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aria-controls="toc-Measures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Measures subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Measures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disability-adjusted_life_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disability-adjusted_life_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Disability-adjusted life years </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disability-adjusted_life_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quality-adjusted_life_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quality-adjusted_life_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Quality-adjusted life years </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quality-adjusted_life_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infant_and_child_mortality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infant_and_child_mortality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Infant and child mortality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infant_and_child_mortality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morbidity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morbidity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Morbidity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morbidity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Health topics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Health_topics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Health topics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Health_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Infectious_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infectious_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Infectious diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infectious_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Respiratory_tract_infections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Respiratory_tract_infections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Respiratory tract infections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Respiratory_tract_infections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diarrheal_illnesses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diarrheal_illnesses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Diarrheal illnesses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diarrheal_illnesses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-HIV/AIDS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#HIV/AIDS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 HIV/AIDS </div> </a> <ul id="toc-HIV/AIDS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.4 Malaria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bacterial_pathogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bacterial_pathogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.5 Bacterial pathogens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bacterial_pathogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neglected_tropical_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neglected_tropical_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.6 Neglected tropical diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neglected_tropical_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pandemic_prevention_and_preparedness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pandemic_prevention_and_preparedness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.7 Pandemic prevention and preparedness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pandemic_prevention_and_preparedness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_research_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_research_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Health research and development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_research_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maternal_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maternal_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Maternal health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maternal_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Nutrition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-communicable_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-communicable_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Non-communicable diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-communicable_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lifestyle_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lifestyle_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Lifestyle diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lifestyle_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health-related_largest_causes_of_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health-related_largest_causes_of_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Health-related largest causes of death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-related_largest_causes_of_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Violence_against_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violence_against_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Violence against women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violence_against_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Global surgery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_NIHR_Global_Health_Research_Unit_on_Global_Surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_NIHR_Global_Health_Research_Unit_on_Global_Surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9.1 The NIHR Global Health Research Unit on Global Surgery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_NIHR_Global_Health_Research_Unit_on_Global_Surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_global_surgery_collaborations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_global_surgery_collaborations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9.2 Other global surgery collaborations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_global_surgery_collaborations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multimorbidity,_age-related_diseases_and_aging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multimorbidity,_age-related_diseases_and_aging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.10 Multimorbidity, age-related diseases and aging </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multimorbidity,_age-related_diseases_and_aging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infertility_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infertility_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.11 Infertility crisis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infertility_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_interventions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_interventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Health interventions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_interventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_health_security" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_health_security"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Global health security </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_health_security-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_factors_impacting_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_factors_impacting_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Global factors impacting health </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Global_factors_impacting_health-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only 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cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Organization subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Governments_and_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governments_and_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Governments and analysis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governments_and_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_Health_Security_Agenda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_Health_Security_Agenda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Global Health Security Agenda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_Health_Security_Agenda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul 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data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monda_sano" title="Monda sano – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Monda sano" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%87%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="بهداشت جهانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بهداشت جهانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sant%C3%A9_mondiale" title="Santé mondiale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Santé mondiale" data-language-autonym="Français" 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesehatan_global" title="Kesehatan global – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kesehatan global" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salute_globale" title="Salute globale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Salute globale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B0%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%90%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%83%98%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B9" title="グローバル・ヘルス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="グローバル・ヘルス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_helse" title="Global helse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Global helse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C3%BAde_global" title="Saúde global – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Saúde global" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCresel_sa%C4%9Fl%C4%B1k" title="Küresel sağlık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Küresel sağlık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li> </ul> <div 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on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/150px-Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/225px-Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/300px-Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_public_health" title="Outline of public health">Outline</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Subfields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_public_health" title="Dental public health">Dental public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation (penology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a></li> <li>World health (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Global health</a> - <a href="/wiki/International_health" title="International health">International health</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Prevention</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_indicators" class="mw-redirect" title="Health indicators">Health indicators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_health_care" title="Universal health care">Universal health care</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health-related_lists" title="Category:Public health-related lists">Lists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">categories</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health_journals" title="Category:Public health journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">National public health agencies</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/7px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/10px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/13px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/16px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/24px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health_sidebar" title="Template:Public health sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health_sidebar" title="Template talk:Public health sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Global health is the <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> of populations in a worldwide context;<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> it has been defined as "the area of study, <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a>, and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide".<a href="#cite_note-Koplan-2">[2]</a> Problems that transcend national borders or have a global political and economic impact are often emphasized.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Thus, global health is about worldwide health improvement (<a href="/wiki/Global_mental_health" title="Global mental health">including mental health</a>), reduction of <a href="/wiki/Health_disparities" class="mw-redirect" title="Health disparities">disparities</a>, and protection against <a href="/wiki/Global_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Global threats">global threats</a> that disregard national borders,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid32381654-5">[5]</a> including <a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate" title="List of causes of death by rate">the most common causes of human death and years of life lost</a> from a global perspective. Global health is not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/International_health" title="International health">international health</a>, which is defined as the branch of <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> focusing on <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing nations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aid" title="Aid">foreign aid</a> efforts by <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">industrialized countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> One way that global health can be measured is through the prevalence of various global <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases</a> in the world and their threat to decrease <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> in the present day. Estimates suggest that in a pre-modern, poor world, life expectancy was around 30 years in all regions of the world (mainly due to high infant mortality).<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Another holistic perspective called <a href="/wiki/One_Health" title="One Health">One Health</a> can be used to address <a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">global health challenges</a> and to improve global <a href="/wiki/Health_security" title="Health security">health security</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The predominant agency associated with global health (and international health) is the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO). Other important agencies impacting global health include <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">World Food Programme</a> (WFP). The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> system has also played a part in cross-sectoral actions to address global health and its underlying <a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">socioeconomic determinants</a> with the declaration of the <a href="/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" title="Millennium Development Goals">Millennium Development Goals</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> and the more recent <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Open_Global_Health_at_OpenCon_2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Open_Global_Health_at_OpenCon_2015.jpg/220px-Open_Global_Health_at_OpenCon_2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Open_Global_Health_at_OpenCon_2015.jpg/330px-Open_Global_Health_at_OpenCon_2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Open_Global_Health_at_OpenCon_2015.jpg/440px-Open_Global_Health_at_OpenCon_2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a><figcaption>Open Global Health at OpenCon 2015</figcaption></figure> Global health employs several perspectives that focus on the determinants and distribution of health in international contexts. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a> describes the <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathology</a> of diseases and promotes <a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">prevention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medical_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical treatment">treatment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a> emphasizes the health of populations.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a> helps identify risk factors and causes of health problems.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a> provides data for policy decisions.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> emphasizes the cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit approaches for the optimal allocation of health resources.