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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_the_Gulag_camps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_the_Gulag_camps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Emergence of the Gulag camps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_the_Gulag_camps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Arctic_camps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Arctic_camps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>The Arctic camps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Arctic_camps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dalstroy_officials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dalstroy_officials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Dalstroy officials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dalstroy_officials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calendar_of_historical_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calendar_of_historical_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Calendar of historical events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calendar_of_historical_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Dalstroy_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Dalstroy_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Post-Dalstroy developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Dalstroy_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Industrial_and_economic_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_and_economic_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Industrial and economic evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_and_economic_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_political_prisoners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_political_prisoners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Last political prisoners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_political_prisoners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accounts_of_the_Kolyma_Gulag_camps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accounts_of_the_Kolyma_Gulag_camps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Accounts of the Kolyma Gulag camps</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Accounts_of_the_Kolyma_Gulag_camps-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Accounts of the Kolyma Gulag camps subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Accounts_of_the_Kolyma_Gulag_camps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Varlam_Shalamov" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Varlam_Shalamov"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Varlam Shalamov</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Varlam_Shalamov-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Michael_M._Solomon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Michael_M._Solomon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Michael M. Solomon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Michael_M._Solomon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vladimir_Nikolayevich_Petrov" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vladimir_Nikolayevich_Petrov"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Vladimir Nikolayevich Petrov</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vladimir_Nikolayevich_Petrov-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ayyub_Baghirov" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ayyub_Baghirov"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Ayyub Baghirov</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ayyub_Baghirov-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brother_Gene_Thompson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brother_Gene_Thompson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Brother Gene Thompson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brother_Gene_Thompson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vadim_Kozin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vadim_Kozin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Vadim Kozin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vadim_Kozin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yevgenia_Ginzburg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yevgenia_Ginzburg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Yevgenia Ginzburg</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yevgenia_Ginzburg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nikolai_Getman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nikolai_Getman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Nikolai Getman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nikolai_Getman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estimating_the_number_of_victims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimating_the_number_of_victims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Estimating the number of victims</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estimating_the_number_of_victims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ecology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paleoecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleoecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Paleoecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleoecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc 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class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolim%C3%A0" title="Kolimà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Kolimà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma_(region)" title="Kolyma (region) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kolyma (region)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Kolyma" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kolyma" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma#Goldgewinnung_in_Straflagern" title="Kolyma – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kolyma" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kol%C3%B5ma" title="Kolõma – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kolõma" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolim%C3%A1_(regi%C3%B3n)" title="Kolimá (región) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Kolimá (región)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolima_(regiono)" title="Kolima (regiono) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kolima (regiono)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7_(%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D9%87)" title="کولیما (منطقه) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کولیما (منطقه)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Kolyma" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%9C%EB%A6%AC%EB%A7%88_(%EC%A7%80%EC%97%AD)" title="콜리마 (지역) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="콜리마 (지역)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolima_(Gulag)" title="Kolima (Gulag) – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Kolima (Gulag)" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolima_(re%C4%A3ions)" title="Kolima (reģions) – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kolima (reģions)" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma_(regionas)" title="Kolyma (regionas) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kolyma (regionas)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma_(regio)" title="Kolyma (regio) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kolyma (regio)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%AB%E3%82%A3%E3%83%9E%E9%89%B1%E5%B1%B1" title="コルィマ鉱山 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コルィマ鉱山" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kolyma" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kolyma" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C5%82yma_(%C5%82agry)" title="Kołyma (łagry) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kołyma (łagry)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolim%C3%A1" title="Kolimá – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Kolimá" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kol%C3%AEma" title="Kolîma – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Kolîma" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Колымский край – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Колымский край" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolymsk%C3%BD_kraj" title="Kolymský kraj – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kolymský kraj" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolima" title="Kolima – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kolima" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma_(alue)" title="Kolyma (alue) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kolyma (alue)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kolyma" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kol%C4%B1ma" title="Kolıma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kolıma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0_(%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BD)" title="Колима (регіон) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Колима (регіон)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E9%9B%B7%E9%A6%AC" title="科雷馬 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="科雷馬" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1774112#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Kolyma" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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.geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kolyma&params=65_0_N_152_0_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">65°0′N</span> <span class="longitude">152°0′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">65.000°N 152.000°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">65.000; 152.000</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Region of the Russian Far East</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Kolyma_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Kolyma (disambiguation)">Kolyma (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Split plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/50px-Split-arrows.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/75px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/100px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this article be <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a></b> into a new article titled <i><a href="/wiki/Kolyma_Gulag" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolyma Gulag">Kolyma Gulag</a></i>, because the Kolyma Gulag is different from the Kolyma region and deserves an article for itself. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Kolyma#Proposal_to_split_the_Kolyma_Gulag_to_its_own_article" title="Talk:Kolyma">Discuss</a>) <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Region</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043192559">.