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id="toc-Bactria–Margiana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bactria–Margiana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Bactria–Margiana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bactria–Margiana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_period_(c._1500_–_250_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_period_(c._1500_–_250_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Ancient period (c. 1500 – 250 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ancient_period_(c._1500_–_250_BCE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ancient period (c. 1500 – 250 BCE) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ancient_period_(c._1500_–_250_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gandhara_Kingdom_(c._1500_–_535_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gandhara_Kingdom_(c._1500_–_535_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Gandhara Kingdom (c. 1500 – 535 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gandhara_Kingdom_(c._1500_–_535_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kamboja_Kingdom_(c._700_–_200_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kamboja_Kingdom_(c._700_–_200_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Kamboja Kingdom (c. 700 – 200 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kamboja_Kingdom_(c._700_–_200_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Achaemenid_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Achaemenid_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Achaemenid Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Achaemenid_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alexander_and_the_Seleucus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alexander_and_the_Seleucus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Alexander and the Seleucus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alexander_and_the_Seleucus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maurya_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maurya_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Maurya Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maurya_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Period_(c._250_BCE_–_565_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Period_(c._250_BCE_–_565_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classical Period (c. 250 BCE – 565 CE)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_Period_(c._250_BCE_–_565_CE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classical Period (c. 250 BCE – 565 CE) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_Period_(c._250_BCE_–_565_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indo-Greek_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indo-Greek_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Indo-Greek Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indo-Greek_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indo-Scythians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indo-Scythians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Indo-Scythians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indo-Scythians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indo-Parthians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indo-Parthians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Indo-Parthians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indo-Parthians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kushans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kushans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Kushans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kushans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sasanian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sasanian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Sasanian Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sasanian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Huna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Huna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Huna</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Huna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kidarites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kidarites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.1</span> <span>Kidarites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kidarites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alchon_Huns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alchon_Huns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.2</span> <span>Alchon Huns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alchon_Huns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_White_Huns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_White_Huns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.3</span> <span>The White Huns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_White_Huns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nezak_Huns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nezak_Huns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.4</span> <span>Nezak Huns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nezak_Huns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages_(565–1504_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages_(565–1504_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Middle Ages (565–1504 CE)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Middle_Ages_(565–1504_CE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Middle Ages (565–1504 CE) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages_(565–1504_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kabul_Shahi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kabul_Shahi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Kabul Shahi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kabul_Shahi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_conquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_conquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Arab conquest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_conquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ghaznavids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ghaznavids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Ghaznavids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ghaznavids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ghurids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ghurids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Ghurids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ghurids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Mongol invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timurids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timurids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Timurids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timurids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era_(1504–1973)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era_(1504–1973)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern era (1504–1973)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_era_(1504–1973)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern era (1504–1973) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_era_(1504–1973)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mughals,_Uzbeks,_and_Safavids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mughals,_Uzbeks,_and_Safavids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Mughals, Uzbeks, and Safavids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mughals,_Uzbeks,_and_Safavids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hotak_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hotak_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Hotak dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hotak_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Afsharid_Invasion_and_Durrani_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Afsharid_Invasion_and_Durrani_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Afsharid Invasion and Durrani Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Afsharid_Invasion_and_Durrani_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barakzai_dynasty_and_British_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barakzai_dynasty_and_British_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Barakzai dynasty and British influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barakzai_dynasty_and_British_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reforms_of_Amanullah_Khan_and_civil_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reforms_of_Amanullah_Khan_and_civil_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reforms_of_Amanullah_Khan_and_civil_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reigns_of_Nadir_Khan_and_Zahir_Khan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reigns_of_Nadir_Khan_and_Zahir_Khan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Reigns of Nadir Khan and Zahir Khan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reigns_of_Nadir_Khan_and_Zahir_Khan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_era_(1973–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_era_(1973–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Contemporary era (1973–present)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_era_(1973–present)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contemporary era (1973–present) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_era_(1973–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Republic_of_Afghanistan_and_the_end_of_the_monarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republic_of_Afghanistan_and_the_end_of_the_monarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Republic of Afghanistan and the end of the monarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republic_of_Afghanistan_and_the_end_of_the_monarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Democratic_Republic_and_Soviet_war_(1978–1989)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democratic_Republic_and_Soviet_war_(1978–1989)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Democratic Republic and Soviet war (1978–1989)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Democratic_Republic_and_Soviet_war_(1978–1989)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_interference_and_civil_war_(1989–1996)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_interference_and_civil_war_(1989–1996)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Foreign interference and civil war (1989–1996)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_interference_and_civil_war_(1989–1996)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taliban_and_the_United_Front_(1996–2001)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taliban_and_the_United_Front_(1996–2001)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Taliban and the United Front (1996–2001)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taliban_and_the_United_Front_(1996–2001)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-NATO's_presence,_the_Emergency_Loya_Jirga,_the_Taliban's_takeover_and_the_Panjshir_uprising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#NATO's_presence,_the_Emergency_Loya_Jirga,_the_Taliban's_takeover_and_the_Panjshir_uprising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>NATO's presence, the Emergency Loya Jirga, the Taliban's takeover and the Panjshir uprising</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-NATO's_presence,_the_Emergency_Loya_Jirga,_the_Taliban's_takeover_and_the_Panjshir_uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Afghanistan</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 58 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-58" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">58 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskiedenis_van_Afghanistan" title="Geskiedenis van Afghanistan – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geskiedenis van Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A3%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاريخ أفغانستان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ أفغانستان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_d%27Afganist%C3%A1n" title="Historia d'Afganistán – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia d'Afganistán" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Ffqan%C4%B1stan_tarixi" title="Əfqanıstan tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əfqanıstan tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="আফগানিস্তানের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আফগানিস্তানের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D2%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Афғанстан тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Афғанстан тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%90%D1%84%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гісторыя Афганістана – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя Афганістана" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%84%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="История на Афганистан – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Афганистан" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27Afganistan" title="Història de l'Afganistan – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'Afganistan" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Afgh%C3%A1nist%C3%A1nu" title="Dějiny Afghánistánu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Afghánistánu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_Affganistan" title="Hanes Affganistan – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes Affganistan" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Afghanistans" title="Geschichte Afghanistans – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Afghanistans" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afganistani_ajalugu" title="Afganistani ajalugu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Afganistani ajalugu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CF%86%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BD" title="Ιστορία του Αφγανιστάν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία του Αφγανιστάν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Afganist%C3%A1n" title="Historia de Afganistán – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Afganistán" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afganistango_historia" title="Afganistango historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Afganistango historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاریخ افغانستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ افغانستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27Afghanistan" title="Histoire de l'Afghanistan – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Afganist%C3%A1n" title="Historia de Afganistán – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia de Afganistán" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%ED%94%84%EA%B0%80%EB%8B%88%EC%8A%A4%ED%83%84%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="아프가니스탄의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아프가니스탄의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="अफ़ग़ानिस्तान का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अफ़ग़ानिस्तान का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Afganistana" title="Povijest Afganistana – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Afganistana" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Afganistan" title="Historio di Afganistan – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Afganistan" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27Afghanistan" title="Storia dell'Afghanistan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%9F" title="היסטוריה של אפגניסטן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של אפגניסטן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%A6%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ავღანეთის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ავღანეთის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Afghanistan" title="Historia ya Afghanistan – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afganistano_istorija" title="Afganistano istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Afganistano istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afganiszt%C3%A1n_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="Afganisztán történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Afganisztán történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="അഫ്ഗാനിസ്താന്റെ ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അഫ്ഗാനിസ്താന്റെ ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Afghanistan" title="Sejarah Afghanistan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Afghanistan" title="Geschiedenis van Afghanistan – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%95%E3%82%AC%E3%83%8B%E3%82%B9%E3%82%BF%E3%83%B3%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="アフガニスタンの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アフガニスタンの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistans_historie" title="Afghanistans historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Afghanistans historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghansk_historie" title="Afghansk historie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Afghansk historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_d%27Afganistan" title="Istòria d'Afganistan – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria d'Afganistan" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਅਫ਼ਗ਼ਾਨਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਫ਼ਗ਼ਾਨਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikisi_no_Afohan" title="Rikisi no Afohan – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Rikisi no Afohan" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangcah</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="افغانستان دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="افغانستان دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%84%D9%8A%DA%A9" title="د افغانستان پېښليک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د افغانستان پېښليک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Afganistanu" title="Historia Afganistanu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Afganistanu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_do_Afeganist%C3%A3o" title="História do Afeganistão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História do Afeganistão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%90%D1%84%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="История Афганистана – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История Афганистана" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_Afganistanit" title="Historia e Afganistanit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e Afganistanit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_Afganistanu" title="Dejiny Afganistanu – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny Afganistanu" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مێژووی ئەفغانستان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی ئەفغانستان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Историја Авганистана – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја Авганистана" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afganistanin_historia" title="Afganistanin historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Afganistanin historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistans_historia" title="Afghanistans historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Afghanistans historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="ஆப்கானித்தானின் வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆப்கானித்தானின் வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="ประวัติศาสตร์อัฟกานิสถาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติศาสตร์อัฟกานิสถาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afganistan_tarihi" title="Afganistan tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Afganistan tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%90%D1%84%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Історія Афганістану – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія Афганістану" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاریخ افغانستان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تاریخ افغانستان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_Afghanistan" title="Lịch sử Afghanistan – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Afghanistan" 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class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:History of Afghanistan">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of <span class="fn org label">Afghanistan</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/200px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/300px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/400px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="712" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Afghan_history" title="Timeline of Afghan history">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan" title="Ancient history of Afghanistan">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2200–1800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Oxus civilization</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2100–1800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_kingdom" title="Gandhara kingdom">Gandhara kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1500–535 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 728–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 550–330 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 330–312 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 312–150 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 305–180 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian kingdom">Greco-Bactrian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 256–125 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 247 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greek kingdom">Indo-Greek kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 180–90 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 155–80? BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 135 BC – 248 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_kingdom" title="Indo-Parthian kingdom">Indo-Parthian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 20 BC – 50? AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 230–651</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarite kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 320–465</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rob" title="Kingdom of Rob">Rob</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 380–560</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite Empire">Hephthalite Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 410–557</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nezak_Huns" title="Nezak Huns">Nezak Huns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 484–711</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Kabul Shahi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 565–879</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Chaghaniyan" title="Principality of Chaghaniyan">Principality of Chaghaniyan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 7th–8th centuries</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 652–661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang China</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 660–669</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 660–842</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Zunbils" title="Zunbils">Zunbils</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 680–870</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lawik_dynasty" title="Lawik dynasty">Lawik</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">750-977</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 750–821</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 821–873</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 863–900</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 875–999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 963–1187</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> before 879–1215</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1037–1194</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1215–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Mongol Invasion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1219–1226</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1226–1245</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Qarlughids" title="Qarlughids">Qarlughids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1224–1266</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1256–1335</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kartids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1245–1381</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1370–1507</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Arghun_dynasty" title="Arghun dynasty">Arghuns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1520–1591</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1501–1738</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1510–1709</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kunduz_Khanate" title="Kunduz Khanate">Kunduz Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> ?–1859</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1709–1738</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sadozai_Sultanate_of_Herat" title="Sadozai Sultanate of Herat">Sadozai Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1716–1732</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Iran</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1738–1747</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1747–1823</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maimana_Khanate" title="Maimana Khanate">Maimana Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1747–1892</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Herat_(1793%E2%80%931863)" title="Herat (1793–1863)">Herat</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1793–1863</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Qandahar" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Qandahar">Principality of Qandahar</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1818–1855</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1823–1926</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1929)" title="Emirate of Afghanistan (1929)">Saqqawist Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1926–1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">Daoud coup</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%931978)" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)">Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1973–1978</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1978</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Democratic Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1978–1992</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1990_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Afghan coup d'état attempt">Tanai coup attempt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1992–1996</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">Islamic Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1996–2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan" title="United States invasion of Afghanistan">US invasion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a> (reinstated)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Interim_Administration" title="Afghan Interim Administration">Interim</a>/<a href="/wiki/Transitional_Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan">Transitional Administration</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001–2004</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">Islamic Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Politics of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">politics</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2004–2021</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Islamic Emirate</a> (reinstated)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">since</span> 2021</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related historical regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aria_(region)" title="Aria (region)">Aria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariana" title="Ariana">Ariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabulistan" title="Kabulistan">Kabulistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafiristan" title="Kafiristan">Kafiristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushanshahr" title="Kushanshahr">Kushanshahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paropamisadae" title="Paropamisadae">Paropamisadae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zabulistan" title="Zabulistan">Zabulistan</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Political history of Afghanistan">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence_in_Afghanistan" title="Political violence in Afghanistan">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Afghanistan" title="Culture of Afghanistan">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of Afghanistan">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Afghanistan" title="Name of Afghanistan">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_(ethnonym)" title="Afghan (ethnonym)">Afghan (ethnonym)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Afghanistan" title="List of years in Afghanistan">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan" title="List of heads of state of Afghanistan">List of heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Wars in Afghanistan">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Afghanistan" title="List of wars involving Afghanistan">List of wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hinduism in Afghanistan">Hinduism history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_and_Buddhist_heritage_of_Afghanistan" title="Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan">Hindu and Buddhist heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Muslim conquests</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:History of Afghanistan">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Afghanistan" title="Portal:Afghanistan">Afghanistan portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Template:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Template talk:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Location_map_of_Afghanistan_in_Asia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Location_map_of_Afghanistan_in_Asia.png/220px-Location_map_of_Afghanistan_in_Asia.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Location_map_of_Afghanistan_in_Asia.png/330px-Location_map_of_Afghanistan_in_Asia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Location_map_of_Afghanistan_in_Asia.png/440px-Location_map_of_Afghanistan_in_Asia.png 2x" data-file-width="1161" data-file-height="848" /></a><figcaption>Present-day location of Afghanistan in Asia</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>history of Afghanistan</b>, preceding the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Emirate of Afghanistan</a> in 1823 is shared with that of neighbouring <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia" title="History of Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Indian subcontinent">the Indian subcontinent</a>. The Sadozai monarchy ruled the Afghan <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, considered the founding state of modern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan" title="Ancient history of Afghanistan">Human habitation in Afghanistan</a> dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Paleolithic" title="Middle Paleolithic">Middle Paleolithic</a> era, and the country's <a href="/wiki/Geostrategy" title="Geostrategy">strategic location</a> along the historic <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> has led it to being described, picturesquely, as the ‘roundabout of the ancient world’.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The land has historically been home to various peoples and <a href="/wiki/Invasions_of_Afghanistan" title="Invasions of Afghanistan">has witnessed numerous military campaigns</a>, including those by <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">the Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Arab Muslims</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Mongols</a>, the <a href="/wiki/European_influence_in_Afghanistan#The_Great_Game" title="European influence in Afghanistan">British</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet Union</a>, and most recently by <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">a US-led coalition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Galvin-PreIslamic_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galvin-PreIslamic-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The various conquests and periods in both the <a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Indian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_diaspora" title="Iranian diaspora">Iranian</a> cultural spheres<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made the area a center for, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Afghanistan" title="Hinduism in Afghanistan">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Afghanistan" title="Islam in Afghanistan">Islam</a> throughout history.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Durrani Empire is considered to be the foundational polity of the modern <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a> of Afghanistan, with <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Durrani" title="Ahmad Shah Durrani">Ahmad Shah Durrani</a> being credited as its <a href="/wiki/Father_of_the_Nation" title="Father of the Nation">Father of the Nation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Dost_Mohammad_Khan" title="Dost Mohammad Khan">Dost Mohammad Khan</a> is sometimes considered to be the founder of the first <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">modern Afghan state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the Durrani Empire's decline and the death of Ahmad Shah Durrani and <a href="/wiki/Timur_Shah_Durrani" title="Timur Shah Durrani">Timur Shah</a>, it was divided into multiple smaller independent kingdoms, including but not limited to <a href="/wiki/Herat_(1793%E2%80%931863)" title="Herat (1793–1863)">Herat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kandahar" title="Principality of Kandahar">Kandahar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Kabul</a>. Afghanistan would be reunited in the 19th century after seven decades of civil war from 1793 to 1863, with wars of unification led by <a href="/wiki/Dost_Mohammad_Khan" title="Dost Mohammad Khan">Dost Mohammad Khan</a> from 1823 to 1863, where he conquered the independent principalities of Afghanistan under the Emirate of Kabul. Dost Mohammad died in 1863, days after <a href="/wiki/Herat_campaign_of_1862%E2%80%931863" title="Herat campaign of 1862–1863">his last campaign to unite Afghanistan</a>, and Afghanistan was consequently <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1863%E2%80%931869)" title="Afghan Civil War (1863–1869)">thrown back into civil war</a> with fighting amongst his successors. During this time, Afghanistan became a <a href="/wiki/Buffer_state" title="Buffer state">buffer state</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a> between the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a> in South Asia and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>. The British Raj attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but was repelled in the <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="First Anglo-Afghan War">First Anglo-Afghan War</a>. However, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Second Anglo-Afghan War">Second Anglo-Afghan War</a> saw a British victory and the successful establishment of British political influence over Afghanistan. Following the <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a> in 1919, Afghanistan became free of foreign political hegemony, and emerged as the independent <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Kingdom of Afghanistan</a> in June 1926 under <a href="/wiki/Amanullah_Khan" title="Amanullah Khan">Amanullah Khan</a>. This monarchy lasted almost half a century, until <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Zahir_Shah" title="Mohammad Zahir Shah">Zahir Shah</a> was <a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">overthrown in 1973</a>, following which the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%931978)" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)">Republic of Afghanistan</a> was established. </p><p>Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including <a href="/wiki/Afghan_conflict" title="Afghan conflict">coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars</a>. The conflict began in 1978 when a <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">communist revolution</a> established a <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">socialist state</a>, and subsequent infighting prompted the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet invasion of Afghanistan">Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan</a> in 1979. <a href="/wiki/Mujahideen" title="Mujahideen">Mujahideen</a> fought against the Soviets in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">continued</a> <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1992%E2%80%931996)" title="Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)">fighting</a> <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)">amongst themselves</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviets' withdrawal in 1989</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_fundamentalism" title="Islamic fundamentalism">Islamic fundamentalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> controlled most of the country by 1996, but their <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan</a> received little international recognition before its overthrow in the 2001 <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan" title="United States invasion of Afghanistan">US invasion of Afghanistan</a>. The Taliban returned to power in 2021 after <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Kabul_(2021)" title="Fall of Kabul (2021)">capturing Kabul</a> and overthrowing the government of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">Islamic Republic of Afghanistan</a>, thus bringing an end to the <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">2001–2021 war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CTC_2021_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CTC_2021-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although initially claiming it would form an inclusive government for the country, in September 2021 the Taliban re-established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan with an <a href="/wiki/Interim_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Interim government">interim government</a> made up entirely of Taliban members.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Taliban government remains internationally unrecognized.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan" title="Ancient history of Afghanistan">Ancient history of Afghanistan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nomads_in_Badghis_Province.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Nomads_in_Badghis_Province.jpg/220px-Nomads_in_Badghis_Province.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Nomads_in_Badghis_Province.jpg/330px-Nomads_in_Badghis_Province.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Nomads_in_Badghis_Province.jpg/440px-Nomads_in_Badghis_Province.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3059" data-file-height="2007" /></a><figcaption>Tents of Afghan <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomads</a> in the northern <a href="/wiki/Badghis_Province" title="Badghis Province">Badghis Province</a> of Afghanistan. Early peasant farming villages came into existence in Afghanistan about 7,000 years ago.</figcaption></figure> <p>Excavations of prehistoric sites by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Dupree_(professor)" title="Louis Dupree (professor)">Louis Dupree</a> and others at <a href="/wiki/Darra-e_Kur" title="Darra-e Kur">Darra-e Kur</a> in 1966 where 800 stone implements were recovered along with a fragment of Neanderthal right <a href="/wiki/Temporal_bone" title="Temporal bone">temporal bone</a>, suggest that early humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 52,000 years ago. A cave called Kara Kamar contained <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> blades <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">Carbon-14</a> dated at 34,000 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-Langer_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Langer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Farming communities in Afghanistan were among the earliest in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Shroder_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shroder-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artifacts indicate that the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous people">indigenous people</a> were small farmers and herdsmen, very probably grouped into tribes, with small local kingdoms rising and falling through the ages. Urbanization may have begun as early as 3000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> is the name of an ancient kingdom from the Vedic period and its capital city located between the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulaiman_Mountains" title="Sulaiman Mountains">Sulaiman Mountains</a> (mountains of <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although Kandahar in modern times and the ancient Gandhara are not geographically identical.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early inhabitants, around 3000 BCE were likely to have been connected through culture and trade to neighboring civilizations like <a href="/wiki/Jiroft" title="Jiroft">Jiroft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tappeh_Sialk" class="mw-redirect" title="Tappeh Sialk">Tappeh Sialk</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a>. Urban civilization may have begun as early as 3000 BCE and it is possible that the early city of Mundigak (near <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a>) was a part of <a href="/wiki/Helmand_culture" title="Helmand culture">Helmand culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dupree_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dupree-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first known people were <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Shroder_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shroder-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but their date of arrival has been estimated widely from as early as about 3000 BCE<sup id="cite_ref-Mallory_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallory-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 1500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (For further detail see <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bactria–Margiana"><span id="Bactria.E2.80.93Margiana"></span>Bactria–Margiana</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Bactria–Margiana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a> became prominent between 2200 and 1700 BCE (approximately). The city of <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bactra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bactra">Bactra</a>) was founded about this time (c. 2000–1500 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-Mallory_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallory-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_period_(c._1500_–_250_BCE)"><span id="Ancient_period_.28c._1500_.E2.80.93_250_BCE.29"></span>Ancient period (c. 1500 – 250 BCE)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient period (c. 1500 – 250 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:India_500_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/India_500_BCE.jpg/220px-India_500_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/India_500_BCE.jpg/330px-India_500_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/India_500_BCE.jpg/440px-India_500_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapada" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahajanapada">Mahajanapadas</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kambojas" title="Kambojas">Kambojas</a> kingdoms and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> in West, around c. 500 BCE</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gandhara_Kingdom_(c._1500_–_535_BCE)"><span id="Gandhara_Kingdom_.28c._1500_.E2.80.93_535_BCE.29"></span>Gandhara Kingdom (c. 1500 – 535 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Gandhara Kingdom (c. 1500 – 535 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ra_(kingdom)" title="Gandhāra (kingdom)">Gandhāra (kingdom)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Vedic_Culture_(1700-1100_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/220px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/330px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png/440px-Early_Vedic_Culture_%281700-1100_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>Gandhara Kingdom in <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic Period">Early Vedic Period</a>, around 1500 BCE</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara region</a> centered around the <a href="/wiki/Peshawar_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshawar Valley">Peshawar Valley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swat_River" title="Swat River">Swat</a> river valley, though the cultural influence of "Greater Gandhara" extended across the Indus river to the <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a> region in <a href="/wiki/Pothohar_Plateau" title="Pothohar Plateau">Pothohar Plateau</a> and westwards into the <a href="/wiki/Kabul_River" title="Kabul River">Kabul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bamyan" title="Bamyan">Bamyan</a> valleys in Afghanistan, and northwards up to the <a href="/wiki/Karakoram" title="Karakoram">Karakoram</a> range.