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></li> <li>Other social sciences such as <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">development studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> can help understand the determinants of health in societies.</li></ul> Both individuals and organizations working in the domain of global health often face many questions regarding <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>. Critical examination of the various causes and justifications of health inequities is necessary for the success of proposed solutions. Such issues are discussed at the bi-annual Global Summits of National Ethics/Bioethics Councils.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_global_health" title="Timeline of global health">Timeline of global health</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Life_expectancy_by_world_region,_from_1770_to_2018.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg/220px-Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg/330px-Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg/440px-Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Life expectancy by world region, from 1770 to 2018</figcaption></figure> Global health as a discipline is widely acknwoledged to be of imperial origin and the need for its decolonisation has been widely recognised.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The global health ecosystem has also been criticised as having a feudal structure, acting for a small group of institutions and individuals based in high-income countries which acts similar to an imperial "Crown".<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Important steps were taken towards global co-operation in health with the formation of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN) and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank_Group" title="World Bank Group">World Bank Group</a> in 1945, after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. In 1948, the member states of the newly formed United Nations gathered to create the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>. A cholera epidemic that took 20,000 lives in Egypt in 1947 and 1948 helped spur the international community to action.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The WHO published its <a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">Model List of Essential Medicines</a>, and the 1978 <a href="/wiki/Alma_Ata_declaration" class="mw-redirect" title="Alma Ata declaration">Alma Ata declaration</a> underlined the importance of <a href="/wiki/Primary_health_care" title="Primary health care">primary health care</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> At a United Nations Summit in 2000, member nations declared eight <a href="/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" title="Millennium Development Goals">Millennium Development Goals</a> (MDGs),<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> which reflected the major challenges facing human development globally, to be achieved by 2015.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> The declaration was matched by unprecedented global investment by donor and recipient countries. According to the UN, these MDGs provided an important framework for development and significant progress has been made in a number of areas.<a href="#cite_note-:0-26">[26]</a> However, progress has been uneven and some of the MDGs were not fully realized including <a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">maternal</a>, newborn and child health and <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive health">reproductive health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-26">[26]</a> Building on the MDGs, a new Sustainable Development Agenda with 17 <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> (SDGs) has been established for the years 2016–2030.<a href="#cite_note-:0-26">[26]</a> The first goal being an ambitious and historic pledge to <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_1" title="Sustainable Development Goal 1">end poverty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a> On 25 September 2015, the 193 countries of the UN General Assembly adopted the 2030 Development Agenda titled Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a> Several major initiatives began in the 2000s, including the vaccine alliance <a href="/wiki/GAVI" title="GAVI">GAVI</a> in 2000, <a href="/wiki/The_Global_Fund_to_Fight_AIDS,_Tuberculosis_and_Malaria" title="The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria">The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria</a> in 2002, U.S. <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Emergency_Plan_for_AIDS_Relief" title="President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief">President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief</a> in 2003, and the U.S. <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Malaria_Initiative" title="President's Malaria Initiative">President's Malaria Initiative</a> in 2005. In this decade and as part of the <a href="/wiki/Monterrey_Consensus" title="Monterrey Consensus">Monterrey Consensus</a> (which did not pursue goals as aggressively as many activists had urged),<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> an increasing emphasis was put on measuring improvement in health outcomes, rather than merely the amount of money spent.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> In 2015 a book titled <a href="/wiki/To_Save_Humanity" title="To Save Humanity">To Save Humanity</a> was published, with nearly 100 essays regarding today's most pressing global health issues.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The essays were authored by global figures in politics, science, and advocacy ranging from <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Piot" title="Peter Piot">Peter Piot</a>, and addressed a wide range of issues including <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccinations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">antimicrobial resistance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universal_health_care" title="Universal health care">health coverage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco use</a>, research methodology, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, equity, access to medicine, and media coverage of health research. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measures">Measures</h2></div> Measures of global health include <a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">disability-adjusted life year</a> (DALY), <a href="/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life_year" title="Quality-adjusted life year">quality-adjusted life years</a> (QALYs), and <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality rate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-etches2006-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disability-adjusted_life_years">Disability-adjusted life years</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/220px-All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/330px-All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/440px-All_Causes_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Disability-adjusted life years per 100,000 people in 2004:<div style="text-align: left"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  No data</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Less than 9,250</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  9,250–16,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  16,000–22,750</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  22,750–29,500</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  29,500–36,250</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  36,250–43,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  43,000–49,750</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  49,750–56,500</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  56,500–63,250</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  63,250–70,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  70,000–80,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Over 80000</div> </div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">Disability-adjusted life year</a></div> The DALY is a summary measure that combines the impact of <a href="/wiki/Illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Illness">illness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disability</a>, and mortality by measuring the time lived with disability and the time lost due to premature mortality. One DALY can be thought of as one lost year of "healthy" life. The DALY for a disease is the sum of the years of life lost due to premature mortality and the years lost due to disability for incident cases of the health condition. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quality-adjusted_life_years">Quality-adjusted life years</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life_year" title="Quality-adjusted life year">Quality-adjusted life year</a></div> QALYs combine expected survival with expected <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)" title="Quality of life (healthcare)">quality of life</a> into a single number: if an additional year of healthy life is worth a value of one (year), then a year of less healthy life is worth less than one (year). QALY calculations are based on measurements of the value that individuals place on expected years of survival. Measurements can be made in several ways: by techniques that replicate gambles about preferences for alternative states of health, with surveys or analyses that infer willingness to pay for alternative states of health, or through instruments that are based on trading off some or all likely survival time that a medical intervention might provide in order to gain less survival time of higher quality.<a href="#cite_note-etches2006-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infant_and_child_mortality">Infant and child mortality</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></div> Infant mortality and child mortality for children under age 5 are more specific than DALYs or QALYs in representing the health in the poorest sections of a population, and are thus especially useful when focusing on <a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">health equity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> added section <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morbidity">Morbidity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">Morbidity</a></div> Morbidity measures include <a href="/wiki/Incidence_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Incidence rate">incidence rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">prevalence</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cumulative_incidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulative incidence">cumulative incidence</a>, with incidence rate referring to the risk of developing a new health condition within a specified period of time. Although sometimes loosely expressed simply as the number of new cases during a time period, morbidity is better expressed as a proportion or a rate. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_topics">Health topics</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infectious_diseases">Infectious diseases</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Respiratory_tract_infections">Respiratory tract infections</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection" title="Respiratory tract infection">Respiratory tract infection</a></div> Infections of the respiratory tract and middle ear are major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-Lopez_AD_2006-33">[33]</a> Some respiratory infections of global significance include <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coronavirus" title="Coronavirus">coronaviruses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonias</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morbillivirus" title="Morbillivirus">Morbillivirus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pneumococci" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumococci">Pneumococci</a> respectively. The spread of respiratory infections is exacerbated by crowded conditions, and poverty is associated with more than a 20-fold increase in the relative burden of <a href="/wiki/Lung_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Lung infections">lung infections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diarrheal_illnesses">Diarrheal illnesses</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrhea</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrhea</a> is the second most common cause of child mortality worldwide, responsible for 17% of deaths of children under age 5.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Poor <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> can increase transmission of bacteria and viruses through water, food, utensils, hands, and flies. Dehydration due to diarrhea can be effectively treated through <a href="/wiki/Oral_rehydration_therapy" title="Oral rehydration therapy">oral rehydration therapy</a> with dramatic reductions in mortality.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Important nutritional measures include the promotion of <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a> and zinc supplementation. While hygienic measures alone may be insufficient for the prevention of <a href="/wiki/Rotavirus" title="Rotavirus">rotavirus</a> diarrhea,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> it can be prevented by a safe and potentially cost-effective vaccine.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> and <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a></div> The HIV/AIDS <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a> has highlighted the global nature of human health and welfare and globalization has given rise to a trend toward finding common solutions to global health challenges. Numerous international funds have been set up in recent times to address global health challenges such as HIV.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Since the beginning of the epidemic, more than 70 million people have been infected with the HIV virus and about 35 million people have died of HIV. Globally, 36.9 million [31.1–43.9 million] people were living with HIV at the end of 2017. An estimated 0.8% [0.6–0.9%] of adults aged 15–49 years worldwide are living with HIV, although the burden of the epidemic continues to vary considerably between countries and regions. The WHO African region remains most severely affected, with nearly 1 in every 25 adults (4.1%) living with HIV and accounting for nearly two-thirds of the people living with HIV worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is transmitted through unprotected sex, unclean needles, <a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">blood transfusions</a>, and from mother to child during birth or <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a>. Globally, HIV is primarily spread through <a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">sexual intercourse</a>. The risk-per-exposure with vaginal sex in low-income countries from female to male is 0.38% and male to female is 0.3%.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The infection damages the immune system, leading to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and eventually, death. <a href="/wiki/Management_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Management of HIV/AIDS">Antiretroviral drugs</a> prolong life and delay the onset of AIDS by minimizing the amount of HIV in the body. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Malaria">Malaria</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a></div> Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease caused by the parasites of the genus <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a>. Symptoms may include fever, headaches, chills, muscle aches and nausea. Each year, there are approximately 500 million cases of malaria worldwide, most commonly among children and pregnant women in developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-Birn-43">[43]</a> The WHO African Region carries a disproportionately high share of the global malaria burden. In 2016, the region was home to 90% of malaria cases and 91% of malaria deaths.