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement{width:23em;border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement td,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedrow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedrow .infobox-label{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .maptable{border:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .infobox-below{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement .infobox-subheader{background-color:#cddeff;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-native{font-weight:normal;padding-top:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-other-name{font-size:78%}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-official{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-caption{padding:0.3em 0 0 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-caption-link{padding:0.2em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-nickname{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-fn{font-weight:normal;display:inline}</style><table class="infobox ib-settlement vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above"><div class="fn org">Kolyma</div> <div class="nickname ib-settlement-native">Колыма</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div class="category">Region</div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kolymarivermap.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Kolyma River basin"><img alt="Kolyma River basin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Kolymarivermap.png/250px-Kolymarivermap.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Kolymarivermap.png/375px-Kolymarivermap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Kolymarivermap.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></span><div class="ib-settlement-caption"><a href="/wiki/Kolyma_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolyma River">Kolyma River</a> basin</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container center" style="width: 250px; height: 200px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="250" data-height="200" data-zoom="10" data-overlays="["_d81a36a5b4ed70722b1983771e3b1839ae306ef0"]"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,10,a,a,250x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Kolyma&revid=1276092402&groups=_d81a36a5b4ed70722b1983771e3b1839ae306ef0" width="250" height="200" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,10,a,a,250x200@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Kolyma&revid=1276092402&groups=_d81a36a5b4ed70722b1983771e3b1839ae306ef0 2x" alt="Map" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C.png/310px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C.png/465px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C.png/620px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C.png 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Magadan_Oblast" title="Magadan Oblast">Magadan Oblast</a></figcaption></figure> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Larix_gmelinii0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Larix_gmelinii0.jpg/300px-Larix_gmelinii0.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Larix_gmelinii0.jpg/450px-Larix_gmelinii0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Larix_gmelinii0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="335" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Larch" title="Larch">Larch</a> forest in the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Kolyma_Highlands" title="Upper Kolyma Highlands">Upper Kolyma Highlands</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Kolyma</b> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Колыма́</span></span>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[kəɫɨˈma]</a></span>) or <b>Kolyma Krai</b> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Колымский край</span></span>) is a <a href="/wiki/Historical_region" title="Historical region">historical region</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a> that includes the basin of <a href="/wiki/Kolyma_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolyma River">Kolyma River</a> and the northern shores of the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Okhotsk" title="Sea of Okhotsk">Sea of Okhotsk</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Kolyma_Mountains" title="Kolyma Mountains">Kolyma Mountains</a> (the watershed of the two<sup id="cite_ref-ЭСБЕ_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ЭСБЕ-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). It is bounded to the north by the <a href="/wiki/East_Siberian_Sea" title="East Siberian Sea">East Siberian Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a>, and by the Sea of Okhotsk to the south. Kolyma Krai was never formally defined and over time it was split among various administrative units. As of 2023<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, it consists roughly of the <a href="/wiki/Magadan_Oblast" title="Magadan Oblast">Magadan Oblast</a>, north-eastern areas of <a href="/wiki/Sakha_Republic" title="Sakha Republic">Yakutia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Bilibinsky_District" title="Bilibinsky District">Bilibinsky District</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chukotka_Autonomous_Okrug" title="Chukotka Autonomous Okrug">Chukotka Autonomous Okrug</a>. </p><p>The area, part of which is within the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Circle" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a>, has a <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">subarctic climate</a> with very cold winters lasting up to six months of the year. <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a> cover a large part of the region. Average winter temperatures range from −19 to −38 °C (−2 to −36 °F) (even lower in the interior), and average summer temperatures, from 3 to 16 °C (37 to 61 °F). There are rich reserves of <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a>. Twenty-nine zones of possible oil and gas accumulation have been identified in the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Okhotsk" title="Sea of Okhotsk">Sea of Okhotsk</a> shelf. Total reserves are estimated at 3.5 billion tons of equivalent fuel, including 1.2 billion tons of oil and 1.5 billion m<sup>3</sup> of gas.<sup id="cite_ref-kommersant.com_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kommersant.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The principal town <a href="/wiki/Magadan" title="Magadan">Magadan</a> has nearly 100,000 inhabitants and is the largest port in north-eastern <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. It has a large fishing fleet and remains open year-round because of <a href="/wiki/Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">icebreakers</a>. Magadan is served by the nearby <a href="/wiki/Sokol_Airport" title="Sokol Airport">Sokol Airport</a>. There are many public and private farming enterprises. Gold mines, pasta and sausage factories, fishing companies, and a distillery form the city's industrial base.<sup id="cite_ref-kommersant.com_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kommersant.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="labor_camps"></span> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During archaeological investigations of Paleolithic sites on the Angara, in 1936 the unique Stone Age site of Buret’ was discovered which yielded an anthropomorphic sculpture, skulls of rhinoceroses, and surface and semisubterranean dwellings. The houses were analogous, on one hand, to Paleolithic European houses and, on the other, to ethnographically studied houses of the <a href="/wiki/Eskimo" title="Eskimo">Eskimos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chukchi_people" title="Chukchi people">Chukchi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Koryaks" title="Koryaks">Koryaks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dikov_&_Clark_1965_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dikov_&_Clark_1965-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The indigenous peoples of this region include the <a href="/wiki/Evens" title="Evens">Evens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koryaks" title="Koryaks">Koryaks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yupiks" class="mw-redirect" title="Yupiks">Yupiks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chukchis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukchis">Chukchis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orochs" class="mw-redirect" title="Orochs">Orochs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chuvans" title="Chuvans">Chuvans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Itelmens" title="Itelmens">Itelmens</a>, who traditionally lived from fishing along the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Okhotsk" title="Sea of Okhotsk">Sea of Okhotsk</a> coast or from reindeer herding in the <a href="/wiki/Kolyma_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolyma River">River Kolyma</a> valley. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lithuanian_political_prisoners_celebrate_Easter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Lithuanian_political_prisoners_celebrate_Easter.jpg/220px-Lithuanian_political_prisoners_celebrate_Easter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Lithuanian_political_prisoners_celebrate_Easter.jpg/330px-Lithuanian_political_prisoners_celebrate_Easter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Lithuanian_political_prisoners_celebrate_Easter.jpg/440px-Lithuanian_political_prisoners_celebrate_Easter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Lithuanian political prisoners at the Christmas Eve table in the Kolyma region, 1955</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kolyma_road00.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Kolyma_road00.jpg/220px-Kolyma_road00.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Kolyma_road00.jpg/330px-Kolyma_road00.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Kolyma_road00.jpg/440px-Kolyma_road00.jpg 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>Construction of the bridge through the Kolyma by the workers of the Dalstroy (part of the 'Road of Bones' from Magadan to Jakutsk), 1930s</figcaption></figure> <p>Under <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s rule, The Kolyma Gulag (Колыма гулаг, колымский гулаг) became the most notorious region for the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> <a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">labor camps</a>. Tens of thousands or more people died en route to the area or in the Kolyma's series of <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold mining</a>, road building, lumbering, and construction camps between 1932 and 1954. It was Kolyma's reputation that caused <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Gulag_Archipelago" title="The Gulag Archipelago">The Gulag Archipelago</a></i>, to characterize it as the "pole of cold and cruelty" in the Gulag system. The <a href="/wiki/Mask_of_Sorrow" title="Mask of Sorrow">Mask of Sorrow</a> monument in Magadan commemorates all those who died in the Kolyma <a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">forced-labour</a> camps and the recently dedicated <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Nativity_(Magadan)" title="Church of the Nativity (Magadan)">Church of the Nativity</a> remembers the victims in its icons<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Stations of the Camps.