groundwater/contamination.html">"Potential Threats to Our Groundwater"</a>. The Groundwater Foundation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Potential+Threats+to+Our+Groundwater&rft.pub=The+Groundwater+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.groundwater.org%2Fget-informed%2Fgroundwater%2Fcontamination.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJiangZhongYanYan2019" class="citation journal cs1">Jiang Y, Zhong W, Yan W, Yan L (November 2019). "Arsenic mobilization from soils in the presence of herbicides". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Environmental_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Environmental Sciences (page does not exist)">Journal of Environmental Sciences</a></i>. <b>85</b>: <span class="nowrap">66–</span>73. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019JEnvS..85...66J">2019JEnvS..85...66J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jes.2019.04.025">10.1016/j.jes.2019.04.025</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31471032">31471032</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164716323">164716323</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Environmental+Sciences&rft.atitle=Arsenic+mobilization+from+soils+in+the+presence+of+herbicides&rft.volume=85&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E66-%3C%2Fspan%3E73&rft.date=2019-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jes.2019.04.025&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164716323%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31471032&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019JEnvS..85...66J&rft.aulast=Jiang&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Zhong%2C+W&rft.au=Yan%2C+W&rft.au=Yan%2C+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFScottish_Environmental_Protection_Agency_(SEPA)2015" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Environmental Protection Agency">Scottish Environmental Protection Agency</a> (SEPA) (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210712055810/https://www.sepa.org.uk/media/143364/lups-gu32-guidance-on-assessing-the-impacts-of-cemetries-on-groundwater.pdf">"Guidance on Assessing the Impacts of Cemeteries on Groundwater"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sepa.org.uk/media/143364/lups-gu32-guidance-on-assessing-the-impacts-of-cemetries-on-groundwater.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on July 12, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guidance+on+Assessing+the+Impacts+of+Cemeteries+on+Groundwater&rft.date=2015&rft.au=Scottish+Environmental+Protection+Agency+%28SEPA%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sepa.org.uk%2Fmedia%2F143364%2Flups-gu32-guidance-on-assessing-the-impacts-of-cemetries-on-groundwater.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140211025722/http://www.groundwatersampling.org/">"Groundwater Sampling"</a>. July 31, 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.groundwatersampling.org/">the original</a> on February 11, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Groundwater+Sampling&rft.date=2012-07-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.groundwatersampling.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFA.T._Ekubo_and_J.F.N._Abowei2011" class="citation journal cs1">A.T. Ekubo and J.F.N. Abowei (November 10, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://maxwellsci.com/print/rjees/v3-673-693.pdf">"Aspects of Aquatic Pollution in Nigeria"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences</i>. <b>3</b> (6): 684 – via Maxwell Scientific Organization.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Research+Journal+of+Environmental+and+Earth+Sciences&rft.atitle=Aspects+of+Aquatic+Pollution+in+Nigeria&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=684&rft.date=2011-11-10&rft.au=A.T.+Ekubo+and+J.F.N.+Abowei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmaxwellsci.com%2Fprint%2Frjees%2Fv3-673-693.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-circ1139-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-circ1139_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.water.usgs.gov/circ1139/">"Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a></i>. Denver, CO. 1998. Circular 1139.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USGS&rft.atitle=Ground+Water+and+Surface+Water%3A+A+Single+Resource.&rft.date=1998&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.water.usgs.gov%2Fcirc1139%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnited_Nations_Environment_Programme_(UNEP)2015" class="citation web cs1">United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/10737/GoodPracticesforRegulatingWastewater.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"Good Practices for Regulating Wastewater Treatment"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Good+Practices+for+Regulating+Wastewater+Treatment&rft.date=2015&rft.au=United+Nations+Environment+Programme+%28UNEP%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwedocs.unep.org%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F20.500.11822%2F10737%2FGoodPracticesforRegulatingWastewater.