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The use of <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_net" title="Mosquito net">insecticide-treated bed nets</a> is a cost-effective way to reduce deaths from malaria, as is prompt <a href="/wiki/Artemisinin" title="Artemisinin">artemisinin</a>-based combination therapy, supported by <a href="/wiki/Intermittent_preventive_therapy" title="Intermittent preventive therapy">intermittent preventive therapy</a> in pregnancy. International travelers to <a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">endemic</a> zones are advised <a href="/wiki/Chemoprophylaxis" title="Chemoprophylaxis">chemoprophylaxis</a> with <a href="/wiki/Antimalarial_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimalarial drugs">antimalarial drugs</a> like <a href="/wiki/Atovaquone/proguanil" title="Atovaquone/proguanil">Atovaquone-proguanil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doxycycline" title="Doxycycline">doxycycline</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Mefloquine" title="Mefloquine">mefloquine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Global consumption and international trade in deforestation-associated commodities could also indirectly influence malaria risk. Many primary commodities cause deforestation and deforestation can increase malaria transmission. Consumption of such commodities in developed nations could increase malaria risk in developing nations.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32152272-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bacterial_pathogens">Bacterial pathogens</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_number_of_deaths_(A)_and_YLLs_(B),_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region,_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg/220px-Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg/330px-Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg/440px-Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4161" data-file-height="2255" /></a><figcaption>Global number of deaths (A) and <a href="/wiki/Years_of_potential_life_lost" title="Years of potential life lost">YLLs</a> (B), by pathogen and <a href="/wiki/Global_Burden_of_Disease_Study" title="Global Burden of Disease Study">GBD</a> super-region, 2019<a href="#cite_note-Ikuta_2022-47">[47]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overall_age-standardised_mortality_rate_per_100_000_population_for_33_pathogens_investigated,_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Overall_age-standardised_mortality_rate_per_100_000_population_for_33_pathogens_investigated%2C_2019.jpg/220px-Overall_age-standardised_mortality_rate_per_100_000_population_for_33_pathogens_investigated%2C_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Overall_age-standardised_mortality_rate_per_100_000_population_for_33_pathogens_investigated%2C_2019.jpg/330px-Overall_age-standardised_mortality_rate_per_100_000_population_for_33_pathogens_investigated%2C_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Overall_age-standardised_mortality_rate_per_100_000_population_for_33_pathogens_investigated%2C_2019.jpg/440px-Overall_age-standardised_mortality_rate_per_100_000_population_for_33_pathogens_investigated%2C_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5054" data-file-height="2751" /></a><figcaption>Overall age-standardised mortality rate per 100 000 population for 33 pathogens investigated, 2019<a href="#cite_note-Ikuta_2022-47">[47]</a></figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Global_Burden_of_Disease_Study" title="Global Burden of Disease Study">GBD study</a> reported global estimates of death rates from (33) bacterial pathogens, finding such infections are <a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate" title="List of causes of death by rate">contributing to one in 8 deaths</a> (or ~7.7 million deaths), which <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>could make it the second largest cause of death globally in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-Ikuta_2022-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neglected_tropical_diseases">Neglected tropical diseases</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">Neglected tropical diseases</a></div> More than one billion people were treated for at least one neglected tropical disease in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> For instance, neglected tropical diseases are a diverse group of infectious diseases that are endemic in <a href="/wiki/Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">tropical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subtropics" title="Subtropics">subtropical</a> regions of 149 countries, primarily effecting low and middle income populations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. They are variously caused by <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">trachoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>), <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue</a>,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a>), <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">human African trypanosomiasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">chagas</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Helminths" class="mw-redirect" title="Helminths">helminths</a> (<a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">schistosomiasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">onchocerciasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil-transmitted_helminth" title="Soil-transmitted helminth">Soil transmitted helminths</a>).<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The Global Burden of Disease Study concluded that neglected tropical diseases comprehensively contributed to approximately 26.06 million <a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">disability-adjusted life years</a> in 2010, as well as significant deleterious economic effects.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> In 2011, the World Health Organization launched a 2020 Roadmap for neglected tropical diseases, aiming for the control or elimination of 10 common diseases.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The 2012 <a href="/wiki/London_Declaration_on_Neglected_Tropical_Diseases" title="London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases">London Declaration</a> builds on this initiative, and called on endemic countries and the international community to improve access to <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_6" title="Sustainable Development Goal 6">clean water and basic sanitation</a>, improved living conditions, <a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">vector control</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">health education</a>, to reach the 2020 goals.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> In 2017, a WHO report cited "unprecedented progress" against neglected tropical diseases since 2007, especially due to <a href="/wiki/Mass_drug_administration" title="Mass drug administration">mass drug administration</a> of drugs donated by pharmaceutical companies.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pandemic_prevention_and_preparedness">Pandemic prevention and preparedness</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemics</a> have an impact on global health. <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Pandemic_prevention" title="Pandemic prevention">Pandemic prevention</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pandemic_prevention&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Pandemic_prevention" title="Pandemic prevention">Pandemic prevention</a> is the organization and management of preventive measures against <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemics</a>. Those include measures to reduce causes of new infectious diseases and measures to prevent outbreaks and epidemics from becoming pandemics. It is not to be mistaken for <a href="/wiki/Pandemic#Prevention_and_preparedness" title="Pandemic">pandemic preparedness</a> or mitigation (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Treatment_and_management_of_COVID-19" title="Treatment and management of COVID-19">against COVID-19</a>) which largely seek to mitigate the magnitude of negative effects of pandemics, although the topics may overlap with pandemic prevention in some respects. Pandemics typically arise naturally from interactions between humans and animals,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> but emerging technologies are also expected to facilitate the synthesis and enhancement of dangerous pathogens, making <a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">bioterrorism</a> and laboratory accidents emerging threats.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Pandemic prevention measures include early detection systems, international coordination with information sharing, laboratory <a href="/wiki/Biosafety" title="Biosafety">biosafety</a> protocols, oversight of <a href="/wiki/Gain-of-function_research" title="Gain-of-function research">gain-of-function research</a>, restricting access to <a href="/wiki/Dual-use_technology" title="Dual-use technology">dual-use</a> biotechnology, monitoring <a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection" title="Spillover infection">spillover risks</a> in wild animal populations, regulating <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_trade" title="Wildlife trade">wildlife trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wet_market" title="Wet market">wet markets</a>, reducing <a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">intensive animal farming</a>, protecting ecosystems, and strengthening public health care systems.</div></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Pandemic#Concerns_about_future_pandemics" title="Pandemic">Pandemic § Concerns about future pandemics</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pandemic&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> Prevention of future pandemics requires steps to identify future causes of pandemics and to take preventive measures before the disease moves uncontrollably into the human population. For example, influenza is a rapidly evolving disease which has caused pandemics in the past and has potential to cause future pandemics. WHO collates the findings of 144 national influenza centres worldwide which monitor emerging flu viruses. Virus variants which are assessed as likely to represent a significant risk are identified and can then be incorporated into the next seasonal influenza vaccine program.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In a press conference on 28 December 2020, Mike Ryan, head of the WHO Emergencies Program, and other officials said the current COVID-19 pandemic is "not necessarily the big one" and "the next pandemic may be more severe." They called for preparation.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> WHO and the UN have warned the world must tackle the cause of pandemics and not just the health and economic symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_research_and_development">Health research and development</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Research_question#Aggregated_research_questions_and_coordination" title="Research question">Research question § Aggregated research questions and coordination</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AGlobal_health&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+21+February+2025&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=Global+health">making an edit request</a><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_health&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> . (December 2022)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The global health approach could foster international collaboration in medical research and development and share of its results such as vaccines, optimizing overall global health for citizens. The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Agency_for_International_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Agency for International Development">U.S. Agency for International Development</a>'s new Global Health Research and Development Strategy 2023–2028 includes plans to coordinate with such stakeholders in support of innovative global health product development and work with other agencies like the <a href="/wiki/CDC" class="mw-redirect" title="CDC">CDC</a> and National Institutes of Health. Another approach to health would be the innovation of <a href="/wiki/Vaccines" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaccines">vaccines</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a> reported the US government's new five billion dollar budget on vaccines to prevent Covid variants because the Vaccines' access and public-private partnerships are important.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Often the relevance of mechanisms to stimulate research and development is limited by national scopes and "by the transnational nature of the problem which asks for an international approach".<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Financing models, creation of evidence-based recommendations, and logistics may be part of that.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maternal_health">Maternal health</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive health">Reproductive health</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">Complications of pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a> are the leading causes of <a href="/wiki/Maternal_mortality" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal mortality">death among women</a> of reproductive age. In many developing countries, a woman dies from complications from childbirth approximately every minute.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> According to the World Health Organization's 2005 <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Report" title="World Health Report">World Health Report</a>, poor maternal conditions are the fourth leading cause of death for women worldwide, after <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a>, malaria, and tuberculosis.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Most maternal deaths and injuries can be prevented, and such deaths have been largely eradicated in the <a href="/wiki/Developed_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed world">developed world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Targets for improving maternal health include increasing and assisting the number of deliveries accompanied by skilled <a href="/wiki/Birth_attendant" title="Birth attendant">birth attendants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bhutta2008-67">[67]</a> 68 low-income countries tracked by the WHO- and UNICEF-led collaboration Countdown to 2015 are estimated to hold for 97% of worldwide maternal and child deaths.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutrition">Nutrition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></div> In 2010, about 104 million children were <a href="/wiki/Underweight" title="Underweight">underweight</a>, and undernutrition contributes to about one third of child deaths around the world.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> (Undernutrition is not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a>, which refers to poor proportion of food intake and can thus refer to <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>.)<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Undernutrition impairs the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>, increasing the frequency, severity, and duration of infections (including <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>). Infection can further contribute to malnutrition.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Micronutrient_deficiency" title="Micronutrient deficiency">Deficiencies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Micronutrient" title="Micronutrient">micronutrients</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">vitamin A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, are common worldwide and can compromise intellectual potential, growth, development, and adult productivity.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-thelancet.com-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Interventions to prevent malnutrition include micronutrient supplementation, <a href="/wiki/Food_fortification" title="Food fortification">fortification</a> of basic grocery foods, dietary diversification, hygienic measures to reduce spread of infections, and the promotion of <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-communicable_diseases">Non-communicable diseases</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_disease" title="Non-communicable disease">Non-communicable disease</a></div> Approximately 80% of deaths linked to <a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_disease" title="Non-communicable disease">non-communicable diseases</a> occur in developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ageing" title="Ageing">aging</a> have led to increasing poor health conditions related to non-communicable diseases in India. Similarly, China's rapid urbanization and modernization have been associated with increased sedentary lifestyles, contributing to the rise in NCDs in the region.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> The fastest-growing causes of disease burden over the last 26 years were <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a> (rate increased by 80%) and <a href="/wiki/Ischemic_Heart_Disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ischemic Heart Disease">ischemic heart disease</a> (up 34%). More than 60% of deaths, about 6.1 million, in 2016 were due to NCDs, up from about 38% in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Increases in <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee urbanization</a>, has led to a growing number of people diagnosed with chronic non-communicable diseases.