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_of_the_Gulag_camps">Emergence of the Gulag camps</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Emergence of the Gulag camps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sevvostlag" title="Sevvostlag">Sevvostlag</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a> were discovered in the region in the early 20th century. During the time of the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>'s industrialization (beginning with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="First five-year plan (Soviet Union)">first five-year plan</a>, 1928–1932) the need for capital to finance economic development was great. The abundant gold resources of the area seemed tailor-made to provide this capital. A government agency <a href="/wiki/Dalstroy" title="Dalstroy">Dalstroy</a> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Дальстрой</span></span>, acronym for <i><a href="/wiki/Far_North_(Russia)" title="Far North (Russia)">Far North</a> Construction Trust</i>) was formed to organize the exploitation of the area. Prisoners were being drawn into the Soviet penal system in large numbers during the initial period of Kolyma's development, most notably from the so-called <a href="/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">anti-Kulak</a> campaign and the government's internal war to force <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivization in the USSR">collectivization</a> on the USSR's peasantry. These prisoners formed a readily available workforce. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Butugycheg_mine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Butugycheg_mine.jpg/240px-Butugycheg_mine.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Butugycheg_mine.jpg/360px-Butugycheg_mine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Butugycheg_mine.jpg/480px-Butugycheg_mine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="868" data-file-height="588" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Butugichag" class="mw-redirect" title="Butugichag">Butugychag</a> Tin Mine – a Gulag camp in the Kolyma area</figcaption></figure> <p>The initial efforts to develop the region began in 1932, with the building of the town of Magadan by <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor">forced labor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Many projects in the USSR were already using forced labor, most notably the <a href="/wiki/White_Sea%E2%80%93Baltic_Canal" title="White Sea–Baltic Canal">White Sea–Baltic Canal</a>.) After a gruelling train ride in unheated boxcars on the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway" title="Trans-Siberian Railway">Trans-Siberian Railway</a>, prisoners were disembarked at one of several transit camps (such as <a href="/wiki/Nakhodka" title="Nakhodka">Nakhodka</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Vanino,_Khabarovsk_Krai" title="Vanino, Khabarovsk Krai">Vanino</a>) and transported across the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Okhotsk" title="Sea of Okhotsk">Sea of Okhotsk</a> to the natural harbor chosen for Magadan's construction. Conditions aboard the ships were harsh. According to a 1987 article<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> magazine: "During the 1930s the only way to reach Magadan was by ship from <a href="/wiki/Khabarovsk" title="Khabarovsk">Khabarovsk</a>, which created an island psychology and the term Gulag archipelago. Within the crowded prison ships thousands died during transportation. One survivor's memoir recounts that the prison ship <a href="/wiki/SS_Dzhurma" title="SS Dzhurma">SS Dzhurma</a> was caught in the autumn ice in 1933 while trying to get to the mouth of the Kolyma River. When it reached port the following spring, it carried only crew and guards. All 12,000 prisoners were missing, left dead on the ice." It turns out that this incident, widely reported since it was first mentioned in a book published in 1947, could not have happened as the ship <i>Dzhurma</i> was not in Soviet hands until mid 1935.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GULAG_Logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/GULAG_Logo.svg/250px-GULAG_Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/GULAG_Logo.svg/330px-GULAG_Logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/GULAG_Logo.svg/500px-GULAG_Logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1126" data-file-height="1055" /></a><figcaption>The trademark for industrial goods produced by the Gulag system</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1932 expeditions pushed their way into the interior of the Kolyma, embarking on the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Kolyma_Highway" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolyma Highway">Kolyma Highway</a>, which was to become known as the Road of Bones. Eventually, about 80 different camps dotted the region of the uninhabited <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">taiga</a>. </p><p>The original director of the Kolyma camps was <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Berzin" title="Eduard Berzin">Eduard Berzin</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a> officer. Berzin was later removed (1937) and shot during the period of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purges</a> in the USSR. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Arctic_camps">The Arctic camps</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Arctic camps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kolyma-goldmine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Kolyma-goldmine.jpg/220px-Kolyma-goldmine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Kolyma-goldmine.jpg/330px-Kolyma-goldmine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Kolyma-goldmine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="266" /></a><figcaption>Prisoners at a Kolyma gold mine</figcaption></figure> <p>At the height of the Purges, around 1937, <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>'s account imagines camp commander <a href="/wiki/Naftaly_Frenkel" title="Naftaly Frenkel">Naftaly Frenkel</a> as establishing the new law of the Archipelago: "We have to squeeze everything out of a prisoner in the first three months—after that we don't need him anymore."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But there is no documentary evidence of this beyond Solzhenitsyn's speculation.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system of hard labor and minimal or no food reduced most prisoners to helpless "goners" (<i>dokhodyaga</i>, in Russian). Conditions varied depending on the state of the country. </p><p>Many of the prisoners in Kolyma were academics or intellectuals. They included <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kravchuk" title="Mikhail Kravchuk">Mikhail Kravchuk</a> (Krawtschuk), a Ukrainian mathematician who by the early 1930s had received considerable acclaim in the West. After a summary trial, apparently for reluctance to take part in the accusations of some of his colleagues, he was sent to Kolyma where he died in 1942. Hard work in the labor camp, harsh climate and meager food, poor health as well as accusations and abandonment by most of his colleagues, took their toll. Kravchuk perished in Magadan in Eastern Siberia, about 4,000 miles (6,000 km) from the place where he was born. Kravchuk's last article had appeared soon after his arrest in 1938. However, after this publication, Kravchuk's name was stricken from books and journals.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lithuanian_deportee_house_in_Kolyma.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Lithuanian_deportee_house_in_Kolyma.jpeg/220px-Lithuanian_deportee_house_in_Kolyma.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Lithuanian_deportee_house_in_Kolyma.jpeg/330px-Lithuanian_deportee_house_in_Kolyma.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Lithuanian_deportee_house_in_Kolyma.jpeg/440px-Lithuanian_deportee_house_in_Kolyma.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="582" /></a><figcaption>A Lithuanian deportee house in the Kolyma region, 1958</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deportee_camp_in_the_upper_Kolyma_region.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Deportee_camp_in_the_upper_Kolyma_region.jpg/220px-Deportee_camp_in_the_upper_Kolyma_region.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Deportee_camp_in_the_upper_Kolyma_region.jpg/330px-Deportee_camp_in_the_upper_Kolyma_region.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Deportee_camp_in_the_upper_Kolyma_region.jpg/440px-Deportee_camp_in_the_upper_Kolyma_region.jpg 2x" data-file-width="711" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption>Deportee camp in the upper Kolyma region, 1956</figcaption></figure> <p>The prisoner population of Kolyma increased substantially in 1946 with the arrival of thousands of former Soviet POWs liberated by Western Allied forces or the Red Army at the close of World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-Conquest,_Robert_1978_pp._228-229_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conquest,_Robert_1978_pp._228-229-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those judged guilty of collaboration with the enemy frequently received ten or twenty-five year prison sentences to the gulag, including Kolyma.<sup id="cite_ref-Conquest,_Robert_1978_pp._228-229_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conquest,_Robert_1978_pp._228-229-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were, however, some exceptions. Rumor suggested that Soviet agents seized <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Theremin" class="mw-redirect" title="Léon Theremin">Léon Theremin</a>, an inventor, in the United States and forced him to return to the Soviet Union; he actually <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Theremin#Return_to_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Léon Theremin">returned voluntarily</a>. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> had Theremin imprisoned at the <a href="/wiki/Butyrka" class="mw-redirect" title="Butyrka">Butyrka</a> in Moscow; he later came to work in the Kolyma gold mines. Although rumors of his execution circulated widely, Theremin was, in fact, put to work in a <a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">sharashka</a> (a secret research-laboratory), together with other scientists and engineers, including aircraft designer <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Tupolev" title="Andrei Tupolev">Andrei Tupolev</a> and rocket scientist <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Korolyov" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei Korolyov">Sergei Korolyov</a> (also a Kolyma inmate). The Soviet Union rehabilitated Theremin in 1956. </p><p>The Kolyma camps switched to using (mostly) free labor after 1954, and in 1956 <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> ordered a general amnesty that freed many prisoners. Various estimates have put the Kolyma death-toll from 1930 to the mid-1950s between 250,000 and over a million people.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dalstroy_officials">Dalstroy officials</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dalstroy officials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deportee_barrack_in_the_Kolyma_region.