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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mat_weight_in_the_shape_of_a_tiger_Tomb_1_Dayun_Mountain_Xuyi_Jiangsu_Western_Han_2nd_century_BCE_Bronze_inlaid_with_gold_and_silver_(cleaned_up).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Mat_weight_in_the_shape_of_a_tiger_Tomb_1_Dayun_Mountain_Xuyi_Jiangsu_Western_Han_2nd_century_BCE_Bronze_inlaid_with_gold_and_silver_%28cleaned_up%29.jpg/300px-Mat_weight_in_the_shape_of_a_tiger_Tomb_1_Dayun_Mountain_Xuyi_Jiangsu_Western_Han_2nd_century_BCE_Bronze_inlaid_with_gold_and_silver_%28cleaned_up%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Mat_weight_in_the_shape_of_a_tiger_Tomb_1_Dayun_Mountain_Xuyi_Jiangsu_Western_Han_2nd_century_BCE_Bronze_inlaid_with_gold_and_silver_%28cleaned_up%29.jpg/450px-Mat_weight_in_the_shape_of_a_tiger_Tomb_1_Dayun_Mountain_Xuyi_Jiangsu_Western_Han_2nd_century_BCE_Bronze_inlaid_with_gold_and_silver_%28cleaned_up%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Mat_weight_in_the_shape_of_a_tiger_Tomb_1_Dayun_Mountain_Xuyi_Jiangsu_Western_Han_2nd_century_BCE_Bronze_inlaid_with_gold_and_silver_%28cleaned_up%29.jpg/600px-Mat_weight_in_the_shape_of_a_tiger_Tomb_1_Dayun_Mountain_Xuyi_Jiangsu_Western_Han_2nd_century_BCE_Bronze_inlaid_with_gold_and_silver_%28cleaned_up%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4080" data-file-height="3706" /></a><figcaption>Bronze tiger inlaid with gold and silver, <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Metallurgy in China</b> has a long history, with the earliest metal objects in China dating back to around 3,000 BCE. The majority of early metal items found in China come from the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwest China">North-Western Region</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a>, 青海). <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> was the earliest civilization to use the <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> and produce <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Copper">Copper</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Copper"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Archaeological evidence indicates that the earliest metal objects in China were made in the late fourth millennium BCE. <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a> was generally the earliest metal to be used by humanity, and was used in China since at least 3000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Influences_on_Chinese_metallurgy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Influences_on_Chinese_metallurgy.png/330px-Influences_on_Chinese_metallurgy.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Influences_on_Chinese_metallurgy.png/495px-Influences_on_Chinese_metallurgy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Influences_on_Chinese_metallurgy.png/660px-Influences_on_Chinese_metallurgy.png 2x" data-file-width="2230" data-file-height="1348" /></a><figcaption>Historical influences on Chinese metallurgy. After a small early copper industry in the Neolithic, China was influenced by the metallurgy of the steppes (<a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Seima-Turbino_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Seima-Turbino phenomenon">Seima-Turbino phenomenon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Karasuk_culture" title="Karasuk culture">Karasuk culture</a> down to the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Early metal-using communities have been found at the <a href="/wiki/Qijia_culture" title="Qijia culture">Qijia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siba_culture" title="Siba culture">Siba</a> sites in <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>. The metal knives and axes recovered in Qijia apparently point to some interactions with Siberian and Central Asian cultures, in particular with the <a href="/wiki/Seima-Turbino_Phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Seima-Turbino Phenomenon">Seima-Turbino complex</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the <a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archeological evidence points to plausible early contact between the Qijia culture and Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar sites have been found in <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> in the west and <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a> in the east and north. The <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plain</a> sites associated with the <a href="/wiki/Erlitou_culture" title="Erlitou culture">Erlitou culture</a> also contain early <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">metalworks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-britishmuseum.org_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britishmuseum.org-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copper manufacturing, more complex than <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a> working, gradually appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Yangshao" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangshao">Yangshao</a> period (5000–3000 BCE). <a href="/wiki/Jiangzhai" title="Jiangzhai">Jiangzhai</a> is the only place where copper artifacts were found in the <a href="/wiki/Banpo" title="Banpo">Banpo</a> culture. Archaeologists have found remains of copper metallurgy in various cultures from the late fourth to the early third millennia BCE. These include the copper-smelting remains and copper artifacts of the <a href="/wiki/Hongshan_culture" title="Hongshan culture">Hongshan culture</a> (4700–2900) and copper <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yuanwozhen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yuanwozhen (page does not exist)">Yuanwozhen</a> site. This indicates that inhabitants of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> valley had already learned how to make copper artifacts by the later <a href="/wiki/Yangshao_culture" title="Yangshao culture">Yangshao</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Qijia_culture" title="Qijia culture">Qijia culture</a> (c. 2500–1900) of <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a>, Gansu, and western <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a> produced copper and bronze utilitarian items and gold, copper, and bronze ornaments. The earliest metalworks in this region are found at a <a href="/wiki/Majiayao_culture" title="Majiayao culture">Majiayao</a> site at <a href="/wiki/Linxia_Hui_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture">Linjia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dongxiang_Autonomous_County" title="Dongxiang Autonomous County">Dongxiang</a>, Gansu.<sup id="cite_ref-britishmuseum.org_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britishmuseum.org-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Their dates range from 2900 to 1600 BCE. These metal objects represent the Majiayao 馬家窯 type of the Majiayao culture (c. 3100–2700 BCE), Zongri 宗日 Culture (c. 3600–2050 BCE), Machang 馬廠 Type (c. 2300–2000 BCE), <a href="/wiki/Qijia_culture" title="Qijia culture">Qijia</a> 齊家 Culture (c. 2050–1915 BCE), and <a href="/wiki/Siba_culture" title="Siba culture">Siba</a> 四壩 Culture (c. 2000–1600 BCE)."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At Dengjiawan, in the <a href="/wiki/Shijiahe_culture" title="Shijiahe culture">Shijiahe</a> site complex in <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a>, some pieces of copper were discovered; they are the earliest copper objects discovered in southern China.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Linjia_site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Linjia site (page does not exist)">Linjia site</a> (林家遺址, Línjiā yízhǐ) has the earliest evidence for bronze in China, dating to c. 3000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bronze">Bronze</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Bronze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age China">Bronze Age China</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neolithic_bronze_knife,_Majiayao_Culture_(3200-2000_BC),_Gansu,_1978.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Neolithic_bronze_knife%2C_Majiayao_Culture_%283200-2000_BC%29%2C_Gansu%2C_1978.jpg/220px-Neolithic_bronze_knife%2C_Majiayao_Culture_%283200-2000_BC%29%2C_Gansu%2C_1978.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Neolithic_bronze_knife%2C_Majiayao_Culture_%283200-2000_BC%29%2C_Gansu%2C_1978.jpg/330px-Neolithic_bronze_knife%2C_Majiayao_Culture_%283200-2000_BC%29%2C_Gansu%2C_1978.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Neolithic_bronze_knife%2C_Majiayao_Culture_%283200-2000_BC%29%2C_Gansu%2C_1978.jpg/440px-Neolithic_bronze_knife%2C_Majiayao_Culture_%283200-2000_BC%29%2C_Gansu%2C_1978.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1253" data-file-height="582" /></a><figcaption>Bronze knife found in Dongxiang, Gansu (dated 2900–2740 BC), <a href="/wiki/Majiayao_culture" title="Majiayao culture">Majiayao culture</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhu_Gou_Bronze_spearhead-IMG_4424-black.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Zhu_Gou_Bronze_spearhead-IMG_4424-black.jpg/220px-Zhu_Gou_Bronze_spearhead-IMG_4424-black.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Zhu_Gou_Bronze_spearhead-IMG_4424-black.jpg/330px-Zhu_Gou_Bronze_spearhead-IMG_4424-black.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Zhu_Gou_Bronze_spearhead-IMG_4424-black.jpg/440px-Zhu_Gou_Bronze_spearhead-IMG_4424-black.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4272" /></a><figcaption>Bronze spearhead with inscription, <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Bronze technology was imported to China from the steppes.<sup id="cite_ref-JR375_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JR375-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> object found in China was a knife found at a <a href="/wiki/Majiayao_culture" title="Majiayao culture">Majiayao culture</a> site in <a href="/wiki/Dongxiang_Autonomous_County" title="Dongxiang Autonomous County">Dongxiang</a>, Gansu, and dated to 2900–2740 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBai2003157_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBai2003157-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further copper and bronze objects have been found at Machang-period sites in Gansu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012234_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012234-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metallurgy spread to the middle and lower Yellow River region in the late 3rd millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2005224_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2005224-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contacts between the <a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Majiayao_culture" title="Majiayao culture">Majiayao culture</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Qijia_culture" title="Qijia culture">Qijia culture</a> have been considered for the transmission of bronze technology.