<a href="#cite_note-amara-82">[82]</a> In September 2011, the United Nations is hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Noting that non-communicable diseases are the cause of some 35 million deaths each year, the international community is being increasingly called to take measures for the prevention and control of chronic diseases and mitigate their impacts on the world population, especially on women, who are usually the <a href="/wiki/Caregiver" title="Caregiver">primary caregivers</a>. For example, the rate of <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus">type 2 diabetes</a>, associated with <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, has been on the rise in countries previously troubled by hunger. In low-income countries, the number of individuals with diabetes is expected to increase from 84 million to 228 million by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-nejm-84">[84]</a> Obesity, a preventable condition, is associated with numerous chronic diseases, including <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular conditions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, certain <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">respiratory disease</a>. About 16% of the global burden of disease, measured as DALYs, has been accounted for by obesity.<a href="#cite_note-nejm-84">[84]</a> Considering that 360 million people across the world live with disabling hearing loss, including 32 million children and nearly 180 million older adults, and that chronic ear diseases, such as chronic suppurative otitis media, can lead to hearing loss and may cause life-threatening complications, the seventieth World Health Assembly on May 31, 2017 signed the resolution WHA70.13 (Agenda item 15.8) urging member states to integrate strategies for ear and hearing care within the framework of their primary health care systems, under the umbrella of universal health coverage.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> A World Report on Hearing (WRH) was published in response to the resolution (WHA70.13), to provide guidance for Member States to integrate ear and hearing care into their national health plans.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lifestyle_diseases">Lifestyle diseases</h3></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_disease" title="Lifestyle disease">Lifestyle disease</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lifestyle_disease&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Debutantes_in_silhouette_LCCN93505160.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Debutantes_in_silhouette_LCCN93505160.jpg/220px-Debutantes_in_silhouette_LCCN93505160.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Debutantes_in_silhouette_LCCN93505160.jpg/330px-Debutantes_in_silhouette_LCCN93505160.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Debutantes_in_silhouette_LCCN93505160.jpg/440px-Debutantes_in_silhouette_LCCN93505160.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3301" data-file-height="4096" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">Tobacco smoking</a> can lead to <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>, considered a lifestyle disease.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_disease" title="Lifestyle disease">Lifestyle diseases</a> can be defined as the <a href="/wiki/Diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Diseases">diseases</a> linked to the manner in which a person lives their life. These diseases are <a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_disease" title="Non-communicable disease">non-communicable</a>, and can be caused by <a href="/wiki/Lack_of_physical_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Lack of physical activity">lack of physical activity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Junk_food" title="Junk food">unhealthy eating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">substance use disorders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smoking_tobacco" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoking tobacco">smoking tobacco</a>, which can lead to <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type II diabetes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The diseases that appear to increase in frequency as countries become more industrialized and <a href="/wiki/Aging-associated_diseases" title="Aging-associated diseases">people live longer</a> include <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthritis" title="Arthritis">arthritis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronic_liver_disease" title="Chronic liver disease">chronic liver disease</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cirrhosis" title="Cirrhosis">cirrhosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colitis" title="Colitis">colitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irritable_bowel_syndrome" title="Irritable bowel syndrome">irritable bowel syndrome</a>, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_syndrome" title="Metabolic syndrome">metabolic syndrome</a>, chronic kidney failure, <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">osteoporosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/PCOD" class="mw-redirect" title="PCOD">PCOD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical depression">depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vascular_dementia" title="Vascular dementia">vascular dementia</a>. Concerns were raised in 2011 that lifestyle diseases could soon have an impact on the workforce and the cost of health care. Treating these non-communicable diseases can be expensive.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> It can be critical for the patient's health to receive primary prevention and identify early symptoms of these non-communicable diseases. These lifestyle diseases are expected to increase throughout the years if people do not improve their lifestyle choices.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Some commenters maintain a distinction between diseases of <a href="/wiki/Longevity" title="Longevity">longevity</a> and diseases of <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a> or diseases of affluence.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Certain diseases, such as diabetes, <a href="/wiki/Dental_caries" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental caries">dental caries</a> and asthma, appear at greater rates in young populations living in the "western" way; their increased incidence is not related to age, so the terms cannot accurately be used interchangeably for all diseases.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a> refers to private sector activities that affect people's health positively or negatively such as advertisements for <a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">unhealthy food</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health-related_largest_causes_of_death">Health-related largest causes of death</h3></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate" title="List of causes of death by rate">List of causes of death by rate</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2017)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leading_cause_of_death_world.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Leading cause of death (2016) (world)"><img alt="Leading cause of death (2016) (world)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Leading_cause_of_death_world.png/420px-Leading_cause_of_death_world.png" decoding="async" width="420" height="406" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Leading_cause_of_death_world.png/630px-Leading_cause_of_death_world.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Leading_cause_of_death_world.png/840px-Leading_cause_of_death_world.png 2x" data-file-width="3082" data-file-height="2976" /></a><figcaption>Leading cause of death (2016) (world)</figcaption></figure> The following is a <a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate" title="List of causes of death by rate">list of the causes of human deaths</a> worldwide for different years arranged by their associated mortality rates. In 2002, there were about 57 million deaths. In 2005, according to the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) using the <a href="/wiki/International_Classification_of_Diseases" title="International Classification of Diseases">International Classification of Diseases</a> (ICD), about 58 million people died.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> In 2010, according to the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Health_Metrics_and_Evaluation" title="Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation">Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation</a>, 52.8 million people died.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> In 2016, the WHO recorded 56.7 million deaths<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> with the leading cause of death as <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a> causing more than 17 million deaths (about 31% of the total) as shown in the chart to the side. In 2021, there were approx. 68 million deaths worldwide, as per WHO report.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Some causes listed include deaths also included in more specific subordinate causes, and some causes are omitted, so the percentages may only sum approximately to 100%. The causes listed are relatively immediate medical causes, but the ultimate cause of death might be described differently. For example, <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco smoking</a> often causes lung disease or cancer, and <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_use_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol use disorder">alcohol use disorder</a> can cause <a href="/wiki/Liver_failure" title="Liver failure">liver failure</a> or a motor vehicle accident. For statistics on preventable ultimate causes, see <a href="/wiki/Preventable_causes_of_death" title="Preventable causes of death">preventable causes of death</a>. Besides frequency, other measures to compare, consider, and monitor trends of causes of deaths include <a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">disability-adjusted life year</a> (DALY) and <a href="/wiki/Years_of_potential_life_lost" title="Years of potential life lost">years of potential life lost</a> (YPLL).</div></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate#Developed_vs._developing_economies" title="List of causes of death by rate">List of causes of death by rate § Developed vs. developing economies</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_number_of_deaths_(A)_and_YLLs_(B),_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region,_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg/220px-Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg/330px-Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg/440px-Global_number_of_deaths_%28A%29_and_YLLs_%28B%29%2C_by_pathogen_and_GBD_super-region%2C_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4161" data-file-height="2255" /></a><figcaption>Global number of deaths (A) and <a href="/wiki/Years_of_potential_life_lost" title="Years of potential life lost">YLLs</a> (B), by bacterial pathogen (of 33) and <a href="/wiki/Global_Burden_of_Disease_Study" title="Global Burden of Disease Study">GBD</a> super-region, 2019<a href="#cite_note-List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate_Ikuta_2022-98">[98]</a></figcaption></figure> Top causes of death, according to the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> report for the calendar year 2001:<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"> <tbody><tr> <th>Causes of death in <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a></th> <th>Number of deaths</th> <th>Causes of death in <a href="/wiki/Developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed countries">developed countries</a></th> <th>Number of deaths </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/HIV-AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV-AIDS">HIV-AIDS</a></td> <td>2,678,000 </td> <td style="background:Pink;"><a href="/wiki/Ischaemic_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ischaemic heart disease">Ischaemic heart disease</a></td> <td>3,512,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:MistyRose;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_respiratory_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower respiratory infections">Lower respiratory infections</a></td> <td>2,643,000 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cerebrovascular_disease" title="Cerebrovascular disease">Cerebrovascular disease</a></td> <td>3,346,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:Pink;"><a href="/wiki/Ischaemic_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ischaemic heart disease">Ischaemic heart disease</a></td> <td>2,484,000 </td> <td style="background:AntiqueWhite;"><a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a></td> <td>1,829,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrhea</a></td> <td>1,793,000 </td> <td style="background:MistyRose;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_respiratory_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower respiratory infections">Lower respiratory infections</a></td> <td>1,180,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cerebrovascular_disease" title="Cerebrovascular disease">Cerebrovascular disease</a></td> <td>1,381,000 </td> <td>Lung cancer</td> <td>938,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Childhood_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Childhood diseases">Childhood diseases</a></td> <td>1,217,000 </td> <td>Car crash</td> <td>669,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a></td> <td>1,103,000 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stomach_cancer" title="Stomach cancer">Stomach cancer</a></td> <td>657,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:PowderBlue;"><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></td> <td>1,021,000 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_heart_disease" title="Hypertensive heart disease">Hypertensive heart disease</a></td> <td>635,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:AntiqueWhite;"><a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a></td> <td>748,000 </td> <td style="background:PowderBlue;"><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></td> <td>571,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">Measles</a></td> <td>674,000 </td> <td>Suicide</td> <td>499,000 </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2022)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violence_against_women">Violence against women</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a> has been defined as: "physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family and in the general community, including <a href="/wiki/Battery_(crime)" title="Battery (crime)">battering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">sexual abuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry-related</a> violence, <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">female genital mutilation</a> and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">sexual harassment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intimidation" title="Intimidation">intimidation</a> at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">trafficking</a> in women, forced <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">prostitution</a> and violence perpetrated or condoned by the state."<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In addition to causing injury, violence may increase "women's long-term risk of a number of other health problems, including <a href="/wiki/Chronic_pain" title="Chronic pain">chronic pain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_disability" title="Physical disability">physical disability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">drug and alcohol abuse</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>".<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> The WHO Report on global and regional estimates on violence against women found that partner abuse causes women to have 16% more chances of suffering <a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">miscarriages</a>, 41% more occurrences of <a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">pre-term birth</a> babies and twice the likeliness of having <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortions</a> and acquiring HIV or other <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">STDs</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Although statistics can be difficult to obtain as many cases go unreported, it is estimated that one in every five women faces some form of violence during her lifetime, in some cases leading to serious injury or even death.