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization_(WHO)2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/protecting_groundwater_part5.pdf?ua=1">"Section 5:Approaches to pollution source management"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Schmoll O, Howard G, Chilton G (eds.). <i>Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-water</i>. IWA for WHO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Section+5%3AApproaches+to+pollution+source+management&rft.btitle=Protecting+Groundwater+for+Health%3A+Managing+the+Quality+of+Drinking-water&rft.pub=IWA+for+WHO&rft.date=2006&rft.au=World+Health+Organization+%28WHO%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fwater_sanitation_health%2Fpublications%2Fprotecting_groundwater_part5.pdf%3Fua%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO2006b-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2006b_68-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization_(WHO)2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/PGWsection2.pdf?ua=1">"Protecting Groundwater for Health - Understanding the drinking-water catchment"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Protecting+Groundwater+for+Health+-+Understanding+the+drinking-water+catchment&rft.date=2006&rft.au=World+Health+Organization+%28WHO%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fwater_sanitation_health%2Fpublications%2FPGWsection2.pdf%3Fua%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization_(WHO)2011" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44584/1/9789241548151_eng.pdf">"Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guidelines+for+Drinking-water+Quality&rft.date=2011&rft.au=World+Health+Organization+%28WHO%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.who.int%2Firis%2Fbitstream%2F10665%2F44584%2F1%2F9789241548151_eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAminiMuellerAbbaspourRosenberg2008" class="citation journal cs1">Amini, Manouchehr; Mueller, Kim; Abbaspour, Karim C.; Rosenberg, Thomas; Afyuni, Majid; Møller, Klaus N.; Sarr, Mamadou; Johnson, C. Annette (May 15, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes071958y">"Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Fluoride Contamination in Groundwaters"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Science_%26_Technology" title="Environmental Science & Technology">Environmental Science & Technology</a></i>. <b>42</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">3662–</span>3668. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008EnST...42.3662A">2008EnST...42.3662A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes071958y">10.1021/es071958y</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-936X">0013-936X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18546705">18546705</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Statistical+Modeling+of+Global+Geogenic+Fluoride+Contamination+in+Groundwaters&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3662-%3C%2Fspan%3E3668&rft.date=2008-05-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fes071958y&rft.issn=0013-936X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18546705&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008EnST...42.3662A&rft.aulast=Amini&rft.aufirst=Manouchehr&rft.au=Mueller%2C+Kim&rft.au=Abbaspour%2C+Karim+C.&rft.au=Rosenberg%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Afyuni%2C+Majid&rft.au=M%C3%B8ller%2C+Klaus+N.&rft.au=Sarr%2C+Mamadou&rft.au=Johnson%2C+C.+Annette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1021%252Fes071958y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAminiAbbaspourBergWinkel2008" class="citation journal cs1">Amini, Manouchehr; Abbaspour, Karim C.; Berg, Michael; Winkel, Lenny; Hug, Stephan J.; Hoehn, Eduard; Yang, Hong; Johnson, C. Annette (May 15, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes702859e">"Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Science_%26_Technology" title="Environmental Science & Technology">Environmental Science & Technology</a></i>. <b>42</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">3669–</span>75. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008EnST...42.3669A">2008EnST...42.3669A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes702859e">10.1021/es702859e</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-936X">0013-936X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18546706">18546706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Statistical+Modeling+of+Global+Geogenic+Arsenic+Contamination+in+Groundwater&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3669-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.date=2008-05-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fes702859e&rft.issn=0013-936X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18546706&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008EnST...42.3669A&rft.aulast=Amini&rft.aufirst=Manouchehr&rft.au=Abbaspour%2C+Karim+C.&rft.au=Berg%2C+Michael&rft.au=Winkel%2C+Lenny&rft.au=Hug%2C+Stephan+J.&rft.au=Hoehn%2C+Eduard&rft.au=Yang%2C+Hong&rft.au=Johnson%2C+C.+Annette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1021%252Fes702859e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinkelBergAminiHug2008" class="citation journal cs1">Winkel, Lenny; Berg, Michael; Amini, Manouchehr; Hug, Stephan J.; Johnson, C. Annette (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A5777">"Predicting groundwater arsenic contamination in Southeast Asia from surface parameters"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Geoscience" title="Nature Geoscience">Nature Geoscience</a></i>. <b>1</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">536–</span>42. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008NatGe...1..536W">2008NatGe...1..536W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fngeo254">10.1038/ngeo254</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Geoscience&rft.atitle=Predicting+groundwater+arsenic+contamination+in+Southeast+Asia+from+surface+parameters&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E536-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fngeo254&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008NatGe...1..536W&rft.aulast=Winkel&rft.aufirst=Lenny&rft.au=Berg%2C+Michael&rft.au=Amini%2C+Manouchehr&rft.au=Hug%2C+Stephan+J.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+C.