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Deportee_barrack_in_the_Kolyma_region.jpg/250px-Deportee_barrack_in_the_Kolyma_region.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Deportee_barrack_in_the_Kolyma_region.jpg/330px-Deportee_barrack_in_the_Kolyma_region.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Deportee_barrack_in_the_Kolyma_region.jpg/500px-Deportee_barrack_in_the_Kolyma_region.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="518" /></a><figcaption>Deportee barrack in the Kolyma region, 1957</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Dalstroy" title="Dalstroy">Dalstroy</a> was the agency created to manage exploitation of the Kolyma area, based principally on the use of forced labour. </p><p>In the words of Azerbaijani prisoner Ayyub Baghirov, "The entire administration of the <a href="/wiki/Dalstroy" title="Dalstroy">Dalstroy</a>—economic, administrative, physical and political—was in the hands of one person who was invested with many rights and privileges." The officials in charge of Dalstroy, i.e., the Kolyma Gulag camps were: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Berzin" title="Eduard Berzin">Eduard Petrovich Berzin</a>, 1932–1937</li> <li>Karp Aleksandrovich Pavlov, 1937–1939.</li> <li>Ivan Fedorovich Nikishev, 1940–1948.</li> <li>Ivan Grigorevich Petrenko, 1948–1950.</li> <li>I.L. Mitrakov, from 1950 until Dalstroy was taken over by the Ministry of Metallurgy on 18 March 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Calendar_of_historical_events">Calendar of historical events</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Calendar of historical events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soviet_NKVD_ticket_for_Polish_prisoner_released_from_Kolyma_camp_1942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Soviet_NKVD_ticket_for_Polish_prisoner_released_from_Kolyma_camp_1942.jpg/220px-Soviet_NKVD_ticket_for_Polish_prisoner_released_from_Kolyma_camp_1942.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Soviet_NKVD_ticket_for_Polish_prisoner_released_from_Kolyma_camp_1942.jpg/330px-Soviet_NKVD_ticket_for_Polish_prisoner_released_from_Kolyma_camp_1942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Soviet_NKVD_ticket_for_Polish_prisoner_released_from_Kolyma_camp_1942.jpg/440px-Soviet_NKVD_ticket_for_Polish_prisoner_released_from_Kolyma_camp_1942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Sevvostlag" title="Sevvostlag">Sevvostlag</a>-issued identity card of Polish prisoner (journalist and writer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatol_Krakowiecki&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anatol Krakowiecki (page does not exist)">Anatol Krakowiecki</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatol_Krakowiecki" class="extiw" title="pl:Anatol Krakowiecki">pl</a>]</span>) released from a Kolyma Gulag camp, spring 1942</figcaption></figure> <p>Calendar of events:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li>1928–1929: Gold mines established in the Kolyma River region. Commencement of regular mining operations</li> <li>13 November 1931: Establishment of <a href="/wiki/Dalstroy" title="Dalstroy">Dalstroy</a></li> <li>4 February 1932: <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Berzin" title="Eduard Berzin">Eduard Berzin</a>, Manager of Dalstroy, arrives with the first 10 prisoners.</li> <li>1934: The headcount increases to 30,000 inmates.</li> <li>1937: The number of inmates increases to over 70,000; 51,500 kg of gold mined</li> <li>June 1937: Stalin reprimands the Kolyma commandants for their undue leniency towards the inmates.</li> <li>December 1937: Berzin is charged with espionage and subsequently tried and shot in August 1938.</li> <li>4 March 1938: Dalstroy is put under the jurisdiction of <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a>, USSR.</li> <li>December 1938: <a href="/wiki/Osip_Mandelstam" title="Osip Mandelstam">Osip Mandelstam</a>, an eminent Russian poet, dies in a transit camp en route to Kolyma.</li> <li>1939: Number of inmates now 138,200.</li> <li>11 October 1939: Commandants Pavlov (<a href="/wiki/Dalstroy" title="Dalstroy">Dalstroy</a>) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stepan_Garanin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stepan Garanin (page does not exist)">Stepan Garanin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" class="extiw" title="ru:Гаранин, Степан Николаевич">ru</a>]</span> (<a href="/wiki/Sevvostlag" title="Sevvostlag">Sevvostlag</a>) sacked from their posts. Garanin subsequently shot.</li> <li>1941: Headcount of inmates reaches 190,000. Also some 3,700 Dalstroy contract workers.</li> <li>23 May 1944: US Vice President <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a> arrives for a NKVD-hosted 25-day tour of Magadan, Kolyma, and the Russian Far East.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg/220px-%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg/330px-%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="271" /></a><figcaption>Colonel Stepan Garanin (1898—1950), chief of Kolyma camps in 1937—1938 as prisoner</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>October 1945: Camp for the Japanese prisoners of war is established in Magadan, to provide extra labour.</li> <li>1952: 199,726 inmates, the highest ever in the history of the Kolyma camps and Dalstroy.</li> <li>May 1952: According to commandant Mitrakov, Sevvoslag is dissolved, Dalstroy transformed into the General Board of Labour Camps</li> <li>March 1953: After Stalin's death, Dalstroy transferred to the Ministry of Metallurgy, camp units come under the jurisdiction of the Soviet Ministry of Justice.</li> <li>September 1953: Dalstroy camp units taken over by the newly established management board of the North-Eastern Corrective Labour Camps. Harsh camp regime gradually relaxed.</li> <li>1953–1956: Period of mass amnesties and the release of most political prisoners. Some camp closures begin.</li> <li>1957: Dalstroy liquidated. Many of the former prisoners continued to work in the mines with a modified status and a few new prisoners arrived, at least until the early 1970s.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Dalstroy_developments">Post-Dalstroy developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Post-Dalstroy developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Chukot Autonomous Okrug<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> site provides details of developments after the official closure of the camps. In 1953, the <a href="/wiki/Magadan_Oblast" title="Magadan Oblast">Magadan Oblast</a> (or region) was established. Dalstroy was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Metallurgy and later to the Ministry of Non-Ferrous Metallurgy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Industrial_and_economic_evolution">Industrial and economic evolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Industrial and economic evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Industrial gold-mining started in 1958 leading to the development of mining settlements, industrial enterprises, power plants, hydro-electric dams, power transmission lines and improved roads. By the 1960s, the region's population exceeded 100,000. With the dissolution of Dalstroy, the Soviets adopted new labor policies. While the prison labor was still important, it mainly consisted of common criminals. New manpower was recruited from all Soviet nationalities on a voluntary basis, to make up for the sudden lack of <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a>. Young men and women were lured to the frontier land of Kolyma with the promise of high earnings and better living. But many decided to leave. The region's prosperity suffered under Soviet liberal policies in the end of the 1980s and 1990s with a considerable reduction in population, apparently by 40% in Magadan.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (October 2013)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> A U.S. report from the late 1990s gives details of the region's economic shortfall citing outdated equipment, bankruptcies of local companies and lack of central support. It does however report substantial investments from the United States and the governor's optimism for future prosperity based on revival of the mining industries.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Last_political_prisoners">Last political prisoners</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Last political prisoners"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dalstroy and the camps did not close down completely. The Kolyma authority, which was reorganised in 1958/59 (31 December 1958), finally closed in 1968. However the mining activities did not stop. Indeed, government structures still exist today under the Ministry of Natural Resources. In some cases, the same individuals seem to have stayed on over the years under new management. There are indications that the <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a> were gradually phased out over the years but it was only as a result of <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a>'s far reaching reforms in the 1990s that the very last prisoners were released from Kolyma. The Russian author <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Amalrik" title="Andrei Amalrik">Andrei Amalrik</a> appears to have been one of the last high-profile <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a> to be sent to Kolyma. In 1970, he published two books: <i>Will the Soviet Union Survive Until 1984?</i> and <i>Involuntary Journey to Siberia</i>. As a result, he was arrested for "defaming the Soviet state" in November 1970 and sentenced to hard labour, apparently in Kolyma, for what turned out to be a total of almost five years.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accounts_of_the_Kolyma_Gulag_camps">Accounts of the Kolyma Gulag camps</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Accounts of the Kolyma Gulag camps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Varlam_Shalamov">Varlam Shalamov</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Varlam Shalamov"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A detailed description of conditions in the camps is provided by <a href="/wiki/Varlam_Shalamov" title="Varlam Shalamov">Varlam Shalamov</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Kolyma_Tales" class="mw-redirect" title="The Kolyma Tales">Kolyma Tales</a></i>. In <i>Dry Rations</i> he writes: "Each time they brought in the soup... it made us all want to cry. We were ready to cry for fear that the soup would be thin. And when a miracle occurred and the soup was thick we couldn’t believe it and ate it as slowly as possible. But even with thick soup in a warm stomach there remained a sucking pain; we’d been hungry for too long. All human emotions—love, friendship, envy, concern for one's fellow man, compassion, longing for fame, honesty—had left us with the flesh that had melted from our bodies...." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Michael_M._Solomon">Michael M. Solomon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Michael M. Solomon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During and after the Second World War the region saw major influxes of Ukrainian, Polish, German, Japanese, and Korean prisoners. There is a particularly memorable account written by a Jewish Romanian survivor, Michael M. Solomon, in his book <i>Magadan</i> (see Bibliography below) which gives us a vivid picture of both the transit camps leading to the Kolyma and the region itself. Hungarian <a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Bien&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George Bien (page does not exist)">George Bien</a>, author of the <i>Lost Years</i>, also recounts the horrors of Kolyma.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His story has also led to a film.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vladimir_Nikolayevich_Petrov">Vladimir Nikolayevich Petrov</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Vladimir Nikolayevich Petrov"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Soviet Gold</i>, the first autobiographical book written by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Nikolayevich_Petrov" title="Vladimir Nikolayevich Petrov">Vladimir Nikolayevich Petrov</a>, is almost entirely a description of the author's life in Magadan and the Kolyma gold fields. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ayyub_Baghirov">Ayyub Baghirov</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ayyub Baghirov"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ma%C4%8Diuika,_Vytautas._Gastello_klubas,_1955-03-05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Ma%C4%8Diuika%2C_Vytautas._Gastello_klubas%2C_1955-03-05.jpg/250px-Ma%C4%8Diuika%2C_Vytautas._Gastello_klubas%2C_1955-03-05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Ma%C4%8Diuika%2C_Vytautas._Gastello_klubas%2C_1955-03-05.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="270" data-file-height="374" /></a><figcaption>Vytautas Mačiuika, Lithuanian political prisoner in Kolyma, 1955</figcaption></figure> <p>In <i>Bitter Days of Kolyma</i>, Ayyub Baghirov, an Azerbaijani accountant who was finally rehabilitated, provides details of his arrest, torture and sentencing to eight (finally to become 18) years imprisonment in a labour camp for refusing to incriminate a fellow official for financial irregularities. Describing the train journey to Siberia, he writes: "The terrible heat, the lack of fresh air, the unbearable overcrowded conditions all exhausted us. We were all half starved. Some of the elderly prisoners, who had become so weak and emaciated, died along the way. Their corpses were left abandoned alongside the railroad tracks." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brother_Gene_Thompson">Brother Gene Thompson</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Brother Gene Thompson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A vivid account of the conditions in Kolyma is that of Brother Gene Thompson of Kiev's Faith Mission. He recounts how he met Vyacheslav Palman, a prisoner who survived because he knew how to grow cabbages. Palman spoke of how guards read out the names of those to be shot every evening. On one occasion a group of 169 men were shot and thrown into a pit. Their fully clothed bodies were found after the ice melted in 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vadim_Kozin">Vadim Kozin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Vadim Kozin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most famous political prisoners in Kolyma was <a href="/wiki/Vadim_Kozin" title="Vadim Kozin">Vadim Kozin</a>, possibly Russia's most popular romantic <a href="/wiki/Tenor" title="Tenor">tenor</a>, who was sent to the camps in February 1945, apparently for refusing to write a song about Stalin. Although he was initially freed in 1950 and could return to his singing career, he was soon framed by his enemies on charges of homosexuality and sent back to the camps. Though released once again several years later, he was never officially rehabilitated and remained in exile in Magadan where he died in 1994. Speaking to journalists in 1982, he explained how he had been forced to tour the camps: "The Polit bureau formed brigades which would, under surveillance, go on tours of the concentration camps and perform for the prisoners and the guards, including those of the highest rank."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1993, while being interviewed by <a href="/wiki/Theo_Uittenbogaard" title="Theo Uittenbogaard">Theo Uittenbogaard</a> for the TV documentary <i>Gold – Lost in Siberia</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apbN2qypLM8">[1]</a>, he recalled how he was released from exile temporarily and flown into <a href="/wiki/Yalta" title="Yalta">Yalta</a> for a few hours, because <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, unaware of Kozin's forced exile, had asked Stalin for the famous singer Vadim Kozin to perform, during a break in the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>, held February 4–11, 1945. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yevgenia_Ginzburg">Yevgenia Ginzburg</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Yevgenia Ginzburg"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In her autobiographical account <i><a href="/wiki/Journey_into_the_Whirlwind" title="Journey into the Whirlwind">Journey into the Whirlwind</a></i>, academic <a href="/wiki/Yevgenia_Ginzburg" title="Yevgenia Ginzburg">Yevgenia Ginzburg</a> details her persecution, arrest, trial, imprisonment, and exile to Kolyma. The book starts with a 4 a.m. phone call on the first of December 1934 calling for her to attend the regional committee office at 6 a.m. and follows the chain of events that ultimately lead to her exile to Kolyma, arriving in <a href="/wiki/Magadan" title="Magadan">Magadan</a> in the winter of 1939. Part 2 chapters 5 to 9 cover her time in Kolyma, first working on land improvements, and then being sent to the "state farm"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of Elgen, sometimes El'gen, Russian Эльген, to fell trees. </p><p>"During the 18 years of our ordeal, many times I found myself face to face with death, but it was an experience I never got used to.... </p><p>To begin with, salvation from death in the Elgen forests came to me from cranberries, sour, bitter northern berries, not ripening at the end of summer as they would do in a normal climate, but remaining from the previous year, to be coaxed out of their hiding place by the timid Kolyma spring, after their ten months' sleep under the snow."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nikolai_Getman">Nikolai Getman</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Nikolai Getman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Finally, Ukrainian prisoner <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Getman" title="Nikolai Getman">Nikolai Getman</a> who spent the years 1945–1953 in Kolyma, records his testimony in pictures rather than words.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But he does have a plea: "Some may say that the Gulag is a forgotten part of history and that we do not need to be reminded. But I have witnessed monstrous crimes. It is not too late to talk about them and reveal them. It is essential to do so. Some have expressed fear on seeing some of my paintings that I might end up in Kolyma again—this time for good. But the people must be reminded... of one of the harshest acts of political repression in the Soviet Union. My paintings may help achieve this." The Jamestown Foundation provides access to all 50 of Getman's paintings together with explanations of their significance.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Estimating_the_number_of_victims">Estimating the number of victims</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Estimating the number of victims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The amount of hard evidence in regard to Kolyma is extremely limited. Unfortunately, no reliable archives exist about the total number of victims of <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a>; all numbers are estimates. In his book, <i>Stalin</i> (1996), <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Radzinsky" title="Edvard Radzinsky">Edvard Radzinsky</a> explains how Stalin, while systematically destroying his comrades-in-arms "at once obliterated every trace of them in history. He personally directed the constant and relentless purging of the archives." That practice continued to exist after the death of the dictator. </p><p>In an account of a visit to Magadan by <a href="/wiki/Harry_Wu" title="Harry Wu">Harry Wu</a> in 1999, there is a reference to the efforts of Alexander Biryukov, a Magadan lawyer to document the terror. He is said to have compiled a book listing every one of the 11,000 people documented to have been shot in Kolyma camps by the state security organ, the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a>. Biryukov, whose father was in the Gulag at the time he was born, has begun researching the location of graves. He believed some of the bodies were still partially preserved in the permafrost. </p><p>It is therefore impossible to provide final figures on the number of victims who died in Kolyma. Robert Conquest, author of <i>The Great Terror</i>, now admits that his original estimate of three million victims was far too high.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In his article <i>Death Tolls for the Man-made Megadeaths of the 20th Century</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matthew White estimates the number of those who died at 500,000. In <i>Stalin's Slave Ships</i>, Martin Bollinger undertakes a careful analysis of the number of prisoners who could have been transported by ship to Magadan between 1932 and 1953 (some 900,000) and the probable number of deaths each year (averaging 27%). This produces figures significantly below earlier estimates but, as the author emphasizes, his calculations are by no means definitive. In addition to the number of deaths, the dreadful conditions of the camps and the hardships experienced by the prisoners over the years need to be taken into account. In his review<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of Bollinger's book, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Polmar" title="Norman Polmar">Norman Polmar</a> refers to 130,000 victims who died at Kolyma. As Bollinger reports in his book, the 3,000,000 estimate originated with the CIA in the 1950s and appears to be a flawed estimate. This number is also estimated by the last survivors. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anne_Applebaum" title="Anne Applebaum">Anne Applebaum</a>, 2004 <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a> winner for her book <i>Gulag: A History</i>, carried out an extensive investigation of the gulags. In a lecture in 2003, she explained that it's extremely difficult not only to document the facts given the extent of the cover-up but to bring the truth home.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregion</a> encompasses the drainages of Arctic rivers from the <a href="/wiki/Indigirka_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigirka River">Indigirka River</a> eastward to Chaunskaya Guba Bay. In the west, the <a href="/wiki/Indigirka_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigirka River">Indigirka River</a> drainage is separated from the <a href="/wiki/Khroma_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Khroma River">Khroma River</a> and Yana rivers by the spurs of the Polousnyy Kryazh Range and the <a href="/wiki/Chersky_Range" title="Chersky Range">Chersky Range</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FEOW_2014._30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FEOW_2014.