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 6th century BCE, Gandhāra was an important imperial power in north-west South Asia, with the <a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Valley" title="Kashmir Valley">valley of Kaśmīra</a> being part of the kingdom, while the other states of the Punjab region, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kekaya" title="Kekaya">Kekayas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madra" title="Madra">Madrakas</a>, <a href="/wiki/U%C5%9B%C4%ABnara" title="Uśīnara">Uśīnaras</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shivi" title="Shivi">Shivis</a> being under Gāndhārī suzerainty. The Gāndhārī king <a href="/wiki/Pushkarasarin" title="Pushkarasarin">Pukkusāti</a>, who reigned around 550 BCE, engaged in expansionist ventures which brought him into conflict with the king <a href="/wiki/Pradyota" class="mw-redirect" title="Pradyota">Pradyota</a> of the rising power of <a href="/wiki/Avanti_(region)" title="Avanti (region)">Avanti</a>. Pukkusāti was successful in this struggle with Pradyota.<sup id="cite_ref-Prakash_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prakash-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the later 6th century BCE, the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persian</a> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus</a>, soon after his conquests of <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Babylonia</a>, marched into Gandhara and annexed it into his empire.<sup id="cite_ref-CAH_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAH-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scholar <a href="/wiki/K._D._Sethna" title="K. D. Sethna">Kaikhosru Danjibuoy Sethna</a> advanced that Cyrus had conquered only the trans-Indus borderlands around Peshawar which had belonged to Gandhāra while Pukkusāti remained a powerful king who maintained his rule over the rest of Gandhāra and the western Punjab.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kamboja_Kingdom_(c._700_–_200_BCE)"><span id="Kamboja_Kingdom_.28c._700_.E2.80.93_200_BCE.29"></span>Kamboja Kingdom (c. 700 – 200 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Kamboja Kingdom (c. 700 – 200 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kambojas" title="Kambojas">Kambojas</a></div> <p>The Kambojas entered into conflict with <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> as he invaded Central Asia. The Macedonian conqueror made short shrift of the arrangements of <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius</a> and after over-running the Achaemenid Empire he dashed into today's eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan. There he encountered resistance from the Kamboja <i>Aspasioi</i> and <i>Assakenoi</i> tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Region of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a> that was inhabitanted by the Kambojas has gone through many rules such as <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> <a href="/wiki/Kapisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Kapisi">Kapiśi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandharans</a> to <a href="/wiki/Paristan" title="Paristan">Paristan</a> and modern day being split between Pakistan and Eastern Afghanistan. </p><p>The descendants of Kambojas have mostly been assimilated into newer identities, however, some tribes remain today that still retain the names of their ancestors. The <a href="/wiki/Yusufzai" title="Yusufzai">Yusufzai</a> <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtuns</a> are said to be the <a href="/wiki/Esapzai" class="mw-redirect" title="Esapzai">Esapzai</a>/<a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvaka" title="Aśvaka">Aśvakas</a> from the Kamboja age. The <a href="/wiki/Kom_people_(Afghanistan)" title="Kom people (Afghanistan)">Kom</a>/Kamoz people of <a href="/wiki/Nuristan_Province" title="Nuristan Province">Nuristan</a> retain their Kamboj name. The <a href="/wiki/Askunu_language" title="Askunu language">Ashkun</a> of Nuristan also retain the name of Aśvakas. The <a href="/wiki/Yashkuns" title="Yashkuns">Yashkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Shina_people" title="Shina people">Shina</a> dards are another group that retain the name of the Kamboja Aśvakans. The <a href="/wiki/Kamboj" title="Kamboj">Kamboj</a> of <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a> are another group that still retain the name however have integrated into new identity. The country of <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> <a href="/wiki/Names_of_Cambodia" title="Names of Cambodia">derives its name</a> from the Kamboja.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Achaemenid_Empire">Achaemenid Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Achaemenid Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/220px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/330px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/440px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Much of the area corresponding to modern-day Afghanistan was subordinated to the Achaemenid Empire</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg/220px-Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg/330px-Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="347" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria (satrapy)">Aria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> were the ancient <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satraps</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> that made up most of what is now Afghanistan during 500 BCE.</figcaption></figure> <p>Afghanistan fell to the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> after it was conquered by <a href="/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I of Persia">Darius I of Persia</a>. The area was divided into several provinces called <a href="/wiki/Satrapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Satrapy">satrapies</a>, which were each ruled by a governor, or <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a>. These ancient satrapies included: <a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria (satrapy)">Aria</a>: The region of Aria was separated by mountain ranges from the <a href="/wiki/Paropamisadae" title="Paropamisadae">Paropamisadae</a> in the east, <a href="/wiki/Parthia_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthia (satrapy)">Parthia</a> in the west and <a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Margiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Hyrcania</a> in the north, while a desert separated it from <a href="/wiki/Carmania_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carmania (satrapy)">Carmania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drangiana" title="Drangiana">Drangiana</a> in the south. It is described in a very detailed manner by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and corresponds, according to that, almost to the <a href="/wiki/Herat_Province" title="Herat Province">Herat Province</a> of today's Afghanistan; <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a>, corresponds to the modern-day <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lashkargah" title="Lashkargah">Lashkargah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quetta" title="Quetta">Quetta</a>. Arachosia bordered <a href="/wiki/Drangiana" title="Drangiana">Drangiana</a> to the west, <a href="/wiki/Paropamisadae" title="Paropamisadae">Paropamisadae</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a>) to the north and to the east, and <a href="/wiki/Gedrosia" title="Gedrosia">Gedrosia</a> to the south. The inhabitants of Arachosia were <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian peoples</a>, referred to as Arachosians or Arachoti.<sup id="cite_ref-Iranicaarticle_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iranicaarticle-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is assumed that they were called <i>Paktyans</i> by ethnicity, and that name may have been in reference to the ethnic <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns"><i>Paṣtun</i></a> (Pashtun) <a href="/wiki/Pashtun_tribes" title="Pashtun tribes">tribes</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Houtsma-150_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Houtsma-150-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactriana</a> was the area north of the Hindu Kush, west of the Pamirs and south of the Tian Shan, with the Amu Darya flowing west through the center (<a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>); <a href="/wiki/Sattagydia" title="Sattagydia">Sattagydia</a> was the easternmost regions of the Achaemenid Empire, part of its Seventh tax district according to Herodotus, along with Gandārae, Dadicae and Aparytae.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is believed to have been situated east of the Sulaiman Mountains up to the Indus River in the basin around Bannu.[ (<a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a>); and <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> which corresponds to modern day <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jalalabad" title="Jalalabad">Jalalabad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peshawar" title="Peshawar">Peshawar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alexander_and_the_Seleucus">Alexander and the Seleucus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Alexander and the Seleucus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">Indian campaign of Alexander the Great</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg/220px-AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg/330px-AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg/440px-AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1117" data-file-height="1393" /></a><figcaption>Alexander Empire in South Asia</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_troops_beg_to_return_home_from_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Alexander_troops_beg_to_return_home_from_India.jpg/220px-Alexander_troops_beg_to_return_home_from_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Alexander_troops_beg_to_return_home_from_India.jpg/330px-Alexander_troops_beg_to_return_home_from_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Alexander_troops_beg_to_return_home_from_India.jpg/440px-Alexander_troops_beg_to_return_home_from_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1334" data-file-height="1026" /></a><figcaption>Alexander's troops beg to return home from India in plate<span class="nowrap"> </span>3 of 11 by Antonio Tempesta of Florence, 1608.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> arrived in the area of Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating <a href="/wiki/Darius_III_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius III of Persia">Darius III of Persia</a> a year earlier at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Achaemenid_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Achaemenid-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His army faced very strong resistance in the Afghan tribal areas where he is said to have commented that Afghanistan is "easy to march into, hard to march out of."<sup id="cite_ref-Cal-history_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cal-history-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although his expedition through Afghanistan was brief, Alexander left behind a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenic</a> cultural influence that lasted several centuries. Several great cities were built in the region named "Alexandria," including: Alexandria-of-the-Arians (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>); Alexandria-on-the-<a href="/wiki/Tarnak_River" title="Tarnak River">Tarnak</a> (near <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a>); Alexandria-ad-Caucasum (near <a href="/wiki/Bagram" title="Bagram">Bagram</a>, at Bordj-i-Abdullah); and finally, Alexandria-Eschate (near Kojend), in the north. After Alexander's death, his loosely connected empire was divided. <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian</a> officer during Alexander's campaign, declared himself ruler of his own <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, which also included present-day Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maurya_Empire">Maurya Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Maurya Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Mauryan_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid–Mauryan war">Seleucid–Mauryan war</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great."><img alt="Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg/200px-Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg/300px-Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg/400px-Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="543" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a> under <a href="/wiki/Ashoka_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashoka the Great">Ashoka the Great</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mes_Aynak_stupa.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Newly excavated Buddhist stupa at Mes Aynak in Logar Province of Afghanistan. Similar stupas have been discovered in neighboring Ghazni Province, including in the northern Samangan Province."><img alt="Newly excavated Buddhist stupa at Mes Aynak in Logar Province of Afghanistan. Similar stupas have been discovered in neighboring Ghazni Province, including in the northern Samangan Province." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Mes_Aynak_stupa.jpg/200px-Mes_Aynak_stupa.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Mes_Aynak_stupa.jpg/300px-Mes_Aynak_stupa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Mes_Aynak_stupa.jpg/400px-Mes_Aynak_stupa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3543" data-file-height="2362" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Newly excavated Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mes_Aynak" title="Mes Aynak">Mes Aynak</a> in <a href="/wiki/Logar_Province" title="Logar Province">Logar Province</a> of Afghanistan. Similar stupas have been discovered in neighboring <a href="/wiki/Ghazni_Province" title="Ghazni Province">Ghazni Province</a>, including in the northern <a href="/wiki/Samangan_Province#Cultural_heritage" title="Samangan Province">Samangan Province</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aramaic_inscription_of_Laghman.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aramaic inscription of Laghman is an inscription on a slab of natural rock in the area of Laghmân, Afghanistan, written in Aramaic by the Indian emperor Ashoka about 260 BCE, and often categorized as one of Minor Rock Edicts of Ashoka.[38]"><img alt="Aramaic inscription of Laghman is an inscription on a slab of natural rock in the area of Laghmân, Afghanistan, written in Aramaic by the Indian emperor Ashoka about 260 BCE, and often categorized as one of Minor Rock Edicts of Ashoka.[38]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Aramaic_inscription_of_Laghman.jpg/200px-Aramaic_inscription_of_Laghman.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Aramaic_inscription_of_Laghman.jpg/300px-Aramaic_inscription_of_Laghman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Aramaic_inscription_of_Laghman.jpg/400px-Aramaic_inscription_of_Laghman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1622" data-file-height="580" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_inscription_of_Laghman" title="Aramaic inscription of Laghman">Aramaic inscription of Laghman</a> is an inscription on a slab of natural rock in the area of <a href="/wiki/Laghman_Province" title="Laghman Province">Laghmân</a>, Afghanistan, written in <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> by the Indian emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> about 260 BCE, and often categorized as one of <a href="/wiki/Minor_Rock_Edicts" title="Minor Rock Edicts">Minor Rock Edicts</a> of Ashoka.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kandahar_Greek_inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka is among the Major Rock Edicts of the Indian Emperor Ashoka (reigned 269–233 BCE), which were written in the Greek language and Prakrit language."><img alt="Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka is among the Major Rock Edicts of the Indian Emperor Ashoka (reigned 269–233 BCE), which were written in the Greek language and Prakrit language." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Kandahar_Greek_inscription.jpg/200px-Kandahar_Greek_inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Kandahar_Greek_inscription.jpg/300px-Kandahar_Greek_inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Kandahar_Greek_inscription.jpg/400px-Kandahar_Greek_inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="982" data-file-height="632" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Greek_Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka">Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka</a> is among the <a href="/wiki/Major_Rock_Edicts" title="Major Rock Edicts">Major Rock Edicts</a> of the Indian Emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> (reigned 269–233 BCE), which were written in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> language.</div> </li> </ul> <p>The territory fell to the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a>, which was led by <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya" title="Chandragupta Maurya">Chandragupta Maurya</a>. The Mauryas further entrenched Hinduism and introduced Buddhism to the region, and were planning to capture more territory of Central Asia until they faced local Greco-Bactrian forces. Seleucus is said to have reached a <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">peace treaty</a> with Chandragupta by giving control of the territory south of the Hindu Kush to the Mauryas upon intermarriage and 500 elephants. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Alexander took these away from the Hindus and established settlements of his own, but <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus Nicator</a> gave them to <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya" title="Chandragupta Maurya">Sandrocottus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya" title="Chandragupta Maurya">Chandragupta</a>), upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange 500 elephants.<sup id="cite_ref-aisk_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aisk-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, 64 BCE–24 CE</cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Some time after, as he was going to war with the generals of Alexander, a wild elephant of great bulk presented itself before him of its own accord, and, as if tamed down to gentleness, took him on its back, and became his guide in the war, and conspicuous in fields of battle. Sandrocottus, having thus acquired a throne, was in possession of India, when Seleucus was laying the foundations of his future greatness; who, after making a league with him, and settling his affairs in the east, proceeded to join in the war against Antigonus. As soon as the forces, therefore, of all the confederates were united, a battle was fought, in which Antigonus was slain, and his son Demetrius put to flight.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Junianus Justinus</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Having consolidated power in the northwest, Chandragupta pushed east towards the <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a>. Afghanistan's significant ancient tangible and intangible <a href="/wiki/Pre_Islamic_Hindu_and_Buddhist_heritage_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre Islamic Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan">Buddhist heritage</a> is recorded through wide-ranging archeological finds, including religious and artistic remnants. Buddhist doctrines are reported to have reached as far as <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a> even during the life of the <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> (563 BCE to 483 BCE), as recorded by <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Husang Tsang</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In this context a legend recorded by Husang Tsang refers to the first two lay disciples of Buddha, Trapusa and <a href="/wiki/Bahlikas" title="Bahlikas">Bhallika</a> responsible for introducing Buddhismin that country. Originally these two were merchants of the kingdom of Balhika, as the name Bhalluka or Bhallika probably suggests the association of one with that country. They had gone to India for trade and had happened to be at <a href="/wiki/Bodhgaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhgaya">Bodhgaya</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> had just attained enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_Period_(c._250_BCE_–_565_CE)"><span id="Classical_Period_.28c._250_BCE_.E2.80.93_565_CE.29"></span>Classical Period (c. 250 BCE – 565 CE)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Classical Period (c. 250 BCE – 565 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Greco-Bactrian Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg/220px-Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg/330px-Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg/440px-Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1311" /></a><figcaption>Approximate maximum extent of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian kingdom">Greco-Bactrian kingdom</a> circa 180 BCE, including the regions of <a href="/wiki/Tapuria" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapuria">Tapuria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Traxiane</a> to the West, <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferghana">Ferghana</a> to the north, <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a> to the south.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> kingdom,<sup id="cite_ref-A_History_of_Greece_-_pg.64_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_History_of_Greece_-_pg.64-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> founded when <a href="/wiki/Diodotus_I" title="Diodotus I">Diodotus I</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> (and probably the surrounding provinces) seceded from the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> around 250 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlas_of_Military_History_-_Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlas_of_Military_History_-_Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Greco-Bactria Kingdom continued until c. 130 BCE, when <a href="/wiki/Eucratides_I" title="Eucratides I">Eucratides I</a>'s son, King <a href="/wiki/Heliocles_I" title="Heliocles I">Heliocles I</a>, was <a href="/wiki/Heliocles_I#Yuezhi_invasion" title="Heliocles I">defeated and driven out of Bactria</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi tribes</a> from the east. The Yuezhi now had complete occupation of Bactria. It is thought that Eucratides' dynasty continued to rule in <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandria of the Caucasus">Alexandria of the Caucasus</a> until 70 BCE when <a href="/wiki/King_Hermaeus" class="mw-redirect" title="King Hermaeus">King Hermaeus</a> was also defeated by the Yuezhi. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indo-Greek_Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Indo-Greek Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="History of the Indo-Greek Kingdom">History of the Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></div> <p>One of <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Bactria" title="Demetrius I of Bactria">Demetrius I's</a> successors, <a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a>, brought the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a> (now isolated from the rest of the Hellenistic world after the fall of Bactria<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) to its height between 165 and 130 BCE, expanding the kingdom in Afghanistan and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> to even larger proportions than Demetrius. After Menander's death, the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greeks">Indo-Greeks</a> steadily declined and the last Indo-Greek kings (<a href="/wiki/Strato_II" title="Strato II">Strato II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strato_III" title="Strato III">Strato III</a>) were defeated in c. 10 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indo-Greek Kingdom was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythians</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Indo-Scythians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BimaranCasket2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/BimaranCasket2.JPG/180px-BimaranCasket2.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/BimaranCasket2.JPG/270px-BimaranCasket2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/BimaranCasket2.JPG/360px-BimaranCasket2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2123" data-file-height="2618" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bimaran_casket" title="Bimaran casket">Bimaran casket</a>, representing the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a> surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Brahma_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahma (Buddhism)">Brahma</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aakra_(Buddhism)" title="Śakra (Buddhism)">Śakra</a> (right) was found inside a <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a> with coins of <a href="/wiki/Azes" class="mw-redirect" title="Azes">Azes</a> inside. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythians</a> were descended from the <a href="/wiki/Sakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakas">Sakas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>) who migrated from southern <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a> from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mathura,_Uttar_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathura, Uttar Pradesh">Mathura</a>. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Scythians were defeated by the south Indian Emperor <a href="/wiki/Gautamiputra_Satakarni" title="Gautamiputra Satakarni">Gautamiputra Satakarni</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_II" title="Chandragupta II">Chandragupta II</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> from eastern India in the 4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indo-Parthians">Indo-Parthians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Indo-Parthians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BuddhistReliquaryWithContent1stCenturyCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/BuddhistReliquaryWithContent1stCenturyCE.jpg/220px-BuddhistReliquaryWithContent1stCenturyCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/BuddhistReliquaryWithContent1stCenturyCE.jpg/330px-BuddhistReliquaryWithContent1stCenturyCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/BuddhistReliquaryWithContent1stCenturyCE.jpg/440px-BuddhistReliquaryWithContent1stCenturyCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2496" data-file-height="1538" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> Buddhist reliquary with content, including <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian">Indo-Parthian</a> coins. 1st century CE.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a> was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its eponymous first ruler <a href="/wiki/Gondophares" title="Gondophares">Gondophares</a>. They ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-earrings_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-earrings-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and northwestern <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, during or slightly before the 1st century CE. For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a> (in the present <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_Pakistan" title="Punjab, Pakistan">Punjab</a> province of Pakistan) as their residence, but during their last few years of existence the capital shifted between <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peshawar" title="Peshawar">Peshawar</a>. These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid dynasty of Parthia">Arsacid</a> dynasty, but they probably belonged to a wider groups of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranic</a> tribes who lived east of <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title <i>Gondophares</i>, which means "Holder of Glory", were even related. Christian writings claim that the Apostle <a href="/wiki/Thomas_the_Apostle" title="Thomas the Apostle">Saint Thomas</a> – an architect and skilled carpenter – had a long sojourn in the court of king <a href="/wiki/Gondophares" title="Gondophares">Gondophares</a>, had built a palace for the king at Taxila and had also ordained leaders for the Church before leaving for the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley">Indus Valley</a> in a chariot, for sailing out to eventually reach <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kushans">Kushans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Kushans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png/220px-Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png/330px-Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png/440px-Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png 2x" data-file-width="2324" data-file-height="2151" /></a><figcaption>Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> expanded out of Bactria (Central Asia) into the northwest of the subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, <a href="/wiki/Kujula_Kadphises" title="Kujula Kadphises">Kujula Kadphises</a>, about the middle of the 1st century CE. They came from an Indo-European language-speaking Central Asian tribe called the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a branch of which was known as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson, <a href="/wiki/Kanishka_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanishka the Great">Kanishka the Great</a>, the empire spread to encompass much of Afghanistan,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent at least as far as <a href="/wiki/Saketa" class="mw-redirect" title="Saketa">Saketa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a> near <a href="/wiki/Varanasi" title="Varanasi">Varanasi</a> (Benares).<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent and its spread to Central Asia and China. </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Vincent_Arthur_Smith" title="Vincent Arthur Smith">Vincent Smith</a> said about Kanishka: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a>. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhara art">Gandhara art</a>, which reached its peak during Kushan Rule. </p><p>H. G. Rowlinson commented: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the Age of the Guptas.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was <a href="/wiki/Vasudeva_I" title="Vasudeva I">Vasudeva I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:BuddhistTriad.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee, Maitreya, The Buddha, Avalokiteśvara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd–3rd century, Gandhara."><img alt="Early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee, Maitreya, The Buddha, Avalokiteśvara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd–3rd century, Gandhara." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/BuddhistTriad.JPG/200px-BuddhistTriad.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/BuddhistTriad.JPG/300px-BuddhistTriad.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/BuddhistTriad.JPG/400px-BuddhistTriad.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1587" data-file-height="970" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Early <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Buddhist">Mahayana Buddhist</a> triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee, <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a>, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd–3rd century, Gandhara.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kumara,_The_Divine_General_LACMA_M.85.279.3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kumara or Kartikeya with a Kushan devotee, 2nd century CE."><img alt="Kumara or Kartikeya with a Kushan devotee, 2nd century CE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Kumara%2C_The_Divine_General_LACMA_M.85.279.3.jpg/134px-Kumara%2C_The_Divine_General_LACMA_M.85.279.3.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Kumara%2C_The_Divine_General_LACMA_M.85.279.3.jpg/201px-Kumara%2C_The_Divine_General_LACMA_M.85.279.3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Kumara%2C_The_Divine_General_LACMA_M.85.279.3.jpg/268px-Kumara%2C_The_Divine_General_LACMA_M.85.279.3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1410" data-file-height="2100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Kumara or <a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kartikeya</a> with a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kushan_(clan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kushan (clan) (page does not exist)">Kushan</a> devotee, 2nd century CE.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gandhara,_omaggio_di_un_re_kushana_al_bodhisattva,_II-III_sec.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Kushan prince, said to be Huvishka, making a donation to a bodhisattva.[60]"><img alt="Kushan prince, said to be Huvishka, making a donation to a bodhisattva.[60]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Gandhara%2C_omaggio_di_un_re_kushana_al_bodhisattva%2C_II-III_sec.JPG/200px-Gandhara%2C_omaggio_di_un_re_kushana_al_bodhisattva%2C_II-III_sec.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Gandhara%2C_omaggio_di_un_re_kushana_al_bodhisattva%2C_II-III_sec.JPG/300px-Gandhara%2C_omaggio_di_un_re_kushana_al_bodhisattva%2C_II-III_sec.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Gandhara%2C_omaggio_di_un_re_kushana_al_bodhisattva%2C_II-III_sec.JPG/400px-Gandhara%2C_omaggio_di_un_re_kushana_al_bodhisattva%2C_II-III_sec.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2196" data-file-height="1692" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Kushan prince, said to be <a href="/wiki/Huvishka" title="Huvishka">Huvishka</a>, making a donation to a <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_Showing_Shiva_Linga_Worshipped_by_Saka_Devotees_-_Kushan_Period_-_Dampier_Nagar_-_ACCN_36-2661_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5614.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Shiva Linga worshipped by Kushan devotees, circa 2nd century CE."><img alt="Shiva Linga worshipped by Kushan devotees, circa 2nd century CE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Relief_Showing_Shiva_Linga_Worshipped_by_Saka_Devotees_-_Kushan_Period_-_Dampier_Nagar_-_ACCN_36-2661_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5614.JPG/200px-Relief_Showing_Shiva_Linga_Worshipped_by_Saka_Devotees_-_Kushan_Period_-_Dampier_Nagar_-_ACCN_36-2661_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5614.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Relief_Showing_Shiva_Linga_Worshipped_by_Saka_Devotees_-_Kushan_Period_-_Dampier_Nagar_-_ACCN_36-2661_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5614.JPG/300px-Relief_Showing_Shiva_Linga_Worshipped_by_Saka_Devotees_-_Kushan_Period_-_Dampier_Nagar_-_ACCN_36-2661_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5614.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Relief_Showing_Shiva_Linga_Worshipped_by_Saka_Devotees_-_Kushan_Period_-_Dampier_Nagar_-_ACCN_36-2661_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5614.JPG/400px-Relief_Showing_Shiva_Linga_Worshipped_by_Saka_Devotees_-_Kushan_Period_-_Dampier_Nagar_-_ACCN_36-2661_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5614.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> <a href="/wiki/Linga" class="mw-redirect" title="Linga">Linga</a> worshipped by Kushan devotees, circa 2nd century CE.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sasanian_Empire">Sasanian Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sasanian Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg/260px-Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg/390px-Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg/520px-Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="1106" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> at its greatest extent c. 620, under <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a>'s rule was ended by <a href="/wiki/Sasanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanians">Sasanians</a>— officially known as the Empire of Iranians— was the last kingdom of the Persian Empire before the rise of Islam. Named after the House of Sasan, it ruled from 224 to 651 AD. In the east around 325, Shapur II regained the upper hand against the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom and took control of large territories in areas now known as Afghanistan and Pakistan. Much of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> became part of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, since <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> extended his authority eastwards into Afghanistan and the previously autonomous <a href="/wiki/Kushans" class="mw-redirect" title="Kushans">Kushans</a> were obliged to accept his <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a>. </p><p>From around 370, however, towards the end of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>, the Sasanians lost the control of <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> to invaders from the north. These were the <a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Nezak_Huns" title="Nezak Huns">Nezaks</a>: The four <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna tribes</a> to rule Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These invaders initially issued coins based on <a href="/wiki/Sasanian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian">Sasanian</a> designs.<sup id="cite_ref-Tandon2013_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tandon2013-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:302px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:0px; width:300px; position:absolute;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hephthalites_(map).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Imperial Hephthalites c. 500 CE"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg/300px-Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg/450px-Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg/600px-Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1730" data-file-height="1087" /></a></span></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_75x80" style="position:absolute; left:75px; top:80px; font-size:8px; font-weight:bold; font-size:8; line-height:10px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">SASANIAN<br />EMPIRE</div></a></span></div> <div id="annotation_15x60" style="position:absolute; left:15px; top:60px; font-size:8px; font-weight:bold; font-size:8; line-height:10px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">BYZANTINE<br />EMPIRE</div></a></span></div> <div id="annotation_250x55" style="position:absolute; left:250px; top:55px; font-size:8px; font-weight:bold; font-size:8; line-height:10px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">NORTHERN<br />WEI</div></a></span></div> <div id="annotation_273x95" style="position:absolute; left:273px; top:95px; font-size:8px; font-weight:bold; font-size:8; line-height:10px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">LIANG</div></a></span></div> <div id="annotation_155x90" style="position:absolute; left:155px; top:90px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Alchon<br />Huns</div></a></span></div> <div id="annotation_180x110" style="position:absolute; left:180px; top:110px; font-size:8px; font-weight:bold; font-size:8; line-height:10px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">GUPTA<br />EMPIRE</div></a></span></div> <div id="annotation_230x27" style="position:absolute; left:230px; top:27px; font-size:8px; font-weight:bold; font-size:8; line-height:10px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">JUAN-JUAN KHAGANATE</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_190x13" style="position:absolute; left:190px; top:13px; font-size:8px; font-weight:bold; font-size:8; line-height:10px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Gaoju Turks</a></span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Hephthalites_(map).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg/300px-Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg/450px-Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg/600px-Hephthalites_%28map%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1730" data-file-height="1087" /></a></span></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Hephthalites_(map).jpg" title="File:Hephthalites (map).jpg"> </a></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The Imperial <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a> c. 500 CE</div></div> </div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Huna">Huna</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Huna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna people</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hunas" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunas">Hunas</a> were peoples who were of a group of Central Asian tribes. Four of the Huna tribe conquered and ruled Afghanistan: the <a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nezak_Huns" title="Nezak Huns">Nezaks</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kidarites">Kidarites</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Kidarites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a> were a nomadic clan, the first of the four <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna people</a> in Afghanistan. They are supposed to have originated in Western China and arrived in Bactria with the great migrations of the second half of the 4th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alchon_Huns">Alchon Huns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Alchon Huns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VishnuGandhara.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/VishnuGandhara.JPG/220px-VishnuGandhara.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/VishnuGandhara.JPG/330px-VishnuGandhara.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/VishnuGandhara.JPG/440px-VishnuGandhara.JPG 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="1268" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vishnu_Nicolo_Seal" class="mw-redirect" title="Vishnu Nicolo Seal">Vishnu Nicolo Seal</a> representing <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> with a worshipper (probably <a href="/wiki/Mihirakula" title="Mihirakula">Mihirakula</a>), 4th–6th century CE. The inscription in cursive <a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian</a> reads: "<a href="/wiki/Mitra_(Vedic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitra (Vedic)">Mihira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a>". <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Alchons are one of the four <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna people</a> that ruled in Afghanistan. A group of Central Asian tribes, Hunas or Huna, via the Khyber Pass, entered India at the end of the 5th or early 6th century and successfully occupied areas as far as Eran and Kausambi, greatly weakening the Gupta Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 6th-century Roman historian Procopius of Caesarea (Book I. ch. 3), related the Huns of Europe with the Hephthalites or "White Huns" who subjugated the Sasanians and invaded northwestern India, stating that they were of the same stock, "in fact as well as in name", although he contrasted the Huns with the Hephthalites, in that the Hephthalites were sedentary, white-skinned, and possessed "not ugly" features.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Song_Yun" title="Song Yun">Song Yun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Song_Yun" title="Song Yun">Hui Zheng</a>, who visited the chief of the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite">Hephthalite</a> nomads at his summer residence in <a href="/wiki/Badakhshan" title="Badakhshan">Badakhshan</a> and later in <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a>, observed that they had no belief in the Buddhist law and served a large number of divinities."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_White_Huns">The White Huns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The White Huns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite Empire">Hephthalite Empire</a></div> <p>The Hephthalites (or Ephthalites), also known as the White Huns and one of the four <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna people</a> in Afghanistan, were a nomadic confederation in Central Asia during the late antiquity period. The <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White Huns</a> established themselves in modern-day Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century. Led by the Hun military leader <a href="/wiki/Toramana" title="Toramana">Toramana</a>, they overran the northern region of Pakistan and North India. Toramana's son <a href="/wiki/Mihirakula" title="Mihirakula">Mihirakula</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Saivite" class="mw-redirect" title="Saivite">Saivite</a> Hindu, moved up to near <a href="/wiki/Pataliputra" title="Pataliputra">Pataliputra</a> to the east and <a href="/wiki/Gwalior" title="Gwalior">Gwalior</a> to central India. <a href="/wiki/Hiuen_Tsiang" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiuen Tsiang">Hiuen Tsiang</a> narrates Mihirakula's merciless persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries, though the description is disputed as far as the authenticity is concerned.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Huns were defeated by the Indian kings <a href="/wiki/Yashodharman" title="Yashodharman">Yashodharman</a> of Malwa and Narasimhagupta in the 6th century. Some of them were driven out of India and others were assimilated in the Indian society.