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From around 2000 BCE, cast bronze objects such as the socketed spear with single side hook were imported and adapted from the <a href="/wiki/Seima-Turbino_culture" title="Seima-Turbino culture">Seima-Turbino culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Erlitou_culture" title="Erlitou culture">Erlitou culture</a> (c. 1900 – 1500 BCE), <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> (c. 1600 – 1046 BCE) and <a href="/wiki/Sanxingdui" title="Sanxingdui">Sanxingdui culture</a> (c. 1250 – 1046 BCE) of early <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> used bronze vessels for rituals (see <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_bronzes" title="Chinese ritual bronzes">Chinese ritual bronzes</a>) as well as farming implements and weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1500 BCE, excellent bronzes were being made in China in large quantities, partly as a display of status, and as many as 200 large pieces were buried with their owner for use in the afterlife, as in the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Fu_Hao" title="Tomb of Fu Hao">Tomb of Fu Hao</a>, a Shang queen. </p><p>In the tomb of the first Qin Emperor and multiple Warring States period tombs, extremely sharp swords and other weapons were found, coated with <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> oxide, which made the weapons rust resistant.<sup id="cite_ref-Cotterell,_Maurice_2004_Page_102_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cotterell,_Maurice_2004_Page_102-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-J._C._McVeigh_1984_24_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J._C._McVeigh_1984_24-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zhewen_Luo_1993_44_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhewen_Luo_1993_44-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The layer of chromium oxide used on these swords was 10 to 15 micrometers and left them in pristine condition to this day. Chromium was first scientifically attested in the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-ChromiumVI_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChromiumVI-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The beginning of new breakthroughs in <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> occurred towards the Yangzi River's south in China's southeastern region in the Warring States period such as gilt-bronze swords.<sup id="cite_ref-Woolf2007_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woolf2007-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Section-mold_casting">Section-mold casting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Section-mold casting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two types of bronze smelting techniques in early China, namely the section mold process and the lost-wax process. The earliest bronze ware found in China is the bronze knife (F20: 18) unearthed at the <a href="/wiki/Majiayao_culture" title="Majiayao culture">Majiayao</a> in Linjia, Dongxiang, Gansu, and dated to about 3000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This bronze knife uses the section mold process, which is spliced by two molds. </p><p>The section mold process is a commonly used bronze casting method in the Shang dynasty, that is, the mud is selected, and after selecting, filtration, showering, deposition and other procedures, the mud is cooled to a moderate hardness as a backup, and then the mud is made according to the shape of the vessel to be made. There are two types of molds, which is inner mold and outer mold. The inner mold is only the shape of the bronze ware, without decoration; the outer model should consider the division of the bronze ware after casting in the future, that is, the block during the production of the clay model, and also engrave the inscriptions and inscriptions of the bronze ware decoration on the clay model. After the clay mold are done, put it in a cool place to dry in the shade, and then put it into the furnace for roasting. After the mold are heated, they become pottery molds unearthed during modern archaeological discoveries. After the pottery mold is fired, do not rush out of the furnace. After the copper furnace has liquefied the required copper, the pottery mold that still has residual temperature is taken out and poured. In this way, the temperature difference between the copper liquid and the pottery mold is not large, and the pottery mold is not easy to burst. The quality of the finished product is relatively high. After the copper liquid is poured, remove the pottery molds and molds according to the blocks they were made. If they can't be removed, they can be broken with a hammer. The bronze will come out, and after grinding, it is the finished product.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lost-wax_casting">Lost-wax casting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Lost-wax casting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to some scholars, <a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">lost-wax casting</a> was used in China already during the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a> (770 – 476 BCE), although this is often disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">lost-wax</a> method is used in most parts of the world. As the name suggests, the lost-wax method is to use wax as a mold, and heat it to melt the wax mold and lose it, thereby casting bronze ware, making the model (the outer layer of the wax model is coated with mud), lost-wax (heating to make the wax flow out), pouring copper liquid to fill the cavity left by the wax model, etc. The development and spread of the lost-wax method in the West has never stopped, but the main bronze casting method in the Bronze Age in China is the section mold process. When the lost-wax method was introduced into China is also a topic of academic discussion. But there is no doubt that the lost-wax method already existed in China during the Spring and Autumn period. In 1978, the Bronze Zun-Pan unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng in Leigudun, Suixian County, Hubei Province, used a mixed process of section mold method and lost-wax method.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iron">Iron</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Iron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg/250px-Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg/375px-Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg/500px-Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>A Chinese <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a>, pouring out iron</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Han_Iron_Sickle_and_Plow_(10128886134).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Han_Iron_Sickle_and_Plow_%2810128886134%29.jpg/250px-Han_Iron_Sickle_and_Plow_%2810128886134%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Han_Iron_Sickle_and_Plow_%2810128886134%29.jpg/375px-Han_Iron_Sickle_and_Plow_%2810128886134%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Han_Iron_Sickle_and_Plow_%2810128886134%29.jpg/500px-Han_Iron_Sickle_and_Plow_%2810128886134%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Iron sickle and plow, Han dynasty</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introduction">Introduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Introduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early Iron Age in China began before 1000 BCE, with the introduction of ironware, such as knives, swords, and arrowheads, from the west into <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, before it further diffused to Qinghai and Gansu.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, two iron fragments were excavated at the <a href="/wiki/Qijia_culture#Mogou_site" title="Qijia culture">Mogou site</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>. They have been dated to the 14th century BCE, belonging to the period of <a href="/wiki/Siwa_culture" title="Siwa culture">Siwa culture</a>. One of the fragments was made of <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomery</a> iron rather than <a href="/wiki/Meteoritic_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteoritic iron">meteoritic iron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cast_iron">Cast iron</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cast iron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a> farm tools and weapons were widespread in China by the 5th century BC, employing workforces of over 200 men in iron smelters from the 3rd century onward. The earliest known blast furnaces are attributed to the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> in the 1st century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_30_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_30-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EarliestChina_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EarliestChina-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These early furnaces had clay walls and used <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>-containing minerals as a <a href="/wiki/Flux_(metallurgy)" title="Flux (metallurgy)">flux</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese blast furnaces ranged from around two to ten meters in height, depending on the region. The largest ones were found in modern <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, while the 'dwarf" blast furnaces were found in <a href="/wiki/Dabieshan" class="mw-redirect" title="Dabieshan">Dabieshan</a>. In construction, they are both around the same level of technological sophistication <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner20086_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner20086-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is no evidence of the bloomery in China after the appearance of the blast furnace and cast iron. In China, blast furnaces produced cast iron, which was then either converted into finished implements in a cupola furnace, or turned into wrought iron in a fining hearth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner2008230_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2008230-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If iron ores are heated with carbon to 1420–1470 K, a molten liquid is formed, an <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</a> of about 96.5% iron and 3.5% carbon. This product is strong, can be cast into intricate shapes, but is too brittle to be worked, unless the product is <i><a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">decarburized</a></i> to remove most of the carbon. The vast majority of Chinese iron manufacture, from the late <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> onward, was of cast iron.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However forged swords began to be made in the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring-States-period</a>: "Earliest iron and steel Jian also appear, made by the earliest and most basic forging and folding techniques."<sup id="cite_ref-sinosword.com_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sinosword.com-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iron would become, by around 300 BCE, the preferred metal for tools and weapons in China.