-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleoecology">Paleoecology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Paleoecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> the ecology of this part of <a href="/wiki/Beringia" title="Beringia">Beringia</a> was quite different from modern times, with the extinct <a href="/wiki/Woolly_mammoth" title="Woolly mammoth">woolly mammoth</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wooly_rhinoceros" class="mw-redirect" title="Wooly rhinoceros">wooly rhinoceros</a> being present.<sup id="cite_ref-Boeskorov_et_al._2009._31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boeskorov_et_al._2009.-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Polar_bear" title="Polar bear">polar bear</a> most likely evolved here.<sup id="cite_ref-Kurten_1964._32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurten_1964.-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vorkutlag" title="Vorkutlag">Vorkutlag</a></li> <li>Soviet Union</li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/48px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/64px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Russia portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/28px-Terra.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/42px-Terra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/56px-Terra.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Geography portal</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ЭСБЕ-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ЭСБЕ_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bse.sci-lib.com/article063088.html">"Колымское нагорье"</a> [Kolyma Highlands]. <i><a href="/wiki/Great_Soviet_Encyclopedia" title="Great Soviet Encyclopedia">Great Soviet Encyclopedia</a></i> (in Russian) (3rd ed.). 1969–1978.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B5&rft.btitle=Great+Soviet+Encyclopedia&rft.edition=3rd&rft.date=1969%2F1978&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbse.sci-lib.com%2Farticle063088.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kommersant.com-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kommersant.com_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kommersant.com_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071025044008/http://www.kommersant.com/p-52/r_396/Magadan_Region/">"Magadan Region"</a>. Kommersant Moscow. 8 March 2004. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Magadan+Region&rft.pub=Kommersant+Moscow&rft.date=2004-03-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kommersant.com%2Fp-52%2Fr_396%2FMagadan_Region%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dikov_&_Clark_1965-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dikov_&_Clark_1965_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDikovClark1965" class="citation journal cs1">Dikov, N.N.; Clark, Gerald H. (1965). "The Stone Age of Kamchatka and the Chukchi Peninsula in the Light of New Archaeological Data". <i>Arctic Anthropology</i>. <b>3</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">10–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40315601">40315601</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arctic+Anthropology&rft.atitle=The+Stone+Age+of+Kamchatka+and+the+Chukchi+Peninsula+in+the+Light+of+New+Archaeological+Data&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40315601%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dikov&rft.aufirst=N.N.&rft.au=Clark%2C+Gerald+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070423144236/http://www.magadancatholic.org/englishpages/Icon.html">Icons</a>. magadancatholic.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120206080246/http://www.magadancatholic.org/englishpages/Stations.html">Icons by Svetlana Rjanitcyna</a>. magadancatholic.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20090111093658/http://csam.montclair.edu/~kowalski/marek/marek.html">"Alaska Notes: communist morality, stalinism, gulag, Kolyma,Magadan"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csam.montclair.edu/~kowalski/marek/marek.html">the original</a> on 11 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alaska+Notes%3A+communist+morality%2C+stalinism%2C+gulag%2C+Kolyma%2CMagadan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsam.montclair.edu%2F~kowalski%2Fmarek%2Fmarek.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jackson, James O. (20 April 1987) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930095752/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,964077,00.html">Soviet Union</a>. <i>Time</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBollinger2008" class="citation book cs1">Bollinger, Martin J. (2008). <i>Stalin's Slave Ships: Kolyma, the Gulag Fleet, and the Role of the West</i>. Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1591140467" title="Special:BookSources/978-1591140467"><bdi>978-1591140467</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%27s+Slave+Ships%3A+Kolyma%2C+the+Gulag+Fleet%2C+and+the+Role+of+the+West&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1591140467&rft.aulast=Bollinger&rft.aufirst=Martin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Solzhenitsyn, A. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Gulag_Archipelago" title="The Gulag Archipelago">The Gulag Archipelago</a></i>, vol. 2, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKriza2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kriza, Elisa (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnana.12775">"Review of: Kees Boterbloem Life in Stalin's Soviet Union. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019. 247 pp. £20.69 (pbk), £63 (hbk)"</a>. <i>Nations and Nationalism</i>. <b>27</b> (4): 1308. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnana.12775">10.1111/nana.12775</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244626613">244626613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nations+and+Nationalism&rft.atitle=Review+of%3A+Kees+Boterbloem+Life+in+Stalin%27s+Soviet+Union.+London%3A+Bloomsbury+Academic%2C+2019.+247+pp.+%C2%A320.69+%28pbk%29%2C+%C2%A363+%28hbk%29.&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1308&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fnana.12775&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244626613%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kriza&rft.aufirst=Elisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fnana.12775&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060425055248/http://www.iso.gmu.edu/~ikatcha1/Krawtchouk.html">Krawtchouk story : How a scientist received a job offer from the American Mathematical Society, was accused of being a foreign spy, and sent to GULAG</a>. gmu.edu</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conquest,_Robert_1978_pp._228-229-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Conquest,_Robert_1978_pp._228-229_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conquest,_Robert_1978_pp._228-229_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Conquest, Robert, <i>Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps</i>, Viking Press, (1978), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-41499-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-41499-9">0-670-41499-9</a>, pp. 228–229</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHochschild1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Hochschild" title="Adam Hochschild">Hochschild, Adam</a> (1994). "17: Beyond the Pole Star". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PkI647v7GH4C"><i>The Unquiet Ghost: Russians Remember Stalin</i></a>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (published 2003). p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-547-52497-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-547-52497-8"><bdi>0-547-52497-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2017</span>. <q>Secret police authorities in Kolyma today say there are records—sometimes a complete file, sometime just a name on a list—of two million men and women who were shipped to the territory between 1930 and the mid-1950s. But no one knows, even approximately, how many of these prisoners died. Even historians who have spent years studying Kolyma come up with radically different numbers. I asked four such researchers, who between them have written or edited more than half a dozen books on the <i>gulag</i>, what was the total Kolyma death toll. One estimated it at 250,000, another at 300,000, one at 800,000, and one at 'more than 1,000,000.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=17%3A+Beyond+the+Pole+Star&rft.btitle=The+Unquiet+Ghost%3A+Russians+Remember+Stalin&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-547-52497-8&rft.aulast=Hochschild&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPkI647v7GH4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061209121950/http://www.kolyma.ru/magadan/history/dalstroi.shtml">История Дальстроя</a>. kolyma.ru</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060512051754/http://www.chukotka.org/history/soviet/magadan/?lang=en">Chukotka as a Part of the Magadan region</a>. chukotka.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cosmicelk.co.uk/1917on.htm">Yakutia ASSR and the Sakha Republic from Cosmic Elk</a>. Retrieved 23 January 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuzmichenko, Svetlana (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929124954/http://www.russiancouncil.org/reports/magadanupdate.html">Magadan Region Update</a>, U.S. & Foreign Commercial Service and U.S. Department of State.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKeep1971" class="citation journal cs1">Keep, John (1971). "Andrei Amalrik and '1984'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Review">Russian Review</a></i>. <b>30</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">335–</span>345. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F127788">10.2307/127788</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/127788">127788</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Review&rft.atitle=Andrei+Amalrik+and+%271984%27&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E335-%3C%2Fspan%3E345&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F127788&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F127788%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Keep&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boston.com/news/globe/obituaries/articles/2005/06/22/george_bien_gulag_survivor/">George Bien, Gulag Survivor</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Boston_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston Globe">Boston Globe</a></i>, 22 June 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gulag.hu/szalkai.htm">Documentary film <i>Walk on Gulagland Kolyma</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061128044501/http://www.gulag.hu/szalkai.htm">Archived</a> 28 November 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by <a href="/wiki/Zoltan_Szalkai" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoltan Szalkai">Zoltan Szalkai</a>. Retrieved 17 January 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, Gene (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071210163636/http://www.missionreporter.org/road_of_death.htm">Kolyma – The Road of Death</a>. missionreporter.