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nezak_Huns">Nezak Huns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Nezak Huns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nezak_Huns" title="Nezak Huns">Nezak Huns</a></div> <p>The Nezaks are one of the four <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna people</a> that ruled in Afghanistan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Ages_(565–1504_CE)"><span id="Middle_Ages_.28565.E2.80.931504_CE.29"></span>Middle Ages (565–1504 CE)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Middle Ages (565–1504 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg/220px-Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg/330px-Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg 2x" data-file-width="373" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Map of the region during the 7th century</figcaption></figure> <p>From the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> to around 1750 the eastern regions of Afghanistan such as <a href="/wiki/Kabulistan" title="Kabulistan">Kabulistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zabulistan" title="Zabulistan">Zabulistan</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a>) were recognized as being part of <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> (<i>Al-Hind</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while its western parts were included in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Khorasan_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khorasan-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tokharistan" title="Tokharistan">Tokharistan</a><sup id="cite_ref-AA51_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AA51-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two of the four main capitals of Khorasan (<a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>) are now located in Afghanistan. The countries of Kandahar, Ghazni and Kabul formed the <a href="/wiki/Frontier" title="Frontier">frontier</a> region between Khorasan and the Indus.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This land, inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_(ethnonym)" title="Afghan (ethnonym)">Afghan tribes</a> (i.e. ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtuns</a>), was called <a href="/wiki/Name_of_Afghanistan" title="Name of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, which loosely covered a wide area between the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>, principally around the <a href="/wiki/Sulaiman_Mountains" title="Sulaiman Mountains">Sulaiman Mountains</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Firishta_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Firishta-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest record of the name <i>"<a href="/wiki/Afghan_(ethnonym)" title="Afghan (ethnonym)">Afghan</a>"</i> (<i>"Abgân"</i>) being mentioned is by <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> during the 3rd century CE<sup id="cite_ref-Habibi_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Habibi-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Abgan_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abgan-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is later recorded in the form of <i>"Avagānā"</i> by the Vedic astronomer <a href="/wiki/Var%C4%81hamihira" title="Varāhamihira">Varāhamihira</a> in his 6th century CE <a href="/wiki/B%E1%B9%9Bhat_Sa%E1%B9%83hit%C4%81" title="Bṛhat Saṃhitā">Brihat-samhita</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Iranica_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iranica-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was used to refer to a common legendary ancestor known as <i>"Afghana"</i>, grandson of <a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">King Saul of Israel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Hiven Tsiang</a>, a Chinese pilgrim, visiting the Afghanistan area several times between 630 and 644 CE also speaks about them.<sup id="cite_ref-Habibi_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Habibi-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancestors of many of today's <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic-speaking</a> Afghans settled in the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a> area and began to <a href="/wiki/Pashtunization" title="Pashtunization">assimilate</a> much of the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan culture">culture</a> and language of the Pashtun tribes already present there.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among these were the <a href="/wiki/Khalaj_people" title="Khalaj people">Khalaj people</a> which are known today as <a href="/wiki/Ghilzai" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghilzai">Ghilzai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Khalaj_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khalaj-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kabul_Shahi">Kabul Shahi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Kabul Shahi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahis" title="Hindu Shahis">Hindu Shahis</a></div> <p>The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled the <a href="/wiki/Kabul_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabul Valley">Kabul Valley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> from the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-EB_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Shahis are generally split up into two eras: the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870. The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 to 670, when the capitals were located in <a href="/wiki/Kapisa_Province" title="Kapisa Province">Kapisa</a> and Kabul, and later <a href="/wiki/Hund,_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="Hund, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Udabhandapura</a>, also known as Hund<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for its new capital.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Hindu Shahis under ruler <a href="/wiki/Jayapala" title="Jayapala">Jayapala</a>, is known for his struggles in defending his kingdom against the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a> in the modern-day eastern Afghanistan region. Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and invaded their capital city of <a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a> both in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Sabuktigin" title="Sabuktigin">Sabuktigin</a> and in that of his son <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud</a>, which initiated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sabuktigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to pay an indemnity.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jayapala defaulted on the payment and took to the battlefield once more.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jayapala however, lost control of the entire region between the <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul Valley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferishta_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferishta-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before his struggle began Jaipal had raised a large army of Punjabi Hindus. When Jaipal went to the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab region">Punjab region</a>, his army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and an innumerable host of foot soldiers. According to <a href="/wiki/Firishta" title="Firishta">Firishta</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The two armies having met on the confines of <a href="/wiki/Laghman_Province" title="Laghman Province">Lumghan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sabuktigin" title="Sabuktigin">Subooktugeen</a> ascended a hill to view the forces of Jeipal, which appeared in extent like the boundless ocean, and in number like the ants or the locusts of the wilderness. But Subooktugeen considered himself as a wolf about to attack a flock of sheep: calling, therefore, his chiefs together, he encouraged them to glory, and issued to each his commands. His soldiers, though few in number, were divided into squadrons of five hundred men each, which were directed to attack successively, one particular point of the Hindoo line, so that it might continually have to encounter fresh troops.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferishta_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferishta-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>However, the army was hopeless in battle against the western forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of Ghazni.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferishta_91-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferishta-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied with the <a href="/wiki/Qarakhanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Qarakhanid">Qarakhanids</a> north of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a>, Jaipal <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peshawar_(1001)" title="Battle of Peshawar (1001)">attacked Ghazni</a> once more and suffered yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present-day <a href="/wiki/Peshawar" title="Peshawar">Peshawar</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peshawar_(1001)" title="Battle of Peshawar (1001)">Battle of Peshawar</a>, he committed suicide because his subjects thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_90-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ferishta_91-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferishta-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jayapala was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Anandapala" class="mw-redirect" title="Anandapala">Anandapala</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_90-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who along with other succeeding generations of the Shahiya dynasty took part in various campaigns against the advancing Ghaznavids but were unsuccessful. The Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves to the <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> <a href="/wiki/Sivalik_Hills" title="Sivalik Hills">Sivalik Hills</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferishta_91-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferishta-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila,_Kabul,_7-8th_century_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Gardez Ganesha, representing a Hindu deity, Ganesha, consecrated by the Shahis in Gardez, Afghanistan."><img alt="The Gardez Ganesha, representing a Hindu deity, Ganesha, consecrated by the Shahis in Gardez, Afghanistan." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila%2C_Kabul%2C_7-8th_century_CE.jpg/87px-Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila%2C_Kabul%2C_7-8th_century_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="87" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila%2C_Kabul%2C_7-8th_century_CE.jpg/131px-Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila%2C_Kabul%2C_7-8th_century_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila%2C_Kabul%2C_7-8th_century_CE.jpg/174px-Gardesh_Ganesha_dedicated_by_Khingila%2C_Kabul%2C_7-8th_century_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="283" data-file-height="584" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <i><a href="/wiki/Gardez_Ganesha" title="Gardez Ganesha">Gardez Ganesha</a></i>, representing a <a href="/wiki/Hindu_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu deity">Hindu deity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a>, consecrated by the <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Shahis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gardez" title="Gardez">Gardez</a>, Afghanistan.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coins_of_the_Shahis_8th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coins of the Hindu Shahis, which later inspired Abbasid coins in the Middle East.[92]"><img alt="Coins of the Hindu Shahis, which later inspired Abbasid coins in the Middle East.[92]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Coins_of_the_Shahis_8th_century.jpg/180px-Coins_of_the_Shahis_8th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Coins_of_the_Shahis_8th_century.jpg/270px-Coins_of_the_Shahis_8th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Coins_of_the_Shahis_8th_century.jpg/360px-Coins_of_the_Shahis_8th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1244" data-file-height="653" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Coins of the Hindu Shahis, which later inspired <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> coins in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wink1991_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wink1991-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_conquest">Arab conquest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Arab conquest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Muslim conquests of Afghanistan</a></div> <p>In 642 CE, <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a> Arabs had conquered most of West Asia from the Sasanians and Byzantines, and from the western city of <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> they introduced the religion of Islam as they entered new cities. Afghanistan at that period had a number of different independent rulers, depending on the area. Ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_%E1%B8%A4an%C4%ABfa" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Ḥanīfa">Abū Ḥanīfa</a>, including his father, were from the Kabul region. </p><p>The early Arab forces did not fully explore Afghanistan due to attacks by the mountain tribes. Much of the eastern parts of the country remained independent, as part of the Hindu Shahi kingdoms of Kabul and <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a>, which lasted that way until the forces of the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a> followed by the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a> conquered them. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Arab armies carrying the banner of Islam came out of the west to defeat the <a href="/wiki/Sasanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanians">Sasanians</a> in 642 CE and then they marched with confidence to the east. On the western periphery of the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_(name)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan (name)">Afghan</a> area the princes of <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Seistan">Seistan</a> gave way to rule by Arab governors but in the east, in the mountains, cities submitted only to rise in revolt and the hastily converted returned to their old beliefs once the armies passed. The harshness and avariciousness of Arab rule produced such unrest, however, that once the waning power of the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> became apparent, native rulers once again established themselves independent. Among these the <a href="/wiki/Saffarids" class="mw-redirect" title="Saffarids">Saffarids</a> of Seistan shone briefly in the Afghan area. The fanatic founder of this dynasty, the persian <a href="/wiki/Ya%27qub-i_Laith_Saffari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari">Yaqub ibn Layth Saffari</a>, came forth from his capital at <a href="/wiki/Zaranj" title="Zaranj">Zaranj</a> in 870 CE and marched through <a href="/wiki/Lashkargah" title="Lashkargah">Bost</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bamyan,_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamyan, Afghanistan">Bamyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>, conquering in the name of Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Hatch_Dupree" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy Hatch Dupree">Nancy Hatch Dupree</a>, 1971</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ghaznavids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavid_campaigns_in_India" title="Ghaznavid campaigns in India">Ghaznavid campaigns in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghaznavid_Empire_975_-_1187_(AD).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Ghaznavid_Empire_975_-_1187_%28AD%29.PNG/220px-Ghaznavid_Empire_975_-_1187_%28AD%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Ghaznavid_Empire_975_-_1187_%28AD%29.PNG/330px-Ghaznavid_Empire_975_-_1187_%28AD%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Ghaznavid_Empire_975_-_1187_%28AD%29.PNG/440px-Ghaznavid_Empire_975_-_1187_%28AD%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Ghaznavid Empire at its greatest extent in 1030 CE</figcaption></figure> <p>The Ghaznavid dynasty ruled from the city of <a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a> in eastern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. From 997 to his death in 1030, <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud of Ghazni</a> turned the former provincial city of <a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a> into the wealthy capital of an extensive empire which covered most of today's <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, eastern and central <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, parts of India, <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud of Ghazni</a> (Mahmude Ghaznavi in local pronunciation) consolidated the conquests of his predecessors and the city of Ghazni became a great cultural centre as well as a base for frequent forays into the Indian subcontinent. The <a href="/wiki/Nasher_clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasher clan">Nasher</a> Khans became princes of the <a href="/wiki/Kharoti" title="Kharoti">Kharoti</a> until the Soviet invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-afghan-bios.info_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afghan-bios.info-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ghurids">Ghurids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ghurids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas,_p.147.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas%2C_p.147.png/220px-Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas%2C_p.147.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas%2C_p.147.png/330px-Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas%2C_p.147.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas%2C_p.147.png/440px-Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas%2C_p.147.png 2x" data-file-width="3524" data-file-height="2418" /></a><figcaption>Map of Ghurid territory, before the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_of_Ghor" title="Muhammad of Ghor">Muhammad of Ghor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JS_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JS-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the west, Ghurid territory extended to <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KS_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KS-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Ghurid troops reached as far as <a href="/wiki/Gorgan" title="Gorgan">Gorgan</a> on the shores of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-a_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-a-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eastward, the Ghurids invaded as far as <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-THC_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THC-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Ghaznavid dynasty was defeated in 1148 by the <a href="/wiki/Ghurids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghurids">Ghurids</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ghor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghor">Ghor</a>, but the Ghaznavid <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultans</a> continued to live in Ghazni as the '<a href="/wiki/Nasher_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasher (tribe)">Nasher</a>' until the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-afghan-bios.info_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afghan-bios.info-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire was established by three brothers from Ghor region of Afghanistan Qutb al-Din, Sayf al-Din, Baha al-Din which all them fought against Ghaznavid emperor Bahram Shah of Ghazni but were not successful and killed in the process. Initially <a href="/wiki/Ala_al-Din_Husayn" title="Ala al-Din Husayn">Ala al-Din Husayn</a>, the son of Baha al-Din defeated the Ghazanavid ruler <a href="/wiki/Bahram-Shah_of_Ghazna" title="Bahram-Shah of Ghazna">Bahram Shah</a> and to take revenge of his father and uncle's death ordered the city to be sacked. The Ghorids or Ghurids lost the northern territory of Transoxiana and northern Great Korasan especially their capital Ghor province due to the invasion of Seljucks but Sultan Ala al-Din's successors consolidated their power in India by defeating the remainder of Ghaznavid rulers. At their largest extent they ruled east of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, much of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> like <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, and north and central part of modern <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongol_invasion">Mongol invasion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Mongol invasion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaigns_in_Central_Asia" title="Mongol campaigns in Central Asia">Mongol campaigns in Central Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genghis_Khan_empire-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Genghis_Khan_empire-en.svg/260px-Genghis_Khan_empire-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Genghis_Khan_empire-en.svg/390px-Genghis_Khan_empire-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Genghis_Khan_empire-en.svg/520px-Genghis_Khan_empire-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1017" data-file-height="658" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongol invasions and conquests</a> seriously depopulated large areas of Afghanistan</figcaption></figure> <p>The Mongols invaded Afghanistan in 1221 having defeated the Khwarazmian armies. The Mongols invasion had long-term consequences with many parts of Afghanistan never recovering from the devastation. The towns and villages suffered much more than the nomads who were able to avoid attack. The destruction of irrigation systems maintained by the sedentary people led to the shift of the weight of the country towards the hills. The city of <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a> was destroyed and even 100 years later <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> described it as a city still in ruins. While the Mongols were pursuing the forces of <a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_Mangburni" title="Jalal al-Din Mangburni">Jalal al-Din Mangburni</a> they besieged the city of Bamyan. In the course of the siege a defender's arrow killed Genghis Khan's grandson <a href="/wiki/Mutukan" title="Mutukan">Mutukan</a>. The Mongols razed the city and massacred its inhabitants in revenge, with its former site known as the <a href="/wiki/Shahr-e_Gholghola" title="Shahr-e Gholghola">City of Screams</a>. <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>, located in a fertile valley, was destroyed as well but was rebuilt under the local <a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kart dynasty</a>. After the Mongol Empire splintered, Herat eventually became part of the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> while Balkh and the strip of land from Kabul through Ghazni to Kandahar went to the <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush were usually either allied with the <a href="/wiki/Khalji_dynasty" title="Khalji dynasty">Khalji dynasty</a> of northern India or independent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timurids">Timurids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Timurids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emp%C3%A8ri_Timurida.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Emp%C3%A8ri_Timurida.png/220px-Emp%C3%A8ri_Timurida.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Emp%C3%A8ri_Timurida.png/330px-Emp%C3%A8ri_Timurida.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Emp%C3%A8ri_Timurida.png/440px-Emp%C3%A8ri_Timurida.png 2x" data-file-width="699" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption>Timurid Empire at its greatest extent in 1405</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> (Tamerlane) incorporated much of the area into his own vast <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a>. The city of Herat became one of the capitals of his empire, and his grandson <a href="/wiki/Pir_Muhammad_bin_Jahangir_Mirza" class="mw-redirect" title="Pir Muhammad bin Jahangir Mirza">Pir Muhammad</a> held the seat of <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a>. Timur rebuilt most of Afghanistan's infrastructure which was destroyed by his early ancestor. The area was progressing under his rule. Timurid rule began declining in the early 16th century with the rise of a new ruler in Kabul, <a href="/wiki/Babur" title="Babur">Babur</a>. Timur, a descendant of Genghis Khan, created a vast new empire across Russia and Persia which he ruled from his capital in Samarkand in present-day Uzbekistan. Timur captured Herat in 1381 and his son, <a href="/wiki/Shah_Rukh" title="Shah Rukh">Shah Rukh</a> moved the capital of the Timurid empire to Herat in 1405. The Timurids, a Turkic people, brought the Turkic nomadic culture of Central Asia within the orbit of Persian civilisation, establishing Herat as one of the most cultured and refined cities in the world. This fusion of Central Asian and Persian culture was a major legacy for the future Afghanistan. Under the rule of Shah Rukh the city served as the focal point of the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Renaissance" title="Timurid Renaissance">Timurid Renaissance</a>, whose glory matched <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> as the center of a cultural rebirth.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A century later, the emperor Babur, a descendant of Timur, visited Herat and wrote, "the whole habitable world had not such a town as Herat." For the next 300 years the eastern Afghan tribes periodically invaded India creating vast Indo-Afghan empires. In 1500 CE, Babur was driven out of his home in the Ferghana valley. By the 16th century western Afghanistan again reverted to Persian rule under the Safavid dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_era_(1504–1973)"><span id="Modern_era_.281504.E2.80.931973.29"></span>Modern era (1504–1973)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Modern era (1504–1973)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mughals,_Uzbeks,_and_Safavids"><span id="Mughals.2C_Uzbeks.2C_and_Safavids"></span>Mughals, Uzbeks, and Safavids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Mughals, Uzbeks, and Safavids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Bukhara" title="Khanate of Bukhara">Khanate of Bukhara</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Surrender_of_Kandahar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_Surrender_of_Kandahar.jpg/170px-The_Surrender_of_Kandahar.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_Surrender_of_Kandahar.jpg/255px-The_Surrender_of_Kandahar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_Surrender_of_Kandahar.jpg/340px-The_Surrender_of_Kandahar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2543" data-file-height="3503" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)" title="Miniature (illuminated manuscript)">miniature</a> from <a href="/wiki/Padshahnama" title="Padshahnama">Padshahnama</a> depicting the surrender of the <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid</a> garrison of Kandahar in 1638 to the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> army of <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a> commanded by Kilij Khan.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1504, <a href="/wiki/Babur" title="Babur">Babur</a>, a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a>, arrived from present-day Uzbekistan and moved to the city of Kabul. He began exploring new territories in the region, with Kabul serving as his military headquarters. Instead of looking towards the powerful Safavids towards the Persian west, Babur was more focused on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. In 1526, he left with his army to capture the seat of the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, which at that point was possessed by the Afghan <a href="/wiki/Lodi_dynasty" title="Lodi dynasty">Lodi dynasty</a> of India. After defeating <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Lodi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibrahim Lodi">Ibrahim Lodi</a> and his army, Babur turned (Old) Delhi into the capital of his newly established <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>. </p><p>From the 16th century to the 17th century CE, Afghanistan was divided into three major areas. The north was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Bukhara" title="Khanate of Bukhara">Khanate of Bukhara</a>, the west was under the rule of the Iranian <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavids</a>, and the eastern section was under the <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> Mughals of northern India, who under Akbar established in Kabul one of the original twelve <a href="/wiki/Subah" title="Subah">subahs</a> (imperial top-level provinces), bordering Lahore, Multan and <a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Subah" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmir Subah">Kashmir</a> (added to Kabul in 1586, later split-off) and short-lived <a href="/wiki/Balkh_Subah" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkh Subah">Balkh Subah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Badakhshan_Subah" class="mw-redirect" title="Badakhshan Subah">Badakhshan Subah</a> (only 1646–47). The Kandahar region in the south served as a <a href="/wiki/Buffer_zone" title="Buffer zone">buffer zone</a> between the Mughals (who shortly established a Qandahar subah 1638–1648) and Persia's Safavids, with the native Afghans often switching support from one side to the other. Babur explored a number of cities in the region before his campaign into India. In the city of Kandahar, his personal epigraphy can be found in the Chilzina rock mountain. Like in the rest of the territories that used to make part of the Indian Mughal Empire, Afghanistan holds tombs, palaces, and forts built by the Mughals.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hotak_dynasty">Hotak dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Hotak dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Hotak_Empire_1715,_Mirwais_Hotak.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Map_of_the_Hotak_Empire_1715%2C_Mirwais_Hotak.png/250px-Map_of_the_Hotak_Empire_1715%2C_Mirwais_Hotak.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Map_of_the_Hotak_Empire_1715%2C_Mirwais_Hotak.png/375px-Map_of_the_Hotak_Empire_1715%2C_Mirwais_Hotak.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Map_of_the_Hotak_Empire_1715%2C_Mirwais_Hotak.png/500px-Map_of_the_Hotak_Empire_1715%2C_Mirwais_Hotak.png 2x" data-file-width="1518" data-file-height="829" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Hotak Empire during the Reign of <a href="/wiki/Mirwais_Hotak" title="Mirwais Hotak">Mirwais Hotak</a>, 1715.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mapofthehotaks1728.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Mapofthehotaks1728.png/220px-Mapofthehotaks1728.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Mapofthehotaks1728.png/330px-Mapofthehotaks1728.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Mapofthehotaks1728.png/440px-Mapofthehotaks1728.png 2x" data-file-width="3711" data-file-height="2774" /></a><figcaption>Hotaki Empire, 1728</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1704, the Safavid Shah <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Husayn" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan Husayn">Husayn</a> appointed <a href="/wiki/George_XI_of_Kartli" title="George XI of Kartli">George XI</a> (<i>Gurgīn Khān</i>), a ruthless <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> subject, to govern their easternmost territories in the Greater Kandahar region. One of Gurgīn's main objectives was to crush the rebellions started by native Afghans. Under his rule the revolts were successfully suppressed and he ruled Kandahar with uncompromising severity. He began imprisoning and executing the native Afghans, especially those suspected in having taken part in the rebellions. One of those arrested and imprisoned was <a href="/wiki/Mirwais_Hotak" title="Mirwais Hotak">Mirwais Hotak</a> who belonged to an influential family in <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a>. Mirwais was sent as a prisoner to the Persian court in <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, but the charges against him were dismissed by the king, so he was sent back to his native land as a free man.<sup id="cite_ref-Otfinoski_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Otfinoski-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 1709, Mirwais along with his militia under Saydal Khan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Naseri_clan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naseri clan (page does not exist)">Naseri</a> revolted.<sup id="cite_ref-afghanembassy.com_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afghanembassy.com-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">uprising</a> began when George XI and his escort were killed after a <a href="/wiki/Banquet" title="Banquet">banquet</a> that had been prepared by Mirwais at his house outside the city.<sup id="cite_ref-Malleson-227_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malleson-227-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around four days later, an army of well-trained Georgian troops arrived in the city after hearing of Gurgīn's death, but Mirwais and his Afghan forces successfully held the city against the troops. Between 1710 and 1713, the Afghan forces defeated several large Persian armies that were dispatched from Isfahan by the Safavids, which included <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> and Georgian/Circassian troops.<sup id="cite_ref-Malleson-231_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malleson-231-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Several half-hearted attempts to subdue the rebellious city having failed, the Persian Government despatched <a href="/wiki/Kaikhosro_of_Kartli" title="Kaikhosro of Kartli">Khusraw Khán</a>, nephew of the late Gurgín Khán, with an army of 30,000 men to effect its subjugation, but in spite of an initial success, which led the Afghans to offer to surrender on terms, his uncompromising attitude impelled them to make a fresh desperate effort, resulting in the complete defeat of the Persian army (of whom only some 700 escaped) and the death of their general. Two years later, in 1713, another Persian army commanded by Rustam Khán was also defeated by the rebels, who thus secured possession of the whole province of Qandahár.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne29_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne29-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Edward_Granville_Browne" title="Edward Granville Browne">Edward G. Browne</a>, 1924</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SHAH-MAHMUD-HOTAK.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/SHAH-MAHMUD-HOTAK.jpg/170px-SHAH-MAHMUD-HOTAK.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/SHAH-MAHMUD-HOTAK.jpg/255px-SHAH-MAHMUD-HOTAK.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/SHAH-MAHMUD-HOTAK.jpg/340px-SHAH-MAHMUD-HOTAK.jpg 2x" data-file-width="773" data-file-height="1293" /></a><figcaption>Modern-day sketch work of <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Hotak" title="Mahmud Hotak">Mahmud Hotak</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Southern Afghanistan was made into an independent local Pashtun kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Romano_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romano-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Refusing the title of king, Mirwais was called "Prince of Qandahár and general of the national troops" by his Afghan countrymen. He died of natural causes in November 1715 and was succeeded by his brother <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Aziz_Hotak" title="Abdul Aziz Hotak">Abdul Aziz Hotak</a>. Aziz was killed about two years later by Mirwais' son <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Hotak" title="Mahmud Hotak">Mahmud Hotak</a>, allegedly for planning to give Kandahar's sovereignty back to Persia.<sup id="cite_ref-Malleson-234_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malleson-234-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mahmud led an Afghan army into Persia in 1722 and defeated the Safavids at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gulnabad" title="Battle of Gulnabad">Battle of Gulnabad</a>. The Afghans captured <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> (Safavid capital) and Mahmud briefly became the new Persian <a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a>. He was known after that as Shah Mahmud. </p><p>Mahmud began a short-lived reign of terror against his Persian subjects who defied his rule from the very start, and he was eventually murdered in 1725 by his own cousin, Shah <a href="/wiki/Ashraf_Hotak" title="Ashraf Hotak">Ashraf Hotak</a>. Some sources say he died of madness . Ashraf became the new Afghan Shah of Persia soon after Mahmud's death, while the home region of <a href="/wiki/Name_of_Afghanistan" title="Name of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> was ruled by Mahmud's younger brother Shah <a href="/wiki/Hussain_Hotak" title="Hussain Hotak">Hussain Hotak</a>. Ashraf was able to secure peace with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1727 (<i>See</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hamedan" title="Treaty of Hamedan">Treaty of Hamedan</a></i>), winning against a superior Ottoman army during the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Hotaki_War_(1722%E2%80%931727)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Hotaki War (1722–1727)">Ottoman–Hotaki War</a>, but the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> took advantage of the continuing political unrest and civil strife to seize former Persian territories for themselves, limiting the amount of territory under Shah Mahmud's control. </p><p>The short lived Hotaki dynasty was a troubled and violent one from the very start as internecine conflict made it difficult for them to establish permanent control. The dynasty lived under great turmoil due to bloody succession feuds that made their hold on power tenuous. There was a massacre of thousands of civilians in Isfahan; including more than three thousand religious scholars, nobles, and members of the Safavid family.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne31_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne31-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vast majority of the Persians rejected the Afghan regime which they considered to have been usurping power from the very start. Hotaki rule continued in Afghanistan until 1738 when Shah Hussain was defeated and banished by <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a> of Persia.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne33_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne33-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Hotakis were eventually removed from power in 1729, after a very short lived reign. They were defeated in the October 1729 by the Iranian military commander <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a>, head of the <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_dynasty" title="Afsharid dynasty">Afsharids</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Damghan_(1729)" title="Battle of Damghan (1729)">Battle of Damghan</a>. After several military campaigns against the Afghans, he effectively reduced the Hotakis' power to only southern Afghanistan. The last ruler of the Hotaki dynasty, Shah Hussain, ruled southern Afghanistan until 1738 when the Afsharids and the <a href="/wiki/Durrani" title="Durrani">Abdali</a> Pashtuns defeated him at the long <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kandahar" title="Siege of Kandahar">Siege of Kandahar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Browne33_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne33-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Afsharid_Invasion_and_Durrani_Empire">Afsharid Invasion and Durrani Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Afsharid Invasion and Durrani Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kandahar" title="Siege of Kandahar">Siege of Kandahar</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_dynasty" title="Afsharid dynasty">Afsharid</a> army arrived in the town of Kandahar in 1738 and defeated <a href="/wiki/Hussain_Hotak" title="Hussain Hotak">Hussain Hotak</a> subsequently absorbing all of Afghanistan in his empire and renaming Kandahar as <a href="/wiki/Naderabad,_Kandahar" title="Naderabad, Kandahar">Naderabad</a>. Around this time, a young teenager <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Durrani" title="Ahmad Shah Durrani">Ahmad Shah</a> joined Nader Shah's army for his <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah%27s_invasion_of_India" title="Nader Shah's invasion of India">invasion of India</a>. </p><p>Nadir Shah was assassinated on 19 June 1747 by several of his Persian officers, and the Afsharid empire fell to pieces. At the same time the 25-year-old Ahmad Khan was busy in Afghanistan calling for a <a href="/wiki/Loya_jirga" class="mw-redirect" title="Loya jirga">loya jirga</a> ("grand assembly") to select a leader among his people. The Afghans gathered near Kandahar in October 1747 and chose Ahmad Shah from among the challengers, making him their new <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a>. After the inauguration or <a href="/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">coronation</a>, he became known as <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Durrani" title="Ahmad Shah Durrani">Ahmad Shah Durrani</a>. He adopted the title <i>padshah durr-i dawran</i> ('King, "pearl of the age") and the Abdali tribe became known as the <a href="/wiki/Durrani" title="Durrani">Durrani</a> tribe after this.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ahmad Shah not only represented the Durranis but he also united all the <a href="/wiki/Pashtun_tribes" title="Pashtun tribes">Pashtun tribes</a>. By 1751, Ahmad Shah Durrani and his Afghan army conquered the entire present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and for a short time, subjugated large swathes of the Khorasan and Kohistan provinces of Iran, along with <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a> in India.<sup id="cite_ref-Engels_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Engels-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He defeated the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Confederacy" title="Maratha Confederacy">Maratha Empire</a> in 1761 at the <a href="/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Panipat" title="Third Battle of Panipat">Third Battle of Panipat</a>. </p><p>In October 1772, Ahmad Shah retired to his home in Kandahar where he died peacefully and was buried at a site that is now adjacent to the <a href="/wiki/Shrine_of_the_Cloak" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrine of the Cloak">Shrine of the Cloak</a>. He was succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Timur_Shah_Durrani" title="Timur Shah Durrani">Timur Shah Durrani</a>, who transferred the capital of their <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan Empire</a> from Kandahar to Kabul. Timur died in 1793 and his son <a href="/wiki/Zaman_Shah_Durrani" title="Zaman Shah Durrani">Zaman Shah Durrani</a> took over the reign. </p><p>Zaman Shah and his brothers had a weak hold on the legacy left to them by their famous ancestor. They sorted out their differences through a "round robin of expulsions, blindings and executions," which resulted in the deterioration of the Afghan hold over far-flung territories, such as <a href="/wiki/Attock" title="Attock">Attock</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>. Durrani's other grandson, <a href="/wiki/Shuja_Shah_Durrani" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuja Shah Durrani">Shuja Shah Durrani</a>, fled the wrath of his brother and sought refuge with the Sikhs. Durrani invaded the region of Punjab three times, during his invasions he destroyed a holy shrine of the Sikhs – the <a href="/wiki/Harmandir_Sahib" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmandir Sahib">Harmandir Sahib</a> in <a href="/wiki/Amritsar" title="Amritsar">Amritsar</a> in 1757. </p><p>The Sikhs, under <a href="/wiki/Ranjit_Singh" title="Ranjit Singh">Ranjit Singh</a>, eventually wrested a large part of the <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Kingdom</a> (present-day Pakistan, but not including <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>) from the Afghans while they were in civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barakzai_dynasty_and_British_influence">Barakzai dynasty and British influence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Barakzai dynasty and British influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/European_influence_in_Afghanistan" title="European influence in Afghanistan">European influence in Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barakzai_dynasty" title="Barakzai dynasty">Barakzai dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Afghanistan_1860.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Afghanistan_1860.png/220px-Afghanistan_1860.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Afghanistan_1860.png/330px-Afghanistan_1860.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Afghanistan_1860.png/440px-Afghanistan_1860.png 2x" data-file-width="1673" data-file-height="1652" /></a><figcaption>Map of Afghanistan (<a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Emirate</a>) and surrounding nations, dated 1860.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:History_of_Afghanistan_1839-1863_Gif.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/History_of_Afghanistan_1839-1863_Gif.gif/220px-History_of_Afghanistan_1839-1863_Gif.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/History_of_Afghanistan_1839-1863_Gif.gif/330px-History_of_Afghanistan_1839-1863_Gif.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/History_of_Afghanistan_1839-1863_Gif.gif/440px-History_of_Afghanistan_1839-1863_Gif.gif 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>Map of Afghanistan 1839–1863, showing the First Anglo-Afghan war, and unification of Afghanistan by Dost Mohammad Khan</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohammad_Yaqub_Khan_with_British_officers_in_May_of_1879.