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Risk factors for being an offender include low education, past exposure to <a href="/wiki/Child_Maltreatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Child Maltreatment">child maltreatment</a> or witnessing violence between parents, harmful use of alcohol, attitudes accepting of violence, and <a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">gender inequality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Equality of women has been addressed in the <a href="/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" title="Millennium Development Goals">Millennium Development Goals</a>. Now, <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">gender equality</a> is <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_5" title="Sustainable Development Goal 5">Sustainable Development Goal 5</a>. Preventing the violence against women needs to form an essential part of the public health reforms in the form of <a href="/wiki/Advocacy" title="Advocacy">advocation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">evidence gathering</a>. <a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Primary prevention</a> in the form of raising <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">women economic empowerment</a> facilities, <a href="/wiki/Microfinance" title="Microfinance">microfinance</a> and skills training social projects related to gender equality should be conducted. Activities promoting relationship and communication skills among couples, reducing alcohol access and altering societal ideologies should be organized. Childhood interventions, community and school-based education, raising media-oriented awareness and other approaches should be carried out to challenge social norms and <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotypical</a> thought processes to promote <a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">behavioral change</a> among men and raise gender equality. Trained health care providers would play a vital role in secondary and tertiary prevention of abuse by performing early identification of women suffering from violence and contributing to the addressing of their health and psychological needs. They could be highly important in prevention of the recurrence of violence and the mitigation of its effects on the health of the abused women and their children.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> The Member States of the World Health Assembly endorsed a plan in 2016 for reinforcing the health system's role in addressing the global phenomenon of violence against women and girls and working towards their health and protection.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_surgery">Global surgery</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Halfdan_T._Mahler" title="Halfdan T. Mahler">Halfdan T. Mahler</a>, the 3rd Director-General of the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), first brought attention to the disparities in surgery and surgical care when he stated, "the vast majority of the world's population has no access whatsoever to skilled surgical care and little is being done to find a solution".<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> While significant progresses have been made in fields within global health such as <a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">infectious diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">maternal and child health</a>, and even other <a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-communicable diseases">non-communicable diseases</a> over the past several decades, the provision of <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery and surgical care</a> in resource-limited settings have largely remained unmet with about 5 billion people lacking access to safe and affordable surgical and anesthesia care.<a href="#cite_note-Meara15-108">[108]</a> This is especially true in the poorest countries, which account for over one-third of the population but only 3.5% of all surgeries that occur worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> In fact, it has been estimated that up to 30% of the total <a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">global burden of disease (GBD)</a> could be attributable to surgical conditions, which include a mix of <a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">injuries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malignancies" class="mw-redirect" title="Malignancies">malignancies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congenital_anomalies" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital anomalies">congenital anomalies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">complications of pregnancy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-McQueen10-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> As a result, global surgery has become an emerging field within global health as "the <a href="/wiki/Multidisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Multidisciplinary">multidisciplinary</a> enterprise of providing improved and equitable surgical care to the world's population, with its core belief as the issues of need, access and quality" and has often been described as the "neglected stepchild of global health", a term coined by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Farmer" title="Paul Farmer">Dr. Paul Farmer</a> to highlight the urgent need for further work in this area.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Yong_Kim" title="Jim Yong Kim">Jim Young Kim</a>, the former President of the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, proclaimed in 2014 that "surgery is an indivisible, indispensable part of health care and of progress towards universal health coverage."<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> In 2015, the Lancet Commission on Global Surgery (LCoGS) published the landmark report titled "Global Surgery 2030: evidence and solutions for achieving health, welfare, and economic development", describing the large, pre-existing burden of surgical diseases in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and future directions for increasing universal access to safe surgery by the year 2030.<a href="#cite_note-Meara15-108">[108]</a> The Commission highlighted that 143 million additional procedures were needed every year to prevent further <a href="/wiki/Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">morbidity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality</a> from treatable surgical conditions as well as a $12.3 trillion loss in economic productivity by the year 2030.<a href="#cite_note-Meara15-108">[108]</a> It emphasized the need to significantly improve the capacity for Bellwether procedures — <a href="/wiki/Laparotomy" title="Laparotomy">laparotomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">caesarean section</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_fracture" title="Open fracture">open fracture care</a> — which are considered a minimum level of care that first-level hospitals should be able to provide in order to capture the most basic emergency surgical care.<a href="#cite_note-Meara15-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> In order to address these challenges and track progress, the Commission defined the following core indicators for assessing access to safe and affordable surgical d anesthesia care:<a href="#cite_note-Meara15-108">[108]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Core Indicators </th> <th>Definition </th> <th>Target </th></tr> <tr> <td>Access to timely essential surgery </td> <td>The proportion of the population that can access, within 2 hours, a facility that can do cesarean delivery, laparotomy, and treatment of open fracture (the Bellwether Procedures) </td> <td>A minimum of 80% coverage of essential surgical and anesthesia services per country by 2030 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Specialist surgical workforce density </td> <td>The number of specialist surgical, anaesthetic, and obstetric physicians who are working, per 100,000 population </td> <td>100% of countries with at least 20 surgical, anaesthetic, and obstetric physicians per 100, 000 population by 2030 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Surgical volume </td> <td>The number of procedures done in an operating theatre, per 100,000 population per year </td> <td>80% of countries by 2020 and 100% of countries by 2030 tracking surgical volume; a minimum of 5000 procedures per 100,000 population by 2030 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Perioperative mortality </td> <td>All-cause death rate before discharge in patients who have undergone a procedure in an operating theatre, divided by the total number of procedures, presented as a percentage </td> <td>80% of countries by 2020 and 100% of countries by 2030 tracking perioperative mortality; in 2020, assess global data and set national targets for 2030 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Protection against impoverishing expenditure </td> <td>The proportion of households protected against impoverishment from direct out-of-pocket payments for surgical and anesthesia care </td> <td>100% protection against impoverishment from out-of-pocket payments for surgical and anaesthesia care by 2030 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Protection against catastrophic expenditure </td> <td>The proportion of households protected against catastrophic expenditure from direct out-of-pocket payments for surgical and anesthesia care </td> <td>100% protection against catastrophic expenditure from out-of-pocket payments for surgical and anaesthesia care by 2030 </td></tr></tbody></table> Meeting these goals by the year 2030 would require increases in <a href="/wiki/Anesthetist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anesthetist">anesthetists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obstetricians" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstetricians">obstetricians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgeon" title="Surgeon">surgeons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">nurses</a>, and facilities with <a href="/wiki/Operating_theater" title="Operating theater">operating rooms</a> as well as pre- and post-surgical care capacities. Data from WHO and the World Bank indicate that scaling up infrastructure to enable access to surgical care in regions where it is currently limited or is non-existent is a low-cost measure relative to the significant morbidity and mortality caused by lack of surgical treatment.<a href="#cite_note-McQueen10-110">[110]</a> In fact, a systematic review found that the <a href="/wiki/Cost-effectiveness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cost-effectiveness">cost-effectiveness ratio</a> — dollars spent per DALYs averted — for surgical interventions is on par or exceeds those of major public health interventions such as <a href="/wiki/Oral_rehydration_therapy" title="Oral rehydration therapy">oral rehydration therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_promotion" title="Breastfeeding promotion">breastfeeding promotion</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Management_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Management of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS antiretroviral therapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> This finding challenged the common misconception that surgical care is financially prohibitive endeavor not worth pursuing in LMICs. In terms of the financial impact on the patients, the lack of adequate surgical and anesthesia care has resulted in 33 million individuals every year facing catastrophic health expenditure — the out-of-pocket healthcare cost exceeding 40% of a given household's income.<a href="#cite_note-Meara15-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In alignment with the LCoGS call for action, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Assembly" title="World Health Assembly">World Health Assembly</a> adopted the resolution WHA68.15 in 2015 that stated, "Strengthening emergency and essential surgical care and anesthesia as a component of universal health coverage."<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> This not only mandated the WHO to prioritize strengthening the surgical and anesthesia care globally, but also led to governments of the member states recognizing the urgent need for increasing capacity in surgery and anesthesia. Additionally, the third edition of <a href="/wiki/Disease_Control_Priorities_Project" title="Disease Control Priorities Project">Disease Control Priorities</a> (DCP3), published in 2015 by the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, declared surgery as essential and featured an entire volume dedicated to building surgical capacity.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> A key policy framework that arose from this renewed global commitment towards surgical care worldwide is the National Surgical Obstetric and Anesthesia Plan (NSOAP).<a href="#cite_note-Truch20-120">[120]</a> NSOAP focuses on policy-to-action capacity building for surgical care with tangible steps as follows: (1) analysis of baseline indicators, (2) partnership with local champions, (3) broad stakeholder engagement, (4) consensus building and synthesis of ideas, (5) language refinement, (6) costing, (7) dissemination, and (8) implementation. This approach has been widely adopted and has served as guiding principles between international collaborators and local institutions and governments. Successful implementations have allowed for sustainability in terms of longterm monitoring, quality improvement, and continued political and financial support.<a href="#cite_note-Truch20-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_NIHR_Global_Health_Research_Unit_on_Global_Surgery">The NIHR Global Health Research Unit on Global Surgery</h4></div> Seven surgical research Hubs in <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> with an extensive network of urban and rural ‘Spoke' hospitals have joined to create the NIHR.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The NIHR Global Health Research Unit on Global Surgery is led by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> which provides overall oversight in relation to the Unit strategy, infrastructure and delivery, research and finance. The network prioritized surgical topics that needed research and has performed multiple surgical studies. The network resulted in many research groups including GlobalSurg I, II, III<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> and COVIDSurg<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> and many other trials with worldwide collaborations as project FALCON<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> and CHEETAH.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> The research was published in over 40 articles in high impact journals in topics like surgical site infections,<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> COVID-19<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> and mortality.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_global_surgery_collaborations">Other global surgery collaborations</h4></div> More trials have emerged to assess surgical outcomes around the World using big data from thousands of centers. Other notable trials include: <ul><li>Global PaedSurg; The study was published in The Lancet examined the risk of mortality for nearly 4000 babies born with birth defects in 264 hospitals around the world. The study found babies born with birth defects involving the intestinal tract have a two in five chance of dying in a low-income country compared to one in five in a middle-income country and one in twenty in a high-income country.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></li> <li>APORG: The African Perioperative Research Group (APORG) was launched in South Africa</li> <li>ASOS and ASOS-2: The studies showed that death after surgery is a major public health problem in Africa. Surgical patients in Africa are twice as likely to die in hospital following surgery when compared to the global average.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></li> <li>ACCCOS</li> <li>Global Health Research Group on Children's Non-Communicable Diseases Collaborative</li></ul> Many scholars from around the world have participated in overlapping trials whether as Principal Investigators, Dissemination Committee or Regional leaders to promote the research and oversee data collection. Notable collaborators from these networks include The list included key figures from around the World as Prof Bruce Biccard (South Africa), Prof Adesoji Ademuyiwa (Nigeria), Prof Kokila Lakhoo (Oxford, UK), Dr Naomi Wright (Oxford, UK), Dr Emrah Aydin (Turkey), Prof Mahmoud Elfiky (Egypt) and Prof Milind Chitnis (South Africa).