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The primary advantage of the early blast furnace was in large scale production and making iron implements more readily available to peasants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner2008169_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2008169-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cast iron is more brittle than wrought iron or steel, which required additional fining and then cementation or co-fusion to produce, but for menial activities such as farming it sufficed. By using the blast furnace, it was possible to produce larger quantities of tools such as ploughshares more efficiently than the bloomery. In areas where quality was important, such as warfare, wrought iron and steel were preferred. Nearly all Han period weapons are made of wrought iron or steel, with the exception of axe-heads, of which many are made of cast iron.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner20081_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner20081-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effectiveness of the Chinese human and horse powered blast furnaces was enhanced during this period by the engineer <a href="/wiki/Du_Shi" title="Du Shi">Du Shi</a> (c. AD 31), who applied the power of <a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">waterwheels</a> to <a href="/wiki/Piston" title="Piston">piston</a>-<a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a> in forging cast iron.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early water-driven reciprocators for operating blast furnaces were built according to the structure of horse powered reciprocators that already existed. That is, the circular motion of the wheel, be it horse driven or water driven, was transferred by the combination of a <a href="/wiki/Belt_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Belt drive">belt drive</a>, a crank-and-connecting-rod, other <a href="/wiki/Connecting_rods" class="mw-redirect" title="Connecting rods">connecting rods</a>, and various shafts, into the reciprocal motion necessary to operate a push bellow.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_118_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_118-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Donald Wagner suggests that early blast furnace and cast iron production evolved from furnaces used to melt <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>. Certainly, though, iron was essential to military success by the time the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Qin">State of Qin</a> had unified China (221 BC). Usage of the blast and cupola furnace remained widespread during the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Coming_of_the_Ages_of_Steel_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Coming_of_the_Ages_of_Steel-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 11th century, the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> Chinese iron industry made a switch of resources from <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> to <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a> in casting iron and steel, sparing thousands of acres of woodland from felling. This may have happened as early as the 4th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Blast furnaces were also later used to produce <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> weapons such as cast iron <a href="/wiki/Shell_(projectile)" title="Shell (projectile)">bomb shells</a> and cast iron <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang2006_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang2006-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays" title="Dream Pool Essays">written work</a> of 1088 contains, among other early descriptions of inventions, a method of repeated forging of <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Cold_blast" title="Cold blast">cold blast</a> similar to the modern <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hsu_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hsu-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chinese metallurgy was widely practiced during the Middle Ages; during the 11th century, the growth of the iron industry caused vast <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> due to the use of <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> in the smelting process.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_walthall_palais_158_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_walthall_palais_158-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To remedy the problem of deforestation, the Song Chinese discovered how to produce <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a> from <a href="/wiki/Bituminous_coal" title="Bituminous coal">bituminous coal</a> as a substitute for charcoal.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_walthall_palais_158_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_walthall_palais_158-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although hydraulic-powered <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a> for heating the <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> had been written about since <a href="/wiki/Du_Shi" title="Du Shi">Du Shi</a>'s (d. 38) invention of them in the 1st century CE, the first known illustration of a bellows in operation is found in a book written in 1313 by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(official)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Zhen (official)">Wang Zhen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">fl.</a> 1290–1333).<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gold_and_silver">Gold and silver</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gold and silver"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geographical_distribution_of_early_gold_and_silver_artefacts_found_in_Northwest_China_and_Central_Asia_(8th-3rd_century_BCE).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Geographical_distribution_of_early_gold_and_silver_artefacts_found_in_Northwest_China_and_Central_Asia_%288th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg/220px-Geographical_distribution_of_early_gold_and_silver_artefacts_found_in_Northwest_China_and_Central_Asia_%288th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Geographical_distribution_of_early_gold_and_silver_artefacts_found_in_Northwest_China_and_Central_Asia_%288th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg/330px-Geographical_distribution_of_early_gold_and_silver_artefacts_found_in_Northwest_China_and_Central_Asia_%288th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Geographical_distribution_of_early_gold_and_silver_artefacts_found_in_Northwest_China_and_Central_Asia_%288th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg/440px-Geographical_distribution_of_early_gold_and_silver_artefacts_found_in_Northwest_China_and_Central_Asia_%288th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1652" data-file-height="1012" /></a><figcaption>Geographical distribution of early gold and silver artefacts found in Northwest China and Central Asia (8th–3rd century BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_Yan_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu_Yan-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Song_Silver_Chopsticks,_Cup,_%26_Spoon_(10233992494).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Song_Silver_Chopsticks%2C_Cup%2C_%26_Spoon_%2810233992494%29.jpg/220px-Song_Silver_Chopsticks%2C_Cup%2C_%26_Spoon_%2810233992494%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Song_Silver_Chopsticks%2C_Cup%2C_%26_Spoon_%2810233992494%29.jpg/330px-Song_Silver_Chopsticks%2C_Cup%2C_%26_Spoon_%2810233992494%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Song_Silver_Chopsticks%2C_Cup%2C_%26_Spoon_%2810233992494%29.jpg/440px-Song_Silver_Chopsticks%2C_Cup%2C_%26_Spoon_%2810233992494%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Silver chopsticks, cup, and spoon, <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Gold-crafting technology developed in Northwest China during the early <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, following the arrival of new technological skills from the Central Asian steppes, even before the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> (209 BCE-150 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_Yan_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu_Yan-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These technological and artistic exchanges attest to the magnitude of communication networks between China and the Mediterranean, even before the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_Yan_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu_Yan-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sites of <a href="/wiki/Dongtalede" title="Dongtalede">Dongtalede</a> (Ch: 东塔勒德, 9th–7th century BCE) in <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Xigoupan" title="Xigoupan">Xigoupan</a> (Ch:西沟畔, 4th–3rd century BCE) in the <a href="/wiki/Ordos_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordos region">Ordos region</a> of <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, are known for numerous artifacts reminiscent of the <a href="/wiki/Scytho-Siberian_art" title="Scytho-Siberian art">Scytho-Siberian art</a> of Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_Yan_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu_Yan-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> the gold and silver smiths of <a href="/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a> were noted for the delicacy and tastefulness of their work.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_appliques_in_the_form_of_snow_leopards_found_in_Dongtalede,_Northwest_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gold appliqués in the form of snow leopards found in Dongtalede, Northwest China"><img alt="Gold appliqués in the form of snow leopards found in Dongtalede, Northwest China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Gold_appliques_in_the_form_of_snow_leopards_found_in_Dongtalede%2C_Northwest_China.jpg/120px-Gold_appliques_in_the_form_of_snow_leopards_found_in_Dongtalede%2C_Northwest_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Gold_appliques_in_the_form_of_snow_leopards_found_in_Dongtalede%2C_Northwest_China.jpg/180px-Gold_appliques_in_the_form_of_snow_leopards_found_in_Dongtalede%2C_Northwest_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Gold_appliques_in_the_form_of_snow_leopards_found_in_Dongtalede%2C_Northwest_China.jpg/240px-Gold_appliques_in_the_form_of_snow_leopards_found_in_Dongtalede%2C_Northwest_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2584" data-file-height="1436" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gold appliqués in the form of snow leopards found in <a href="/wiki/Dongtalede" title="Dongtalede">Dongtalede</a>, Northwest China</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_horse_harness_ornament,_Xigoupan_M2,_4th-3rd_century_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Silver horse harness ornament, Xigoupan M2 (4th–3rd c. BCE)"><img alt="Silver horse harness ornament, Xigoupan M2 (4th–3rd c. BCE)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Silver_horse_harness_ornament%2C_Xigoupan_M2%2C_4th-3rd_century_BCE.jpg/73px-Silver_horse_harness_ornament%2C_Xigoupan_M2%2C_4th-3rd_century_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="73" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Silver_horse_harness_ornament%2C_Xigoupan_M2%2C_4th-3rd_century_BCE.jpg/110px-Silver_horse_harness_ornament%2C_Xigoupan_M2%2C_4th-3rd_century_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Silver_horse_harness_ornament%2C_Xigoupan_M2%2C_4th-3rd_century_BCE.jpg/147px-Silver_horse_harness_ornament%2C_Xigoupan_M2%2C_4th-3rd_century_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="872" data-file-height="1424" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Silver horse harness ornament, <a href="/wiki/Xigoupan" title="Xigoupan">Xigoupan</a> M2 (4th–3rd c. BCE)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_belt_buckle_inscribed_with_Chinese_characters_found_in_Xigoupan_M2_(4th-3rd_century_BCE).