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Mohammad_Yaqub_Khan_with_British_officers_in_May_of_1879.jpg/220px-Mohammad_Yaqub_Khan_with_British_officers_in_May_of_1879.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Mohammad_Yaqub_Khan_with_British_officers_in_May_of_1879.jpg/330px-Mohammad_Yaqub_Khan_with_British_officers_in_May_of_1879.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Mohammad_Yaqub_Khan_with_British_officers_in_May_of_1879.jpg/440px-Mohammad_Yaqub_Khan_with_British_officers_in_May_of_1879.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3910" data-file-height="2435" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Afghanistan">King</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Yaqub_Khan" title="Mohammad Yaqub Khan">Yaqub Khan</a> with Britain's Sir <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Napoleon_Cavagnari" title="Pierre Louis Napoleon Cavagnari">Pierre Louis Napoleon Cavagnari</a>, 26 May 1879, on the occasion of the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gandamak" title="Treaty of Gandamak">Treaty of Gandamak</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Emir <a href="/wiki/Dost_Mohammad_Khan" title="Dost Mohammad Khan">Dost Mohammad Khan</a> (1793–1863) gained control in Kabul in 1826 after toppling his brother, <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Mohammad_Khan" title="Sultan Mohammad Khan">Sultan Mohammad Khan</a>, and founded (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1837</span>) the <a href="/wiki/Barakzai_dynasty" title="Barakzai dynasty">Barakzai dynasty</a>. In 1837, the Afghan army descended through the <a href="/wiki/Khyber_Pass" title="Khyber Pass">Khyber Pass</a> on Sikh forces at <a href="/wiki/Jamrud" title="Jamrud">Jamrud</a> killed the Sikh general <a href="/wiki/Hari_Singh_Nalwa" title="Hari Singh Nalwa">Hari Singh Nalwa</a> but could not capture the fort.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rivalry between the expanding <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empires</a> in what became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a>" significantly influenced Afghanistan during the 19th century. British concern over Russian advances in Central Asia and over Russia's growing influence in West Asia and in Persia in particular culminated in two Anglo-Afghan wars and in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Herat_(1837%E2%80%931838)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Herat (1837–1838)">Siege of Herat</a> (1837–1838), in which the Persians, trying to retake Afghanistan and throw out the British, sent armies into the country and fought the British mostly around and in the city of <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>. The <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="First Anglo-Afghan War">first Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1839–1842) resulted in the <a href="/wiki/1842_retreat_from_Kabul" title="1842 retreat from Kabul">destruction of a British army</a>; causing great panic throughout <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">British India</a> and the dispatch of a second British invasion army.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the British defeat in the First Anglo-Afghan War, where they tried to re-establish the <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Kingdom</a> as a de facto vassal, Dost Mohammad could focus on reuniting Afghanistan, which was divided following the Durrani-Barakzai civil wars. Dost Mohammad began his conquest while only ruling the major cities of <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jalalabad" title="Jalalabad">Jalalabad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bamyan" title="Bamyan">Bamyan</a>. By the time of his death in 1863, Dost Mohammad had reunited most of Afghanistan. Following Dost Mohammad's death, <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1863%E2%80%931869)" title="Afghan Civil War (1863–1869)">a civil war broke out</a> amongst his sons, leading to <a href="/wiki/Sher_Ali_Khan" title="Sher Ali Khan">Sher Ali</a> succeeding and beginning his rule. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Second Anglo-Afghan War">Second Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1878–1880) resulted from the refusal by Emir Sher Ali (reigned 1863 to 1866 and from 1868 to 1879) to accept a British diplomatic mission in Kabul. In the wake of this conflict Shir Ali's nephew, Emir <a href="/wiki/Abdur_Rahman_Khan" title="Abdur Rahman Khan">Abdur Rahman</a>, known as the "Iron Emir",<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> came to the Afghan throne. During his reign (1880–1901), the British and Russians officially established the boundaries of what would become modern Afghanistan. The British retained effective control over <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>'s foreign affairs. Abdur Rahman's reforms of the army, legal system and structure of government gave Afghanistan a degree of unity and stability which it had not before known. This, however, came at the cost of strong centralisation, of harsh punishments for crime and corruption, and of a certain degree of international isolation.<sup id="cite_ref-bijanomrani.com_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bijanomrani.com-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Habibullah_Khan" title="Habibullah Khan">Habibullah Khan</a>, Abdur Rahman's son, came to the throne in 1901 and kept Afghanistan neutral during World War I, despite <a href="/wiki/Niedermayer%E2%80%93Hentig_Expedition" title="Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition">encouragement by Central Powers</a> of anti-British feelings and of Afghan rebellion along the borders of India. His policy of neutrality was not universally popular within the country, and Habibullah was assassinated in 1919, possibly by family members opposed to British influence. His third son, <a href="/wiki/Amanullah_Khan" title="Amanullah Khan">Amanullah</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1919–1929</span>), regained control of Afghanistan's foreign policy after launching the <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a> (May to August 1919) with an attack on India. The Afghans gave a severe defeat to the British. During the ensuing conflict the war-weary British relinquished their control over Afghan foreign affairs by signing the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rawalpindi" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Rawalpindi">Treaty of Rawalpindi</a> in August 1919. In commemoration of this event Afghans celebrate 19 August as their <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Independence_Day" title="Afghan Independence Day">Independence Day</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reforms_of_Amanullah_Khan_and_civil_war">Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1928%E2%80%931929)" title="Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)">Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:248px;max-width:248px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Amanullah_Khan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/King_Amanullah_Khan.jpg/120px-King_Amanullah_Khan.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/King_Amanullah_Khan.jpg/180px-King_Amanullah_Khan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/King_Amanullah_Khan.jpg/240px-King_Amanullah_Khan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1183" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Habibull%C4%81h_Kalak%C4%81ni_(Bacha-i-Saqao)_with_his_followers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Habibull%C4%81h_Kalak%C4%81ni_%28Bacha-i-Saqao%29_with_his_followers.jpg/120px-Habibull%C4%81h_Kalak%C4%81ni_%28Bacha-i-Saqao%29_with_his_followers.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Habibull%C4%81h_Kalak%C4%81ni_%28Bacha-i-Saqao%29_with_his_followers.jpg/180px-Habibull%C4%81h_Kalak%C4%81ni_%28Bacha-i-Saqao%29_with_his_followers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Habibull%C4%81h_Kalak%C4%81ni_%28Bacha-i-Saqao%29_with_his_followers.jpg/240px-Habibull%C4%81h_Kalak%C4%81ni_%28Bacha-i-Saqao%29_with_his_followers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="371" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">King <a href="/wiki/Amanullah_Khan" title="Amanullah Khan">Amanullah Khan</a>, and a photo of <a href="/wiki/Habibullah_Kalakani" class="mw-redirect" title="Habibullah Kalakani">Habibullah Kalakani</a> and his followers, who rose against the King</div></div></div></div> <p>King <a href="/wiki/Amanullah_Khan" title="Amanullah Khan">Amanullah Khan</a> moved to end his country's traditional isolation in the years following the Third Anglo-Afghan war. After quelling the <a href="/wiki/Khost_rebellion_(1924%E2%80%931925)" title="Khost rebellion (1924–1925)">Khost rebellion</a> in 1925, he established diplomatic relations with most major countries and, following a 1927 tour of Europe and Turkey (during which he noted the modernization and secularization advanced by <a href="/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk" class="mw-redirect" title="Atatürk">Atatürk</a>), introduced several reforms intended to modernize Afghanistan. A key force behind these reforms was <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Tarzi" title="Mahmud Tarzi">Mahmud Tarzi</a>, Amanullah Khan's Foreign Minister and father-in-law — and an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's first constitution (declared through a <a href="/wiki/Loya_Jirga" class="mw-redirect" title="Loya Jirga">Loya Jirga</a>), which made elementary education compulsory.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the reforms that were actually put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional Muslim veil for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders, which led to the revolt of the <a href="/wiki/Shinwari" title="Shinwari">Shinwari</a> in November 1928, marking the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1928%E2%80%931929)" title="Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)">Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)</a>. Although the Shinwari revolt was quelled, a concurrent <a href="/wiki/Saqqawists" title="Saqqawists">Saqqawist</a> uprising in the north eventually managed to depose Amanullah, leading to <a href="/wiki/Habibull%C4%81h_Kalak%C4%81ni" title="Habibullāh Kalakāni">Habibullāh Kalakāni</a> taking control of Kabul.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reigns_of_Nadir_Khan_and_Zahir_Khan">Reigns of Nadir Khan and Zahir Khan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Reigns of Nadir Khan and Zahir Khan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Kingdom of Afghanistan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Zahir_Shah_of_Afghanistan_in_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/King_Zahir_Shah_of_Afghanistan_in_1963.jpg/170px-King_Zahir_Shah_of_Afghanistan_in_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/King_Zahir_Shah_of_Afghanistan_in_1963.jpg/255px-King_Zahir_Shah_of_Afghanistan_in_1963.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/King_Zahir_Shah_of_Afghanistan_in_1963.jpg 2x" data-file-width="306" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Zahir_Shah" title="Mohammad Zahir Shah">Mohammad Zahir Shah</a> in 1963</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Nadir_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Nadir Khan">Mohammed Nadir Khan</a> became King of Afghanistan on 15 October 1929 after he took control of Afghanistan by defeating the <a href="/wiki/Kalakani" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalakani">Habibullah Kalakani</a>. He then executed him on 1 November of same year.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He began consolidating power and regenerating the country. He abandoned the reforms of Amanullah Khan in favour of a more gradual approach to modernisation. In 1933, however, he was assassinated in a revenge killing by a student from Kabul. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Zahir_Shah" title="Mohammad Zahir Shah">Mohammad Zahir Shah</a>, Nadir Khan's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. The <a href="/wiki/Afghan_tribal_revolts_of_1944%E2%80%931947" title="Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947">Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947</a> saw Zahir Shah's reign being challenged by Zadran, Safi and Mangal tribesmen led by <a href="/wiki/Mazrak_Zadran" title="Mazrak Zadran">Mazrak Zadran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salemai" title="Salemai">Salemai</a> among others. Until 1946 Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hashim_Khan" title="Mohammad Hashim Khan">Mohammad Hashim Khan</a>, who held the post of prime minister and continued the policies of Nadir Khan. In 1946, another of Zahir Shah's uncles, <a href="/wiki/Shah_Mahmud_Khan" title="Shah Mahmud Khan">Shah Mahmud Khan</a>, became prime minister and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. In 1953, he was replaced as prime minister by <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Daoud_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Daoud Khan">Mohammed Daoud Khan</a>, the king's cousin and brother-in-law. Daoud looked for a closer relationship with the Soviet Union and a more distant one towards Pakistan. However, disputes with Pakistan led to an economic crisis and he was asked to resign in 1963. From 1963 until 1973, Zahir Shah took a more active role. </p><p>In 1964, King Zahir Shah promulgated a liberal constitution providing for a bicameral legislature to which the king appointed one-third of the deputies. The people elected another third, and the remainder were selected indirectly by provincial assemblies. Although Zahir's "experiment in democracy" produced few lasting reforms, it permitted the growth of parties on both the left and the right. This included the communist <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a> (PDPA), which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union. In 1967, the PDPA split into two major rival factions: the <a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalq</a> (Masses) was headed by <a href="/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki" title="Nur Muhammad Taraki">Nur Muhammad Taraki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a> who were supported by elements within the military, and the <a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parcham</a> (Banner) led by <a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal">Babrak Karmal</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_era_(1973–present)"><span id="Contemporary_era_.281973.E2.80.93present.29"></span>Contemporary era (1973–present)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Contemporary era (1973–present)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Afghanistan.ogv/220px--Afghanistan.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="650" data-mwtitle="Afghanistan.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Afghanistan.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Afghanistan.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4f/Afghanistan.ogv/Afghanistan.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4f/Afghanistan.ogv/Afghanistan.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4f/Afghanistan.ogv/Afghanistan.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4f/Afghanistan.ogv/Afghanistan.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4f/Afghanistan.ogv/Afghanistan.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>1973 film about contemporary events in Afghanistan</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republic_of_Afghanistan_and_the_end_of_the_monarchy">Republic of Afghanistan and the end of the monarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Republic of Afghanistan and the end of the monarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%931978)" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)">Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)</a></div> <p>Amid corruption charges and malfeasance against the royal family and the poor economic conditions created by the severe 1971–72 drought, former prime minister <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Daoud_Khan" title="Mohammad Daoud Khan">Mohammad Daoud Khan</a> seized power in a non-violent coup on July 17, 1973, while Zahir Shah was receiving treatment for eye problems and therapy for <a href="/wiki/Lumbago" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbago">lumbago</a> in Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTobit_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTobit-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Daoud abolished the monarchy, abrogated the 1964 constitution, and declared Afghanistan a republic with himself as its first president and prime minister. His attempts to carry out badly needed economic and social reforms met with little success, and the new constitution promulgated in February 1977 failed to quell chronic political instability. </p><p>As disillusionment set in, in 1978 a prominent member of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a> (PDPA), <a href="/wiki/Mir_Akbar_Khyber" title="Mir Akbar Khyber">Mir Akbar Khyber</a> (or "Kaibar"), was killed by the government. The leaders of PDPA apparently feared that Daoud was planning to exterminate them all, especially since most of them were arrested by the government shortly after. Nonetheless, <a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a> and a number of military wing officers of the PDPA's <a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalq</a> faction managed to remain at large and organize a military coup. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Democratic_Republic_and_Soviet_war_(1978–1989)"><span id="Democratic_Republic_and_Soviet_war_.281978.E2.80.931989.29"></span>Democratic Republic and Soviet war (1978–1989)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Democratic Republic and Soviet war (1978–1989)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Afghan_conflict" title="Afghan conflict">Afghan conflict</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%931992)" title="History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)">History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Day_after_Saur_revolution_in_Kabul_(773).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Day_after_Saur_revolution_in_Kabul_%28773%29.jpg/220px-Day_after_Saur_revolution_in_Kabul_%28773%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Day_after_Saur_revolution_in_Kabul_%28773%29.jpg/330px-Day_after_Saur_revolution_in_Kabul_%28773%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Day_after_Saur_revolution_in_Kabul_%28773%29.jpg/440px-Day_after_Saur_revolution_in_Kabul_%28773%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="761" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>Outside the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential Palace">Presidential Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>, a day after the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Marxist revolution</a> on April 28, 1978.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Day_after_Saur_revolution.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Day_after_Saur_revolution.JPG/220px-Day_after_Saur_revolution.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Day_after_Saur_revolution.JPG/330px-Day_after_Saur_revolution.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Day_after_Saur_revolution.JPG/440px-Day_after_Saur_revolution.JPG 2x" data-file-width="949" data-file-height="634" /></a><figcaption>The day after the Marxist revolution on April 28, 1978</figcaption></figure> <p>On 28 April 1978, the PDPA, led by <a href="/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki" title="Nur Muhammad Taraki">Nur Muhammad Taraki</a>, Babrak Karmal and Amin Taha overthrew the government of Mohammad Daoud, who was assassinated along with all his family members in a bloody military coup. The coup became known as the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a>. On 1 May, Taraki became <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a>, <a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">head of government</a> and <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party">General Secretary</a> of the PDPA. The country was then renamed the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</a> (DRA), and the PDPA regime lasted, in some form or another, until April 1992. </p><p>In March 1979, <a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a> took over as prime minister, retaining the position of <a href="/wiki/Field_marshal" title="Field marshal">field marshal</a> and becoming vice-president of the Supreme Defence Council. Taraki remained General Secretary, Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and in control of the Army. On 14 September, Amin overthrew Taraki, who was killed. Amin stated that "the Afghans recognize only crude force."<sup id="cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amin_Saikal-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afghanistan expert Amin Saikal writes: "As his powers grew, so apparently did his craving for personal dictatorship ... and his vision of the revolutionary process based on terror."<sup id="cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amin_Saikal-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once it was in power, the PDPA implemented a <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxist–Leninist</a> agenda. It moved to replace religious and traditional laws with secular and Marxist–Leninist ones. Men were obliged to cut their beards, women could not wear <a href="/wiki/Chador" title="Chador">chadors</a>, and mosques were declared off limits. The PDPA made a number of reforms on <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a>, banning forced marriages and giving state recognition of women's right to vote. A prominent example was <a href="/wiki/Anahita_Ratebzad" title="Anahita Ratebzad">Anahita Ratebzad</a>, who was a major Marxist leader and a member of the Revolutionary Council. Ratebzad wrote the famous <i>New Kabul Times</i> editorial (May 28, 1978) which declared: "Privileges which women, by right, must have are equal education, job security, health services, and free time to rear a healthy generation for building the future of the country ... Educating and enlightening women is now the subject of close government attention." The PDPA also carried out socialist <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reforms</a> and moved to promote <a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">state atheism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also prohibited <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">usury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The PDPA invited the Soviet Union to assist in modernizing its economic infrastructure (predominantly its exploration and mining of rare minerals and natural gas). The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> also sent contractors to build roads, hospitals and schools and to drill water wells; they also trained and equipped the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Armed_Forces" title="Afghan Armed Forces">Afghan Armed Forces</a>. Upon the PDPA's ascension to power, and the establishment of the DRA, the Soviet Union promised monetary aid amounting to at least $1.262 billion. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Afghanistan_Ethnolinguistic_Groups_1982.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Afghanistan_Ethnolinguistic_Groups_1982.jpg/220px-Afghanistan_Ethnolinguistic_Groups_1982.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Afghanistan_Ethnolinguistic_Groups_1982.jpg/330px-Afghanistan_Ethnolinguistic_Groups_1982.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Afghanistan_Ethnolinguistic_Groups_1982.jpg/440px-Afghanistan_Ethnolinguistic_Groups_1982.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1434" data-file-height="922" /></a><figcaption>Ethnolinguistic groups in Afghanistan in 1982</figcaption></figure> <p>At the same time, the PDPA imprisoned, tortured or murdered thousands of members of the traditional elite, the religious establishment, and the intelligentsia.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government launched a campaign of violent repression, killing some 10,000 to 27,000 people and imprisoning 14,000 to 20,000 more, mostly at <a href="/wiki/Pul-e-Charkhi_prison" title="Pul-e-Charkhi prison">Pul-e-Charkhi prison</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 1978 the PDPA leadership signed an agreement with the Soviet Union which would allow military support for the PDPA in Afghanistan if needed. The majority of people in the cities including Kabul either welcomed or were ambivalent to these policies. However, the Marxist–Leninist and secular nature of the government as well as its heavy dependence on the Soviet Union made it unpopular with a majority of the Afghan population. Repressions plunged large parts of the country, especially the rural areas, into open revolt against the new Marxist–Leninist government. By spring 1979 unrests had reached 24 out of 28 Afghan provinces including major urban areas. Over half of the Afghan army would either desert or join the insurrection. Most of the government's new policies clashed directly with the traditional <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Afghanistan" title="Islam in Afghanistan">Afghan understanding of Islam</a>, making religion one of the only forces capable of unifying the tribally and ethnically divided population against the unpopular new government, and ushering in the advent of <a href="/wiki/Islamist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist">Islamist</a> participation in Afghan politics.<sup id="cite_ref-georgetown1_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-georgetown1-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To bolster the <a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parcham</a> faction, the Soviet Union decided to intervene on December 27, 1979, when the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> invaded its southern neighbor. Over 100,000 Soviet troops took part in the invasion, which was backed by another 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Afghanistan">Afghan military</a> men and supporters of the Parcham faction. In the meantime, Hafizullah Amin was killed and replaced by Babrak Karmal. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter" title="Presidency of Jimmy Carter">Carter administration</a> started providing limited <a href="/wiki/Operation_Cyclone" title="Operation Cyclone">assistance to rebels</a> before the Soviet invasion. After the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the U.S. began arming the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_mujahideen" title="Afghan mujahideen">Afghan mujahideen</a>, thanks in large part to the efforts of <a href="/wiki/Charlie_Wilson_(Texas_politician)" title="Charlie Wilson (Texas politician)">Charlie Wilson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a> officer <a href="/wiki/Gust_Avrakotos" title="Gust Avrakotos">Gust Avrakotos</a>. Early reports estimated that $6–20 billion had been spent by the U.S. and <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a><sup id="cite_ref-greenleft_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-greenleft-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but more recent reports state that the U.S. and Saudi Arabia provided as much as up to $40 billion<sup id="cite_ref-Al-Ahram_Democracy_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Al-Ahram_Democracy-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Brunei_Times_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Brunei_Times-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Nation_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Nation-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in cash and weapons, which included over two thousand <a href="/wiki/FIM-92_Stinger" title="FIM-92 Stinger">FIM-92 Stinger</a> <a href="/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile" title="Surface-to-air missile">surface-to-air missiles</a>, for building up Islamic groups against the Soviet Union. The U.S. handled most of its support through Pakistan's <a href="/wiki/Inter-Services_Intelligence" title="Inter-Services Intelligence">ISI</a>. </p><p>Scholars such as W. Michael Reisman,<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charles Norchi<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Mohammed Kakar, believe that the Afghans were victims of a <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> which was committed against them by the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:22_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soviet forces and their proxies killed between 562,000<sup id="cite_ref-562k_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-562k-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 2 million Afghans<sup id="cite_ref-:3_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Russian soldiers also engaged in abductions and rapes of Afghan women.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 6 million fled as <a href="/wiki/Afghan_refugees" title="Afghan refugees">Afghan refugees</a> to <a href="/wiki/Afghans_in_Pakistan" title="Afghans in Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afghans_in_Iran" title="Afghans in Iran">Iran</a>, and from there over 38,000 made it to the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Americans" title="Afghan Americans">United States</a><sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many more to the Europe. The Afghan refugees in Iran and Pakistan brought with them verifiable stories of murder, collective rape, torture and depopulation of civilians by the Soviet forces.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Faced with mounting international pressure and great number of casualties on both sides, the Soviets withdrew in 1989. Their withdrawal from Afghanistan was seen as an ideological victory in the United States, which had backed some Mujahideen factions through three U.S. presidential administrations to counter Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil-rich <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. The <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> continued to support Afghan leader <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a> (former head of the Afghan secret service, <i><a href="/wiki/KHAD" title="KHAD">KHAD</a></i>) until 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-Columbia:Afghanistan:History_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Columbia:Afghanistan:History-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_interference_and_civil_war_(1989–1996)"><span id="Foreign_interference_and_civil_war_.281989.E2.80.931996.29"></span>Foreign interference and civil war (1989–1996)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Foreign interference and civil war (1989–1996)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1992%E2%80%931996)" title="Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)">Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kabul_during_civil_war_of_fundamentalists_1993-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Kabul_during_civil_war_of_fundamentalists_1993-2.jpg/220px-Kabul_during_civil_war_of_fundamentalists_1993-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Kabul_during_civil_war_of_fundamentalists_1993-2.jpg/330px-Kabul_during_civil_war_of_fundamentalists_1993-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Kabul_during_civil_war_of_fundamentalists_1993-2.jpg/440px-Kabul_during_civil_war_of_fundamentalists_1993-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="994" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption>Kabul during civil war in 1993</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>'s spy agency <a href="/wiki/Inter-Services_Intelligence" title="Inter-Services Intelligence">Inter-Services Intelligence</a> (ISI), headed by <a href="/wiki/Hamid_Gul" title="Hamid Gul">Hamid Gul</a> at the advice of the US and its allies, was interested in a trans-national Islamic revolution which would cover Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia. For this purpose the ISI masterminded an attack on <a href="/wiki/Jalalabad" title="Jalalabad">Jalalabad</a> in March 1989, for the Mujahideen to establish their own government in Afghanistan, but this failed in three months.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the crumbling of the Najibullah regime early in 1992, Afghanistan fell into further disarray and civil war. A U.N.-supported attempt to have the <a href="/wiki/Mujahideen" title="Mujahideen">mujahideen</a> parties and armies form a coalition government shattered. Mujahideen did not abide by the mutual pledges and Ahmad Shah Masood forces because of his proximity to Kabul captured the capital before Mujahideen Govt was established. So the elected prime minister and warlord <a href="/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a>, started war on his president and Massod force entrenched in Kabul. This ignited civil war, because the other mujahideen parties would not settle for Hekmatyar ruling alone or sharing actual power with him. Within weeks, the still frail unity of the other mujahideen forces also evaporated, and six militias were fighting each other in and around Kabul. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sibghatullah_Mojaddedi" title="Sibghatullah Mojaddedi">Sibghatuallah Mojaddedi</a> was elected as Afghanistan's elected interim president for two months and then professor <a href="/wiki/Burhanuddin_Rabbani" title="Burhanuddin Rabbani">Burhanuddin Rabbani</a> a well known Kabul university professor and the leader of Jamiat-e-Islami party of Mujahiddin who fought against Russians during the occupation was chosen by all of the Jahadi leaders except <a href="/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a>. Rabbani reigned as the official and elected president of Afghanistan by Shurai Mujahiddin Peshawer (Peshawer Mujahiddin Council) from 1992 until 2001 when he officially handed over the presidency post to <a href="/wiki/Hamid_Karzai" title="Hamid Karzai">Hamid Karzai</a> the next US appointed interim president. During Rabbani's presidency some parts of the country including a few provinces in the north such as Mazar e-Sharif, Jawzjan, Faryab, Shuburghan and some parts of Baghlan provinces were ruled by general <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Abdul Rashid Dostum</a>. During Rabbani's first five years illegal term before the emergence of the Taliban, the eastern and western provinces and some of the northern provinces such as Badakhshan, Takhar, Kunduz, the main parts of Baghlan Province, and some parts of Kandahar and other southern provinces were under the control of the central government while the other parts of southern provinces did not obey him because of his Tajik ethnicity. During the 9 year presidency of Burhanuddin Rabani, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar was directed, funded and supplied by the Pakistani army.<sup id="cite_ref-Neamatollah_Nojumi_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neamatollah_Nojumi-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afghanistan analyst <a href="/wiki/Amin_Saikal" title="Amin Saikal">Amin Saikal</a> concludes in his book <i>Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Pakistan was keen to gear up for a breakthrough in Central Asia. [...] Islamabad could not possibly expect the new Islamic government leaders [...] to subordinate their own nationalist objectives in order to help Pakistan realize its regional ambitions. [...] Had it not been for the ISI's logistic support and supply of a large number of rockets, Hekmatyar's forces would not have been able to target and destroy half of Kabul.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>There was no time for the interim government to create working government departments, police units or a system of justice and accountability. <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> and Iran also armed and directed Afghan militias.<sup id="cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amin_Saikal-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A publication by the <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a> describes: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[O]utside forces saw instability in Afghanistan as an opportunity to press their own security and political agendas.<sup id="cite_ref-The_National_Security_Archive_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_National_Security_Archive-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> According to Human Rights Watch, numerous Iranian agents were assisting the <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> <a href="/wiki/Hezb-i_Wahdat" class="mw-redirect" title="Hezb-i Wahdat">Hezb-i Wahdat</a> forces of <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ali_Mazari" title="Abdul Ali Mazari">Abdul Ali Mazari</a>, as Iran was attempting to maximize Wahdat's military power and influence.<sup id="cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amin_Saikal-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roy_Gutman_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roy_Gutman-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saudi Arabia was trying to strengthen the <a href="/wiki/Wahhabite" class="mw-redirect" title="Wahhabite">Wahhabite</a> <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rasul_Sayyaf" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Rasul Sayyaf">Abdul Rasul Sayyaf</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Ittihad-i_Islami" class="mw-redirect" title="Ittihad-i Islami">Ittihad-i Islami</a> faction.<sup id="cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amin_Saikal-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project.<sup id="cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)_160-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Afghanistan_Justice_Project_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afghanistan_Justice_Project-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Again, Human Rights Watch writes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Rare ceasefires, usually negotiated by representatives of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Ahmad Shah Massoud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sibghatullah_Mojaddedi" title="Sibghatullah Mojaddedi">Sibghatullah Mojaddedi</a> or <a href="/wiki/Burhanuddin_Rabbani" title="Burhanuddin Rabbani">Burhanuddin Rabbani</a> (the interim government), or officials from the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), commonly collapsed within days.<sup id="cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)_160-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> The main forces involved during that period in Kabul, northern, central and eastern Afghanistan were the <a href="/wiki/Hezb-i_Islami" class="mw-redirect" title="Hezb-i Islami">Hezb-i Islami</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a> directed by Pakistan, the <a href="/wiki/Hezb-i_Wahdat" class="mw-redirect" title="Hezb-i Wahdat">Hezb-i Wahdat</a> of <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ali_Mazari" title="Abdul Ali Mazari">Abdul Ali Mazari</a> directed by Iran, the <a href="/wiki/Ittehad-i_Islami" class="mw-redirect" title="Ittehad-i Islami">Ittehad-i Islami</a> of <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rasul_Sayyaf" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Rasul Sayyaf">Abdul Rasul Sayyaf</a> supported by Saudi Arabia, the <a href="/wiki/Junbish-i_Milli" class="mw-redirect" title="Junbish-i Milli">Junbish-i Milli</a> of <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Abdul Rashid Dostum</a> backed by Uzbekisten, the <a href="/wiki/Harakat-i_Islami" class="mw-redirect" title="Harakat-i Islami">Harakat-i Islami</a> of Hussain Anwari and the <a href="/wiki/Shura-i_Nazar" class="mw-redirect" title="Shura-i Nazar">Shura-i Nazar</a> operating as the regular Islamic State forces (as agreed upon in the Peshawar Accords) under the Defence Ministry of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Ahmad Shah Massoud</a>. </p><p>Meanwhile, the southern city of <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a> was a centre of lawlessness, crime and atrocities fuelled by complex Pashtun tribal rivalries.<sup id="cite_ref-Matinuddin,_Kamal_1999_pp.25_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matinuddin,_Kamal_1999_pp.25-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1994, the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> (a movement originating from <a href="/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Islam" title="Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam">Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam</a>-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a politico-religious force, reportedly in opposition to the tyranny of the local governor.<sup id="cite_ref-Matinuddin,_Kamal_1999_pp.25_163-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matinuddin,_Kamal_1999_pp.25-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mullah_Omar" title="Mullah Omar">Mullah Omar</a> started his movement with fewer than 50 armed <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasa</a> students in his hometown of Kandahar.<sup id="cite_ref-Matinuddin,_Kamal_1999_pp.25_163-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matinuddin,_Kamal_1999_pp.25-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Gulbuddin Hekmatyar remained unsuccessful in conquering Kabul, Pakistan started supporting the Taliban.<sup id="cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amin_Saikal-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-George_Washington_University_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George_Washington_University-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many analysts like <a href="/wiki/Amin_Saikal" title="Amin Saikal">Amin Saikal</a> describe the Taliban as developing into a proxy force for Pakistan's regional interests.<sup id="cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amin_Saikal-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1994 the Taliban took power in several provinces in southern and central Afghanistan. </p><p>In 1995 the Hezb-i Islami of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, the Iranian-backed Hezb-i Wahdat as well as Rashid Dostum's Junbish forces were defeated militarily in the capital Kabul by forces of the interim government under Massoud who subsequently tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections, also inviting the Taliban to join the process.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_University_Press_Book_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_University_Press_Book-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Taliban declined.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_University_Press_Book_165-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_University_Press_Book-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taliban_and_the_United_Front_(1996–2001)"><span id="Taliban_and_the_United_Front_.281996.E2.80.932001.29"></span>Taliban and the United Front (1996–2001)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Taliban and the United Front (1996–2001)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Taliban" title="History of the Taliban">History of the Taliban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Alliance" title="Northern Alliance">Northern Alliance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghan_training_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan training camp">Afghan training camp</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)">Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pervez_Musharraf_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2008_number3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Pervez_Musharraf_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2008_number3.jpg/220px-Pervez_Musharraf_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2008_number3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Pervez_Musharraf_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2008_number3.jpg/330px-Pervez_Musharraf_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2008_number3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Pervez_Musharraf_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2008_number3.jpg/440px-Pervez_Musharraf_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2008_number3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2870" /></a><figcaption>Former Pakistani President <a href="/wiki/Pervez_Musharraf" title="Pervez Musharraf">Pervez Musharraf</a> sent more troops against the <a href="/wiki/United_Islamic_Front_for_the_Salvation_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan">United Front</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Ahmad Shah Massoud</a> than the Afghan Taliban.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1996afghan_(1).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/1996afghan_%281%29.png/220px-1996afghan_%281%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/1996afghan_%281%29.png/330px-1996afghan_%281%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/1996afghan_%281%29.png/440px-1996afghan_%281%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1698" data-file-height="1305" /></a><figcaption>Map of the situation in Afghanistan in late 1996; <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Massoud</a> (red), <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Dostum</a> (green) and <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> (yellow) territories.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethno-linguistic_map_of_Afghanistan_1997.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ethno-linguistic_map_of_Afghanistan_1997.jpg/220px-Ethno-linguistic_map_of_Afghanistan_1997.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ethno-linguistic_map_of_Afghanistan_1997.jpg/330px-Ethno-linguistic_map_of_Afghanistan_1997.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ethno-linguistic_map_of_Afghanistan_1997.jpg/440px-Ethno-linguistic_map_of_Afghanistan_1997.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1091" /></a><figcaption>Ethno-linguistic map of Afghanistan 1997</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guerre_en_Afghanistan_(octobre_2001).