<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multimorbidity,_age-related_diseases_and_aging">Multimorbidity, age-related diseases and aging</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a> is "a growing public health problem worldwide", "likely driven by the ageing population but also by factors such as high body-mass index, urbanisation, and the growing burden of <a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-communicable diseases">NCDs</a> (such as type 2 diabetes) and tuberculosis in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)".<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Around the world, <a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate" title="List of causes of death by rate">many people</a> do not die from one isolated condition but from a multitude of factors and conditions.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">additional citation(s) needed</a>] A study suggested there is a paucity of multimorbidity and comorbidity data globally and mapped comorbidity patterns.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">With aging populations</a>, there is a rise of <a href="/wiki/Age-related_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Age-related diseases">age-related diseases</a> which puts major burdens on <a href="/wiki/Healthcare_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare system">healthcare systems</a> as well as contemporary economies or contemporary economics and their appendant societal systems. <a href="/wiki/Life_extension#Beliefs_and_methods" title="Life extension">Healthspan extension and anti-aging research</a> seek to extend the span of health in the old as well as slow aging or its negative impacts such as physical and mental decline. Modern anti-senescent and regenerative technology with augmented decision making could help "responsibly bridge the <a href="/wiki/Healthspan" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthspan">healthspan</a>-<a href="/wiki/Human_lifespan" class="mw-redirect" title="Human lifespan">lifespan</a> gap for a future of equitable global wellbeing".<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Aging is "the most prevalent risk factor for chronic disease, frailty and disability, and it is estimated that there will be over 2 billion persons age > 60 by the year <a href="/wiki/2050" class="mw-redirect" title="2050">2050</a>", making it a large global health challenge that demands substantial (and well-orchestrated or efficient) efforts, including interventions that alter and target the inborn <a href="/wiki/Aging" class="mw-redirect" title="Aging">aging</a> process.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infertility_crisis">Infertility crisis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Male_infertility_crisis" title="Male infertility crisis">Male infertility crisis</a></div> A <a href="/wiki/Scientific_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific review">scientific review</a> found that human <a href="/wiki/Sperm_counts" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm counts">sperm counts</a> fell <a href="/wiki/Male_infertility_crisis" title="Male infertility crisis">by 62% in the last 50 years, are decreasing at an accelerating rate</a> and are decreasing worldwide,<a href="#cite_note-spermcountsdeclines-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> likely a result of factors such as <a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">poor diets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor">endocrine disruptors</a> in prevalent products, unhealthy lifestyles and toxic <a href="/wiki/Forever_chemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Forever chemicals">forever chemicals</a> in air and water.<a href="#cite_note-spermcountsdeclines-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_interventions">Health interventions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Health_human_resources" title="Health human resources">Health human resources</a></div> Global interventions for improved <a href="/wiki/Child_survival" class="mw-redirect" title="Child survival">child health and survival</a> include the promotion of breastfeeding, zinc supplementation, vitamin A fortification, <a href="/wiki/Salt_iodization" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt iodization">salt iodization</a>, hygiene interventions such as hand-washing, vaccinations, and treatments of <a href="/wiki/Severe_acute_malnutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe acute malnutrition">severe acute malnutrition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bhutta2008-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Global_Health_Council" title="Global Health Council">Global Health Council</a> suggests a list of 32 treatments and health interventions that could potentially save several million lives each year.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Many populations face an "outcome gap", which refers to the gap between members of a population who have access to medical treatment versus those who do not. Countries facing outcome gaps lack sustainable infrastructure.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, a subset of the public sector, the Programa de Accessibilidad a los Medicamentos ("Program for Access to Medicines"), had the lowest average availability (25%) compared to the private sector (35%). In the private sector, the highest- and lowest-priced medicines were 22.7 and 10.7 times more expensive than international reference prices respectively. Treatments were generally unaffordable, costing as much as 15 days wages for a course of the antibiotic <a href="/wiki/Ceftriaxone" title="Ceftriaxone">ceftriaxone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> The public sector in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, while having access to medicines at a lower price than international reference prices, has a chronic shortage of and lack of access to basic medicines.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Journalist <a href="/wiki/Laurie_Garrett" title="Laurie Garrett">Laurie Garrett</a> argues that the field of global health is not plagued by a lack of funds, but that more funds do not always translate into positive outcomes. The problem lies in the way these funds are allocated, as they are often disproportionately allocated to alleviating a single disease.<a href="#cite_note-Garrett,_Laurie_2007-149">[149]</a> <dl><dt>Labor shortages</dt></dl> In its 2006 <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Report" title="World Health Report">World Health Report</a>, the WHO estimated a <a href="/wiki/Labor_shortage" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor shortage">shortage</a> of almost 4.3 million doctors, midwives, nurses, and support workers worldwide, especially in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> A 2022 study estimated that, "in 2019, the world had 104.0 million (95% uncertainty interval 83.5–128.0) <a href="/wiki/Health_worker" class="mw-redirect" title="Health worker">health workers</a>, including 12.8 million (9.7–16.6) physicians, 29.8 million (23.3–37.7) nurses and midwives, 4.6 million (3.6–6.0) dentistry personnel, and 5.2 million (4.0–6.7) pharmaceutical personnel" and found that sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia, and north Africa and the Middle East had the lowest densities of human resources for health.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> However, even when only considering current technologies and processes (such as only little use of <a href="/wiki/Telehealth" title="Telehealth">telehealth</a> as of 2022), overall numbers of personnel and shortages do not consider sub-national geographic distribution of various types of health workers (or expertise). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_health_security">Global health security</h2></div> The <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> has highlighted how global <a href="/wiki/Health_security" title="Health security">health security</a> is reliant on all countries around the world, including low- and middle-income countries, having strong health systems and at least a minimum of health research capacities. In an article 2020 in Annals of Global Health,<a href="#cite_note-pmid32832386-152">[152]</a> the ESSENCE group outlined a mechanism for review of investment in health research capacity building in low- and middle-income countries. The review mechanism will give funders of research for health the information to identify the gaps in the capacity that exist in low- and middle-income countries and the opportunity to work together to address those disparities. The overall goal is increased, coordinated support of research on national health priorities as well as improved pandemic preparedness in LMICs, and, eventually, fewer countries with very limited health research capacity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_factors_impacting_health">Global factors impacting health</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Effects of climate change on human health</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heat_stroke_treatment,_Baton_Rouge,_2016_Louisiana_floods.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Heat_stroke_treatment%2C_Baton_Rouge%2C_2016_Louisiana_floods.jpg/220px-Heat_stroke_treatment%2C_Baton_Rouge%2C_2016_Louisiana_floods.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Heat_stroke_treatment%2C_Baton_Rouge%2C_2016_Louisiana_floods.jpg/330px-Heat_stroke_treatment%2C_Baton_Rouge%2C_2016_Louisiana_floods.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Heat_stroke_treatment%2C_Baton_Rouge%2C_2016_Louisiana_floods.jpg/440px-Heat_stroke_treatment%2C_Baton_Rouge%2C_2016_Louisiana_floods.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Example of impacts on health: <a href="/wiki/Heat_stroke" title="Heat stroke">Heat stroke</a> treatment at Baton Rouge during the <a href="/wiki/2016_Louisiana_floods" title="2016 Louisiana floods">2016 Louisiana floods</a>. Climate change is making <a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">heat waves</a> more intense, potentially leading to a higher risk of heat stroke.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">effects of climate change on human health</a> are profound because they increase <a href="/wiki/Heat_illness" title="Heat illness">heat-related illnesses</a> and deaths, <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">respiratory diseases</a>, and the spread of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious diseases">infectious diseases</a>. There is widespread agreement among researchers, health professionals and organizations that climate change is the biggest global health threat of the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_:6-154">[154]</a> Rising temperatures and changes in weather patterns are increasing the severity of <a href="/wiki/Heat_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat waves">heat waves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather</a> and other causes of illness, injury or death. Heat waves and extreme weather events have a big impact on health both directly and indirectly. When people are exposed to higher temperatures for longer time periods they might experience <a href="/wiki/Heat_illness" title="Heat illness">heat illness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heat-related_deaths" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat-related deaths">heat-related death</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Romanello2021-155">[155]</a> In addition to direct impacts, climate change and extreme weather events cause changes in the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>. Climate change will impact where infectious diseases are able to spread in the future. Many infectious diseases will spread to new geographic areas where people have not previously been exposed to them.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Baker32-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Wilson32-157">[157]</a> Certain diseases that are carried and spread by living hosts such as <a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">mosquitoes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease" title="Tick-borne disease">ticks</a> (known as <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">vectors</a>) may become more common in some regions. Affected diseases include <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Romanello2021-155">[155]</a> Contracting <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_disease_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne disease and climate change">waterborne diseases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Diarrhoeal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Diarrhoeal disease">diarrhoeal disease</a> will also be more likely.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Levy32-158">[158]</a> Changes in climate can cause <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">decreasing yields for some crops</a> and regions, resulting in higher <a href="/wiki/Food_prices" title="Food prices">food prices</a>, less <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">available food</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">undernutrition</a>. Climate change can also reduce access to <a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">clean and safe water supply</a>. Extreme weather and its health impact can also threaten the livelihoods and economic stability of people. These factors together can lead to increasing poverty, <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">human migration</a>, violent conflict, and <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">mental health</a> issues.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Watts2019-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Romanello202132-160">[160]</a> Climate change affects human health at all ages, from infancy through adolescence, adulthood and old age.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Romanello2021-155">[155]</a> Factors such as age, gender and <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic status</a> influence to what extent these effects become wide-spread risks to human health.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_:8-161">[161]</a>: 1867  Some groups are more <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">vulnerable</a> than others to the health effects of climate change. These include children, the elderly, outdoor workers and disadvantaged people.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Romanello2021-155">[155]</a>: 15 </div></div> A comprehensive annually scheduled study finds climate change is "undermining every dimension of global health monitored" and reports dire conclusions from <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation#Monitoring" title="Climate change mitigation">tracking of impact indicators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> The effects of climate change have also increased the risk of health conditions, such as lung disease or asthma which are caused by air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-DAmato16-164">[164]</a> These medical conditions are caused due to extreme heatwaves or by "higher concentrations of ground-level ozone".<a href="#cite_note-DAmato16-164">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antimicrobial_resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</h3></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antimicrobial_resistance&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two petri dishes with antibiotic resistance tests" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg/310px-Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg/465px-Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg/620px-Antibiotic_sensitivity_and_resistance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2456" data-file-height="1273" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Disk_diffusion_test" title="Disk diffusion test">Antibiotic resistance tests</a>: Bacteria are streaked on dishes with white disks, each impregnated with a different antibiotic. Clear rings, such as those on the left, show that bacteria have not grown—indicating that these bacteria are not resistant. The bacteria on the right are fully resistant to three of seven and partially resistant to two of seven antibiotics tested.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a> (AMR or AR) occurs when <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbes</a> evolve mechanisms that protect them from <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobials" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimicrobials">antimicrobials</a>, which are drugs used to treat <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Antimicrobial_resistance_CDC_About_Antimicrobial_Resistance-166">[166]</a> This resistance affects all classes of microbes, including <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> (antibiotic resistance), <a href="/wiki/Viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Viruses">viruses</a> (antiviral resistance), <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">parasites</a> (antiparasitic resistance), and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> (antifungal resistance). Together, these adaptations fall under the AMR umbrella, posing significant challenges to healthcare worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-Antimicrobial_resistance_WHO2014-167">[167]</a> Misuse and improper management of antimicrobials are primary drivers of this resistance, though it can also occur naturally through genetic mutations and the spread of resistant genes.