+Annette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dora.lib4ri.ch%2Feawag%2Fislandora%2Fobject%2Feawag%253A5777&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFosterHirata1988" class="citation book cs1">Foster S, Hirata H (1988). <i>Groundwater Pollution Risk Assessment</i>. Lima, Peru: Pan American Centre for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groundwater+Pollution+Risk+Assessment&rft.place=Lima%2C+Peru&rft.pub=Pan+American+Centre+for+Sanitary+Engineering+and+Environmental+Sciences&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Hirata%2C+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFosterHirataGomesD'Elia2002" class="citation book cs1">Foster S, Hirata H, Gomes D, D'Elia M (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/913221468028147970/Groundwater-quality-protection-a-guide-for-water-utilities-municipal-authorities-and-environment-agencies"><i>Groundwater quality protection: a guide for water utilities, municipal authorities, and environment agencies</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groundwater+quality+protection%3A+a+guide+for+water+utilities%2C+municipal+authorities%2C+and+environment+agencies&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Hirata%2C+H&rft.au=Gomes%2C+D&rft.au=D%27Elia%2C+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocuments.worldbank.org%2Fcurated%2Fen%2F913221468028147970%2FGroundwater-quality-protection-a-guide-for-water-utilities-municipal-authorities-and-environment-agencies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllerBennettLehrPetty1987" class="citation report cs1">Aller L, Bennett T, Lehr JH, Petty RJ, Hackett G (September 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=2000TLGW.txt">DRASTIC: A Standardized System For Evaluating Groundwater Pollution Potential Using Hydrogeologic Settings</a> (Report). <a href="/wiki/EPA" class="mw-redirect" title="EPA">EPA</a>. EPA 600/S2-87/035.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=DRASTIC%3A+A+Standardized+System+For+Evaluating+Groundwater+Pollution+Potential+Using+Hydrogeologic+Settings&rft.pub=EPA&rft.date=1987-09&rft.aulast=Aller&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Bennett%2C+T&rft.au=Lehr%2C+JH&rft.au=Petty%2C+RJ&rft.au=Hackett%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnepis.epa.gov%2FExe%2FZyPURL.cgi%3FDockey%3D2000TLGW.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHOb-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHOb_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHOb_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHOb_76-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization_(WHO)2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/PGWsection4.pdf?ua=1">"Section 4: Approaches to drinking-water source protection management"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Schmoll I, Howard G (eds.). <i>Protecting groundwater for health: Managing the quality of drinking-water sources</i>. IWA Publishing for WHO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Section+4%3A+Approaches+to+drinking-water+source+protection+management&rft.btitle=Protecting+groundwater+for+health%3A+Managing+the+quality+of+drinking-water+sources&rft.pub=IWA+Publishing+for+WHO&rft.date=2006&rft.au=World+Health+Organization+%28WHO%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fwater_sanitation_health%2Fpublications%2FPGWsection4.pdf%3Fua%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/water-research/wellhead-protection-area-whpa-model">"Wellhead Protection Area (WHPA) Model"</a>. <i>Water Research</i>. Ada, OK: EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory. January 26, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Water+Research&rft.atitle=Wellhead+Protection+Area+%28WHPA%29+Model&rft.date=2017-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fwater-research%2Fwellhead-protection-area-whpa-model&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFARGOSS2001" class="citation web cs1">ARGOSS (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1926">"Guidelines for assessing the risk to groundwater from on-site sanitation"</a>. <i>NERC, <a href="/wiki/British_Geological_Survey" title="British Geological Survey">British Geological Survey</a> Commissioned Report, CR/01/142</i>. UK.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NERC%2C+British+Geological+Survey+Commissioned+Report%2C+CR%2F01%2F142&rft.atitle=Guidelines+for+assessing+the+risk+to+groundwater+from+on-site+sanitation.&rft.date=2001&rft.au=ARGOSS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.susana.org%2Fen%2Fresources%2Flibrary%2Fdetails%2F1926&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMooreNokesLoeClose2010" class="citation web cs1">Moore C, Nokes C, Loe B, Close M, Pang L, Smith V, Osbaldiston S (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150113073933/http://envirolink.govt.nz/PageFiles/31/Guidelines_for_separation_distances_based_on_virus_transport_.pdf">"Guidelines for separation distances based on virus transport between on-site domestic wastewater systems and wells"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Porirua, New Zealand. p. 296. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.envirolink.govt.nz/PageFiles/31/Guidelines_for_separation_distances_based_on_virus_transport_.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on January 13, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guidelines+for+separation+distances+based+on+virus+transport+between+on-site+domestic+wastewater+systems+and+wells&rft.place=Porirua%2C+New+Zealand&rft.pages=296&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Nokes%2C+C&rft.au=Loe%2C+B&rft.au=Close%2C+M&rft.au=Pang%2C+L&rft.au=Smith%2C+V&rft.au=Osbaldiston%2C+S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.envirolink.govt.nz%2FPageFiles%2F31%2FGuidelines_for_separation_distances_based_on_virus_transport_.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RCRA_statute-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RCRA_statute_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United States. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/94/580">94–580</a>, <a href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">42 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/6901">§ 6901</a> <i>et seq.