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Guerre_en_Afghanistan_%28octobre_2001%29.PNG/220px-Guerre_en_Afghanistan_%28octobre_2001%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Guerre_en_Afghanistan_%28octobre_2001%29.PNG/330px-Guerre_en_Afghanistan_%28octobre_2001%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Guerre_en_Afghanistan_%28octobre_2001%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="322" /></a><figcaption>Map of the situation in Afghanistan in August 2001 until October 2001</figcaption></figure> <p>The Taliban started shelling Kabul in early 1995 but were defeated by forces of the Islamic State government under Ahmad Shah Massoud.<sup id="cite_ref-amnesty.org_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amnesty.org-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amnesty International, referring to the Taliban offensive, wrote in a 1995 report: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This is the first time in several months that Kabul civilians have become the targets of rocket attacks and shelling aimed at residential areas in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-amnesty.org_166-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amnesty.org-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>On September 26, 1996, as the Taliban, with military support by Pakistan and financial support by Saudi Arabia, prepared for another major offensive, Massoud ordered a full retreat from Kabul.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Taliban seized Kabul on September 27, 1996, and established the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan</a>. They imposed on the parts of Afghanistan under their control their political and judicial interpretation of Islam, issuing edicts forbidding women from working outside the home, attending school or leaving their homes unless accompanied by a male relative.<sup id="cite_ref-Physicians_for_Human_Rights_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Physicians_for_Human_Rights-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) said: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To PHR's knowledge, no other regime in the world has methodically and violently forced half of its population into virtual house arrest, prohibiting them on pain of physical punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-Physicians_for_Human_Rights_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Physicians_for_Human_Rights-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>After <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kabul_(1992%E2%80%931996)" title="Battle of Kabul (1992–1996)">the fall of Kabul</a> to the Taliban on September 27, 1996,<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Ahmad Shah Massoud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Abdul Rashid Dostum</a>, two former enemies, created the United Front (<a href="/wiki/Northern_Alliance" title="Northern Alliance">Northern Alliance</a>) against the Taliban, who were preparing offensives against the remaining areas under the control of Massoud and Dostum.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United Front included beside the dominantly <a href="/wiki/Tajik_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tajik people">Tajik</a> forces of Massoud and the <a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbek</a> forces of Dostum, <a href="/wiki/Hazara_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazara people">Hazara</a> factions and <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtun</a> forces under the leadership of commanders such as <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Haq_(Afghan_leader)" title="Abdul Haq (Afghan leader)">Abdul Haq</a>, Haji <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_(Afghan_leader)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Qadir (Afghan leader)">Abdul Qadir</a>, Qari Baba or diplomat <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahim_Ghafoorzai" title="Abdul Rahim Ghafoorzai">Abdul Rahim Ghafoorzai</a>. From the Taliban conquest in 1996 until November 2001 the United Front controlled roughly 30% of Afghanistan's population in provinces such as <a href="/wiki/Badakhshan_Province" title="Badakhshan Province">Badakhshan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kapisa_Province" title="Kapisa Province">Kapisa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Takhar_Province" title="Takhar Province">Takhar</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Parwan_Province" title="Parwan Province">Parwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kunar_Province" title="Kunar Province">Kunar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuristan_Province" title="Nuristan Province">Nuristan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laghman_Province" title="Laghman Province">Laghman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samangan_Province" title="Samangan Province">Samangan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kunduz_Province" title="Kunduz Province">Kunduz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gh%C5%8Dr_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghōr Province">Ghōr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bamyan_Province" title="Bamyan Province">Bamyan</a>. </p><p>According to a 55-page report by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control over northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic massacres against civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-Newsday_2001_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newsday_2001-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-papillonsartpalace.com_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-papillonsartpalace.com-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> UN officials stated that there had been "15 massacres" between 1996 and 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-Newsday_2001_171-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newsday_2001-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-papillonsartpalace.com_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-papillonsartpalace.com-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also said, that "[t]hese have been highly systematic and they all lead back to the [Taliban] Ministry of Defense or to <a href="/wiki/Mullah_Omar" title="Mullah Omar">Mullah Omar</a> himself."<sup id="cite_ref-Newsday_2001_171-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newsday_2001-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-papillonsartpalace.com_172-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-papillonsartpalace.com-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Taliban especially targeted people of Shia religious or Hazara ethnic background.<sup id="cite_ref-Newsday_2001_171-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newsday_2001-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-papillonsartpalace.com_172-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-papillonsartpalace.com-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon taking Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998, about 4,000 <a href="/wiki/Civilian" title="Civilian">civilians</a> were executed by the Taliban and many more reported <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among those killed in Mazari Sharif <a href="/wiki/1998_killing_of_Iranian_diplomats_in_Afghanistan" title="1998 killing of Iranian diplomats in Afghanistan">were several Iranian diplomats</a>. Others were kidnapped by the Taliban, touching off a hostage crisis that nearly escalated to a full-scale war, with 150,000 Iranian soldiers massed on the Afghan border at one time.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was later admitted that the diplomats were killed by the Taliban, and their bodies were returned to Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The documents also reveal the role of Arab and Pakistani support troops in these killings.<sup id="cite_ref-Newsday_2001_171-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newsday_2001-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-papillonsartpalace.com_172-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-papillonsartpalace.com-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a>'s so-called <a href="/wiki/055_Brigade" title="055 Brigade">055 Brigade</a> was responsible for mass-killings of Afghan civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed_Rashid/The_Telegraph_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed_Rashid/The_Telegraph-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The report by the United Nations quotes eyewitnesses in many villages describing Arab fighters carrying long knives used for slitting throats and skinning people.<sup id="cite_ref-Newsday_2001_171-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newsday_2001-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-papillonsartpalace.com_172-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-papillonsartpalace.com-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pakistani President <a href="/wiki/Pervez_Musharraf" title="Pervez Musharraf">Pervez Musharraf</a> – then as Chief of Army Staff – was responsible for sending thousands of Pakistanis to fight alongside the Taliban and Bin Laden against the forces of Massoud.<sup id="cite_ref-George_Washington_University_164-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George_Washington_University-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Webster_University_Press_Book_165-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_University_Press_Book-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-National_Geographic_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Geographic-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-History_Commons_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_Commons-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In total there were believed to be 28,000 Pakistani nationals fighting inside Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_University_Press_Book_165-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_University_Press_Book-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 20,000 were regular Pakistani soldiers either from the <a href="/wiki/Frontier_Corps" title="Frontier Corps">Frontier Corps</a> or army and an estimated 8,000 were militants recruited in <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasas</a> filling regular Taliban ranks.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed_Rashid/The_Telegraph_177-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed_Rashid/The_Telegraph-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The estimated 25,000 Taliban regular force thus comprised more than 8,000 Pakistani nationals.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed_Rashid/The_Telegraph_177-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed_Rashid/The_Telegraph-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 1998 document by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._State_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. State Department">U.S. State Department</a> confirms that "20–40 percent of [regular] Taliban soldiers are Pakistani."<sup id="cite_ref-George_Washington_University_164-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George_Washington_University-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The document further states that the parents of those Pakistani nationals "know nothing regarding their child's military involvement with the Taliban until their bodies are brought back to Pakistan."<sup id="cite_ref-George_Washington_University_164-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George_Washington_University-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further 3,000 fighter of the regular Taliban army were Arab and Central Asian militants.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed_Rashid/The_Telegraph_177-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed_Rashid/The_Telegraph-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1996 to 2001 the <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">Al-Qaeda</a> of Osama bin Laden and <a href="/wiki/Ayman_al-Zawahiri" title="Ayman al-Zawahiri">Ayman al-Zawahiri</a> became a state within the Taliban state.<sup id="cite_ref-Daily_Times_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daily_Times-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bin Laden sent Arab recruits to join the fight against the United Front.<sup id="cite_ref-Daily_Times_180-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daily_Times-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNN_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of roughly 45,000 Pakistani, Taliban and Al-Qaeda soldiers fighting against the forces of Massoud only 14,000 were Afghan.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_University_Press_Book_165-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_University_Press_Book-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed_Rashid/The_Telegraph_177-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed_Rashid/The_Telegraph-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Human Rights Watch in 1997 Taliban soldiers were summarily executed in and around Mazar-i Sharif by Dostum's Junbish forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Human_Rights_Watch-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dostum was defeated by the Taliban in 1998 with the fall of Mazar-i-Sharif. Massoud remained the only leader of the United Front in Afghanistan. </p><p>In the areas under his control <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Ahmad Shah Massoud</a> set up democratic institutions and signed the Women's Rights Charter.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human Rights Watch cites no human rights crimes for the forces under direct control of Massoud for the period from October 1996 until the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Assassination of Ahmad Shah Massoud">assassination of Massoud</a> in September 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Human_Rights_Watch-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a consequence many civilians fled to the area of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Ahmad Shah Massoud</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Geographic_178-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Geographic-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic</a> concluded in its documentary <i>Inside the Taliban</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The only thing standing in the way of future Taliban massacres is <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Ahmad Shah Massoud</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Geographic_178-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Geographic-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Taliban repeatedly offered Massoud a position of power to make him stop his resistance. Massoud declined for he did not fight to obtain a position of power. He said in one interview: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Taliban say: "Come and accept the post of prime minister and be with us", and they would keep the highest office in the country, the presidentship. But for what price?! The difference between us concerns mainly our way of thinking about the very principles of the society and the state. We can not accept their conditions of compromise, or else we would have to give up the principles of modern democracy. We are fundamentally against the system called "the Emirate of Afghanistan".<sup id="cite_ref-Interview_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Interview-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>and </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There should be an Afghanistan where every Afghan finds himself or herself happy. And I think that can only be assured by democracy based on consensus.<sup id="cite_ref-St._Petersburg_Times_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-St._Petersburg_Times-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Massoud wanted to convince the Taliban to join a political process leading towards democratic elections in a foreseeable future.<sup id="cite_ref-Interview_185-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Interview-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Massoud stated that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Taliban are not a force to be considered invincible. They are distanced from the people now. They are weaker than in the past. There is only the assistance given by Pakistan, Osama bin Laden and other extremist groups that keep the Taliban on their feet. With a halt to that assistance, it is extremely difficult to survive.<sup id="cite_ref-St._Petersburg_Times_186-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-St._Petersburg_Times-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In early 2001 Massoud employed a new strategy of local military pressure and global political appeals.<sup id="cite_ref-Steve_Coll:_Ghost_Wars_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steve_Coll:_Ghost_Wars-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resentment was increasingly gathering against Taliban rule from the bottom of Afghan society including the Pashtun areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Steve_Coll:_Ghost_Wars_187-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steve_Coll:_Ghost_Wars-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Massoud publicized their cause "popular consensus, general elections and democracy" worldwide. At the same time he was very wary not to revive the failed Kabul government of the early 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-Steve_Coll:_Ghost_Wars_187-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steve_Coll:_Ghost_Wars-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Already in 1999 he started the training of police forces which he trained specifically to keep order and protect the civilian population in case the United Front would be successful.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_University_Press_Book_165-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_University_Press_Book-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early 2001 Massoud addressed the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> asking the international community to provide humanitarian help to the people of Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-EU_Parliament_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EU_Parliament-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He stated that the Taliban and Al-Qaeda had introduced "a very wrong perception of Islam" and that without the support of Pakistan the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for up to a year.<sup id="cite_ref-EU_Parliament_188-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EU_Parliament-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="NATO's_presence,_the_Emergency_Loya_Jirga,_the_Taliban's_takeover_and_the_Panjshir_uprising"><span id="NATO.27s_presence.2C_the_Emergency_Loya_Jirga.2C_the_Taliban.27s_takeover_and_the_Panjshir_uprising"></span>NATO's presence, the Emergency Loya Jirga, the Taliban's takeover and the Panjshir uprising</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: NATO's presence, the Emergency Loya Jirga, the Taliban's takeover and the Panjshir uprising"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Hamid_Karzai" title="Presidency of Hamid Karzai">Presidency of Hamid Karzai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taliban_insurgency" title="Taliban insurgency">Taliban insurgency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom" title="Operation Enduring Freedom">Operation Enduring Freedom</a>, <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panjshir_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Panjshir conflict">Panjshir conflict</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Afghanistan_War_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="Aftermath of the Afghanistan War (2001–2021)">Aftermath of the Afghanistan War (2001–2021)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hamid_Karzai_at_the_US_Congress_on_Capitol_Hill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Hamid_Karzai_at_the_US_Congress_on_Capitol_Hill.jpg/170px-Hamid_Karzai_at_the_US_Congress_on_Capitol_Hill.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Hamid_Karzai_at_the_US_Congress_on_Capitol_Hill.jpg/255px-Hamid_Karzai_at_the_US_Congress_on_Capitol_Hill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Hamid_Karzai_at_the_US_Congress_on_Capitol_Hill.jpg/340px-Hamid_Karzai_at_the_US_Congress_on_Capitol_Hill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="732" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/President_of_Afghanistan" title="President of Afghanistan">Afghan President</a> <a href="/wiki/Hamid_Karzai" title="Hamid Karzai">Hamid Karzai</a> speaking before <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">U.S. Congress</a> in June 2004</figcaption></figure> <p>On 9 September 2001, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Ahmad Shah Massoud</a> was assassinated by two Arab <a href="/wiki/Suicide_attack" title="Suicide attack">suicide attackers</a> inside Afghanistan. Two days later about 3,000 people became victims of the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a> in the United States, when Afghan-based Al-Qaeda suicide bombers hijacked planes and flew them into four targets in the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern United States</a>. Then US President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> accused Osama bin Laden and <a href="/wiki/Khalid_Sheikh_Mohammed" title="Khalid Sheikh Mohammed">Khalid Sheikh Mohammed</a> as the faces behind the attacks. When the Taliban refused to hand over bin Laden to US authorities and to disband al-Qaeda bases in Afghanistan, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom" title="Operation Enduring Freedom">Operation Enduring Freedom</a> was launched in which teams of American and British special forces worked with commanders of the United Front (Northern Alliance) against the Taliban.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTOct8_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTOct8-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time the US-led forces were bombing Taliban and al-Qaeda targets everywhere inside Afghanistan with <a href="/wiki/Cruise_missile" title="Cruise missile">cruise missiles</a>. These actions led to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mazar-i-Sharif" title="Fall of Mazar-i-Sharif">fall of Mazar-i-Sharif</a> in the north followed by all the other cities, as the Taliban and al-Qaeda crossed over the <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porous</a> <a href="/wiki/Durand_Line" title="Durand Line">Durand Line</a> border into Pakistan. In December 2001, after the Taliban government was toppled and the new <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Hamid_Karzai" title="Presidency of Hamid Karzai">Afghan government under Hamid Karzai</a> was formed, the <a href="/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force" title="International Security Assistance Force">International Security Assistance Force</a> (ISAF) was established by the <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council">UN Security Council</a> to help assist the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Hamid_Karzai" title="Presidency of Hamid Karzai">Karzai administration</a> and provide basic security to the <a href="/wiki/Demography_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Demography of Afghanistan">Afghan people</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion of their country.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Afghan_soldiers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Afghan_soldiers.jpg/220px-Afghan_soldiers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Afghan_soldiers.jpg/330px-Afghan_soldiers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Afghan_soldiers.jpg/440px-Afghan_soldiers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_National_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan National Army">Afghan National Army</a> in 2010, including the <a href="/wiki/ANA_Commando_Battalion" class="mw-redirect" title="ANA Commando Battalion">ANA Commando Battalion</a> standing in the front.</figcaption></figure> <p>While the Taliban began regrouping inside Pakistan, the rebuilding of war-torn Afghanistan kicked off in 2002 (see also <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Afghan nation was able to build democratic structures over the years by the creation of an <a href="/wiki/2002_loya_jirga" title="2002 loya jirga">emergency loya jirga</a> to set up the modern Afghan government, and some progress was made in key areas such as governance, economy, health, education, transport, and agriculture. NATO had been training the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Afghanistan">Afghan armed forces</a> as well its <a href="/wiki/Afghan_National_Police" title="Afghan National Police">national police</a>. ISAF and <a href="/wiki/Afghan_National_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan National Army">Afghan troops</a> led many offensives against the Taliban but failed to fully defeat them. By 2009, a Taliban-led shadow government began to form in many parts of the country complete with their own version of mediation court.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> announced the deployment of another 30,000 soldiers in 2010 for a period of two years, <i><a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a></i> published images of the <a href="/wiki/Maywand_District_murders" title="Maywand District murders">US soldiers who killed unarmed Afghan civilians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2009, the United States resettled 328 refugees from Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over five million <a href="/wiki/Afghan_diaspora" title="Afghan diaspora">Afghan refugees</a> were <a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriated</a> in the last decade, including many who were forcefully <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deported</a> from <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> countries.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This large return of Afghans may have helped the nation's economy but the country still remains one of the poorest in the world due to the decades of war, lack of foreign investment, ongoing government corruption and the Pakistani-backed <a href="/wiki/Taliban_insurgency" title="Taliban insurgency">Taliban insurgency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States also accuses neighboring <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> of providing small level of support to the Taliban insurgents.<sup id="cite_ref-Eagle_World_News_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eagle_World_News-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban and other militants were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009,<sup id="cite_ref-The_Weekly_Standard_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Weekly_Standard-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 75% in 2010<sup id="cite_ref-UNAMA_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNAMA-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 80% in 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-Haddon_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haddon-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A report titled <i>Body Count</i> concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians had been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Military_terminal_at_Kabul_International_Airport.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Military_terminal_at_Kabul_International_Airport.jpg/220px-Military_terminal_at_Kabul_International_Airport.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Military_terminal_at_Kabul_International_Airport.jpg/330px-Military_terminal_at_Kabul_International_Airport.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Military_terminal_at_Kabul_International_Airport.jpg/440px-Military_terminal_at_Kabul_International_Airport.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>'s military terminal at <a href="/wiki/Kabul_International_Airport" title="Kabul International Airport">Kabul International Airport</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In October 2008 U.S. Defense Secretary Gates had asserted that a political settlement with the Taliban was the endgame for the Afghanistan war. "There has to be ultimately – and I'll underscore ultimately – reconciliation as part of a political outcome to this," Gates stated.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2010 peace efforts began. In early January, Taliban commanders held secret exploratory talks with a United Nations special envoy to discuss peace terms. Regional commanders on the Taliban's leadership council, the <a href="/wiki/Quetta_Shura" class="mw-redirect" title="Quetta Shura">Quetta Shura</a>, sought a meeting with the UN special representative in Afghanistan, <a href="/wiki/Kai_Eide" title="Kai Eide">Kai Eide</a>, and it took place in <a href="/wiki/Dubai" title="Dubai">Dubai</a> on January 8. It was the first such meeting between the UN and senior members of the Taliban.<sup id="cite_ref-Borger_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borger-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 26 January 2010, at <a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Afghanistan,_London_(2010)" title="International Conference on Afghanistan, London (2010)">a major conference in London</a> which brought together some 70 countries and organizations,<sup id="cite_ref-google1_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google1-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/President_of_Afghanistan" title="President of Afghanistan">Afghan President</a> Hamid Karzai said he intends to reach out to the Taliban leadership (including <a href="/wiki/Mullah_Omar" title="Mullah Omar">Mullah Omar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sirajuddin_Haqqani" title="Sirajuddin Haqqani">Sirajuddin Haqqani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a>). Supported by NATO, Karzai called on the group's leadership to take part in a <a href="/wiki/Loya_jirga" class="mw-redirect" title="Loya jirga">loya jirga</a> meeting to initiate peace talks. These steps have resulted in an intensification of bombings, assassinations and ambushes.<sup id="cite_ref-online.wsj.com_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-online.wsj.com-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Afghan groups (including the former intelligence chief <a href="/wiki/Amrullah_Saleh" title="Amrullah Saleh">Amrullah Saleh</a> and opposition leader Dr. <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Abdullah" title="Abdullah Abdullah">Abdullah Abdullah</a>) believe that Karzai plans to appease the insurgents' senior leadership at the cost of the democratic constitution, the democratic process and progress in the field of human rights especially women's rights.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Scotsman_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Scotsman-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dr. Abdullah stated: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I should say that Taliban are not fighting in order to be accommodated. They are fighting in order to bring the state down. So it's a futile exercise, and it's just misleading. ... There are groups that will fight to the death. Whether we like to talk to them or we don't like to talk to them, they will continue to fight. So, for them, I don't think that we have a way forward with talks or negotiations or contacts or anything as such. Then we have to be prepared to tackle and deal with them militarily. In terms of the Taliban on the ground, there are lots of possibilities and opportunities that with the help of the people in different parts of the country, we can attract them to the peace process; provided, we create a favorable environment on this side of the line. At the moment, the people are leaving support for the government because of corruption. So that expectation is also not realistic at this stage.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Public_Radio_(NPR)_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Public_Radio_(NPR)-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Secretary_Kerry_meets_Abdullah_and_Ghani_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Secretary_Kerry_meets_Abdullah_and_Ghani_2014.jpg/220px-Secretary_Kerry_meets_Abdullah_and_Ghani_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Secretary_Kerry_meets_Abdullah_and_Ghani_2014.jpg/330px-Secretary_Kerry_meets_Abdullah_and_Ghani_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Secretary_Kerry_meets_Abdullah_and_Ghani_2014.jpg/440px-Secretary_Kerry_meets_Abdullah_and_Ghani_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2614" data-file-height="1735" /></a><figcaption>From left to right: <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Abdullah" title="Abdullah Abdullah">Abdullah Abdullah</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">John Kerry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ashraf_Ghani" title="Ashraf Ghani">Ashraf Ghani</a> during the <a href="/wiki/2014_Afghan_presidential_election" title="2014 Afghan presidential election">2014 Afghan presidential election</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Afghan President Hamid Karzai told world leaders during the London conference that he intends to reach out to the top echelons of the Taliban within a few weeks with a peace initiative.<sup id="cite_ref-latimes1_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-latimes1-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karzai set the framework for dialogue with Taliban leaders when he called on the group's leadership to take part in a "loya <a href="/wiki/Jirga" title="Jirga">jirga</a>" – or large assembly of elders – to initiate peace talks.<sup id="cite_ref-reuters1_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reuters1-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karzai also asked for creation of a new peacemaking organization, to be called the National Council for Peace, Reconciliation and Reintegration.<sup id="cite_ref-latimes1_216-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-latimes1-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karzai's top adviser on the reconciliation process with the insurgents said that the country must learn to forgive the Taliban.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 2010, the Karzai government held preliminary talks with Hezb-i-Islami, who presented a plan which included the withdrawal of all foreign troops by the end of 2010. The Taliban declined to participate, saying "The Islamic Emirate has a clear position. We have said this many, many times. There will be no talks when there are foreign troops on Afghanistan's soil killing innocent Afghans on daily basis."<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Peace_Jirga_2010" title="Afghan Peace Jirga 2010">In June 2010 the Afghan Peace Jirga 2010 took place.</a> In September 2010 General <a href="/wiki/David_Petraeus" title="David Petraeus">David Petraeus</a> commented on the progress of peace talks to date, stating, "The prospect for reconciliation with senior Taliban leaders certainly looms out there...and there have been approaches at (a) very senior level that hold some promise."<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the May 2011 <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Osama_bin_Laden" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Osama bin Laden">death of Osama bin Laden</a> in Pakistan, many prominent Afghan figures began being assassinated, including <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Daud_Daud" title="Mohammed Daud Daud">Mohammed Daud Daud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Wali_Karzai" title="Ahmed Wali Karzai">Ahmed Wali Karzai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Mohammad_Khan" title="Jan Mohammad Khan">Jan Mohammad Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghulam_Haider_Hamidi" title="Ghulam Haider Hamidi">Ghulam Haider Hamidi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burhanuddin_Rabbani" title="Burhanuddin Rabbani">Burhanuddin Rabbani</a> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-AfghamEmbassy_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AfghamEmbassy-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in the same year, the <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan%E2%80%93Pakistan_skirmishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghanistan–Pakistan skirmishes">Pakistani-Afghan border skirmishes</a> intensified and many large scale attacks by the Pakistani-based <a href="/wiki/Haqqani_network" title="Haqqani network">Haqqani network</a> took place across Afghanistan. This led to the United States warning Pakistan of a possible military action against the Haqqanis in the <a href="/wiki/Federally_Administered_Tribal_Areas" title="Federally Administered Tribal Areas">Federally Administered Tribal Areas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. blamed Pakistan's government, mainly <a href="/wiki/Pakistani_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Pakistani Army">Pakistani Army</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Inter-Services_Intelligence" title="Inter-Services Intelligence">ISI</a> spy network as the masterminds behind all of this.<sup id="cite_ref-US-blames-Pakistan_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US-blames-Pakistan-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In choosing to use <a href="/wiki/Violent_extremism" title="Violent extremism">violent extremism</a> as an instrument of policy, the government of Pakistan, and most especially the Pakistani army and ISI, jeopardizes not only the prospect of our strategic partnership but Pakistan's opportunity to be a respected nation with legitimate regional influence. They may believe that by using these proxies, they are hedging their bets or redressing what they feel is an imbalance in regional power. But in reality, they have already lost that bet.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Admiral_(United_States)" title="Admiral (United States)">Admiral</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Mullen" title="Michael Mullen">Mike Mullen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff">Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff</a></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2021_Taliban_Offensive.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/2021_Taliban_Offensive.png/220px-2021_Taliban_Offensive.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/2021_Taliban_Offensive.png/330px-2021_Taliban_Offensive.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/2021_Taliban_Offensive.png/440px-2021_Taliban_Offensive.png 2x" data-file-width="7000" data-file-height="5514" /></a><figcaption>A map of Afghanistan showing the <a href="/wiki/2021_Taliban_offensive" title="2021 Taliban offensive">2021 Taliban offensive</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to Pakistan">U.S. ambassador to Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cameron_Munter" title="Cameron Munter">Cameron Munter</a>, told Radio Pakistan that "The attack that took place in Kabul a few days ago, that was the work of the Haqqani network. There is evidence linking the Haqqani Network to the Pakistan government. This is something that must stop."<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other top U.S. officials such as <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leon_Panetta" title="Leon Panetta">Leon Panetta</a> made similar statements.<sup id="cite_ref-US-blames-Pakistan_223-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US-blames-Pakistan-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On October 16, 2011, "Operation Knife Edge" was launched by NATO and Afghan forces against the Haqqani network in south-eastern Afghanistan. <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Defense (Afghanistan)">Afghan Defense Minister</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahim_Wardak" title="Abdul Rahim Wardak">Abdul Rahim Wardak</a>, explained that the operation will "help eliminate the insurgents before they struck in areas along the troubled frontier".<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 2011, <a href="/wiki/2011_NATO_attack_in_Pakistan" title="2011 NATO attack in Pakistan">NATO forces attacked Pakistani soldiers</a> in the Pakistan border region. In 2014, <a href="/wiki/Ashraf_Ghani" title="Ashraf Ghani">Ashraf Ghani</a> was <a href="/wiki/Afghan_presidential_election,_2014" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan presidential election, 2014">elected</a> to be the president of Afghanistan. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taliban_Humvee_in_Kabul,_August_2021_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Taliban_Humvee_in_Kabul%2C_August_2021_%28cropped%29.png/220px-Taliban_Humvee_in_Kabul%2C_August_2021_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Taliban_Humvee_in_Kabul%2C_August_2021_%28cropped%29.png/330px-Taliban_Humvee_in_Kabul%2C_August_2021_%28cropped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Taliban_Humvee_in_Kabul%2C_August_2021_%28cropped%29.png/440px-Taliban_Humvee_in_Kabul%2C_August_2021_%28cropped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1607" data-file-height="1071" /></a><figcaption>Taliban fighters patrolling Kabul in a <a href="/wiki/Humvee" title="Humvee">Humvee</a>, 17 August 2021</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2021, the <a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Afghanistan_(2021)" class="mw-redirect" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2021)">United States forces and allies withdrew</a> from Afghanistan, which allowed the <a href="/wiki/2021_Taliban_offensive" title="2021 Taliban offensive">Taliban to intensify their insurgency</a>. On 15 August 2021, as the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Kabul_(2021)" title="Fall of Kabul (2021)">Taliban entered Kabul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashraf_Ghani" title="Ashraf Ghani">President Ghani</a> fled to <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>, and the U.S.-backed Afghan government collapsed.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anti-Taliban forces formed the <a href="/wiki/National_Resistance_Front_of_Afghanistan" title="National Resistance Front of Afghanistan">National Resistance Front of Afghanistan</a> and launched an <a href="/wiki/Republican_insurgency_in_Afghanistan" title="Republican insurgency in Afghanistan">uprising</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Panjshir_Valley" title="Panjshir Valley">Panjshir Valley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 7 September 2021 Taliban announced an interim government headed by <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hassan_Akhund" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Hassan Akhund">Mohammad Hassan Akhund</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the government remained unrecognized internationally. </p><p>Western countries have suspended most humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States has <a href="/wiki/Afghan_frozen_assets" title="Afghan frozen assets">frozen about $9 billion</a> in assets belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Da_Afghanistan_Bank" title="Da Afghanistan Bank">Afghan central bank</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in U.S. bank accounts.<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 2021, more than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute food shortage.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 11 November 2021, the <i>Human Rights Watch</i> reported that Afghanistan is facing widespread <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a> due to collapsed economy and broken banking system. The <a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">UN World Food Program</a> has also issued multiple warnings of worsening food insecurity.<sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 2023, the Pakistani government ordered the <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Afghans_from_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of Afghans from Pakistan">expulsion of Afghans from Pakistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iran also decided to deport <a href="/wiki/Afghan_refugees" title="Afghan refugees">Afghan refugees</a> back to Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taliban authorities condemned the deportations of Afghans as an "inhuman act."<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 2023, speaking about the situation in Afghanistan, <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> Director-General <a href="/wiki/Tedros_Adhanom_Ghebreyesus" title="Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus">Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus</a> said that 30% of the <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Afghanistan" title="Demographics of Afghanistan">Afghan population</a> was facing acute food insecurity, adding that "Close to 1 million children are severely malnourished and 2.3 million are suffering from moderate acute malnutrition."<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Kabul_(2021)" title="Fall of Kabul (2021)">Fall of Kabul (2021)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasions_of_Afghanistan" title="Invasions of Afghanistan">Invasions of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Pashtun_empires_and_dynasties" title="List of Pashtun empires and dynasties">List of Pashtun empires and dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan" title="List of heads of state of Afghanistan">List of heads of state of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Afghanistan" title="Politics of Afghanistan">Politics of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Kabul" title="Timeline of Kabul">Timeline of Kabul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Herat" title="Timeline of Herat">Timeline of Herat</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rahimi, Mukiib Rahman. <i>State Formation in Afghanistan: A Theoretical and Political History</i>. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHyman1984" class="citation book cs1">Hyman, Anthony (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-17443-0_1">"The Land and the People in History"</a>. <i>Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964–83</i>. pp. 3–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-17443-0_1">10.1007/978-1-349-17443-0_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-36353-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-36353-9"><bdi>978-0-333-36353-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Land+and+the+People+in+History&rft.btitle=Afghanistan+Under+Soviet+Domination%2C+1964%E2%80%9383&rft.pages=3-22&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-17443-0_1&rft.isbn=978-0-333-36353-9&rft.aulast=Hyman&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-17443-0_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galvin-PreIslamic-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Galvin-PreIslamic_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin2002" class="citation web cs1">Griffin, Luke (14 January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011103002246/http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/PreIslamic.html">"The Pre-Islamic Period"</a>. <i>Afghanistan Country Study</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Afghanistan&rft.btitle=Microsoft+Encarta+Online+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Microsoft+Corporation&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Shroder&rft.aufirst=John+Ford&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencarta.msn.com%2Ftext_761569370___42%2FAfghanistan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Baxter,_Craig" class="mw-redirect" title="Baxter, Craig">Baxter, Craig</a> (1995) "Historical Setting" pp. 90–120, page 91, <i>In</i> Gladstone, Cary (2001) <i>Afghanistan revisited</i> Nova Science Publications, New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59033-421-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-59033-421-3">1-59033-421-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLendering2020" class="citation web cs1">Lendering, Jona (11 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/place/gandara/">"Gandara"</a>. <i>Livius</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Livius&rft.atitle=Gandara&rft.date=2020-08-11&rft.aulast=Lendering&rft.aufirst=Jona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Farticles%2Fplace%2Fgandara%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Willem_Vogelsang" title="Willem Vogelsang">W. Vogelsang</a>, <i>"Gandahar"</i>, in <i>The Circle Of Ancient Iranian Studies</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Herzfeld, <i>"The Persian Empire: Studies on Geography and Ethnography of the Ancient Near East"</i>, ed. G. Walser, <a href="/wiki/Wiesbaden" title="Wiesbaden">Wiesbaden</a> 1968, pp. 279, 293–94, 336–38, 345</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dupree-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dupree_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDupree1977" class="citation book cs1">Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T__DHAAACAAJ"><i>An Historical Guide To Afghanistan (Chapter 3: Sites in Perspective)</i></a> (2 ed.). United States: Afghan Air Authority, Afghan Tourist Organization. p. 492<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Historical+Guide+To+Afghanistan+%28Chapter+3%3A+Sites+in+Perspective%29&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=492&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Afghan+Air+Authority%2C+Afghan+Tourist+Organization&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Dupree&rft.aufirst=Nancy+Hatch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT__DHAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mallory-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mallory_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mallory_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMallory1997" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">Mallory, J. P.</a> (1997). "BMAC". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_culture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture (page does not exist)">Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture</a></i>. London: Fitzroy Dearborn. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-884964-98-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-884964-98-2"><bdi>1-884964-98-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=BMAC&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Indo-European+culture&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-884964-98-2&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH.-P.2005" class="citation book cs1">H.-P., Francfort; et al. (2005). "La civilisation de l'Oxus et les Indo-iraniens et les Indo-aryens en Asie centrale". In Fussman, G. (ed.). <i>Aryas, Aryens et Iraniens en Asie Centrale</i>. Paris: de Boccard. pp. 276–285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-86803-072-6" title="Special:BookSources/2-86803-072-6"><bdi>2-86803-072-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=La+civilisation+de+l%27Oxus+et+les+Indo-iraniens+et+les+Indo-aryens+en+Asie+centrale&rft.btitle=Aryas%2C+Aryens+et+Iraniens+en+Asie+Centrale&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=276-285&rft.pub=de+Boccard&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=2-86803-072-6&rft.aulast=H.-P.&rft.aufirst=Francfort&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeelis2010" class="citation book cs1">Neelis, Jason (19 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC"><i>Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia</i></a>. BRILL. p. 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18159-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18159-5"><bdi>978-90-04-18159-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Buddhist+Transmission+and+Trade+Networks%3A+Mobility+and+Exchange+Within+and+Beyond+the+Northwestern+Borderlands+of+South+Asia&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2010-11-19&rft.isbn=978-90-04-18159-5&rft.aulast=Neelis&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGB-JV2eOr2UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEggermont1975" class="citation book cs1">Eggermont, Pierre Herman Leonard (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nG0_xoDS3hUC"><i>Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahmin Town of Harmatelia</i></a>. Peeters Publishers. pp. 175–177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6186-037-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6186-037-2"><bdi>978-90-6186-037-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander%27s+Campaigns+in+Sind+and+Baluchistan+and+the+Siege+of+the+Brahmin+Town+of+Harmatelia&rft.pages=175-177&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-90-6186-037-2&rft.aulast=Eggermont&rft.aufirst=Pierre+Herman+Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnG0_xoDS3hUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prakash-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Prakash_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrakash1951" class="citation journal cs1">Prakash, Buddha (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41784590">"Poros"</a>. <i>Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</i>. <b>32</b> (1): 198–233. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41784590">41784590</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Bhandarkar+Oriental+Research+Institute&rft.atitle=Poros&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=198-233&rft.date=1951&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41784590%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Prakash&rft.aufirst=Buddha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41784590&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJain1972" class="citation book cs1">Jain, Kailash Chand (1972). <i>Malwa Through the Ages</i>. <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>: <a href="/wiki/Motilal_Banarsidass" title="Motilal Banarsidass">Motilal Banarsidass</a>. pp. 98–104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-120-80824-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-120-80824-9"><bdi>978-8-120-80824-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malwa+Through+the+Ages&rft.place=Delhi%2C+India&rft.pages=98-104&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-8-120-80824-9&rft.aulast=Jain&rft.aufirst=Kailash+Chand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CAH-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CAH_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung1988" class="citation book cs1">Young, T. Cuyler (1988). "The early history of the Medes and the Persians and the Achaemenid empire to the death of Cambyses". In <a href="/wiki/John_Boardman_(art_historian)" title="John Boardman (art historian)">Boardman, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">Hammond, N. G. L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Malcolm_Lewis" title="David Malcolm Lewis">Lewis, D. M.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ostwald" title="Martin Ostwald">Ostwald, M.</a> (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Ancient History</i>. Vol. 4. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 1–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22804-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22804-6"><bdi>978-0-521-22804-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+early+history+of+the+Medes+and+the+Persians+and+the+Achaemenid+empire+to+the+death+of+Cambyses&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=1-52&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22804-6&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=T.+Cuyler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSethna2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/K._D._Sethna" title="K. D. Sethna">Sethna, Kaikhosru Danjibuoy</a> (2000). "To Pāṇini's Time from Pāṇini's Place". <i>Problems of Ancient India</i>. Aditya Prakashan. pp. 121–172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-177-42026-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-177-42026-5"><bdi>978-8-177-42026-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=To+P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini%27s+Time+from+P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini%27s+Place&rft.btitle=Problems+of+Ancient+India&rft.pages=121-172&rft.pub=Aditya+Prakashan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-8-177-42026-5&rft.aulast=Sethna&rft.aufirst=Kaikhosru+Danjibuoy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Panjab Past and Present, pp 9–10; also see: History of Porus, pp 12, 38, Buddha Parkash</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Proceedings, 1965, p 39, by Punjabi University. Dept. of Punjab Historical Studies – History.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChad2005" class="citation journal cs1">Chad, Raymond (1 April 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.salve.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1015&context=fac_staff_pub">"Regional Geographic Influence on Two Khmer Polities"</a>. <i>Salve Regina University, Faculty and Staff: Articles and Papers</i>: 137<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Salve+Regina+University%2C+Faculty+and+Staff%3A+Articles+and+Papers&rft.atitle=Regional+Geographic+Influence+on+Two+Khmer+Polities&rft.pages=137&rft.date=2005-04-01&rft.aulast=Chad&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.salve.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1015%26context%3Dfac_staff_pub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prolemy, 6.17; <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, 11.10.1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iranicaarticle-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Iranicaarticle_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitt2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schmitt, Rüdiger (August 10, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arachosia">"Arachosia"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. United States.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arachosia&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=United+States&rft.date=2011-08-10&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=R%C3%BCdiger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Farachosia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Houtsma-150-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Houtsma-150_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoutsma1987" class="citation book cs1">Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GEl6N2tQeawC&pg=PA150"><i>E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936</i></a>. Vol. 2. Brill. p. 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08265-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-08265-4"><bdi>90-04-08265-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Motilal Banarsidass. p. 349. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120802728" title="Special:BookSources/9788120802728"><bdi>9788120802728</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Buddhism%3A+A+Survey+with+Bibliographical+Notes&rft.pages=349&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9788120802728&rft.aulast=Nakamura&rft.aufirst=Hajime&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw0A7y4TCeVQC%26pg%3DPA349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aisk-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aisk_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNancy_Hatch_Dupree_/_Aḥmad_ʻAlī_Kuhzād1972" class="citation web cs1">Nancy Hatch Dupree / Aḥmad ʻAlī Kuhzād (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100830031416/http://www.aisk.org/aisk/NHDAHGTK05.php">"An Historical Guide to Kabul – The Name"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-09-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Historical+Guide+to+Kabul+%E2%80%93+The+Name&rft.pub=American+International+School+of+Kabul&rft.date=1972&rft.au=Nancy+Hatch+Dupree+%2F+A%E1%B8%A5mad+%CA%BBAl%C4%AB+Kuhz%C4%81d&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aisk.org%2Faisk%2FNHDAHGTK05.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100613082348/http://forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans15.html">XV.4.19</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuri1987" class="citation book cs1">Puri, Baij Nath (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC"><i>Buddhism in central Asia</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Parthian+Pair+of+Earrings&rft.pub=Marymount+School%2C+New+York&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marymount.k12.ny.us%2Fmarynet%2Fstwbwk05%2F05vm%2Fearrings%2Fhtml%2Femanalysis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/105520/Zhang-Qian">"Zhang Qian"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zhang+Qian&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F105520%2FZhang-Qian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/654618/Yuezhi">"Yuezhi"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yuezhi&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F654618%2FYuezhi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150707162312/http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm">"and Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-12-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=and+Si-Yu-Ki%2C+Buddhist+Records+of+the+Western+World%2C+%28Tr.+Samuel+Beal%3A+Travels+of+Fa-Hian%2C+The+Mission+of+Sung-Yun+and+Hwei-S%3Fng%2C+Books+1%E2%80%935%29%2C+Kegan+Paul%2C+Trench%2C+Trubner+%26+Co.+Ltd.+London.+1906+and+Hill+%282009%29%2C+pp.+29%2C+318%E2%80%93350&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kushan.org%2Fgeneral%2Fother%2Fpart1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">which began about 127 CE. "Falk 2001, pp. 121–136", Falk (2001), pp. 121–136, Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167–176 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368–371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRafi_U._Samad2011" class="citation book cs1">Rafi U. Samad (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA93"><i>The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys</i></a>. Algora Publishing. p. 93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-859-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-859-2"><bdi>978-0-87586-859-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grandeur+of+Gandhara%3A+The+Ancient+Buddhist+Civilization+of+the+Swat%2C+Peshawar%2C+Kabul+and+Indus+Valleys&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Algora+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-87586-859-2&rft.au=Rafi+U.+Samad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpNUwBYGYgxsC%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrégoire_Frumkin1970" class="citation book cs1">Grégoire Frumkin (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum"><i>Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia</i></a></span>. Brill Archive. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum/page/51">51</a>. GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+in+Soviet+Central+Asia&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Gr%C3%A9goire+Frumkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farchaeologyinsov0000frum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford History of India – Vincent Smith</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ancient and Medieval History of India</i> – H.G. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-12-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.kushan.org&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Pakistan%3A+The+Kushans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kushan.org%2Fgeneral%2Fother%2Fpart1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-S?ng, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshakGrenet2006" class="citation journal cs1">Marshak, Boris; Grenet, Frantz (2006). 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Brill. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004181595" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004181595"><bdi>978-9004181595</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Buddhist+Transmission+and+Trade+Networks%3A+Mobility+and+Exchange+Within+and+Beyond+the+Northwestern+Borderlands+of+South+Asia&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-9004181595&rft.aulast=Neelis&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGB-JV2eOr2UC%26pg%3DPA159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tandon2013-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tandon2013_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTandon2013" class="citation journal cs1">Tandon, Pankaj (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coinindia.com/Alchon.pdf">"Notes on the Evolution of Alchon Coins"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society</i> (216): 24–34<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-10-21</span></span>. <q>Khorāsān, also spelled Khurasan, historical region and realm comprising a vast territory now lying in northeastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, and northern Afghanistan. The historical region extended, along the north, from the Amu Darya (Oxus River) westward to the Caspian Sea and, along the south, from the fringes of the central Iranian deserts eastward to the mountains of central Afghanistan.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Khorasan&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F316850%2FKhorasan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AA51-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AA51_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkasoyBurnettYoeli-Tlalim2016" class="citation book cs1">Akasoy, Anna; Burnett, Charles; Yoeli-Tlalim, Ronit (14 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lu64DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT51"><i>Islam and Tibet – Interactions along the Musk Routes</i></a>. Routledge. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-92605-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-92605-8"><bdi>978-1-351-92605-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+Tibet+%E2%80%93+Interactions+along+the+Musk+Routes&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016-12-14&rft.isbn=978-1-351-92605-8&rft.aulast=Akasoy&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft.au=Burnett%2C+Charles&rft.au=Yoeli-Tlalim%2C+Ronit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlu64DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitt1995" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=R%C3%BCdiger_Schmitt_(Indogermanist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rüdiger Schmitt (Indogermanist) (page does not exist)">Schmitt, Rüdiger</a> (15 December 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/drangiana">"DRANGIANA or Zarangiana; territory around Lake Hāmūn and the Helmand river in modern Sīstān"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=DRANGIANA+or+Zarangiana%3B+territory+around+Lake+H%C4%81m%C5%ABn+and+the+Helmand+river+in+modern+S%C4%ABst%C4%81n&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.date=1995-12-15&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=R%C3%BCdiger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fdrangiana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZahir_ud-Din_Mohammad_Babur1525" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Babur" title="Babur">Zahir ud-Din Mohammad Babur</a> (1525). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121114042117/http://persian.packhum.org/persian//pf?file=03501051&ct=91">"Events Of The Year 910 (p.4)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Baburnama" title="Baburnama">Memoirs of Babur</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Packard_Humanities_Institute" title="Packard Humanities Institute">Packard Humanities Institute</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persian.packhum.org/persian//pf?file=03501051&ct=91">the original</a> on 2012-11-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+Babur&rft.atitle=Events+Of+The+Year+910+%28p.4%29&rft.date=1525&rft.au=Zahir+ud-Din+Mohammad+Babur&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersian.packhum.org%2Fpersian%2F%2Fpf%3Ffile%3D03501051%26ct%3D91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_Battuta2004" class="citation book cs1">Ibn Battuta (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&pg=PA180"><i>Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325–1354</i></a> (reprint, illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 416. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-34473-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-34473-5"><bdi>0-415-34473-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travels+in+Asia+and+Africa%2C+1325%E2%80%931354&rft.pages=416&rft.edition=reprint%2C+illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-415-34473-5&rft.au=Ibn+Battuta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzKqn_CWTxYEC%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Firishta-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Firishta_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuhammad_Qasim_Hindu_Shah" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Firishta" title="Firishta">Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130726121158/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201016&ct=199">"The History of India, Volume 6, chpt. 200, Translation of the Introduction to Firishta's History (p.8)"</a>. <i>Sir H. M. Elliot</i>. London: Packard Humanities Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201016&ct=199">the original</a> on 2013-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sir+H.+M.+Elliot&rft.atitle=The+History+of+India%2C+Volume+6%2C+chpt.+200%2C+Translation+of+the+Introduction+to+Firishta%27s+History+%28p.8%29&rft.au=Muhammad+Qasim+Hindu+Shah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersian.packhum.org%2Fpersian%2Fpf%3Ffile%3D80201016%26ct%3D199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Habibi-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Habibi_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Habibi_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Afghan_and_Afghanistan.htm">"Afghan and Afghanistan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hai_Habibi" title="Abdul Hai Habibi">Abdul Hai Habibi</a></i>. alamahabibi.com. 1969<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-10-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Abdul+Hai+Habibi&rft.atitle=Afghan+and+Afghanistan&rft.date=1969&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alamahabibi.com%2FEnglish%2520Articles%2FAfghan_and_Afghanistan.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abgan-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Abgan_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoelle-KarimiConrad_J._SchetterReinhard_Schlagintweit2002" class="citation book cs1">Noelle-Karimi, Christine; Conrad J. Schetter; Reinhard Schlagintweit (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eo3tAAAAMAAJ"><i>Afghanistan -a country without a state?</i></a>. University of Michigan, United States: IKO. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-88939-628-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-88939-628-3"><bdi>3-88939-628-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-09-24</span></span>. <q>The earliest mention of the name 'Afghan' (Abgan) is to be found in a Sasanid inscription from the third century AD, and it appears in India in the form of 'Avagana'...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan+-a+country+without+a+state%3F&rft.place=University+of+Michigan%2C+United+States&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=IKO&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=3-88939-628-3&rft.aulast=Noelle-Karimi&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft.au=Conrad+J.+Schetter&rft.au=Reinhard+Schlagintweit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Deo3tAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan/129450/History?anchor=ref261360">"History of Afghanistan"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Version<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-11-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online+Version&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F7798%2FAfghanistan%2F129450%2FHistory%3Fanchor%3Dref261360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iranica-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Iranica_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afgan-in-current-political-usage-any-citizen-of-afghanistan-whatever-his-ethnic-tribal-or-religious-affiliation">"Afghan"</a>. <i>Ch. M. Kieffer</i>. Encyclopædia Iranica Online Edition. 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Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society 18.1 (1970): 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0006)">"Islamic conquest"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a> on <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. 1997<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Minorsky</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110613145756/http://www.khyber.org/articles/2005/TheKhalajWestoftheOxus.shtml">"The Turkish dialect of the Khalaj"</a> (2 ed.). <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>. pp. 417–437. Archived from the original on 2011-06-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-01-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Turkish+dialect+of+the+Khalaj&rft.pages=417-437&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=University+of+London&rft.au=V.+Minorsky&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.khyber.org%2Farticles%2F2005%2FTheKhalajWestoftheOxus.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EB_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9067075">Shahi Family</a> <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 2006. 16 October 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sehrai, Fidaullah (1979). Hund: <i>The Forgotten City of Gandhara</i>, p. 2. Peshawar Museum Publications New Series, Peshawar.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Shahi Afghanistan and Punjab, 1973, pp 1, 45–46, 48, 80, Dr D. B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan – Indo-Scythians; Country, Culture and Political life in early and medieval India, 2004, p 34, Daud Ali.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 1954, pp 112 ff; "The Shahis of Afghanistan and Punjab", 1973, p 46, Dr D. B. 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Lambton; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a>, eds. (1977), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ccI0u5XDR0C"><i>The Cambridge history of Islam</i></a>, Cambridge University Press, p. 3, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29137-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29137-2"><bdi>0-521-29137-2</bdi></a>, <q>... Jaypala of Waihind saw danger in the consolidation of the kingdom of Ghazna and decided to destroy it. 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Ameer Nasir-ood-Deen Subooktugeen (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194724/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=06901021&ct=12">"History of the Rise of Mohammedan Power in India"</a>. Packard Humanities Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=06901021&ct=12">the original</a> on 2013-10-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-12-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Rise+of+Mohammedan+Power+in+India&rft.pub=Packard+Humanities+Institute&rft.au=Firishta&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersian.packhum.org%2Fpersian%2Fpf%3Ffile%3D06901021%26ct%3D12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wink1991-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wink1991_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndré_Wink1991" class="citation book cs1">André Wink (June 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&pg=PA127"><i>Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest. 2</i></a>. Brill. pp. 127–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09509-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09509-0"><bdi>978-90-04-09509-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-+Hind%3A+The+slave+kings+and+the+Islamic+conquest.+2&rft.pages=127-&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1991-06&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09509-0&rft.au=Andr%C3%A9+Wink&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbCVyhH5VDjAC%26pg%3DPA127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1971) "Sites in Perspective (Chapter 3)" <i>An Historical Guide To Afghanistan</i> Afghan Tourist Organization, Kabul, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/241390">241390</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Meher, Jagmohan: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aTP1-nG0Us4C&pg=PA29">Afghanistan: Dynamics of Survival</a></i>, p. 29, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BXG8AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66">International Business Publication: Afghanistan. Country Study Guide, Volume 1, Strategic Information and Developments</a></i>, p. 66, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-afghan-bios.info-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-afghan-bios.info_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-afghan-bios.info_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afghan-bios.info/index.php?option=com_afghanbios&id=556&task=view&total=2916&start=857&Itemid=2">"Database"</a>. <i>www.afghan-bios.info</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.afghan-bios.info&rft.atitle=Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afghan-bios.info%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_afghanbios%26id%3D556%26task%3Dview%26total%3D2916%26start%3D857%26Itemid%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JS-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JS_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartzberg1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Schwartzberg" title="Joseph E. 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Oxford University Press, Digital South Asia Library. p. 147, Map "g".</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Historical+Atlas+of+South+Asia&rft.pages=147%2C+Map+%22g%22&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+Digital+South+Asia+Library&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Schwartzberg&rft.aufirst=Joseph+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdsal.uchicago.edu%2Freference%2Fschwartzberg%2Fpager.html%3Fobject%3D185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Eaton" title="Richard M. Eaton">Eaton, Richard M.</a> (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ"><i>India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765</i></a>. Allen Lane. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0713995824" title="Special:BookSources/978-0713995824"><bdi>978-0713995824</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+in+the+Persianate+Age%3A+1000%E2%80%931765&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0713995824&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaIF6DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth1998" class="citation book cs1">Bosworth, C.E. (1 January 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=18eABeokpjEC&pg=PA432"><i>History of Civilizations of Central Asia</i></a>. UNESCO. pp. 432–433. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-3-103467-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-3-103467-1"><bdi>978-92-3-103467-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia&rft.pages=432-433&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1998-01-01&rft.isbn=978-92-3-103467-1&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=C.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D18eABeokpjEC%26pg%3DPA432&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2018" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, David (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6h2_DwAAQBAJ"><i>The Ebb and Flow of the Ghūrid Empire</i></a>. Sydney University Press. p. 26, Figure I:2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74332-542-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74332-542-1"><bdi>978-1-74332-542-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ebb+and+Flow+of+the+Gh%C5%ABrid+Empire&rft.pages=26%2C+Figure+I%3A2&rft.pub=Sydney+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-74332-542-1&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6h2_DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KS-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KS_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt2015" class="citation book cs1">Schmidt, Karl J. (20 May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA37"><i>An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History</i></a>. Routledge. p. 37, Map 16.2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-47681-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-47681-8"><bdi>978-1-317-47681-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Atlas+and+Survey+of+South+Asian+History&rft.pages=37%2C+Map+16.2&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015-05-20&rft.isbn=978-1-317-47681-8&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Karl+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBqdzCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-a-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-a_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=18eABeokpjEC&pg=PA185"><i>History of Civilizations of Central Asia</i></a>. UNESCO. 1 January 1998. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-3-103467-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-3-103467-1"><bdi>978-92-3-103467-1</bdi></a>. <q>In 1201 Ghurid troops entered Khurasan and captured Nishapur, Merv, Sarakhs and Tus, reaching as far as Gurgan and Bistam. Kuhistan, a stronghold of the Ismailis, was plundered and all Khurasan was brought temporarily under Ghurid control</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1998-01-01&rft.isbn=978-92-3-103467-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D18eABeokpjEC%26pg%3DPA185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth2001b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bosworth, C. Edmund (2001b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids">"Ghurids"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. X, Fasc. 6</i>. New York. pp. 586–590.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ghurids&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica%2C+online+edition%2C+Vol.+X%2C+Fasc.+6&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=586-590&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=C.+Edmund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fghurids&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-THC-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-THC_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ml75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA237"><i>Turkish History and Culture in India: Identity, Art and Transregional Connections</i></a>. BRILL. 17 August 2020. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-43736-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-43736-4"><bdi>978-90-04-43736-4</bdi></a>. <q>In 1205, Bakhtīyar Khilji sacked Nudiya, the pre-eminent city of western Bengal and established an Islamic government at Laukhnauti, the capital of the predecessor Sena dynasty. On this occasion, commemorative coins were struck in gold and silver in the name of Muhammad b. Sām</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turkish+History+and+Culture+in+India%3A+Identity%2C+Art+and+Transregional+Connections&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2020-08-17&rft.isbn=978-90-04-43736-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dml75DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanner2003" class="citation book cs1">Tanner, Stephen (2003). <i>Afghanistan: A Military History From Alexander The Great To The Fall Of The Taliban</i>. DA CAPO PRESS. pp. 81–82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780585482132" title="Special:BookSources/9780585482132"><bdi>9780585482132</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+A+Military+History+From+Alexander+The+Great+To+The+Fall+Of+The+Taliban&rft.pages=81-82&rft.pub=DA+CAPO+PRESS&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780585482132&rft.aulast=Tanner&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective – Page 129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia – Page 465</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Babur-Nama, translated by Nette Beverage, Sang-e-Meel Publications, Lahore, 1979.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taliban Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia, 2nd ed. Rashid, Ahmed. Introduction, page 9. Yale University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ross Marlay, Clark D. Neher. 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Infobase Publishing. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5056-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-5056-2"><bdi>0-8160-5056-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-09-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8160-5056-2&rft.aulast=Otfinoski&rft.aufirst=Steven+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfbXmk-EauHIC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-afghanembassy.com-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-afghanembassy.com_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130318233241/http://www.afghanembassy.com/viewtopic.asp?id=1331&t=Afghan%20Leaders%20Yearbook">"Afghan Leaders Yearbook, Afghanistan main interactive web site, made by Afghans for Afghans"</a>. <i>www.afghanembassy.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afghanembassy.com/viewtopic.asp?id=1331&t=Afghan%20Leaders%20Yearbook">the original</a> on 18 March 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.afghanembassy.com&rft.atitle=Afghan+Leaders+Yearbook%2C+Afghanistan+main+interactive+web+site%2C+made+by+Afghans+for+Afghans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afghanembassy.com%2Fviewtopic.asp%3Fid%3D1331%26t%3DAfghan%2520Leaders%2520Yearbook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Runion, Meredith L.: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aZk9XzqCFGUC&pg=PA63">The History of Afghanistan</a></i>, p. 63, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malleson-227-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Malleson-227_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalleson1878" class="citation book cs1">Malleson, George Bruce (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C&pg=PA227"><i>History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878</i></a>. London: Elibron.com. p. 459. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4021-7278-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-4021-7278-8"><bdi>1-4021-7278-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-11-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Afghanistan%2C+from+the+Earliest+Period+to+the+Outbreak+of+the+War+of+1878&rft.place=London&rft.pages=459&rft.pub=Elibron.com&rft.date=1878&rft.isbn=1-4021-7278-8&rft.aulast=Malleson&rft.aufirst=George+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpqNGBEmHUd4C%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malleson-231-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Malleson-231_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalleson1878" class="citation book cs1">Malleson, George Bruce (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C&pg=PA231"><i>History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878</i></a>. London: Elibron.com. p. 459. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4021-7278-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-4021-7278-8"><bdi>1-4021-7278-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-11-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Afghanistan%2C+from+the+Earliest+Period+to+the+Outbreak+of+the+War+of+1878&rft.place=London&rft.pages=459&rft.pub=Elibron.com&rft.date=1878&rft.isbn=1-4021-7278-8&rft.aulast=Malleson&rft.aufirst=George+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpqNGBEmHUd4C%26pg%3DPA231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Browne29-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Browne29_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Granville_Browne" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Granville_Browne" title="Edward Granville Browne">Edward Granville Browne</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=90001014&ct=29">"An Outline Of The History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722–1922)"</a>. London: Packard Humanities Institute. p. 29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Outline+Of+The+History+Of+Persia+During+The+Last+Two+Centuries+%28A.D.+1722%E2%80%931922%29&rft.place=London&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Packard+Humanities+Institute&rft.au=Edward+Granville+Browne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersian.packhum.org%2Fpersian%2Fpf%3Ffile%3D90001014%26ct%3D29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Romano-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Romano_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomano2003" class="citation book cs1">Romano, Amy (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicalatlaso0000roma"><i>A Historical Atlas of Afghanistan</i></a></span>. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicalatlaso0000roma/page/64">64</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8239-3863-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8239-3863-8"><bdi>0-8239-3863-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-10-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Historical+Atlas+of+Afghanistan&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8239-3863-8&rft.aulast=Romano&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoricalatlaso0000roma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malleson-234-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Malleson-234_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalleson1878" class="citation book cs1">Malleson, George Bruce (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C&pg=PA234"><i>History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878</i></a>. London: Elibron.com. p. 459. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4021-7278-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-4021-7278-8"><bdi>1-4021-7278-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-11-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Afghanistan%2C+from+the+Earliest+Period+to+the+Outbreak+of+the+War+of+1878&rft.place=London&rft.pages=459&rft.pub=Elibron.com&rft.date=1878&rft.isbn=1-4021-7278-8&rft.aulast=Malleson&rft.aufirst=George+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpqNGBEmHUd4C%26pg%3DPA234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Browne31-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Browne31_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175004/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=90001014&ct=31">"An Outline Of The History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722–1922)"</a>. <i>Edward Granville Browne</i>. London: Packard Humanities Institute. p. 31. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=90001014&ct=31">the original</a> on 2016-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Edward+Granville+Browne&rft.atitle=An+Outline+Of+The+History+Of+Persia+During+The+Last+Two+Centuries+%28A.D.+1722%E2%80%931922%29&rft.pages=31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersian.packhum.org%2Fpersian%2Fpf%3Ffile%3D90001014%26ct%3D31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Browne33-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Browne33_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browne33_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052417/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=90001014&ct=33">"Until His Assassination In A.D. 1747"</a>. <i>Edward Granville Browne</i>. London: Packard Humanities Institute. p. 33. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=90001014&ct=33">the original</a> on 2016-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Edward+Granville+Browne&rft.atitle=Until+His+Assassination+In+A.D.+1747&rft.pages=33&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersian.packhum.org%2Fpersian%2Fpf%3Ffile%3D90001014%26ct%3D33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10162/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani">"Afghanistan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA)</i>. United States: <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Afghanistan&rft.btitle=Central+Intelligence+Agency+%28CIA%29&rft.place=United+States&rft.pub=The+World+Factbook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F10162%2FAhmad-Shah-Durrani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Engels-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Engels_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedrich_Engels1857" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> (1857). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm">"Afghanistan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Andy_Blunden" title="Andy Blunden">Andy Blunden</a></i>. The New American Cyclopaedia, Vol. I<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Andy+Blunden&rft.atitle=Afghanistan&rft.date=1857&rft.au=Friedrich+Engels&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Fmarx%2Fworks%2F1857%2Fafghanistan%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nalwa, V. (2009), Hari Singh Nalwa – Champion of the Khalsaji, New Delhi: Manohar, p. 18, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7304-785-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-7304-785-5">81-7304-785-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nalwa, V. (2009), Hari Singh Nalwa – Champion of the Khalsaji, New Delhi: Manohar, p. 198, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7304-785-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-7304-785-5">81-7304-785-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/salesbrigadeinaf00glei">archive.org: "Sale's brigade in Afghanistan, with an account of the seizure and defence of Jellalabad"</a>, by Gleig, G. R. (George Robert), 1796–1888. London: John Murray, 1846</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanner2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Tanner" title="Stephen Tanner">Tanner, Stephen</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gJLtAAAAMAAJ"><i>Afghanistan: A Military History From Alexander The Great To The Fall Of The Taliban</i></a> (reprint ed.). Da Capo Press (published 2003). p. 218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780306812330" title="Special:BookSources/9780306812330"><bdi>9780306812330</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2020</span>. <q>Abdur Rahman had meanwhile become known as the 'Iron Emir' for his ruthless measures to break the tribal, or feudal, system in Afghanistan as well as the power of the mullahs.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+A+Military+History+From+Alexander+The+Great+To+The+Fall+Of+The+Taliban&rft.pages=218&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780306812330&rft.aulast=Tanner&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgJLtAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bijanomrani.com-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bijanomrani.com_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bijanomrani.com/?p=afgan_search_unit">Afghanistan and the Search for Unity</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225034836/http://www.bijanomrani.com/?p=afgan_search_unit">Archived</a> 2021-02-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" <a href="/wiki/Bijan_Omrani" title="Bijan Omrani">Omrani, Bijan</a>, published in <i>Asian Affairs</i>, Volume 38, Issue 2, 2007, pp. 145–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/people/Shorish-Education_in_Afghanistan.htm">Education in Afghanistan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070227135100/http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/people/Shorish-Education_in_Afghanistan.htm">Archived</a> 2007-02-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", published in <i>Encyclopædia Iranica, volume VIII</i> – pp. 237–241</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuḥammadHazārah1999" class="citation book cs1">Muḥammad, Fayz̤; Hazārah, Fayz̤ Muḥammad Kātib (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qJpXJXOno9IC"><i>Kabul Under Siege: Fayz Muhammad's Account of the 1929 Uprising</i></a>. Markus Wiener Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781558761551" title="Special:BookSources/9781558761551"><bdi>9781558761551</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kabul+Under+Siege%3A+Fayz+Muhammad%27s+Account+of+the+1929+Uprising&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781558761551&rft.aulast=Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad&rft.aufirst=Fayz%CC%A4&rft.au=Haz%C4%81rah%2C+Fayz%CC%A4+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+K%C4%81tib&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqJpXJXOno9IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuḥammadHazārahMuḥammad1999" class="citation book cs1">Muḥammad, Fayz̤; Hazārah, Fayz̤ Muḥammad Kātib; Muḥammad, Faiḍ (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qJpXJXOno9IC"><i>Kabul Under Siege: Fayz Muhammad's Account of the 1929 Uprising</i></a>. Markus Wiener Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-155-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-155-1"><bdi>978-1-55876-155-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kabul+Under+Siege%3A+Fayz+Muhammad%27s+Account+of+the+1929+Uprising&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-155-1&rft.aulast=Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad&rft.aufirst=Fayz%CC%A4&rft.au=Haz%C4%81rah%2C+Fayz%CC%A4+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+K%C4%81tib&rft.au=Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad%2C+Fai%E1%B8%8D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqJpXJXOno9IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYTobit-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYTobit_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barry Bearak, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/23/world/asia/23cnd-shah.html">Former King of Afghanistan Dies at 92</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200419120222/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/23/world/asia/23cnd-shah.html">Archived</a> 2020-04-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The New York Times</i>, July 23, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amin_Saikal-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amin_Saikal_132-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmin_Saikal2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amin_Saikal" title="Amin Saikal">Amin Saikal</a> (13 November 2004). <i>Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival</i> (2006 1st ed.). I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., London New York. p. 352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85043-437-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85043-437-9"><bdi>1-85043-437-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Afghanistan%3A+A+History+of+Struggle+and+Survival&rft.pages=352&rft.edition=2006+1st&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris+%26+Co+Ltd.%2C+London+New+York&rft.date=2004-11-13&rft.isbn=1-85043-437-9&rft.au=Amin+Saikal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100617192449/http://www.vfw.org/resources/levelxmagazine/0203_Soviet-Afghan%20War.pdf">"The Soviet-Afghan War:Breaking the Hammer & Sickle"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vfw.org/resources/levelxmagazine/0203_Soviet-Afghan%20War.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on June 17, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Soviet-Afghan+War%3ABreaking+the+Hammer+%26+Sickle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vfw.org%2Fresources%2Flevelxmagazine%2F0203_Soviet-Afghan%2520War.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0028)">"Afghanistan"</a>. Lcweb2.loc.gov<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-11-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Afghanistan&rft.pub=Lcweb2.loc.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flcweb2.loc.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fquery%2Fr%3Ffrd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID%2Baf0028%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/reports/1991/afghanistan/2AFGHAN.htm">"2AFGHAN"</a>. <i>www.hrw.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hrw.org&rft.atitle=2AFGHAN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Freports%2F1991%2Fafghanistan%2F2AFGHAN.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin A. Valentino. <i>Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century</i> Cornell University Press, 2004. p. 219. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-3965-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-3965-5">0-8014-3965-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaplan, Robert D., <i>Soldiers of God: With Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan,</i> New York, Vintage Departures, (2001), p.115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4756480.stm">Kabul's prison of death</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170605231532/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4756480.stm">Archived</a> 2017-06-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>, February 27, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-georgetown1-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-georgetown1_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110205200053/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/afghanistan">"Afghanistan"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Berkley_Center_for_Religion,_Peace,_and_World_Affairs" title="Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs">Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/afghanistan">the original</a> on 2011-02-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-12-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Afghanistan&rft.pub=Berkley+Center+for+Religion%2C+Peace%2C+and+World+Affairs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fberkleycenter.georgetown.edu%2Fresources%2Fcountries%2Fafghanistan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-greenleft-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-greenleft_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.greenleft.org.au/node/24198">"How the CIA created Osama bin Laden"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenleft&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Greenleft (page does not exist)">greenleft</a>. 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+the+CIA+created+Osama+bin+Laden&rft.pub=greenleft&rft.date=2001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greenleft.org.au%2Fnode%2F24198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Al-Ahram_Democracy-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Al-Ahram_Democracy_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://democracy.ahram.org.eg/eng/Index.asp?CurFN=selt2.htm&DID=9995">"Putting Empires at Rest"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ahram_Democracy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Ahram Democracy (page does not exist)">Al-Ahram Democracy</a>. 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Putting+Empires+at+Rest&rft.pub=Al-Ahram+Democracy&rft.date=2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdemocracy.ahram.org.eg%2Feng%2FIndex.asp%3FCurFN%3Dselt2.htm%26DID%3D9995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2016">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Brunei_Times-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Brunei_Times_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131205090713/http://www.bt.com.bn/analysis/2008/12/17/story_of_us_cia_and_taliban">"Story of US, CIA and Taliban"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Brunei_Times" title="The Brunei Times">The Brunei Times</a></i>. 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bt.com.bn/analysis/2008/12/17/story_of_us_cia_and_taliban">the original</a> on 2013-12-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Brunei+Times&rft.atitle=Story+of+US%2C+CIA+and+Taliban&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bt.com.bn%2Fanalysis%2F2008%2F12%2F17%2Fstory_of_us_cia_and_taliban&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Nation-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Nation_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140302090727/http://www.thenation.com/article/cost-afghan-victory?page=0%2C1">"The Cost of an Afghan 'Victory'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a></i>. 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenation.com/article/cost-afghan-victory?page=0,1">the original</a> on 2014-03-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=The+Cost+of+an+Afghan+%27Victory%27&rft.date=1999&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Fcost-afghan-victory%3Fpage%3D0%2C1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReismanNorchi" class="citation web cs1">Reisman, W. Michael; Norchi, Charles H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161026182528/http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf">"Genocide and the Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2017</span>. <q>W. Michael Reisman is Hohfeld Professor of Jurisprudence at Yale Law School and a member of the Independent Counsel on International Human Rights.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Genocide+and+the+Soviet+Occupation+of+Afghanistan&rft.aulast=Reisman&rft.aufirst=W.+Michael&rft.au=Norchi%2C+Charles+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paulbogdanor.com%2Fleft%2Fafghan%2Fgenocide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReismanNorchi" class="citation web cs1">Reisman, W. Michael; Norchi, Charles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161026182528/http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf">"Genocide and the Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2017</span>. <q>Charles Norchi, a Visiting Scholar at Yale Law School, directed the Independent Counsel on International Human Rights (with the Committee for a Free Afghanistan).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Genocide+and+the+Soviet+Occupation+of+Afghanistan&rft.aulast=Reisman&rft.aufirst=W.+Michael&rft.au=Norchi%2C+Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paulbogdanor.com%2Fleft%2Fafghan%2Fgenocide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKakar1997" class="citation book cs1">Kakar, Mohammed (3 March 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;brand=ucpress"><i>The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520208933" title="Special:BookSources/9780520208933"><bdi>9780520208933</bdi></a>. <q>The Afghans are among the latest victims of genocide by a superpower. Large numbers of Afghans were killed to suppress resistance to the army of the Soviet Union, which wished to vindicate its client regime and realize its goal in Afghanistan.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Invasion+and+the+Afghan+Response%2C+1979%E2%80%931982&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1997-03-03&rft.isbn=9780520208933&rft.aulast=Kakar&rft.aufirst=Mohammed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublishing.cdlib.org%2Fucpressebooks%2Fview%3FdocId%3Dft7b69p12h%3Bbrand%3Ducpress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:22_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReismanNorchi" class="citation web cs1">Reisman, W. Michael; Norchi, Charles H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161026182528/http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf">"Genocide and the Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2017</span>. <q>According to widely reported accounts, substantial programmes of depopulation have been conducted in these Afghan provinces: Ghazni, Nagarhar, Lagham, Qandahar, Zabul, Badakhshan, Lowgar, Paktia, Paktika and Kunar...There is considerable evidence that genocide has been committed against the Afghan people by the combined forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Genocide+and+the+Soviet+Occupation+of+Afghanistan&rft.aulast=Reisman&rft.aufirst=W.+Michael&rft.au=Norchi%2C+Charles+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paulbogdanor.com%2Fleft%2Fafghan%2Fgenocide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-562k-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-562k_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLacinaGleditsch2005" class="citation journal cs1">Lacina, Bethany; Gleditsch, Nils Petter (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006175909/http://www.bethanylacina.com/LacinaGleditsch_newdata.pdf">"Monitoring Trends in Global Combat: A New Dataset of Battle Deaths"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>European Journal of Population</i>. <b>21</b> (2–3): 154. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10680-005-6851-6">10.1007/s10680-005-6851-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14344770">14344770</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bethanylacina.com/LacinaGleditsch_newdata.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2014-10-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Population&rft.atitle=Monitoring+Trends+in+Global+Combat%3A+A+New+Dataset+of+Battle+Deaths&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=154&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10680-005-6851-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14344770%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lacina&rft.aufirst=Bethany&rft.au=Gleditsch%2C+Nils+Petter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bethanylacina.com%2FLacinaGleditsch_newdata.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlass1994" class="citation book cs1">Klass, Rosanne (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I2chrSJCW54C&q=2+million+afghans+killed+soviet&pg=PA129"><i>The Widening Circle of Genocide</i></a>. Transaction Publishers. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412839655" title="Special:BookSources/9781412839655"><bdi>9781412839655</bdi></a>. <q>During the intervening fourteen years of Communist rule, an estimated 1.5 to 2 million Afghan civilians were killed by Soviet forces and their proxies- the four Communist regimes in Kabul, and the East Germans, Bulgarians, Czechs, Cubans, Palestinians, Indians and others who assisted them. These were not battle casualties or the unavoidable civilian victims of warfare. Soviet and local Communist forces seldom attacked the scattered guerilla bands of the Afghan Resistance except, in a few strategic locales like the Panjsher valley. Instead they deliberately targeted the civilian population, primarily in the rural areas.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Widening+Circle+of+Genocide&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9781412839655&rft.aulast=Klass&rft.aufirst=Rosanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI2chrSJCW54C%26q%3D2%2Bmillion%2Bafghans%2Bkilled%2Bsoviet%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodson2001" class="citation book cs1">Goodson, Larry P. (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl0000good"><i>Afghanistan's Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise of the Taliban</i></a></span>. University of Washington Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl0000good/page/5">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780295980508" title="Special:BookSources/9780295980508"><bdi>9780295980508</bdi></a>. <q>2 million afghans killed soviet.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%27s+Endless+War%3A+State+Failure%2C+Regional+Politics%2C+and+the+Rise+of+the+Taliban&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780295980508&rft.aulast=Goodson&rft.aufirst=Larry+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafghanistansendl0000good&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The War Chronicles: From Flintlocks to Machine Guns</i>. Fair Winds. 2009. p. 393. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781616734046" title="Special:BookSources/9781616734046"><bdi>9781616734046</bdi></a>. <q>A final weapon of terror the Soviets used against the mujahideen was the abduction of Afghan women. Soldiers flying in helicopters would scan for women working in the fields in the absence of their men, land, and take the women captive. Russian soldiers in the city of Kabul would also steal young women. The object was rape, although sometimes the women were killed, as well. The women who returned home were often considered dishonored for life.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+Chronicles%3A+From+Flintlocks+to+Machine+Guns&rft.pages=393&rft.pub=Fair+Winds&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781616734046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKakar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kakar, M. Hassan (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h&brand=ucpress"><i>The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520208933" title="Special:BookSources/9780520208933"><bdi>9780520208933</bdi></a>. <q>While military operations in the country were going on, women were abducted. While flying in the country in search of mujahideen, helicopters would land in fields where women were spotted. While Afghan women do mainly domestic chores, they also work in fields assisting their husbands or performing tasks by themselves. The women were now exposed to the Russians, who kidnapped them with helicopters. By November 1980 a number of such incidents had taken place in various parts of the country, including Laghman and Kama. In the city of Kabul, too, the Russians kidnapped women, taking them away in tanks and other vehicles, especially after dark. Such incidents happened mainly in the areas of Darul Aman and Khair Khana, near the Soviet garrisons. At times such acts were committed even during the day. KhAD agents also did the same. Small groups of them would pick up young women in the streets, apparently to question them but in reality to satisfy their lust: in the name of security, they had the power to commit excesses.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Invasion+and+the+Afghan+Response%2C+1979%E2%80%931982&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780520208933&rft.aulast=Kakar&rft.aufirst=M.+Hassan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublishing.cdlib.org%2Fucpressebooks%2Fview%3FdocId%3Dft7b69p12h%26brand%3Ducpress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090228232732/http://www.state.gov/g/prm/rls/117283.htm">Refugee Admissions Program for Near East and South Asia</a> ". Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrathwaite2013" class="citation book cs1">Brathwaite, Rodric (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=13cTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA232"><i>Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan 1979–89</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199322480" title="Special:BookSources/9780199322480"><bdi>9780199322480</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afgantsy%3A+The+Russians+in+Afghanistan+1979%E2%80%9389&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780199322480&rft.aulast=Brathwaite&rft.aufirst=Rodric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D13cTDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Columbia:Afghanistan:History-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Columbia:Afghanistan:History_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/places/asia/afghanistan/afghanistan/history">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817161329/https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/places/asia/afghanistan/afghanistan/history">Archived</a> 2021-08-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Columbia Encyclopedia</i>: Afghanistan – History.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasir2015" class="citation news cs1">Nasir, Abbas (18 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2015/08/legacy-pakistan-loved-loathed-hamid-gul-150817114006616.html">"The legacy of Pakistan's loved and loathed Hamid Gul"</a>. <i>Al-Jazeera</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 January</span> 2017</span>. <q>His commitment to jihad – to an Islamic revolution transcending national boundaries, was such that he dreamed one day the 'green Islamic flag' would flutter not just over Pakistan and Afghanistan, but also over territories represented by the (former Soviet Union) Central Asian republics. After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, as the director-general of the Pakistan's intelligence organisation, Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) directorate, an impatient Gul and West wanted to establish a government of the so-called Mujahideen on Afghan soil in order to recognise it. He then ordered an assault using mujahideen leaders on Jalalabad, the first major urban centre across the Khyber Pass from Pakistan, with the aim capturing it and declaring it as the seat of the new administration.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al-Jazeera&rft.atitle=The+legacy+of+Pakistan%27s+loved+and+loathed+Hamid+Gul&rft.date=2015-08-18&rft.aulast=Nasir&rft.aufirst=Abbas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Findepth%2Fopinion%2F2015%2F08%2Flegacy-pakistan-loved-loathed-hamid-gul-150817114006616.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Neamatollah_Nojumi-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Neamatollah_Nojumi_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeamatollah_Nojumi" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neamatollah_Nojumi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neamatollah Nojumi (page does not exist)">Neamatollah Nojumi</a>. <i>The Rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan: Mass Mobilization, Civil War, and the Future of the Region</i> (2002 1st ed.). Palgrave, New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Taliban+in+Afghanistan%3A+Mass+Mobilization%2C+Civil+War%2C+and+the+Future+of+the+Region&rft.edition=2002+1st&rft.pub=Palgrave%2C+New+York&rft.au=Neamatollah+Nojumi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated3-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmin_Saikal2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amin_Saikal" title="Amin Saikal">Amin Saikal</a> (13 November 2004). <i>Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival</i> (2006 1st ed.). London New York: I.B. Tauris. p. 352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85043-437-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85043-437-9"><bdi>1-85043-437-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Afghanistan%3A+A+History+of+Struggle+and+Survival&rft.place=London+New+York&rft.pages=352&rft.edition=2006+1st&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2004-11-13&rft.isbn=1-85043-437-9&rft.au=Amin+Saikal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_National_Security_Archive-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_National_Security_Archive_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB97/">"The September 11 Sourcebooks Volume VII: The Taliban File"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gwu.edu" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwu.edu">gwu.edu</a>. 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+September+11+Sourcebooks+Volume+VII%3A+The+Taliban+File&rft.pub=gwu.edu&rft.date=2003&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwu.edu%2F~nsarchiv%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB97%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)_160-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)_160-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)_160-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_(4)_160-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150113150933/http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands">"Blood-Stained Hands, Past Atrocities in Kabul and Afghanistan's Legacy of Impunity"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands">the original</a> on 2015-01-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blood-Stained+Hands%2C+Past+Atrocities+in+Kabul+and+Afghanistan%27s+Legacy+of+Impunity&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Watch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fen%2Freports%2F2005%2F07%2F06%2Fblood-stained-hands&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roy_Gutman-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roy_Gutman_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutman2008" class="citation book cs1">Gutman, Roy (2008). <i>How We Missed the Story: Osama bin Laden, the Taliban and the Hijacking of Afghanistan, Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace (1st ed.)</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Physicians+for+Human+Rights&rft.atitle=The+Taliban%27s+War+on+Women.+A+Health+and+Human+Rights+Crisis+in+Afghanistan&rft.date=1998&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysiciansforhumanrights.org%2Flibrary%2Fdocuments%2Freports%2Ftalibans-war-on-women.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081008185655/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9609/27/afghan.rebels/index.html">"Afghan rebels seize capital, hang former president"</a>. <i>CNN News</i>. 1996-07-27. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 27,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Afghanistan%3A+The+Massacre+in+Mazar-I+Sharif&rft.atitle=Incitement+of+Violence+Against+Hazaras+by+Governor+Niazi&rft.date=1998-11&rft.au=Human+Rights+Watch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Freports98%2Fafghan%2FAfrepor0-03.htm%23P186_38364&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211123252/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/meast/9808/31/iran.games/">"Iranian military exercises draw warning from Afghanistan"</a>. <i>CNN News</i>. 1997-08-31. 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London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1340244/Afghanistan-resistance-leader-feared-dead-in-blast.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Afghanistan+resistance+leader+feared+dead+in+blast&rft.date=2001-09-11&rft.aulast=Rashid&rft.aufirst=Ahmed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fasia%2Fafghanistan%2F1340244%2FAfghanistan-resistance-leader-feared-dead-in-blast.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-National_Geographic-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-National_Geographic_178-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-National_Geographic_178-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-National_Geographic_178-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpQI6HKV-ZY">"Inside the Taliban"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>. 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Taliban&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DxpQI6HKV-ZY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-History_Commons-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-History_Commons_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140125130822/http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=ahmed_shah_massoud">"Profile: Ahmed Shah Massoud"</a>. <a href="/wiki/History_Commons" title="History Commons">History Commons</a>. 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=ahmed_shah_massoud">the original</a> on 2014-01-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Profile%3A+Ahmed+Shah+Massoud&rft.pub=History+Commons&rft.date=2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historycommons.org%2Fentity.jsp%3Fentity%3Dahmed_shah_massoud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daily_Times-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Daily_Times_180-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daily_Times_180-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080913183649/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008%5C08%5C31%5Cstory_31-8-2008_pg3_4">"Book Review: The inside track on Afghan wars by Khaled Ahmed"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Daily_Times_(Pakistan)" title="Daily Times (Pakistan)">Daily Times</a></i>. 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008\08\31\story_31-8-2008_pg3_4">the original</a> on 2008-09-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Daily+Times&rft.atitle=Book+Review%3A+The+inside+track+on+Afghan+wars+by+Khaled+Ahmed&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailytimes.com.pk%2Fdefault.asp%3Fpage%3D2008%5C08%5C31%5Cstory_31-8-2008_pg3_4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CNN-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CNN_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Grugy2txSvc&feature=search">"Brigade 055"</a>. <i>CNN</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Brigade+055&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DGrugy2txSvc%26feature%3Dsearch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Human_Rights_Watch-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_182-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Human_Rights_Watch_182-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/afghan-bck1005.htm#uf">"Human Rights Watch Backgrounder, October 2001"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a></i>. 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.atitle=Human+Rights+Watch+Backgrounder%2C+October+2001&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fbackgrounder%2Fasia%2Fafghan-bck1005.htm%23uf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_183-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcela_Grad" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marcela_Grad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marcela Grad (page does not exist)">Marcela Grad</a>. <i>Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader</i> (March 1, 2009 ed.). Webster University Press. p. 310.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Massoud%3A+An+Intimate+Portrait+of+the+Legendary+Afghan+Leader&rft.pages=310&rft.edition=March+1%2C+2009&rft.pub=Webster+University+Press&rft.au=Marcela+Grad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080929130330/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/episode/inside-the-taliban-3274/Overview">"Inside the Taliban"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>. 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/episode/inside-the-taliban-3274/Overview">the original</a> on 2008-09-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Taliban&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchannel.nationalgeographic.com%2Fepisode%2Finside-the-taliban-3274%2FOverview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Interview-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Interview_185-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Interview_185-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060925043421/http://www.orient.uw.edu.pl/balcerowicz/texts/Ahmad_Shah_Masood_en.htm">"The Last Interview with Ahmad Shah Massoud"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Balcerowicz" title="Piotr Balcerowicz">Piotr Balcerowicz</a>. 2001. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orient.uw.edu.pl/balcerowicz/texts/Ahmad_Shah_Masood_en.htm">the original</a> on 2006-09-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Last+Interview+with+Ahmad+Shah+Massoud&rft.pub=Piotr+Balcerowicz&rft.date=2001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orient.uw.edu.pl%2Fbalcerowicz%2Ftexts%2FAhmad_Shah_Masood_en.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-St._Petersburg_Times-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-St._Petersburg_Times_186-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-St._Petersburg_Times_186-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sptimes.com/2002/09/09/911/The_man_who_would_hav.shtml">"The man who would have led Afghanistan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg Times">St. Petersburg Times</a></i>. 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=St.+Petersburg+Times&rft.atitle=The+man+who+would+have+led+Afghanistan&rft.date=2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sptimes.com%2F2002%2F09%2F09%2F911%2FThe_man_who_would_hav.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steve_Coll:_Ghost_Wars-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Steve_Coll:_Ghost_Wars_187-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steve_Coll:_Ghost_Wars_187-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steve_Coll:_Ghost_Wars_187-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteve_Coll" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steve_Coll" title="Steve Coll">Steve Coll</a>. <i>Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001</i> (February 23, 2004 ed.). Penguin Press HC. p. 720.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ghost+Wars%3A+The+Secret+History+of+the+CIA%2C+Afghanistan%2C+and+Bin+Laden%2C+from+the+Soviet+Invasion+to+September+10%2C+2001&rft.pages=720&rft.edition=February+23%2C+2004&rft.pub=Penguin+Press+HC&rft.au=Steve+Coll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EU_Parliament-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EU_Parliament_188-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EU_Parliament_188-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t78N6Q5VD60">"Massoud in the European Parliament 2001"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=EU_media&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EU media (page does not exist)">EU media</a>. 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Massoud+in+the+European+Parliament+2001&rft.pub=EU+media&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dt78N6Q5VD60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYTOct8-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYTOct8_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyler2001" class="citation news cs1">Tyler, Patrick (October 8, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/08/world/nation-challenged-attack-us-britain-strike-afghanistan-aiming-bases-terrorist.html?scp=2&sq=Afghanistan+&st=nyt">"A Nation challenged: The attack; U.S. and Britain strike Afghanistan, aiming at bases and terrorist camps; Bush warns 'Taliban will pay a price'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Nation+challenged%3A+The+attack%3B+U.S.+and+Britain+strike+Afghanistan%2C+aiming+at+bases+and+terrorist+camps%3B+Bush+warns+%27Taliban+will+pay+a+price%27&rft.date=2001-10-08&rft.aulast=Tyler&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2001%2F10%2F08%2Fworld%2Fnation-challenged-attack-us-britain-strike-afghanistan-aiming-bases-terrorist.html%3Fscp%3D2%26sq%3DAfghanistan%2B%26st%3Dnyt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>  <i>Resolution</i>  <i>1386</i>.  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undocs.org/Home/Mobile?FinalSymbol=S/RES/1386(2001)">S/RES/1386(2001)</a>  31 May 2001. – (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1386" class="extiw" title="wikisource:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1386">UNSCR 1386</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nato.usmission.gov/">"United States Mission to Afghanistan"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2017</span>. <q>Equally large percentages endorse the US military presence in Afghanistan. Eighty-three percent said they have a favorable view of "the US military forces in our country" (39% very favorable). 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href="https://messaging-custom-newsletters.nytimes.com/template/oakv2?campaign_id=30&emc=edit_int_20211029&instance_id=44044&nl=the-interpreter&productCode=INT&regi_id=57806557&segment_id=72971&te=1&uri=nyt%3A%2F%2Fnewsletter%2Fde4d3c8a-f805-5843-bf23-d2fd9a6bcf70&user_id=9aa4b6ac6a6bfa9626d966e353fed48b">"Is the United States Driving Afghanistan Toward Famine?"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 29 October 2021.</cite><span 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href="https://www.msnbc.com/opinion/afghanistan-s-hunger-crisis-problem-u-s-can-fix-n1283618">"Afghanistan's hunger crisis is a problem the U.S. can fix"</a>. <i>MSNBC</i>. 10 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MSNBC&rft.atitle=Afghanistan%27s+hunger+crisis+is+a+problem+the+U.S.+can+fix&rft.date=2021-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msnbc.com%2Fopinion%2Fafghanistan-s-hunger-crisis-problem-u-s-can-fix-n1283618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/oct/25/countdown-to-catastrophe-half-of-afghans-face-hunger-this-winter-un">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Countdown to catastrophe': half of Afghans face hunger this winter – UN"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 25 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=%27Countdown+to+catastrophe%27%3A+half+of+Afghans+face+hunger+this+winter+%E2%80%93+UN&rft.date=2021-10-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal-development%2F2021%2Foct%2F25%2Fcountdown-to-catastrophe-half-of-afghans-face-hunger-this-winter-un&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/11/afghanistan-facing-famine#">"Afghanistan Facing Famine: UN, World Bank, US Should Adjust Sanctions, Economic Policies"</a>. <i>Human Rights Watch</i>. 11 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.atitle=Afghanistan+Facing+Famine%3A+UN%2C+World+Bank%2C+US+Should+Adjust+Sanctions%2C+Economic+Policies&rft.date=2021-11-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fnews%2F2021%2F11%2F11%2Fafghanistan-facing-famine%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/22/whats-wrong-the-silence-of-pakistanis-on-expulsion-of-afghan-refugees">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'What's wrong?': The silence of Pakistanis on expulsion of Afghan refugees"</a>. <i>Al Jazeera</i>. 22 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=%27What%27s+wrong%3F%27%3A+The+silence+of+Pakistanis+on+expulsion+of+Afghan+refugees&rft.date=2023-11-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2023%2F11%2F22%2Fwhats-wrong-the-silence-of-pakistanis-on-expulsion-of-afghan-refugees&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rferl.org/a/iran-afghans-banned-provinces/32713320.html">"Afghans Banned From 16 Provinces In Iran As Forced Exodus Continues"</a>. <i>Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</i>. 4 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radio+Free+Europe%2FRadio+Liberty&rft.atitle=Afghans+Banned+From+16+Provinces+In+Iran+As+Forced+Exodus+Continues&rft.date=2023-12-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Fa%2Firan-afghans-banned-provinces%2F32713320.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-iran-deports-almost-350-000-afghans-within-3-months/7392705.html">"Taliban: Iran Deports Almost 350,000 Afghans Within 3 Months"</a>. <i>VOA News</i>. 11 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=VOA+News&rft.atitle=Taliban%3A+Iran+Deports+Almost+350%2C000+Afghans+Within+3+Months&rft.date=2023-12-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fa%2Ftaliban-iran-deports-almost-350-000-afghans-within-3-months%2F7392705.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.business-standard.com/world-news/over-1-mn-afghan-children-facing-severe-malnutrition-says-who-chief-123122200080_1.html">"Over 1 mn Afghan children facing severe malnutrition, says WHO chief"</a>. <i>Business Standard</i>. 22 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Standard&rft.atitle=Over+1+mn+Afghan+children+facing+severe+malnutrition%2C+says+WHO+chief&rft.date=2023-12-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.business-standard.com%2Fworld-news%2Fover-1-mn-afghan-children-facing-severe-malnutrition-says-who-chief-123122200080_1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Afghanistan" title="Bibliography of Afghanistan">Bibliography of Afghanistan</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_history_of_Central_Asia" title="Bibliography of the history of Central Asia">Bibliography of the history of Central Asia</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Adamec, Ludwig W. <i>Historical dictionary of Afghanistan</i> (Scarecrow Press, 2011).</li> <li>Adamec, Ludwig W. <i>Historical dictionary of Afghan wars, revolutions, and insurgencies</i> (Scarecrow Press, 2005).</li> <li>Adamec, Ludwig W. <i>Afghanistan's foreign affairs to the mid-twentieth century: relations with the USSR, Germany, and Britain</i> (University of Arizona Press, 1974).</li> <li>Banting, Erinn. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afghanistan00bant">Afghanistan the People</a></i>. Crabtree Publishing Company, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7787-9336-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7787-9336-2">0-7787-9336-2</a>.</li> <li>Barfield, Thomas. <i>Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History</i> (Princeton U.P. 2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Afghanistan-Cultural-Political-Princeton-Politics/dp/0691154414/">excerpt and text search</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170205014411/https://www.amazon.com/Afghanistan-Cultural-Political-Princeton-Politics/dp/0691154414">Archived</a> 2017-02-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Bleaney, C. H; María Ángeles Gallego. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qCh41lAvg8oC">Afghanistan: a bibliography</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073224/https://books.google.com/books?id=qCh41lAvg8oC&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Brill, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-14532-X" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-14532-X">90-04-14532-X</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaf_Caroe" title="Olaf Caroe">Caroe, Olaf</a> (1958). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rZ0tAQAAIAAJ">The Pathans: 500 B.C.–A.D. 1957</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073224/https://books.google.com/books?id=rZ0tAQAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints. Oxford University Press, 1983. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-577221-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-577221-0">0-19-577221-0</a>.</li> <li>Clements, Frank. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bv4hzxpo424C">Conflict in Afghanistan: a historical encyclopedia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073224/https://books.google.com/books?id=bv4hzxpo424C&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. ABC-CLIO, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85109-402-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85109-402-4">1-85109-402-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Dupree_(professor)" title="Louis Dupree (professor)">Dupree, Louis</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gMzRQgAACAAJ">Afghanistan</a></i>. Princeton University Press, 1973. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-03006-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-03006-5">0-691-03006-5</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Hatch_Dupree" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy Hatch Dupree">Dupree, Nancy Hatch</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T__DHAAACAAJ">An Historical Guide to Afghanistan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073225/https://books.google.com/books?id=T__DHAAACAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. 