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gold belt buckle inscribed with Chinese characters found in Xigoupan M2 (4th-3rd century BCE)"><img alt="Gold belt buckle inscribed with Chinese characters found in Xigoupan M2 (4th-3rd century BCE)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Gold_belt_buckle_inscribed_with_Chinese_characters_found_in_Xigoupan_M2_%284th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg/120px-Gold_belt_buckle_inscribed_with_Chinese_characters_found_in_Xigoupan_M2_%284th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Gold_belt_buckle_inscribed_with_Chinese_characters_found_in_Xigoupan_M2_%284th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg/180px-Gold_belt_buckle_inscribed_with_Chinese_characters_found_in_Xigoupan_M2_%284th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Gold_belt_buckle_inscribed_with_Chinese_characters_found_in_Xigoupan_M2_%284th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg/240px-Gold_belt_buckle_inscribed_with_Chinese_characters_found_in_Xigoupan_M2_%284th-3rd_century_BCE%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="950" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gold belt buckle inscribed with Chinese characters found in Xigoupan M2 (4th-3rd century BCE)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_plaque_with_standing_eagle_from_Xigoupan_M2_(4th%E2%80%933rd_c._BCE).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gold plaque with standing eagle from Xigoupan M2 (4th–3rd c. BCE)"><img alt="Gold plaque with standing eagle from Xigoupan M2 (4th–3rd c. BCE)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Gold_plaque_with_standing_eagle_from_Xigoupan_M2_%284th%E2%80%933rd_c._BCE%29.jpg/114px-Gold_plaque_with_standing_eagle_from_Xigoupan_M2_%284th%E2%80%933rd_c._BCE%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="114" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Gold_plaque_with_standing_eagle_from_Xigoupan_M2_%284th%E2%80%933rd_c._BCE%29.jpg/172px-Gold_plaque_with_standing_eagle_from_Xigoupan_M2_%284th%E2%80%933rd_c._BCE%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Gold_plaque_with_standing_eagle_from_Xigoupan_M2_%284th%E2%80%933rd_c._BCE%29.jpg/229px-Gold_plaque_with_standing_eagle_from_Xigoupan_M2_%284th%E2%80%933rd_c._BCE%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="744" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gold plaque with standing eagle from Xigoupan M2 (4th–3rd c. BCE)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_significance">Cultural significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cultural significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Myths_and_legends_of_metallurgists"></span> Chinese mythology generally reflects a time when metallurgy had long been practiced. According to the Romanian anthropologist, orientalist, and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a>, the Iron Age produced a large number of rites, myths and symbols; the blacksmith was the main agent of diffusion of mythology, rites and metallurgical mysteries.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The secret knowledge of metallurgists and their powers made them founders of the human world and masters of the spirit world.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This metallurgical model was reinterpreted again by <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoist</a> alchemists. </p><p>Some metalworkers illustrate the close relationship between Chinese mystical and sovereign power and the mining and metallurgy industries. Although the name <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Huangdi</a> is absent from <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> or <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> inscriptions, it appears in the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Guoyu_(book)" title="Guoyu (book)">Guoyu</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Zuo_zhuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Zuo zhuan">Zuo zhuan</a></i>. According to Mitarai (1984), Huangdi may have lived in early antiquity and led a regional ethnic group who worshiped him as a deity;<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (July 2020)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> "The Yellow Emperor fought Chiyou at Mount Kunwu whose summit was covered with a large quantity of red copper".<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"The seventy-two brothers of Chiyou had copper heads and iron fronts; they ate iron and stones [...] In the province of Ji where Chiyou is believed to have lived (Chiyou shen), when we dig the earth and we find skulls that seem to be made of copper and iron, they are identified as the bones of Chiyou."<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chiyou" title="Chiyou">Chiyou</a> was the leader of the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Four_Perils" title="Four Perils">Sanmiao</a> (or Jiuli) tribes who defeated Xuanyuan, the future Yellow Emperor. Chiyou, a rival of the Yellow Emperor, belonged to a clan of blacksmiths. The advancement of weaponry is sometimes attributed to the Yellow Emperor and Chiyou, and Chiyou reportedly discovered the process of <a href="/wiki/Casting_(metalworking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Casting (metalworking)">casting</a>. Kunwu is associated with a people, a royal blacksmith, a mountain which produces metals, and a sword.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kui_(Chinese_mythology)" title="Kui (Chinese mythology)">Kui</a>, a master of music and dance cited by Shun, was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu the Great</a>. Yu the Great, reported founder of the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a> (China's first), spent many years working on <a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">flood control</a> and is credited with casting the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Tripod_Cauldrons" title="Nine Tripod Cauldrons">Nine Tripod Cauldrons</a>. Helped by dragons descended from heaven, he died on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Xianglu" title="Mount Xianglu">Mount Xianglu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these myths and legends, mines and forges are associated with leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Economic history of China before 1912">Economic history of China before 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1912%E2%80%9349)" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of China (1912–49)">Economic history of China (1912–49)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In 200 BCE. Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan. 2004. India's Legendary Wootz Steel. Bangalore: Tata Steel.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.indianscience.org/reviews/Review%20Wootz.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://met.iisc.ernet.in/~rangu/frontpage.pdf">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://met.iisc.ernet.in/~rangu/text.pdf">[3]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Linduff 1997:306–418 (Linduff, K. M. 1997. <i>An Archaeological Overview: Section 1. Reconstructing Frontier Cultures from Archaeological Evidence</i>, in E. C. Bunker, et al., Ancient Bronzes of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections, New York: The Arthur M. Sackler Foundation, 1997)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mei 2000 (Mei, Jianjun 2000. <i>Copper and Bronze Metallurgy in Late Prehistoric Xinjiang: Its cultural context and relationship with neighboring regions</i>, BAR International Series 865, Oxford: Archaeopress.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGrigoriev2022" class="citation journal cs1">Grigoriev, Stanislav A. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86040-0_1">"Internal and External Impulses for the Development of Ancient Chinese Metallurgy"</a>. <i>Geoarchaeology and Archaeological Mineralogy</i>. Springer Proceedings in Earth and Environmental Sciences. Springer International Publishing: 8, Fig.2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-86040-0_1">10.1007/978-3-030-86040-0_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-86039-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-86039-4"><bdi>978-3-030-86039-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245719183">245719183</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoarchaeology+and+Archaeological+Mineralogy&rft.atitle=Internal+and+External+Impulses+for+the+Development+of+Ancient+Chinese+Metallurgy&rft.pages=8%2C+Fig.2&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245719183%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-86040-0_1&rft.isbn=978-3-030-86039-4&rft.aulast=Grigoriev&rft.aufirst=Stanislav+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-86040-0_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCosmo2008" class="citation book cs1">Cosmo, Nicola Di (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/5191670"><i>Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China (Cambridge History of Ancient China)</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 901.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northern+Frontier+in+Pre-Imperial+China+%28Cambridge+History+of+Ancient+China%29&rft.pages=901&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Cosmo&rft.aufirst=Nicola+Di&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F5191670&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJIANJUN2003" class="citation journal cs1">JIANJUN, MEI (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/documents/3098/Mei-China-central-asia-bronze-age.pdf">"Cultural Interaction between China and Central Asia during the Bronze Age"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the British Academy</i>. <b>121</b>: 1–39. <q>the argument for possible Afanasievo-Xinjiang contact based on the finds at the Gumugou cemetery in the north-eastern rim of the Tarim basin would seem reasonable and needs to be kept open for the future archaeological finds. In other words, the possibility for the dispersal of early copperbased metallurgy from the Eurasian steppe into Xinjiang and further east to Gansu cannot be excluded at present and will have to be considered when further archaeological evidence becomes available.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+British+Academy&rft.atitle=Cultural+Interaction+between+China+and+Central+Asia+during+the+Bronze+Age&rft.volume=121&rft.pages=1-39&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=JIANJUN&rft.aufirst=MEI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thebritishacademy.ac.uk%2Fdocuments%2F3098%2FMei-China-central-asia-bronze-age.