</i> Approved October 21, 1976.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United States. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980. <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/96/510">96–510</a>, <a href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">42 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/9601">§ 9601</a> <i>et seq.</i> Approved December 11, 1980.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Oc-Po/Pollution-of-Groundwater.html">"Pollution of groundwater"</a>. <i>Water Encyclopedia, Science and Issues</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 21,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Water+Encyclopedia%2C+Science+and+Issues&rft.atitle=Pollution+of+groundwater&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.waterencyclopedia.com%2FOc-Po%2FPollution-of-Groundwater.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPooiNg2018" class="citation journal cs1">Pooi CK, Ng HY (December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41545-018-0011-0">"Review of low-cost point-of-use water treatment systems for developing communities"</a>. <i>npj Clean Water</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 11. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018npjCW...1...11P">2018npjCW...1...11P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41545-018-0011-0">10.1038/s41545-018-0011-0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2059-7037">2059-7037</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=npj+Clean+Water&rft.atitle=Review+of+low-cost+point-of-use+water+treatment+systems+for+developing+communities&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=11&rft.date=2018-12&rft.issn=2059-7037&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41545-018-0011-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018npjCW...1...11P&rft.aulast=Pooi&rft.aufirst=CK&rft.au=Ng%2C+HY&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fs41545-018-0011-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/988609755"><i>The Nile Delta</i></a>. Abdelazim M. Negm. Cham, Switzerland. 2017. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-56124-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-56124-0"><bdi>978-3-319-56124-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/988609755">988609755</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nile+Delta&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F988609755&rft.isbn=978-3-319-56124-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F988609755&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EPA_gw-rule-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EPA_gw-rule_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/dwreginfo/ground-water-rule">"Ground Water Rule"</a>. <i>Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems</i>. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/EPA" class="mw-redirect" title="EPA">EPA</a>. December 18, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drinking+Water+Requirements+for+States+and+Public+Water+Systems&rft.atitle=Ground+Water+Rule&rft.date=2018-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fdwreginfo%2Fground-water-rule&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPantaleoKomakechMteiNjau2018" class="citation journal cs1">Pantaleo, P. A.; Komakech, H. C.; Mtei, K. M.; Njau, K. N. (December 1, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2166%2Fwpt.2018.104">"Contamination of groundwater sources in emerging African towns: the case of Babati town, Tanzania"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_Practice_and_Technology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water Practice and Technology (page does not exist)">Water Practice and Technology</a></i>. <b>13</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">980–</span>990. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2166%2Fwpt.2018.104">10.2166/wpt.2018.104</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1751-231X">1751-231X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:115519904">115519904</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Practice+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Contamination+of+groundwater+sources+in+emerging+African+towns%3A+the+case+of+Babati+town%2C+Tanzania&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E980-%3C%2Fspan%3E990&rft.date=2018-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A115519904%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1751-231X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2166%2Fwpt.2018.104&rft.aulast=Pantaleo&rft.aufirst=P.+A.&rft.au=Komakech%2C+H.+C.&rft.au=Mtei%2C+K.+M.&rft.au=Njau%2C+K.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2166%252Fwpt.2018.104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChakrabortiSinghRahmanDutta2018" class="citation journal cs1">Chakraborti D, Singh SK, Rahman MM, Dutta RN, Mukherjee SC, Pati S, Kar PB (January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5858255">"Groundwater Arsenic Contamination in the Ganga River Basin: A Future Health Danger"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Environmental_Research_and_Public_Health" title="International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health">International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health</a></i>. <b>15</b> (2): 180. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph15020180">10.3390/ijerph15020180</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5858255">5858255</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29360747">29360747</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Environmental+Research+and+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Groundwater+Arsenic+Contamination+in+the+Ganga+River+Basin%3A+A+Future+Health+Danger&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=180&rft.date=2018-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5858255%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29360747&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fijerph15020180&rft.aulast=Chakraborti&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Singh%2C+SK&rft.au=Rahman%2C+MM&rft.au=Dutta%2C+RN&rft.au=Mukherjee%2C+SC&rft.au=Pati%2C+S&rft.au=Kar%2C+PB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5858255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMukherjeeDuttaguptaChattopadhyayBhanja2019" class="citation journal cs1">Mukherjee, Abhijit; Duttagupta, Srimanti; Chattopadhyay, Siddhartha; Bhanja, Soumendra Nath; Bhattacharya, Animesh; Chakraborty, Swagata; Sarkar, Soumyajit; Ghosh, Tilottama; Bhattacharya, Jayanta; Sahu, Sohini (October 23, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6811533">"Impact of sanitation and socio-economy on groundwater fecal pollution and human health towards achieving sustainable development goals across India from ground-observations and satellite-derived nightlight"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Reports" title="Scientific Reports">Scientific Reports</a></i>. <b>9</b> (1): 15193. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatSR...915193M">2019NatSR...915193M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-019-50875-w">10.1038/s41598-019-50875-w</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6811533">6811533</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31645651">31645651</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Impact+of+sanitation+and+socio-economy+on+groundwater+fecal+pollution+and+human+health+towards+achieving+sustainable+development+goals+across+India+from+ground-observations+and+satellite-derived+nightlight&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=15193&rft.date=2019-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6811533%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019NatSR...915193M&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31645651&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-019-50875-w&rft.issn=2045-2322&rft.aulast=Mukherjee&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rft.au=Duttagupta%2C+Srimanti&rft.au=Chattopadhyay%2C+Siddhartha&rft.au=Bhanja%2C+Soumendra+Nath&rft.au=Bhattacharya%2C+Animesh&rft.au=Chakraborty%2C+Swagata&rft.au=Sarkar%2C+Soumyajit&rft.au=Ghosh%2C+Tilottama&rft.au=Bhattacharya%2C+Jayanta&rft.au=Sahu%2C+Sohini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6811533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUniversity_of_Stanford2018" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Stanford" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Stanford">University of Stanford</a> (June 5, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.stanford.edu/2018/06/05/overpumping-groundwater-increases-contamination-risk/">"Overpumping groundwater increases contamination risk"</a>. <i>Stanford News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 16,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+News&rft.atitle=Overpumping+groundwater+increases+contamination+risk&rft.date=2018-06-05&rft.au=University+of+Stanford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.stanford.edu%2F2018%2F06%2F05%2Foverpumping-groundwater-increases-contamination-risk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-feb-19-me-norco19-story.html">"LA Times"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 13,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=LA+Times&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-2002-feb-19-me-norco19-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcLaughlin" class="citation news cs1">McLaughlin T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/walkerton-e-coli-outbreak-declared-over/article1041067/">"Walkerton E. coli outbreak declared over"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail" title="The Globe and Mail">The Globe and Mail</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Globe+and+Mail&rft.atitle=Walkerton+E.+coli+outbreak+declared+over&rft.aulast=McLaughlin&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theglobeandmail.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Fwalkerton-e-coli-outbreak-declared-over%2Farticle1041067%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroundwater+pollution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Groundwater_pollution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Groundwater pollution">Groundwater pollution</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://water.usgs.gov/ogw/">United States Geological Survey - Office of Groundwater</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.groundwateruk.org/">UK Groundwater Forum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.igrac.net/">IGRAC, International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iah.org/">IAH, International Association of Hydrogeologists</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library?vbl_2%5B%5D=&vbl_8%5B73%5D=73">Groundwater pollution and sanitation</a> (documents in library of the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Sanitation_Alliance" title="Sustainable Sanitation Alliance">Sustainable Sanitation Alliance</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://upgro.org/">UPGro – Unlocking the Potential of Groundwater for the Poor</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_resources210" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_resources" title="Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_resources" title="Template talk:Natural resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_resources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_resources210" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_coal" title="Peak coal">peak coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_gas" title="Peak gas">peak gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">Agricultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(agriculture)" title="Field (agriculture)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">Landscape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seascape" title="Seascape">seascape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed" title="Viewshed">viewshed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_copper" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak copper">copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak phosphorus">phosphorus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber products</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant Treaty">FAO Plant Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">gene banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">herbal medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="UPOV">UPOV Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Watershed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_water" title="Peak water">Peak water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">Exploitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">adaptive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital_accounting" title="Natural capital accounting">accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_heritage" title="Natural heritage">Natural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">Nature reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">Resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict <span style="font-size:85%;">(perpetuation)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">Curse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_nationalism" title="Resource nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">Renewable</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oil_war" title="Oil war">Oil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrostate" title="Petrostate">Petrostate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_war" title="Resource war">Resource war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_resources" title="Category:Natural resources">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&oldid=1278424716">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&oldid=1278424716</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Liquid_water" title="Category:Liquid water">Liquid water</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aquifers" title="Category:Aquifers">Aquifers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hydrology" title="Category:Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hydraulic_engineering" title="Category:Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic engineering</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sanitation" title="Category:Sanitation">Sanitation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Water_and_the_environment" title="Category:Water and the environment">Water and the environment</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Water" title="Category:Water">Water</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lithosphere" title="Category:Lithosphere">Lithosphere</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">CS1 maint: others</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_February_2023" title="Category:Use mdy dates from February 2023">Use mdy dates from February 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_sidebar_with_the_child_parameter" title="Category:Pages using sidebar with the child parameter">Pages using sidebar with the child parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2007" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_March_2017" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from March 2017">Articles lacking reliable references from March 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2017" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_March_2015" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from March 2015">Articles lacking reliable references from March 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 2 March 2025, at 11:24<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Groundwater pollution</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>14 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5886496d-b7wqb","wgBackendResponseTime":262,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.122","walltime":"1.331","ppvisitednodes":{"value":10665,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":337051,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":15588,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":13,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":21,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":383325,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1110.361 1 -total"," 47.06% 522.487 1 Template:Reflist"," 14.55% 161.525 20 Template:Cn"," 14.32% 159.044 33 Template:Cite_journal"," 13.97% 155.078 24 Template:Fix"," 13.46% 149.418 19 Template:Cite_book"," 9.12% 101.222 1 Template:Pollution_sidebar"," 8.92% 99.013 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 8.65% 96.039 29 Template:Cite_web"," 6.95% 77.122 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.662","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7058228,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-86c59b8c7c-6kcjw","timestamp":"20250308171646","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Groundwater pollution","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Groundwater_pollution","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q20113712","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q20113712","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2014-11-16T05:51:40Z","dateModified":"2025-03-02T11:24:14Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e1\/Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg","headline":"pollution that occurs when when pollutants are released to the ground and seep down into groundwater"}</script> </body> </html>