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://russia-in-us.com/Music/Romance/Kozin/">Vadim Kozin, One Way Trip from Petersburg to Magadan</a> from the Little Russia in US site. Retrieved 13 February 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061017072625/http://russia-in-us.com/Music/Romance/Kozin/">Archived</a> 17 October 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGinzburg1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yevgenia_Ginzburg" title="Yevgenia Ginzburg">Ginzburg, Yevgenia</a> (1967). <i>Journey into the Whirlwind</i>. Translated by Stevenson, Paul; Hayward, Max (First Harvest edition 1975 ed.). United States: Harcourt Inc. p. 394. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781903155967" title="Special:BookSources/9781903155967"><bdi>9781903155967</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journey+into+the+Whirlwind&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=394&rft.edition=First+Harvest+edition+1975&rft.pub=Harcourt+Inc&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9781903155967&rft.aulast=Ginzburg&rft.aufirst=Yevgenia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGinzburg1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yevgenia_Ginzburg" title="Yevgenia Ginzburg">Ginzburg, Yevgenia</a> (1967). <i>Journey into the Whirlwind</i>. Translated by Stevenson, Paul; Hayward, Max (First Harvest edition 1975 ed.). United States of America: Harcourt Inc. p. 411. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781903155967" title="Special:BookSources/9781903155967"><bdi>9781903155967</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journey+into+the+Whirlwind&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=411&rft.edition=First+Harvest+edition+1975&rft.pub=Harcourt+Inc.&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9781903155967&rft.aulast=Ginzburg&rft.aufirst=Yevgenia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090722083646/http://www.artukraine.com/paintings/getman.htm">"Arts Gallery"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.artukraine.com/paintings/getman.htm">the original</a> on 22 July 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arts+Gallery&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.artukraine.com%2Fpaintings%2Fgetman.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jamestown.org/aboutus/getmanpaintings/getmancatalog">Nikolai Getman: The Gulag collection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111230070831/http://www.jamestown.org/aboutus/getmanpaintings/getmancatalog/">Archived</a> 30 December 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Heritage.org (16 October 2003). Retrieved on 2016-12-14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FEOW_2014.-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FEOW_2014._30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFEOW" class="citation web cs1">FEOW. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150525034225/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=609">"609: Kolyma"</a>. <i>Freshwater Ecoregions of the World</i>. Nature Conservancy. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=609">the original</a> on 25 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Freshwater+Ecoregions+of+the+World&rft.atitle=609%3A+Kolyma&rft.au=FEOW&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.feow.org%2Fecoregion_details.php%3Feco%3D609&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boeskorov_et_al._2009.-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Boeskorov_et_al._2009._31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBoeskorov2009" class="citation journal cs1">Boeskorov, G.G. (2009). "Preliminary study of a mummified woolly rhinoceros from the lower reaches of the Kolyma River". <i>Doklady Biological Sciences</i>. <b>424</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">53–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS0012496609010165">10.1134/S0012496609010165</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19341085">19341085</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2674199">2674199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Doklady+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Preliminary+study+of+a+mummified+woolly+rhinoceros+from+the+lower+reaches+of+the+Kolyma+River&rft.volume=424&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2674199%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19341085&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS0012496609010165&rft.aulast=Boeskorov&rft.aufirst=G.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kurten_1964.-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kurten_1964._32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKurtén1964" class="citation journal cs1">Kurtén, B. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/37762">"The evolution of the polar bear, <i>Ursus maritimus</i> (Phipps)"</a>. <i>Acta Zoologica Fennica</i>. <b>108</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Zoologica+Fennica&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+the+polar+bear%2C+Ursus+maritimus+%28Phipps%29&rft.volume=108&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Kurt%C3%A9n&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhelda.helsinki.fi%2Fhandle%2F10138%2F37762&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFConquest1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Conquest, Robert</a> (1978). <i>Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps</i>. Viking Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-41499-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-41499-9"><bdi>0-670-41499-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kolyma%3A+The+Arctic+Death+Camps&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-670-41499-9&rft.aulast=Conquest&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMacCannon1998" class="citation book cs1">MacCannon, John (1998). <i>Red Arctic</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511436-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-511436-1"><bdi>0-19-511436-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Arctic&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-511436-1&rft.aulast=MacCannon&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKolyma" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kolyma&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kolyma_River" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kolyma River">Kolyma River</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060305081954/http://www.okay.com/dunc/gulag.htm">The Soviet Gulag Era in Pictures, 1927–1953</a> Photographs, several of Kolyma, collected by James Duncan</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai141_folder/141_articles/141_kolyma.html">Kolyma – Off to the Unknown: Stalin's Notorious Prison Camps in Siberia, Personal Account by Ayyub Baghirov</a> AZER.com at <i>Azerbaijan International</i>, Vol. 14:1 (Spring 2006), pp. 58–71.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gulaghistory.org/exhibits/nps/onlineexhibit/stalin/work.php">Work in the Gulag</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180430155402/http://gulaghistory.org/">Archived</a> 30 April 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Stalin's Gulag section of the Online Gulag Museum with a short description and images of Kolyma</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sgovio.com/">Italian-American artist Thomas Sgovio (1916–1997) created a series of drawings and paintings, based on his life as a prisoner in the Soviet Gulag</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/109812.Kolyma_Tales">Shalamv Kolyma Tales</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://altermundi.free.fr/kolyma/kolyma.html">Kolyma the Land of Gold and Death</a> Private site of a former Polish prisoner, Stanislaw J. Kowalski.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.memo.ru/history/NKVD/GULAG/maps/ussri.htm">Russian map of the Gulag camps across the Soviet Union</a> at the Memorial website</li></ul> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kolyma&params=65_0_N_152_0_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">65°0′N</span> <span class="longitude">152°0′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">65.000°N 152.000°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">65.000; 152.000</span></span></span></a></span></span> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Regions of the world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Earth&#039;s_primary_regions_and_subregions550" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s primary <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_geoscheme" title="United Nations geoscheme">regions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subregion" title="Subregion">subregions</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World" title="World">Worlds</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_Under" title="Down Under">Down Under</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-world_model" title="Three-world model">Three/Four Worlds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_World" title="First World">First World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_World" title="Second World">Second World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_World" title="Fourth World">Fourth World</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hemispheres_of_Earth" title="Hemispheres of Earth">Hemispheres</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hemisphere" title="Eastern Hemisphere">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_and_water_hemispheres" title="Land and water hemispheres">Land Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_and_water_hemispheres" title="Land and water hemispheres">Water Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landmass" title="Landmass">Landmasses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Africa-Eurasia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Australia" title="Mainland Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Submerged_continent" title="Submerged continent">submerged</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Tectonic plates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">Continents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Saharan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Antarctica" title="East Antarctica">East Antarctica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Plateau" title="Antarctic Plateau">Antarctic Plateau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transantarctic_Mountains" title="Transantarctic Mountains">Transantarctic Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Antarctica" title="West Antarctica">West Antarctica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asia%E2%80%93Pacific" title="Asia–Pacific">Asia–Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Asia" title="Pacific Asia">Pacific Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Southeastern31" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Mainland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aral_Sea" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aralkum_Desert" title="Aralkum