<a href="#cite_note-Antimicrobial_resistance_Tanwar_2014-168">[168]</a> Antibiotic resistance, a significant AMR subset, enables <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> to survive <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotic</a> treatment, complicating infection management and treatment options.<a href="#cite_note-Antimicrobial_resistance_WHO2014-167">[167]</a> Resistance arises through spontaneous mutation, <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>, and increased selective pressure from <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_misuse" title="Antibiotic misuse">antibiotic overuse</a>, both in medicine and agriculture, which accelerates resistance development.<a href="#cite_note-Antimicrobial_resistance_:3-169">[169]</a> The burden of AMR is immense, with nearly 5 million annual deaths associated with resistant infections.<a href="#cite_note-Antimicrobial_resistance_WHO10October2024-170">[170]</a> Infections from AMR microbes are more challenging to treat and often require costly alternative therapies that may have more severe side effects.<a href="#cite_note-Antimicrobial_resistance_Saha_2021-171">[171]</a> Preventive measures, such as using <a href="/wiki/Narrow-spectrum_antibiotic" title="Narrow-spectrum antibiotic">narrow-spectrum antibiotics</a> and improving hygiene practices, aim to reduce the spread of resistance.<a href="#cite_note-Antimicrobial_resistance_Swedish-172">[172]</a> Microbes resistant to multiple drugs are termed <a href="/wiki/Multiple_drug_resistance" title="Multiple drug resistance">multidrug-resistant</a> (MDR) and are sometimes called superbugs.<a href="#cite_note-Antimicrobial_resistance_Magiorakos-173">[173]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) claims that AMR is one of the top global public health and development threats, estimating that bacterial AMR was directly responsible for 1.27 million global deaths in 2019 and contributed to 4.95 million deaths.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> Moreover, the WHO and other international bodies warn that AMR could lead to up to 10 million deaths annually by 2050 unless actions are taken.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Global initiatives, such as calls for international AMR treaties, emphasize coordinated efforts to limit misuse, fund research, and provide access to necessary antimicrobials in developing nations. However, the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> redirected resources and scientific attention away from AMR, intensifying the challenge.<a href="#cite_note-Antimicrobial_resistance_pmid33772597-176">[176]</a></div></div> AMR has been described as a leading global health issue. Globally, 1.27 million deaths in 2019 were attributable to AMR. That year, AMR may have contributed to 5 million deaths and one in five people who died due to AMR were children under five years old.<a href="#cite_note-Murray_2022-177">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2></div> Governmental or inter-governmental organizations focused on global health include: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a> (IARC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/WHO_Centre_for_Health_Development" title="WHO Centre for Health Development">WHO Centre for Health Development</a> (WKC)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Children%27s_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Children's Fund">United Nations Children's Fund</a> (UNICEF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">World Food Programme</a> (WFP)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_American_Health_Organization" title="Pan American Health Organization">Pan American Health Organization</a> (PAHO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Global_Fund_to_Fight_AIDS,_Tuberculosis_and_Malaria" title="The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria">The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_Emergency_Plan_for_AIDS_Relief" title="President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief">President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief</a> (PEPFAR)</li></ul> Non-governmental organizations focused on global health include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res" title="Médecins Sans Frontières">Médecins Sans Frontières</a> (Doctors Without Borders, MSF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_%26_Melinda_Gates_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation">Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governments_and_analysis">Governments and analysis</h3></div> A study of select global health related organizations and initiatives suggests that major trends in global health governance appear to be "towards more discretionary funding and away from core or longer-term funding; towards defined multi-stakeholder governance and away from traditional government-centred representation and decision-making; and towards narrower mandates or problem-focused vertical initiatives and away from broader systemic goals".<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> There is a growing willingness to use militaries in <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a>-led support of global health efforts which have capabilities ranging from "research, surveillance, and medical expertise to rapidly deployable, large-scale assets for logistics, transportation, and security".<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_Health_Security_Agenda">Global Health Security Agenda</h3></div> The Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA) is "a multilateral, multi-sector effort that includes 60 participating countries and numerous private and public international organizations focused on building up worldwide health security capabilities toward meeting such threats" as the spread of infectious disease. On March 26–28, 2018, the GHSA held a high-level meeting in Tbilisi, Georgia, on biosurveillance of infectious disease threats, "which include such modern-day examples as HIV/AIDS, <a href="/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe acute respiratory syndrome">severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)</a>, <a href="/wiki/H1N1_influenza" class="mw-redirect" title="H1N1 influenza">H1N1 influenza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multi-drug-resistant_tuberculosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis">multi-drug resistant tuberculosis</a>—any emerging or reemerging disease that threatens human health and global economic stability".<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> This event brought together GHSA partner countries, contributing countries of Real-Time Surveillance Action Package, and international partner organizations supporting the strengthening of capacities to detect infectious disease threats within the Real-Time Surveillance Action Package and other cross-cutting packages.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> GHSA works through four main mechanisms of member action, action packages, task forces and international cooperation. In 2015, the Steering Group of the GHSA agreed upon the implementation of their commitments through 11 Action Packages. Action Packages are a commitment by member countries and their partners to work collaboratively towards development and implementation of International Health Regulations (IHR).<a href="#cite_note-Mcphee-182">[182]</a> Action packages are based on GHSA's aim to strengthen national and international capacity to prevent, detect, and respond to infectious disease threats. Each action package consists of five-year targets, measures of progress, desired impacts, country commitments, and list of baseline assessments.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> The Joint External Evaluation process, derived as part of the IHR Monitoring and Evaluation Framework is an assessment of a country's capacity for responding to public health threats.<a href="#cite_note-Mcphee-182">[182]</a> So far, G7 partners and EU have made a collective commitment to assist 76 countries whereas the US committed to helping 32 countries to achieve GHSA targets for IHR implementation. In September 2014, a pilot tool was developed to measure progress of the Action Packages and applied in countries (Georgia, Peru, Uganda, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and Ukraine) that volunteered to participate in an external assessment.<a href="#cite_note-pmid27314658-184">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Priority-setting_in_global_health" title="Priority-setting in global health">Priority-setting in global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_health" title="Planetary health">Planetary health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_health_care" title="Universal health care">Universal health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Migrant health">Migrant health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_health_and_nutrition_in_Africa" title="Child health and nutrition in Africa">Child health and nutrition in Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Strategy_for_Women%27s_and_Children%27s_Health" title="Global Strategy for Women's and Children's Health">Global Strategy for Women's and Children's Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAB_Direct_(database)#Global_Health_database" class="mw-redirect" title="CAB Direct (database)">CAB Direct — Global Health database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_neurosurgery" title="Global neurosurgery">Global neurosurgery</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrownCuetoFee2006" 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BMC Public Health. 19 (1): 631. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12889-019-6978-8">10.1186/s12889-019-6978-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6533773">6533773</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31122234">31122234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+sectoral+participation+in+the+development+of+Joint+External+Evaluations&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=631&rft.date=2019-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6533773%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31122234&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12889-019-6978-8&rft.aulast=McPhee&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Gronvall%2C+GK&rft.au=Sell%2C+TK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6533773&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/security/actionpackages/default.htm">"Global Health Security Agenda: Action Packages"</a>. CDC. 2016. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CDC&rft.atitle=Global+Health+Security+Agenda%3A+Action+Packages&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fglobalhealth%2Fsecurity%2Factionpackages%2Fdefault.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid27314658-184"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid27314658_184-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolickiNuzzoBlazesPitts2016" class="citation journal cs1">Wolicki SB, Nuzzo JB, Blazes DL, Pitts DL, Iskander JK, Tappero JW (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6937158">"Public Health Surveillance: At the Core of the Global Health Security Agenda"</a>. Health Security. 14 (3): 185–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fhs.2016.0002">10.1089/hs.2016.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6937158">6937158</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27314658">27314658</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Security&rft.atitle=Public+Health+Surveillance%3A+At+the+Core+of+the+Global+Health+Security+Agenda&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E185-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6937158%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27314658&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fhs.2016.0002&rft.aulast=Wolicki&rft.aufirst=SB&rft.au=Nuzzo%2C+JB&rft.au=Blazes%2C+DL&rft.au=Pitts%2C+DL&rft.au=Iskander%2C+JK&rft.au=Tappero%2C+JW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6937158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsen2008" class="citation book cs1">Jacobsen K (2008). Introduction to Global Health. Jones & Bartlett Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-5159-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-5159-3"><bdi>978-0-7637-5159-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Global+Health&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-5159-3&rft.aulast=Jacobsen&rft.aufirst=K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine2007" class="citation book cs1">Levine R (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fafpHV26iK8C">Case Studies in Global Health: Millions Saved</a>. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-4620-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-4620-9"><bdi>978-0-7637-4620-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Case+Studies+in+Global+Health%3A+Millions+Saved&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-4620-9&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfafpHV26iK8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer2010" class="citation book cs1">Palmer SP (2010). Launching Global Health: The Caribbean Odyssey of the Rockefeller Foundation. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-07089-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-07089-3"><bdi>978-0-472-07089-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Launching+Global+Health%3A+The+Caribbean+Odyssey+of+the+Rockefeller+Foundation&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-472-07089-3&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=SP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingerErickson2013" class="citation book cs1">Singer M, Erickson PI (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kXMfAAAAQBAJ">Global Health: An Anthropological Perspective</a>. Waveland Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4786-1028-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4786-1028-1"><bdi>978-1-4786-1028-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Health%3A+An+Anthropological+Perspective&rft.pub=Waveland+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4786-1028-1&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Erickson%2C+PI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkXMfAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkolnik2008" class="citation book cs1">Skolnik R (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XBARu3KzSNAC">Essentials of Global Health</a>. Jones & Bartlett Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-3421-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-3421-3"><bdi>978-0-7637-3421-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Global+Health&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-3421-3&rft.aulast=Skolnik&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXBARu3KzSNAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkolnik2011" class="citation book cs1">Skolnik R (2011). Global Health 101. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-9752-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-9752-2"><bdi>978-0-7637-9752-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Health+101&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-9752-2&rft.aulast=Skolnik&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpiegelHuish2009" class="citation journal cs1">Spiegel JM, Huish R (2009). "Canadian foreign aid for global health: Human security opportunity lost". Canadian Foreign Policy Journal. 15 (3): 60–84. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F11926422.2009.9673492">10.1080/11926422.2009.9673492</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1192-6422">1192-6422</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154963843">154963843</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Foreign+Policy+Journal&rft.atitle=Canadian+foreign+aid+for+global+health%3A+Human+security+opportunity+lost&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E60-%3C%2Fspan%3E84&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154963843%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1192-6422&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F11926422.2009.9673492&rft.aulast=Spiegel&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Huish%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorHwendaLarsenDaulaire2011" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor AL, Hwenda L, Larsen BI, Daulaire N (December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMp1108658">"Stemming the brain drain--a WHO global code of practice on international recruitment of health personnel"</a>. The New England Journal of Medicine. 