2nd Edition. Revised and Enlarged. Afghan Air Authority, Afghan Tourist Organization, 1977.</li> <li>Ewans, Martin. <i>Afghanistan – a new history</i> (Routledge, 2013).</li> <li>Fowler, Corinne. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o4IrhX7n66YC">Chasing tales: travel writing, journalism and the history of British ideas about Afghanistan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073225/https://books.google.com/books?id=o4IrhX7n66YC&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Rodopi, 2007. Amsterdam and New York. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-420-2262-0" title="Special:BookSources/90-420-2262-0">90-420-2262-0</a>.</li> <li>Griffiths, John C. (1981). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M7nMtaXdAS8C">Afghanistan: a history of conflict</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073225/https://books.google.com/books?id=M7nMtaXdAS8C&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Carlton Books, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84222-597-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-84222-597-9">1-84222-597-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos_Gommans" title="Jos Gommans">Gommans, Jos J. L.</a> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-2TH8UYeAaoC">The rise of the Indo-Afghan empire, c. 1710–1780</a></i>. Brill, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10109-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10109-8">90-04-10109-8</a>.</li> <li>Gregorian, Vartan. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gphzQgAACAAJ">The emergence of modern Afghanistan: politics of reform and modernization, 1880–1946</a></i>. Stanford University Press, 1969. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-0706-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-0706-5">0-8047-0706-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hai_Habibi" title="Abdul Hai Habibi">Habibi, Abdul Hai</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jskHAAAACAAJ">Afghanistan: An Abridged History</a></i>. Fenestra Books, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58736-169-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-58736-169-8">1-58736-169-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Harmatta" title="János Harmatta">Harmatta, János</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DguGWP0vGY8C">History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations, 700 B.C. to A.D. 250</a></i>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1408-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1408-8">81-208-1408-8</a>.</li> <li>Hiebert, Fredrik Talmage. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781426202957">Afghanistan: hidden treasures from the National Museum, Kabul</a></i>. National Geographic Society, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4262-0295-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4262-0295-4">1-4262-0295-4</a>.</li> <li>Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the <i>Hou Hanshu</i>." 2nd Draft Edition.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060426032835/http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html">"The Han Histories"</a>. Depts.washington.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html">the original</a> on 2006-04-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-01-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Han+Histories&rft.pub=Depts.washington.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fuwch%2Fsilkroad%2Ftexts%2Fhhshu%2Fhou_han_shu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Holt, Frank. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/intolandofbones00fran">Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan</a></i>. University of California Press, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-24993-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-24993-3">0-520-24993-3</a>.</li> <li>Hopkins, B. D. 2008. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FOMUAQAAIAAJ">The Making of Modern Afghanistan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073224/https://books.google.com/books?id=FOMUAQAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-230-55421-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-230-55421-0">0-230-55421-0</a>.</li> <li>Jabeen, Mussarat, Prof Dr Muhammad Saleem Mazhar, and Naheed S. Goraya. "US Afghan Relations: A Historical Perspective of Events of 9/11." <i>South Asian Studies</i> 25.1 (2020).</li> <li>Kakar, M. Hassan. <i>A Political and Diplomatic History of Afghanistan, 1863–1901</i> (Brill, 2006)<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.pu.edu.pk/journals/index.php/IJSAS/article/view/2781/1039">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210909021747/http://journals.pu.edu.pk/journals/index.php/IJSAS/article/view/2781/1039">Archived</a> 2021-09-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Leake, Elisabeth. <i>Afghan Crucible: The Soviet Invasion and the Making of Modern Afghanistan</i> (Oxford University Press. 2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issforum.org/to/jrt15-29">online book review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bruce_Malleson" title="George Bruce Malleson">Malleson, George Bruce</a> (1878). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C">History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073225/https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Elibron Classic Replica Edition. Adamant Media Corporation, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4021-7278-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-4021-7278-8">1-4021-7278-8</a>.</li> <li>Olson, Gillia M. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afghanistan0000olso">Afghanistan</a></i>. Capstone Press, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7368-2685-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7368-2685-8">0-7368-2685-8</a>.</li> <li>Omrani, Bijan & Leeming, Matthew <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VVu_NwAACAAJ&q=editions:MLexHQAACAAJ">Afghanistan: A Companion and Guide</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073226/https://books.google.com/books?id=VVu_NwAACAAJ&dq=editions:MLexHQAACAAJ&hl=en&ei=Bbk3TrLMF5K7hAfqwPibAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAQ">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Odyssey Publications, 2nd Edition, 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-217-816-2" title="Special:BookSources/962-217-816-2">962-217-816-2</a>.</li> <li>Reddy, L. R. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NubtDf2T3cAC">Inside Afghanistan: end of the Taliban era?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073226/https://books.google.com/books?id=NubtDf2T3cAC&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. APH Publishing, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7648-319-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-7648-319-2">81-7648-319-2</a>.</li> <li>Romano, Amy. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TKUxyVCrYn0C">A Historical Atlas of Afghanistan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073226/https://books.google.com/books?id=TKUxyVCrYn0C&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. The Rosen Publishing Group, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8239-3863-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8239-3863-8">0-8239-3863-8</a>.</li> <li>Runion, Meredith L. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aZk9XzqCFGUC">The history of Afghanistan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073226/https://books.google.com/books?id=aZk9XzqCFGUC&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-33798-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-33798-5">0-313-33798-5</a>.</li> <li>Saikal, Amin, A.G. Ravan Farhadi, and Kirill Nourzhanov. <i>Modern Afghanistan: a history of struggle and survival</i> (IB Tauris, 2012).</li> <li>Shahrani, M Nazif, ed. <i>Modern Afghanistan: The Impact of 40 Years of War</i> (Indiana UP, 2018)</li> <li>Siddique, Abubakar. <i>The Pashtun Question The Unresolved Key to the Future of Pakistan and Afghanistan</i> (Hurst, 2014)</li> <li>Tanner, Stephen. <i>Afghanistan: a military history from Alexander the Great to the war against the Taliban</i> (Da Capo Press, 2009).</li> <li>Wahab, Shaista; Barry Youngerman. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y20MTE0C9kwC">A brief history of Afghanistan</a></i>. Infobase Publishing, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5761-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-5761-3">0-8160-5761-3</a></li> <li>Vogelsang, Willem. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9kfJ6MlMsJQC">The Afghans</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228073727/https://books.google.com/books?id=9kfJ6MlMsJQC&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2022-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Wiley-Blackwell, 2002. Oxford, UK & Massachusetts, US. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19841-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-19841-5">0-631-19841-5</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>"Durand's Curse: A Line Across the Pathan Heart" by Rajiv Dogra, Publisher: Rupa Publications India</li> <li>Green, Nile, ed. <i>Afghan History Through Afghan Eyes</i> (Oxford University Press, 2016) online edition for libraries: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780190247782.001.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190247782.001.0001</a></li> <li>Elliot, Henry Miers. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4QeZTTYLoVgC">The history of India, as told by its own historians: The Muhammadan period</a></i>. Elibron.com, 1952. Volume 8. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-543-94714-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-543-94714-9">0-543-94714-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountstuart_Elphinstone" title="Mountstuart Elphinstone">Elphinstone, Mountstuart</a>. 1819. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RSEPAAAAYAAJ">An account of the kingdom of Caubul, and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India: Comprising a view of the Afghaun nation, and a history of the Dooraunee monarchy</a></i>. Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, and J. Murry, 1819.</li> <li>Hill, John E. 2004. <i>The Peoples of the West from the Weilue</i> 魏略 <i>by Yu Huan</i> 魚豢<i>: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.</i> Draft annotated English translation.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050315032618/http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html">"Weilue: The Peoples of the West"</a>. Depts.washington.edu. 2004-05-23. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html">the original</a> on 2005-03-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-01-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Weilue%3A+The+Peoples+of+the+West&rft.pub=Depts.washington.edu&rft.date=2004-05-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fuwch%2Fsilkroad%2Ftexts%2Fweilue%2Fweilue.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Levi, Peter. 1972. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KakcAAAAMAAJ">The light garden of the angel king: journeys in Afghanistan</a></i>. Collins, 1972. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-211042-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-211042-3">0-00-211042-3</a>.</li> <li>Wood, John (1872). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ml0BAAAAQAAJ">A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus</a></i>. New Edition, edited by his son, with an essay on the "Geography of the Valley of the Oxus" by Henry Yule. John Murray, London. Gregg Division McGraw-Hill, 1971, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-576-03322-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-576-03322-7">0-576-03322-7</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_Afghanistan" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of Afghanistan">History of Afghanistan</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNölle-Karimi2020" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Nölle-Karimi, Christine (2020). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/afghanistan-until-1747-COM_24776?s.num=6&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=baluch">"Afghanistan until 1747"</a></span>. In Fleet, Kate; <a href="/wiki/Gudrun_Kr%C3%A4mer" title="Gudrun Krämer">Krämer, Gudrun</a>; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; <a href="/wiki/Everett_K._Rowson" title="Everett K. Rowson">Rowson, Everett</a> (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i> (3rd ed.). Brill Online. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1873-9830">1873-9830</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Afghanistan+until+1747&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Brill+Online&rft.date=2020&rft.issn=1873-9830&rft.aulast=N%C3%B6lle-Karimi&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-3%2Fafghanistan-until-1747-COM_24776%3Fs.num%3D6%26s.f.s2_parent%3Ds.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3%26s.q%3Dbaluch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html">A Country Study: Afghanistan</a> – <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/th552516">Video on Afghan-Soviet War</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494">Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan/129450/History?anchor=ref261360">Encyclopædia Britannica – History of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://travelngears.com/unesco-sites-in-afghanistan/">UNESCO Sites in Afghanistan – Travel and Gears</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230126115025/https://travelngears.com/unesco-sites-in-afghanistan/">Archived</a> 2023-01-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsMiddEast/EasternAfghans.htm">Afghanistan (Southern Khorasan / Arachosia)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Afghanistan_Importance_from_the_Perspective_of_the_History.htm">Afghanistan's Importance From the Perspective of the History</a> by <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hai_Habibi" title="Abdul Hai Habibi">Abdul Hai Habibi</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100830031416/http://www.aisk.org/aisk/NHDAHGTK05.php">An Historical Guide to Kabul</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Hatch_Dupree" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy Hatch Dupree">Nancy Hatch Dupree</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afghan-web.com/history/">Afghanistan Online – History of Afghanistan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060514050705/http://www.afghan-web.com/history/">Archived</a> 2006-05-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120218073852/http://www.afghanan.net/afghanistan/prehistory.htm">Afghanistan History: Prehistory</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/whats_on/events_calendar/recorded_events/afghanistan_history_of_a_land.aspx">British Museum Lecture: An Introduction to the History of Afghanistan by Bijan Omrani</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191102001654/https://www.britishmuseum.org/whats_on/events_calendar/recorded_events/afghanistan_history_of_a_land.aspx">Archived</a> 2019-11-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/sep/27/10-myths-about-afghanistan">Ten Myths about Afghanistan</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i></li></ul> <div style="overflow-x: auto;"><table id="Container" role="presentation" class="toccolours searchaux mw-collapsed nomobile mw-collapsible" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:center;margin:0.3em 1.4em 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:80.9em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 1em 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center">Chronological chart for the historical periods of Afghanistan</div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:60em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:58.68em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2200 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:57.36em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:56.04em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:54.73em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:53.41em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1800 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:52.09em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:50.77em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1600 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:49.45em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:48.13em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1400 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:46.81em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.49em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1200 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:44.18em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.86em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:41.54em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:40.22em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−800 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:38.90em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.58em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−600 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:36.26em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:34.95em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−400 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:33.63em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:32.31em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−200 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.99em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:29.67em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.35em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.03em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">200 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.71em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.40em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">400 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.08em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:21.76em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">600 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.44em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.12em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">800 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.80em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.48em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">1000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.16em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.85em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">1200 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.21em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">1400 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.89em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:8.57em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">1600 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.25em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.93em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">1800 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:4.62em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:3.30em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.98em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.66em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">2200 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:75em;height:60em;float:left;border:none"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:0.750em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herāt</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:9.000em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Badghis_Province" title="Badghis Province">Bādghis</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:17.250em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Badakhshan" title="Badakhshan">Badakhshān</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:25.500em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kābul</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:33.750em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Jalalabad" title="Jalalabad">Jalālābād</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:42.000em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:50.250em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahār</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:58.500em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Lashkargah" title="Lashkargah">Bust</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:66.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Seistān</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:53.407em;height:6.593em;left:58.500em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.297em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto Elamite Culture</a></b><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span style="color: black">in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gardan_Rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gardan Rig (page does not exist)">Gardān Rīg</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dam,_Afghanistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dam, Afghanistan (page does not exist)">Dam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nimruz_Province" title="Nimruz Province">Nīmrūz Province</a>)</span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:53.407em;height:5.275em;left:25.500em;width:32.850em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.637em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></b><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span style="color: black">in <a href="/wiki/Mundigak" title="Mundigak">Mundigak</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Deh_Morasi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deh Morasi (page does not exist)">Deh Morāsi Ghūndai</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Province" title="Kandahar Province">Kandahār Province</a>) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shurtughai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shurtughai (page does not exist)">Shūrtūghai</a> (<a href="/wiki/Takhar_Province" title="Takhar Province">Takhār Province</a>)</span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFFFC0;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:53.407em;height:3.956em;left:0.750em;width:24.600em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.978em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></b><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span style="color: black">in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dashli,_Afghanistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dashli, Afghanistan (page does not exist)">Dashli</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jawzjan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawzjan Province">Jawzjān Province</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a> (<a href="/wiki/Baghlan_Province" title="Baghlan Province">Baghlān Province</a>)</span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFFFC0;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:36.923em;height:16.484em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.242em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Aryan_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryan migration">Coming of Iranians</a></b><br /><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span style="color: black">c.1700-1100 BC: The <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, one of the oldest known texts written in an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language</a>, is composed in a region described as <i><a href="/wiki/Sapta_Sindhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapta Sindhu">Sapta Sindhu</a></i> ('land of seven great rivers', which may correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Kabul_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabul Valley">Kabul Valley</a>).<br />c. 1350 BC: Migration of waves of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Iranian peoples">Iranian tribes</a> begin from the <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a> westwards to the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a>, western Afghanistan and western <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vendidad" title="Vendidad">Vendidad</a> 1.1-21), they are compelled to leave their homeland <i><a href="/wiki/Airyanem_Vaejah" title="Airyanem Vaejah">Airyana Vaēǰah</a></i> because <a href="/wiki/Angra_Mainyu" class="mw-redirect" title="Angra Mainyu">Aŋra Mainyu</a> so altered the climate that the winter became ten months long and the summer only two. Along the way, they settle down near large rivers, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bāxδī</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria (satrapy)">Harōiva</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Haraxᵛaitī</a></i>, etc. (See <a href="/wiki/Avestan_geography" title="Avestan geography">Avestan geography</a>.)<br />c. 1100-550 BC: <a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a> introduces a new religion at <a href="/wiki/Bactra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bactra">Bactra</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>) - <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> - which spreads across <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a>. He composes Older (i.e. '<a href="/wiki/Gathas" class="mw-redirect" title="Gathas">Gathic</a>') <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a> and later Younger Avesta is composed - at least - in <a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sīstān</a>/<a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herāt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> and Bactria.</span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#35CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.022em;height:2.901em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.451em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:32.967em;height:1.055em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.527em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:32.110em;height:1.912em;left:66.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.956em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#CCCC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:32.110em;height:1.187em;left:33.750em;width:33.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.593em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryans</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:31.780em;height:1.187em;left:0.750em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.593em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:31.121em;height:1.846em;left:17.250em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.923em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:31.121em;height:0.989em;left:33.750em;width:41.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.495em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF9966;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:30.857em;height:0.857em;left:25.500em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.429em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greeks</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:26.703em;height:5.077em;left:0.750em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.538em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.407em;height:2.308em;left:66.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.154em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:30.857em;height:0.857em;left:50.250em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.429em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:28.681em;height:2.440em;left:17.250em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.220em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Early Kushans</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:26.703em;height:1.978em;left:17.250em;width:33.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.989em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Great Kushans</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.407em;height:1.451em;left:25.500em;width:41.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.725em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Sakas</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:26.703em;height:2.703em;left:50.250em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.352em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:28.681em;height:0.725em;left:25.500em;width:49.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.363em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:21.099em;height:5.604em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.802em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:24.000em;height:1.121em;left:17.250em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.560em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Kushano-Sasanians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:23.604em;height:0.396em;left:17.250em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.198em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><small><b><a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a></b> </small></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.220em;height:1.385em;left:17.250em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.692em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.615em;height:0.989em;left:25.500em;width:33.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.495em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.220em;height:1.055em;left:9.000em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.527em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.857em;height:2.242em;left:0.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.121em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Arabs</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.857em;height:2.242em;left:66.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.121em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Arabs</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.857em;height:1.451em;left:7.500em;width:18.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.725em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:20.308em;height:0.791em;left:9.000em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.396em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkish Khanates</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.132em;height:2.967em;left:25.500em;width:33.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.484em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:19.121em;height:1.978em;left:58.500em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.989em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none 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style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.560em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#CCCC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.462em;height:0.989em;left:58.500em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.495em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFFFC0;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.132em;height:0.725em;left:0.750em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.363em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid 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style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.505em;height:1.978em;left:33.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.989em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6632;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.505em;height:2.505em;left:42.000em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.253em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.505em;height:2.242em;left:50.250em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.121em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.505em;height:1.978em;left:58.500em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.989em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.505em;height:1.319em;left:0.750em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.659em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_dynasty" title="Seljuk dynasty">Seljuks</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" 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style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:13.055em;height:0.541em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.270em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:12.132em;height:1.305em;left:17.250em;width:41.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.653em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate (Mongols)</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:11.473em;height:0.659em;left:17.250em;width:41.250em"><div 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title="Kart dynasty">Kartids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:##339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:11.473em;height:1.582em;left:58.500em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.791em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kayani_Ghakar" title="Kayani Ghakar">Kayanis</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:9.758em;height:1.714em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.857em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" 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style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.312em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Safavids" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavids">Safavids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:7.134em;height:2.624em;left:50.250em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.312em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Safavids" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavids">Safavids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.752em;height:0.382em;left:0.750em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" 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topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Afghanistan_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Afghanistan" title="Outline of Afghanistan">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan" title="Ancient history of Afghanistan">Pre-Islamic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Greater Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokhara_Yabghus" title="Tokhara Yabghus">Yabghus of Tokharistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahis" title="Hindu Shahis">Hindu Shahis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Islamic conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Central Asia">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kandahar" title="Siege of Kandahar">Siege of Kandahar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Panipat" title="Third Battle of Panipat">Third Battle of Panipat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dost_Mohammad_Khan" title="Dost Mohammad Khan">Dost Mohammad Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Emirate of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jamrud" title="Battle of Jamrud">Battle of Jamrud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan%E2%80%93Sikh_Wars" title="Afghan–Sikh Wars">Afghan–Sikh Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="First Anglo-Afghan War">First Anglo-Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Second Anglo-Afghan War">Second Anglo-Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Kingdom of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1928%E2%80%931929)" title="Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)">Reforms of Amānullāh Khān and civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqqawists" title="Saqqawists">Saqqawists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1929)" title="Emirate of Afghanistan (1929)">Emirate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%931978)" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)">Daoud's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan_(1992%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Afghanistan (1992–present)">since 1992</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">First Islamic Emirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan" title="United States invasion of Afghanistan">2001 invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War (2001–2021)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">Islamic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Second Islamic Emirate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_topic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Afghan_history" title="Timeline of Afghan history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arabs_in_Afghanistan" title="History of Arabs in Afghanistan">Arabs in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_influence_in_Afghanistan" title="European influence in Afghanistan">European influence</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Graveyard_of_empires" title="Graveyard of empires">Graveyard of empires</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan" title="War in Afghanistan">Wars in Afghanistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Afghanistan" title="Geography of Afghanistan">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Afghanistan" title="Subdivisions of Afghanistan">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Afghanistan" title="Template:Borders of Afghanistan">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Afghanistan" title="Climate change in Afghanistan">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Afghanistan" title="List of earthquakes in Afghanistan">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Afghanistan" title="Environmental issues in Afghanistan">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Afghanistan" title="Extreme points of Afghanistan">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Afghanistan" title="List of volcanoes in Afghanistan">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Afghanistan" title="Wildlife of Afghanistan">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Afghanistan" title="Demographics of Afghanistan">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Afghanistan" title="Ethnic groups in Afghanistan">Ethnic groups in Afghanistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arabs_in_Afghanistan" title="History of Arabs in Afghanistan">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baloch_people" title="Baloch people">Baloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farsiwan" title="Farsiwan">Farsiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjar" title="Gurjar">Gurjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazaras" title="Hazaras">Hazaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho_people" title="Kho people">Kho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuristanis" title="Nuristanis">Nuristanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtuns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajiks" title="Tajiks">Tajiks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmens" title="Turkmens">Turkmens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Afghanistan" title="Health in Afghanistan">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Afghanistan" title="Languages of Afghanistan">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dari" title="Dari">Persian (Dari)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Afghanistan" title="Women in Afghanistan">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Afghanistan" title="Politics of Afghanistan">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Constitution_of_Afghanistan" title="1964 Constitution of Afghanistan">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jirga" title="Jirga">Loya jirga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Council_of_Afghanistan" title="Leadership Council of Afghanistan">Leadership Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Afghanistan" title="Supreme Leader of Afghanistan">Supreme Leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Leader_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Deputy Leader of Afghanistan">Deputy Leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Afghanistan" title="Cabinet of Afghanistan">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_provincial_governors_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current provincial governors in Afghanistan">Current provincial governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Afghanistan" title="Foreign relations of Afghanistan">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Afghanistan" title="Human rights in Afghanistan">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Afghanistan">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_women_by_the_Taliban" title="Treatment of women by the Taliban">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Afghanistan" title="Supreme Court of Afghanistan">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Afghanistan" title="Chief Justice of Afghanistan">Chief Justice</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Afghanistan" title="Economy of Afghanistan">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_afghani" title="Afghan afghani">Afghani (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Afghanistan" title="Communications in Afghanistan">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Afghanistan" title="Energy in Afghanistan">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Afghanistan" title="Mining in Afghanistan">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_production_in_Afghanistan" title="Opium production in Afghanistan">Opium production in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Afghanistan" title="Taxation in Afghanistan">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Afghanistan">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Afghanistan" title="Tourism in Afghanistan">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan%E2%80%93Afghanistan%E2%80%93Pakistan%E2%80%93India_Pipeline" title="Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India Pipeline">Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Afghanistan" title="Transport in Afghanistan">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Afghanistan" title="Culture of Afghanistan">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_cuisine" title="Afghan cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Afghanistan" title="Education in Afghanistan">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Afghanistan" title="Flag of Afghanistan">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Afghanistan" title="Music of Afghanistan">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Afghanistan" title="Cinema of Afghanistan">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan_at_the_Olympics" title="Afghanistan at the Olympics">Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtunwali" title="Pashtunwali">Pashtunwali (Pashtun life)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry_of_Afghanistan" title="Poetry of Afghanistan">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_rugs" class="mw-redirect" title="War rugs">War rugs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Afghanistan" title="Outline of Afghanistan">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Afghanistan" title="Outline of Afghanistan">Index</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Afghanistan" title="Bibliography of Afghanistan">Bibliography</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Afghanistan" title="Category:Afghanistan">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Afghanistan" title="Portal:Afghanistan">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Asia" title="Template:History of Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Asia" title="Template talk:History of Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asia" title="History of Asia">History of Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan" title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bahrain" title="History of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh" title="History of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brunei" title="History of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cambodia" title="History of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Timor" title="History of East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jordan" title="History of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Korea" title="History of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Korea" title="History of South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kuwait" title="History of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Laos" title="History of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanon" title="History of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malaysia" title="History of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maldives" title="History of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mongolia" title="History of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Myanmar" title="History of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nepal" title="History of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oman" title="History of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines" title="History of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qatar" title="History of Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Singapore" title="History of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka" title="History of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tajikistan" title="History of Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thailand" title="History of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkmenistan" title="History of Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uzbekistan" title="History of Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam" title="History of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yemen" title="History of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_State_of_Palestine" title="History of the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hong_Kong" title="History of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Macau" title="History of Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td 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