Desert">Aralkum Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_(region)" title="Ural (region)">Ural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Central_Asia" title="Greater Central Asia">Greater Central Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia" title="Northeast Asia">Northeastern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions of South Asia">Subregions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>/<a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Sea" title="Levantine Sea">Levantine Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subregion#Asia" title="Subregion">Other regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Himalayan27" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Himalayan_Rim" title="Himalayan Rim">Himalayan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Himalayan_states" title="Himalayan states">Himalayan states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Himalayan_Region" title="Indian Himalayan Region">Indian region</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Russia" title="Southern Russia">Southern Russia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeastern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Europe" title="Northwestern Europe">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Peninsula" title="Scandinavian Peninsula">Scandinavian Peninsula</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_peninsula" title="Italian peninsula">Italian peninsula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">South-eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkan Peninsula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">South-western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Europe" title="Atlantic Europe">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Europe" title="Northwestern Europe">Northwestern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic-speaking_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic-speaking Europe">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance-speaking_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance-speaking Europe">Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_America" title="Northern America">Northern Am.</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachia" title="Appalachia">Appalachia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Belt" title="Bible Belt">Bible Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern USA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_region" title="Great Lakes region">Great Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_states" title="Mountain states">Mountain states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_South_Central_states" title="West South Central states">West South Central United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada" title="Atlantic Canada">Atlantic Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Prairies" title="Canadian Prairies">Canadian Prairies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Canada" title="Central Canada">Central Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canada" title="Eastern Canada">Eastern Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Canada" title="Northern Canada">Northern Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canada" title="Western Canada">Western Canada</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_America_(Americas)" title="Middle America (Americas)">Middle Am.</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aridoamerica" title="Aridoamerica">Aridoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Caribbean" title="Greater Caribbean">Greater Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central Am.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mexico" title="Northern Mexico">Northern Mexico</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Australasia15" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Australia" title="Mainland Australia">Mainland Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Island_Melanesia" title="Island Melanesia">Island Melanesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote Oceania</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">Amazon Plain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin_(sedimentary_basin)" title="Amazon Basin (sedimentary basin)">Amazon Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon Rainforest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Community" title="Andean Community">Andean States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Highlands" title="Brazilian Highlands">Brazilian Highlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_South_America" title="Caribbean South America">Caribbean South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Guianas" title="The Guianas">The Guianas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cone" title="Southern Cone">Southern Cone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patagonia" title="Patagonia">Patagonia</a></li></ul></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">Supercontinents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Americas12" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-America" title="Anglo-America">Anglo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_America" title="French America">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibero-America" title="Ibero-America">Ibero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Hispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_America" title="Portuguese America">Portuguese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_islands" title="Lists of islands">Islands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Africa" title="List of islands of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_islands_of_the_Americas" title="Lists of islands of the Americas">Americas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_North_America" title="List of islands of North America">North America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_islands" title="List of Caribbean islands">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Central_America" title="List of islands of Central America">Central America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_South_America" title="List of islands of South America">South America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_and_subantarctic_islands" title="List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of islands of Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Europe" title="List of islands of Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_islands_by_area" title="List of European islands by area">by area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_islands_by_population" title="List of European islands by population">by population</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Pacific_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Pacific Ocean">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Australia" title="List of islands of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_New_Zealand" title="List of islands of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Arctic_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Arctic Ocean">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Atlantic_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Baltic_Sea" title="List of islands in the Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Black_Sea" title="List of islands in the Black Sea">Black Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_islands" title="List of Caribbean islands">Caribbean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Irish_Sea" title="List of islands in the Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Mediterranean" title="List of islands in the Mediterranean">Mediterranean Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Adriatic" title="List of islands in the Adriatic">Adriatic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Aegean_Islands" title="List of Aegean Islands">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Islands" title="Ionian Islands">Ionian Sea</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Indian Ocean">Indian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Persian_Gulf" title="List of islands in the Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Pacific_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_East_China_Sea" title="List of islands in the East China Sea">East China Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_South_China_Sea" title="List of islands in the South China Sea">South China Sea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_and_subantarctic_islands" title="List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands">Southern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Convergence" title="Antarctic Convergence">Antarctic Convergence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_of_Fire" title="Ring of Fire">Ring of Fire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean#World_Ocean" title="Ocean">World Ocean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">waterbodies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes" title="List of lakes">Lakes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_lakes" title="Lists of lakes">lists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rivers" title="Lists of rivers">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_seas_on_Earth" title="List of seas on Earth">Seas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Rim_regions" title="Category:Rim regions">Rim</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Rim" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctic Rim">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Rim" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Rim">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Mediterranean" title="Indo-Mediterranean">Indo-Mediterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Rim" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Ocean Rim">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Rim" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Rim">Mediterranean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Rim" title="Pacific Rim">Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polar_regions_of_Earth" title="Polar regions of Earth">Polar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Global_regions" title="Category:Global regions">Global</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By direction: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_East" title="Global East">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Geographical_Pivot_of_History#The_Heartland" title="The Geographical Pivot of History">Heartland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia" title="Northeast Asia">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Northwest" title="Global Northwest">Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Southeast" title="Global Southeast">Southeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Southwest" title="Global Southwest">Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">West</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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