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-britishmuseum.org-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britishmuseum.org_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-britishmuseum.org_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Katheryn M. Linduff, Jianjun Mei (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/Linduff%20Mei%20China.pdf"><i>Metallurgy in Ancient Eastern Asia: How is it Studied? Where is the Field Headed?</i> (PDF)</a> The British Museum</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective</i>, Kwang-Chih Chang, Pingfang Xu, Liancheng Lu. Yale University Press (2005), p. 66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bai Yunxiang (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kaogu.cn/en/Chinese%20Archaeology/3/A%20Discussion%20on%20Early%20Metals%20and%20the%20Origins%20of%20Bronze%20Casting%20in%20China.pdf"><i>A Discussion on Early Metals and the Origins of Bronze Casting in China.</i> (PDF)</a> <i>Chinese Archaeology</i>, Vol. 3(1)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anne P. Underhill, ed., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LyOi8VQ4nYwC&pg=PA524"><i>A Companion to Chinese Archaeology</i></a> John Wiley & Sons, 2013 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1118325729" title="Special:BookSources/1118325729">1118325729</a> p524</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Shelach-Lavi" title="Gideon Shelach-Lavi">Gideon Shelach</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbrsCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26"><i>Prehistoric Societies on the Northern Frontiers of China: Archaeological Perspectives on Identity Formation and Economic Change During the First Millennium BCE.</i></a> Routledge, 2016 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134944810" title="Special:BookSources/1134944810">1134944810</a> p. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JR375-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JR375_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawson2017" class="citation journal cs1">Rawson, Jessica (April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315991114">"China and the steppe: reception and resistance"</a>. <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>91</b> (356): 375–388. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2016.276">10.15184/aqy.2016.276</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165092308">165092308</a>. <q>The development of several key technologies in China —bronze and iron metallurgy and horse-drawn chariots— arose out of the relations of central China, of the Erlitou period (c. 1700–1500 BC), the Shang (c.1500–1046 BC) and the Zhou (1046–771 BC) dynasties, with their neighbours in the steppe. Intermediaries in these exchanges were disparate groups in a broad border area of relatively high land around the heart of China, the Central Plains. The societies of central China were already so advanced that, when these foreign innovations were adopted, they were transformed within highly organised social and cultural systems.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=China+and+the+steppe%3A+reception+and+resistance&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=356&rft.pages=375-388&rft.date=2017-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15184%2Faqy.2016.276&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165092308%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rawson&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F315991114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBai2003157-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBai2003157_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBai2003">Bai (2003)</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012234-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen2012234_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuChen2012">Liu & Chen (2012)</a>, p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2005224-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2005224_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiu2005">Liu (2005)</a>, p. 224.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJIANJUN2003" class="citation journal cs1">JIANJUN, MEI (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/documents/3098/Mei-China-central-asia-bronze-age.pdf">"Cultural Interaction between China and Central Asia during the Bronze Age"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the British Academy</i>. <b>121</b>: 1–39. <q>the argument for possible Afanasievo-Xinjiang contact based on the finds at the Gumugou cemetery in the north-eastern rim of the Tarim basin would seem reasonable and needs to be kept open for the future archaeological finds. In other words, the possibility for the dispersal of early copperbased metallurgy from the Eurasian steppe into Xinjiang and further east to Gansu cannot be excluded at present and will have to be considered when further archaeological evidence becomes available.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+British+Academy&rft.atitle=Cultural+Interaction+between+China+and+Central+Asia+during+the+Bronze+Age&rft.volume=121&rft.pages=1-39&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=JIANJUN&rft.aufirst=MEI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thebritishacademy.ac.uk%2Fdocuments%2F3098%2FMei-China-central-asia-bronze-age.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin2016" class="citation journal cs1">Lin, Meicun (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/45055541">"Seima-Turbino Culture and the Proto-Silk Road"</a>. <i>Chinese Cultural Relics</i>. <b>3</b> (1–002): 241–262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21557%2FCCR.48032340">10.21557/CCR.48032340</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2330-5169">2330-5169</a>. <q>The discovery of the Seima-Turbino culture in China is of great importance, as it demonstrates with material evidence that Chinese metallurgy derives from the cultures of the Eurasian Steppe.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Cultural+Relics&rft.atitle=Seima-Turbino+Culture+and+the+Proto-Silk+Road&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1%E2%80%93002&rft.pages=241-262&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21557%2FCCR.48032340&rft.issn=2330-5169&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Meicun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F45055541&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm">"The Golden Age of Chinese Archeology"</a>. National Gallery of Art<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-02-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Age+of+Chinese+Archeology&rft.pub=National+Gallery+of+Art&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nga.gov%2Fexhibitions%2Fchbro_bron.shtm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cotterell,_Maurice_2004_Page_102-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cotterell,_Maurice_2004_Page_102_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotterell, Maurice. (2004). <i>The Terracotta Warriors: The Secret Codes of the Emperor's Army</i>. Rochester: Bear and Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59143-033-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-59143-033-X">1-59143-033-X</a>. Page 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-J._C._McVeigh_1984_24-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-J._C._McVeigh_1984_24_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._C._McVeigh1984" class="citation book cs1">J. C. McVeigh (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QE3bAAAAMAAJ"><i>Energy around the world: an introduction to energy studies, global resources, needs, utilization</i></a>. Pergamon Press. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-031650-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-031650-6"><bdi>0-08-031650-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Energy+around+the+world%3A+an+introduction+to+energy+studies%2C+global+resources%2C+needs%2C+utilization&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-08-031650-6&rft.au=J.+C.+McVeigh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQE3bAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhewen_Luo_1993_44-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zhewen_Luo_1993_44_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhewen_Luo1993" class="citation book cs1">Zhewen Luo (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K5PpAAAAMAAJ"><i>China's imperial tombs and mausoleums</i></a>. Foreign Languages Press. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-119-01619-9" title="Special:BookSources/7-119-01619-9"><bdi>7-119-01619-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+imperial+tombs+and+mausoleums&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=7-119-01619-9&rft.au=Zhewen+Luo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK5PpAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChromiumVI-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ChromiumVI_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacques_GuertinJames_Alan_JacobsCynthia_P._Avakian2005" class="citation book cs1">Jacques Guertin; James Alan Jacobs; Cynthia P. Avakian (2005). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chromiumvihandbo00guer_095"><i>Chromium (VI) Handbook</i></a></span>. CRC Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chromiumvihandbo00guer_095/page/n18">7</a>–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56670-608-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56670-608-7"><bdi>978-1-56670-608-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chromium+%28VI%29+Handbook&rft.pages=7-11&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-56670-608-7&rft.au=Jacques+Guertin&rft.au=James+Alan+Jacobs&rft.au=Cynthia+P.+Avakian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchromiumvihandbo00guer_095&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woolf2007-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Woolf2007_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreg_Woolf2007" class="citation book cs1">Greg Woolf (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=94NuSg3tlsgC"><i>Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art</i></a>. Barnes & Noble. p. 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4351-0121-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4351-0121-0"><bdi>978-1-4351-0121-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+civilizations%3A+the+illustrated+guide+to+belief%2C+mythology%2C+and+art&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4351-0121-0&rft.au=Greg+Woolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D94NuSg3tlsgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhu2009" class="citation book cs1">Zhu, Fenghan (2009). <i>A Comprehensive Survey of China Bronzes</i>. Shanghai Guji chubanshe. p. 15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+Survey+of+China+Bronzes&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Shanghai+Guji+chubanshe&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Zhu&rft.aufirst=Fenghan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF赵乾民;王富晓;苏荣誉2007" class="citation journal cs1">赵乾民;王富晓;苏荣誉 (2007). "商晚期青铜工艺制作流程". <i>中华遗产</i>. <b>7</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E9%81%97%E4%BA%A7&rft.atitle=%E5%95%86%E6%99%9A%E6%9C%9F%E9%9D%92%E9%93%9C%E5%B7%A5%E8%89%BA%E5%88%B6%E4%BD%9C%E6%B5%81%E7%A8%8B&rft.volume=7&rft.date=2007&rft.au=%E8%B5%B5%E4%B9%BE%E6%B0%91%3B%E7%8E%8B%E5%AF%8C%E6%99%93%3B%E8%8B%8F%E8%8D%A3%E8%AA%89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeiWangChenWang2015" class="citation journal cs1">Mei, J.; Wang, P.; Chen, K.; Wang, L.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Y. (2015). "Archaeometallurgical studies in China: Some recent developments and challenging issues". <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i>. <b>56</b>: 221–232. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015JArSc..56..221M">2015JArSc..56..221M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2015.02.026">10.1016/j.jas.2015.02.026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=Archaeometallurgical+studies+in+China%3A+Some+recent+developments+and+challenging+issues&rft.volume=56&rft.pages=221-232&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2015.02.026&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015JArSc..56..221M&rft.aulast=Mei&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Wang%2C+P.&rft.au=Chen%2C+K.&rft.au=Wang%2C+L.&rft.au=Wang%2C+Y.&rft.au=Liu%2C+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeng2020" class="citation book cs1">Peng, Peng (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambriapress.com/pub.cfm?bid=741"><i>Metalworking in Bronze Age China: The Lost-Wax Process</i></a>. Cambria Press. p. 41.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metalworking+in+Bronze+Age+China%3A+The+Lost-Wax+Process&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Cambria+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Peng&rft.aufirst=Peng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambriapress.com%2Fpub.cfm%3Fbid%3D741&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHan2012" class="citation journal cs1">Han, Jianye (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275154705">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The Painted Pottery Road" and Early Sino-Western Cultural Exchanges"</a>. <i>Anabasis</i>: 37. <q>Along with further westward expansion of the painted culture at this time, there was a greater variety of bronze tools, weapons, horse gear and decorations, and even a small amount of ironware, such as knives, swords, and arrowheads that were introduced into Xinjiang from the west, which then penetrated the western region of China including Qinghai and Gansu. Consequently, the early Iron Age in western China began prior to 1000 BC.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anabasis&rft.atitle=%22The+Painted+Pottery+Road%22+and+Early+Sino-Western+Cultural+Exchanges&rft.pages=37&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=Jianye&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F275154705&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chen, Jianli, Mao, Ruilin, Wang, Hui, Chen, Honghai, Xie, Yan, Qian, Yaopeng, 2012. <i>The iron objects unearthed from tombs of the Siwa culture in Mogou, Gansu, and the origin of iron-making technology in China.</i> Wenwu (Cult. Relics) 8,45–53 (in Chinese)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_30-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_30_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EarliestChina-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EarliestChina_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://donwagner.dk/EARFE/EARFE.html#Heading8">The earliest use of iron in China</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.staff.hum.ku.dk/dbwagner/KoreanFe/KoreanFe.html">Early iron in China, Korea, and Japan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070205063947/http://www.staff.hum.ku.dk/dbwagner/KoreanFe/KoreanFe.html">Archived</a> 5 February 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Donald B. Wagner, March 1993</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner20086-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner20086_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2008">Wagner 2008</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2008230-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner2008230_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2008">Wagner 2008</a>, p. 230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In 200 BCE. Srinivasan, Sharda, and Srinivasa Ranganathan. 2004. India's Legendary Wootz Steel. Bangalore: Tata Steel.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.indianscience.org/reviews/Review%20Wootz.pdf">[4]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://met.iisc.ernet.in/~rangu/frontpage.pdf">[5]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://met.iisc.ernet.in/~rangu/text.pdf">[6]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sinosword.com-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sinosword.com_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://sinosword.com/Chinese-sword-classify.html">http://sinosword.com/Chinese-sword-classify.html</a> ; 2017-08-12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wagner, Donald B."Iron and Steel in Ancient China" (Brill, 1993) pp. 408</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2008169-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner2008169_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2008">Wagner 2008</a>, p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner20081-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner20081_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2008">Wagner 2008</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986" class="citation cs2">Needham, Joseph (1986), <i>Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering</i>, Taipei: Cambridge University Press, p. 370, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-05803-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-05803-1"><bdi>0-521-05803-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%2C+Volume+4%3A+Physics+and+Physical+Technology%2C+Part+2%2C+Mechanical+Engineering&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pages=370&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-521-05803-1&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHong-Sen_Yan,_Marco_Ceccarelli2009" class="citation book cs1">Hong-Sen Yan, Marco Ceccarelli (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dkq6_mdW43IC&q=han+dynasty+crank+and+connecting+rod&pg=PA249"><i>International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms</i></a>. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 235–249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-9484-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-9484-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-9484-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Symposium+on+History+of+Machines+and+Mechanisms&rft.pages=235-249&rft.pub=Springer+Science+and+Business+Media&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-9484-2&rft.au=Hong-Sen+Yan%2C+Marco+Ceccarelli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDkq6_mdW43IC%26q%3Dhan%2Bdynasty%2Bcrank%2Band%2Bconnecting%2Brod%26pg%3DPA249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_118-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_118_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986">Needham 1986</a>, pp. 118–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Coming_of_the_Ages_of_Steel-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Coming_of_the_Ages_of_Steel_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uMwUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA54"><i>The Coming of the Ages of Steel</i></a>. Brill Archive. 1961. p. 54. GGKEY:DN6SZTCNQ3G.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coming+of+the+Ages+of+Steel&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft.date=1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuMwUAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald B. Wagner, 'Chinese blast furnaces from the 10th to the 14th century' <i>Historical Metallurgy</i> 37(1) (2003), 25–37; originally published in <i>West Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine</i> 18 (2001), 41–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang2006-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang2006_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiang2006">Liang 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sal Restivo, <i>Mathematics in Society and History: Sociological Inquiries</i> (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-0039-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-0039-1">1-4020-0039-1</a>), pp 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nathan Sivin, <i>Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections.</i> (Brookfield, Vermont: Variorum, Ashgate Publishing, 1995), Chapter III, pp. 21, 27, & 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph Needham, <i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics</i> (Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., 1986), pp. 98 & 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hsu-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hsu_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hsu, Mei-ling. "Chinese Marine Cartography: Sea Charts of Pre-Modern China," <i>Imago Mundi</i> (Volume 40, 1988): 96–112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacques Gernet, <i>A History of Chinese Civilization</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-49781-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-49781-7">0-521-49781-7</a>), pp. 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph Needham, <i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing</i> (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd, 1986), pp 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwell1966" class="citation journal cs1">Hartwell, Robert (1966). "Markets, Technology, and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh-Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry". <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>26</b>: 29–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700061842">10.1017/S0022050700061842</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154556274">154556274</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Markets%2C+Technology%2C+and+the+Structure+of+Enterprise+in+the+Development+of+the+Eleventh-Century+Chinese+Iron+and+Steel+Industry&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=29-58&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700061842&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154556274%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hartwell&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wagner-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wagner_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagner_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wagner, Donald B. "The Administration of the Iron Industry in Eleventh-Century China," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (Volume 44 2001): 175–197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_walthall_palais_158-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_walthall_palais_158_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_walthall_palais_158_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Patricia B. Ebrey, Anne Walthall, and James B. Palais, <i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i> (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-13384-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-13384-4">0-618-13384-4</a>), pp. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph Needham, <i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering</i> (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986), pp. 376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liu_Yan-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liu_Yan_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liu_Yan_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liu_Yan_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liu_Yan_57-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiuLiYangLiu2021" class="citation journal cs1">Liu, Yan; Li, Rui; Yang, Junchang; Liu, Ruiliang; Zhao, Guoxing; Tan, Panpan (26 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40494-021-00520-5">"China and the steppe: technological study of precious metalwork from Xigoupan Tomb 2 (4th–3rd c.BCE) in the Ordos region, Inner Mongolia"</a>. <i>Heritage Science</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40494-021-00520-5">10.1186/s40494-021-00520-5</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2050-7445">2050-7445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heritage+Science&rft.atitle=China+and+the+steppe%3A+technological+study+of+precious+metalwork+from+Xigoupan+Tomb+2+%284th%E2%80%933rd+c.BCE%29+in+the+Ordos+region%2C+Inner+Mongolia&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=46&rft.date=2021-04-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs40494-021-00520-5&rft.issn=2050-7445&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Yan&rft.au=Li%2C+Rui&rft.au=Yang%2C+Junchang&rft.au=Liu%2C+Ruiliang&rft.au=Zhao%2C+Guoxing&rft.au=Tan%2C+Panpan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1186%252Fs40494-021-00520-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fuvi1-upO6MC&pg=PA432"><i>appleton's new practical cyclopedia</i></a>. NEW YORK. 1910. p. 432.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=appleton%27s+new+practical+cyclopedia&rft.place=NEW+YORK&rft.pages=432&rft.date=1910&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfuvi1-upO6MC%26pg%3DPA432&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span>(Original from Harvard University)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus_BenjaminArthur_Elmore_BostwickGerald_Van_CasteelGeorge_Jotham_Hagar1910" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Marcus Benjamin; Arthur Elmore Bostwick; Gerald Van Casteel; George Jotham Hagar, eds. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Appleton%27s+new+practical+cyclopedia%3A+a+new+work+of+reference+based+upon+the+best+authorities%2C+and+systematically+arranged+for+use+in+home+and+school&rft.place=NEW+YORK&rft.pages=432&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+company&rft.date=1910&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkixMAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA432&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span>(Original from the University of Michigan)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7xFGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA489"><i>The universal cyclopaedia</i></a>. Vol. 8 of The Universal Cyclopaedia: A New Ed. Prepared by a Large Corps of Editors, Assisted by Eminent European and American Specialists, Under the Direction of Charles Kendall Adams ... Editor-in-chief, Illustrated with Maps, Plans, Colored Plates, and Engravings. NEW YORK: D. Appleton. 1900. p. 489<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+universal+cyclopaedia&rft.place=NEW+YORK&rft.pages=489&rft.pub=D.+Appleton&rft.date=1900&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7xFGAQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA489&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span>(LIBRARY OF THE LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Kendall_AdamsRossiter_Johnson1901" class="citation book cs1">Charles Kendall Adams; Rossiter Johnson (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_2W1HAAAAYAAJ"><i>Universal cyclopædia and atlas, Volume 8</i></a>. NEW YORK: D. Appleton and Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_2W1HAAAAYAAJ/page/n527">489</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2011</span>. <q>The gold and silver smiths of Ningpo are noted for the delicacy and tastefulness of their work, and Ningpo confectionery is celebrated all over China. The specialty of the place, however, is its elegantly carved and inlaid furniture. Silk-culture is extensively carried on in the surrounding country, and silk-weaving is an important industry. In 1893 498 piculs of silk piece-goods were exported. The development of manufacturing interests in Japan has given a groat impetus to cotton-culture, and in 1893 the steam cotton-ginning establishments of Ningpo cleaned over 60,000 piculs of raw cotton.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Universal+cyclop%C3%A6dia+and+atlas%2C+Volume+8&rft.place=NEW+YORK&rft.pages=489&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+Company&rft.date=1901&rft.au=Charles+Kendall+Adams&rft.au=Rossiter+Johnson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_2W1HAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span>(Original from Columbia University)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA.J._Johnson_Company1895" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">A.J. Johnson Company (1895). Charles Kendall Adams (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VsEXAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA201"><i>Johnson's universal cyclopedia: a new edition</i></a>. Vol. 6 of Johnson's Universal Cyclopædia. NEW YORK: D. Appleton, A.J. Johnson. p. 201<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Paris, France: Presses Universitaires de France. p. 592.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Danses+et+l%C3%A9gendes+de+la+Chine+ancienne&rft.place=Paris%2C+France&rft.pages=592&rft.pub=Presses+Universitaires+de+France&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Granet&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_metallurgy_in_China&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBai2003" class="citation cs2">Bai, Yunxiang (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kaogu.cn/en/Chinese%20Archaeology/3/A%20Discussion%20on%20Early%20Metals%20and%20the%20Origins%20of%20Bronze%20Casting%20in%20China.pdf">"A Discussion on Early Metals and the Origins of Bronze Casting in China"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Chinese Archaeology</i>, <b>3</b> (1): 157–165, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2FCHAR.2003.3.1.157">10.1515/CHAR.2003.3.1.157</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164920328">164920328</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Archaeology&rft.atitle=A+Discussion+on+Early+Metals+and+the+Origins+of+Bronze+Casting+in+China&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=157-165&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2FCHAR.2003.3.1.157&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164920328%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bai&rft.aufirst=Yunxiang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kaogu.cn%2Fen%2FChinese%2520Archaeology%2F3%2FA%2520Discussion%2520on%2520Early%2520Metals%2520and%2520the%2520Origins%2520of%2520Bronze%2520Casting%2520in%2520China.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirch2005" class="citation cs2">Birch, Alan (2005), <i>The Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry, 1784–1879</i>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-38248-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-38248-3"><bdi>0-415-38248-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+History+of+the+British+Iron+and+Steel+Industry%2C+1784%E2%80%931879&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-415-38248-3&rft.aulast=Birch&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2005" class="citation cs2">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0"><i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i></a>, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-13384-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-13384-4"><bdi>0-618-13384-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-618-13384-4&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rft.au=Walthall%2C+Anne&rft.au=Palais%2C+James+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feastasiacultural00ebre_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGimpel1976" class="citation cs2">Gimpel, Jean (1976), <i>The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages</i>, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-03-014636-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-03-014636-4"><bdi>0-03-014636-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medieval+Machine%3A+The+Industrial+Revolution+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Holt%2C+Rinehart+and+Winston&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-03-014636-4&rft.aulast=Gimpel&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHung2011" class="citation cs2">Hung, Ling-yu (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openscholarship.wustl.edu/etd/589"><i>Pottery Production, Mortuary Practice, and Social Complexity in the Majiayao Culture, NW China (ca. 5300-4000 BP)</i></a> (PhD), <a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7936%2FK72V2D3J">10.7936/K72V2D3J</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pottery+Production%2C+Mortuary+Practice%2C+and+Social+Complexity+in+the+Majiayao+Culture%2C+NW+China+%28ca.+5300-4000+BP%29&rft.pub=Washington+University+in+St.+Louis&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7936%2FK72V2D3J&rft.aulast=Hung&rft.aufirst=Ling-yu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopenscholarship.wustl.edu%2Fetd%2F589&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyde1977" class="citation cs2">Hyde, Charles K. (1977), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/technologicalcha0000hyde"><i>Technological Change and the British iron industry, 1700–1870</i></a></span>, Princeton: Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-05246-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-05246-8"><bdi>0-691-05246-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technological+Change+and+the+British+iron+industry%2C+1700%E2%80%931870&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-691-05246-8&rft.aulast=Hyde&rft.aufirst=Charles+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftechnologicalcha0000hyde&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiang2006" class="citation cs2">Liang, Jieming (2006), <i>Chinese Siege Warfare: Mechanical Artillery & Siege Weapons of Antiquity</i>, Singapore, Republic of Singapore: Leong Kit Meng, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-05-5380-3" title="Special:BookSources/981-05-5380-3"><bdi>981-05-5380-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Siege+Warfare%3A+Mechanical+Artillery+%26+Siege+Weapons+of+Antiquity&rft.place=Singapore%2C+Republic+of+Singapore&rft.pub=Leong+Kit+Meng&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=981-05-5380-3&rft.aulast=Liang&rft.aufirst=Jieming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Liu_Li_(archaeologist)" title="Liu Li (archaeologist)">Liu, Li</a> (2005), <i>The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81184-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81184-2"><bdi>978-0-521-81184-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Neolithic%3A+Trajectories+to+Early+States&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81184-2&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Li&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiuChen2012" class="citation cs2">Liu, Li; Chen, Xingcan (2012), <i>The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64310-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64310-8"><bdi>978-0-521-64310-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+China%3A+From+the+Late+Paleolithic+to+the+Early+Bronze+Age&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64310-8&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Li&rft.au=Chen%2C+Xingcan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValenstein1989" class="citation cs2">Valenstein, Suzanne G. (1989), <i>A Handbook of Chinese Ceramics</i> (revised ed.), New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-514-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-514-9"><bdi>978-0-87099-514-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Chinese+Ceramics&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-87099-514-9&rft.aulast=Valenstein&rft.aufirst=Suzanne+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner2008" class="citation cs2">Wagner, Donald B. (2008), <i>Science and Civilization in China Volume 5–11: Ferrous Metallurgy</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China+Volume+5%E2%80%9311%3A+Ferrous+Metallurgy&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Donald+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods2005" class="citation cs2">Woods, Thomas (2005), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howcatholicchurc0000wood"><i>How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization</i></a></span>, Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publ., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89526-038-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-89526-038-7"><bdi>0-89526-038-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Catholic+Church+Built+Western+Civilization&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Regnery+Publ.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-89526-038-7&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhowcatholicchurc0000wood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+metallurgy+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>Public domain</dt></dl> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/15px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/23px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/30px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates text from </i>appleton's new practical cyclopedia<i>, a publication from 1910, now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> in the United States.</i></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/15px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/23px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/30px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates text from </i>Appleton's new practical cyclopedia: a new work of reference based upon the best authorities, and systematically arranged for use in home and school<i>, by Marcus Benjamin, Arthur Elmore Bostwick, Gerald Van Casteel, George Jotham Hagar, a publication from 1910, now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> in the United States.</i></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/15px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/23px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/30px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates text from </i>The universal cyclopaedia<i>, a publication from 1900, now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> in the United States.</i></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/15px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/23px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/30px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates text from </i>Universal cyclopædia and atlas, Volume 8<i>, by Charles Kendall Adams, Rossiter Johnson, a publication from 1901, now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> in the United States.</i></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/15px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/23px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/30px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates text from </i>Johnson's universal cyclopedia: a new edition<i>, by A.J. Johnson Company, a publication from 1895, now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> in the United States.</i></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/15px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/23px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/30px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates text from </i>Johnson's universal cyclopaedia, Volume 6<i>, by Charles Kendall Adams, a publication from 1895, now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> in the United States.</i></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/15px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/23px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/30px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates text from </i>Universal cyclopaedia and atlas, Volume 8<i>, by Charles Kendall Adams, Rossiter Johnson, a publication from 1902, now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> in the United States.</i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:S%26T_in_China" title="Template:S&T in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:S%26T_in_China" title="Template talk:S&T in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:S%26T_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:S&T in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Science_and_technology_in_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology in China</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_architecture" title="Chinese architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_industry_in_China" title="Artificial intelligence industry in China"> Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_China" title="Automotive industry in China">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_China" title="Civil aviation in China"> Aviation </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_industry_in_China" title="Biotechnology industry in China">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_China" title="Chemical industry in China"> Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_China" title="Cyberwarfare by China">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_China" title="Logic in China">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_mathematics" title="Chinese mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mining_in_China" title="Category:Mining in China">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_China" title="Nuclear power in China">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_China" title="Rail transport in China">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_China" title="Semiconductor industry in China">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_industry_of_China" title="Shipping industry of China">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_industry_in_China" title="Software industry in China">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputing_in_China" title="Supercomputing in China">Supercomputing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Telecommunications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_units_of_measurement" title="Chinese units of measurement">History of measurement systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_coinage" title="Ancient Chinese coinage">Ancient coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_printing_in_East_Asia" title="History of printing in East Asia">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_China" title="Cartography of China">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China">Maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Military history of China before 1912">Military history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_grading_in_China" title="Academic grading in China">Academic grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_China" title="Higher education in China">Higher education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Research_institutes_in_China" title="Category:Research institutes in China">Research institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_museums_in_China" title="Category:Science museums in China">Science museums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_astronomers" title="Category:Chinese astronomers">Astronomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_biologists" title="Category:Chinese biologists">Biologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_chemists" title="Category:Chinese chemists">Chemists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_computer_programmers" title="Category:Chinese computer programmers">Computer programmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_computer_scientists" title="Category:Chinese computer scientists">Computer scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_earth_scientists" title="Category:Chinese earth scientists">Earth scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_engineers" title="Category:Chinese engineers">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_food_scientists" title="Category:Chinese food scientists">Food scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_inventors" title="Category:Chinese inventors">Inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_mathematicians" title="Category:Chinese mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Chinese Nobel laureates">Nobel laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_pharmacologists" title="Category:Chinese pharmacologists">Pharmacologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_physicians" title="Category:Chinese physicians">Physicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_physicists" title="Category:Chinese physicists">Physicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_science_writers" title="Category:Chinese science writers">Science writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_social_scientists" title="Category:Chinese social scientists">Social scientists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/863_Program" title="863 Program">863 Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Research_institutes_in_China" title="Category:Research institutes in China">Research institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Engineering" title="Chinese Academy of Engineering">Chinese Academy of Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Sciences">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Social_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Social Sciences">Chinese Academy of Social Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Natural_Science_Foundation_of_China" title="National Natural Science Foundation of China">National Natural Science 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