365 (25): 2348–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMp1108658">10.1056/NEJMp1108658</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22187983">22187983</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Stemming+the+brain+drain--a+WHO+global+code+of+practice+on+international+recruitment+of+health+personnel&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=25&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2348-%3C%2Fspan%3E51&rft.date=2011-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMp1108658&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22187983&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=AL&rft.au=Hwenda%2C+L&rft.au=Larsen%2C+BI&rft.au=Daulaire%2C+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1056%252FNEJMp1108658&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiteStallonesLast2013" class="citation book cs1">White F, Stallones L, Last JM (2013). Global Public Health: Ecological Foundations. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975190-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975190-7"><bdi>978-0-19-975190-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Public+Health%3A+Ecological+Foundations&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-975190-7&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Stallones%2C+L&rft.au=Last%2C+JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+health" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.globalhealth.gov/">GlobalHealth.gov</a> (hosted by U.S. Department of Health & Human Services)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061116024058/http://www.who.int/pmnch/">Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://endmalaria.org/">Roll Back Malaria</a> — global partnership against malaria</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stoptb.org/">Stop TB</a> — global partnership against tuberculosis</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_healthy_environment" title="Right to a healthy environment">Right to a healthy environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_checking" title="Drug checking">Drug checking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_and_syringe_programmes" title="Needle and syringe programmes">Needle and syringe programmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagent_testing" title="Reagent testing">Reagent testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's t-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test">Z-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations, education and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_public_health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of public health in the United Kingdom">History of public health in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_public_health_in_the_United_States" title="History of public health in the United States">History of public health in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_health" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Public health">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Nursing" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Nursing">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Globalization493" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Globalization" title="Template:Globalization"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Globalization" title="Template talk:Globalization"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Globalization" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Globalization"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Globalization493" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_globalization-related_journals" title="List of globalization-related journals">Journals</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_globalization" title="Outline of globalization">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alter-globalization" title="Alter-globalization">Alter-globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">Anti-globalization movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_globalization" title="Cultural globalization">Cultural globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deglobalization" title="Deglobalization">Deglobalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_globalization" title="Democratic globalization">Democratic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_globalization" title="Environmental globalization">Environmental globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship" title="Global citizenship">Global citizenship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship_education" title="Global citizenship education">education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_system" title="Global financial system">Global financial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_governance" title="Global governance">Global governance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_migration" title="International migration">Global migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_politics" title="Global politics">Global politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_workforce" title="Global workforce">Global workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globality" title="Globality">Globality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_globalization" title="History of globalization">History of</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_globalization" title="Archaic globalization">archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-globalization" title="Proto-globalization">early modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_globalization" title="Military globalization">Military globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_globalization" title="Political globalization">Political globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_globalization" title="Trade globalization">Trade globalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Global</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Climate justice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_digital_divide" title="Global digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_labor_arbitrage" title="Global labor arbitrage">Labor arbitrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism_and_globalization" title="Multilingualism and globalization">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_haven" title="Tax haven">Tax havens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_financial_centre" title="Offshore financial centre">Offshore financial centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_inversion" title="Tax inversion">Tax inversions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight" title="Human capital flight">Brain drain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_brain_drain" title="Reverse brain drain">reverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Care_drain" title="Care drain">Care drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_aid" title="Development aid">Development aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">Endangered languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_financial_flows" title="Illicit financial flows">Illicit financial flows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_imperialism" title="Academic imperialism">academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_imperialism" title="Scientific imperialism">scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investor-state_dispute_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Investor-state dispute settlement">Investor-state disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDonaldization" title="McDonaldization">McDonaldization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_international_division_of_labour" title="New international division of labour">New international division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="North–South divide in the World">North–South divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring">Offshoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_bottom" title="Race to the bottom">Race to the bottom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">pollution havens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_organized_crime" title="Transnational organized crime">Transnational crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">Capital accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_localism" title="Fiscal localism">Fiscal localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">Modernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_modernization" title="Ecological modernization">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_modernisation_theory" title="History of modernisation theory">history of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Autor" title="David Autor">David Autor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Baldwin_(economist)" title="Richard Baldwin (economist)">Richard Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Batra" title="Ravi Batra">Ravi Batra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Bhagwati" title="Jagdish Bhagwati">Jagdish Bhagwati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brenner" title="Robert Brenner">Robert Brenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayati_Ghosh" title="Jayati Ghosh">Jayati Ghosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hudson_(economist)" title="Michael Hudson (economist)">Michael Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Milanovi%C4%87" title="Branko Milanović">Branko Milanović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_O%27Rourke" title="Kevin O'Rourke">Kevin O'Rourke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Thomas Piketty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dani_Rodrik" title="Dani Rodrik">Dani Rodrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sachs" title="Jeffrey Sachs">Jeffrey Sachs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political economy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Arrighi" title="Giovanni Arrighi">Giovanni Arrighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Cox" title="Robert W. Cox">Robert W. Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andre_Gunder_Frank" title="Andre Gunder Frank">Andre Gunder Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gill_(political_scientist)" title="Stephen Gill (political scientist)">Stephen Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gowan" title="Peter Gowan">Peter Gowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronen_Palan" title="Ronen Palan">Ronen Palan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Strange" title="Susan Strange">Susan Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wade_(scholar)" title="Robert Wade (scholar)">Robert Wade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics/ sociology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Appadurai" title="Arjun Appadurai">Arjun Appadurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniele_Archibugi" title="Daniele Archibugi">Daniele Archibugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">K. Anthony Appiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Beck" title="Ulrich Beck">Ulrich Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walden_Bello" title="Walden Bello">Walden Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Zygmunt Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Manuel Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Chase-Dunn" title="Christopher Chase-Dunn">Christopher Chase-Dunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._Crosby" title="Alfred W. Crosby">Alfred Crosby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Nancy Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_George_(political_scientist)" title="Susan George (political scientist)">Susan George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Michael Hardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Held" title="David Held">David Held</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hirst" title="Paul Hirst">Paul Hirst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._H._M._Ling" title="L. H. M. Ling">L. H. M. Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ritzer" title="George Ritzer">George Ritzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saskia_Sassen" title="Saskia Sassen">Saskia Sassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Urry_(sociologist)" title="John Urry (sociologist)">John Urry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non–academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Friedman" title="Thomas Friedman">Thomas Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naomi_Klein" title="Naomi Klein">Naomi Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ralston_Saul" title="John Ralston Saul">John R. Saul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandana_Shiva" title="Vandana Shiva">Vandana Shiva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Globalization" title="Category:Globalization">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/42px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/56px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Effective_altruism81" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Effective_altruism" title="Template:Effective altruism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Effective_altruism" title="Template talk:Effective altruism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Effective_altruism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Effective altruism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Effective_altruism81" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effective_altruism" title="Effective altruism">Effective altruism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_effectiveness" title="Aid effectiveness">Aid effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_assessment" title="Charity assessment">Charity assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demandingness_objection" title="Demandingness objection">Demandingness objection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">Disability-adjusted life year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">Disease burden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributional_cost-effectiveness_analysis" title="Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis">Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earning_to_give" title="Earning to give">Earning to give</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_consideration_of_interests" title="Equal consideration of interests">Equal consideration of interests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longtermism" title="Longtermism">Longtermism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_utility" title="Marginal utility">Marginal utility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_circle_expansion" title="Moral circle expansion">Moral circle expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_barriers_to_effective_altruism" title="Psychological barriers to effective altruism">Psychological barriers to effective altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life_year" title="Quality-adjusted life year">Quality-adjusted life year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_philanthropy" title="Venture philanthropy">Venture philanthropy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Bankman-Fried" title="Sam Bankman-Fried">Sam Bankman-Fried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liv_Boeree" title="Liv Boeree">Liv Boeree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" title="Nick Bostrom">Nick Bostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Greaves" title="Hilary Greaves">Hilary Greaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holden_Karnofsky" title="Holden Karnofsky">Holden Karnofsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_MacAskill" title="William MacAskill">William MacAskill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dustin_Moskovitz" title="Dustin Moskovitz">Dustin Moskovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yew-Kwang_Ng" title="Yew-Kwang Ng">Yew-Kwang Ng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toby_Ord" title="Toby Ord">Toby Ord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cari_Tuna" title="Cari Tuna">Cari Tuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Yudkowsky" title="Eliezer Yudkowsky">Eliezer Yudkowsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/80,000_Hours" title="80,000 Hours">80,000 Hours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Against_Malaria_Foundation" title="Against Malaria Foundation">Against Malaria Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Charity_Evaluators" title="Animal Charity Evaluators">Animal Charity Evaluators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_(organization)" title="Animal Ethics (organization)">Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Effective_Altruism" title="Centre for Effective Altruism">Centre for Effective Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Enabling_EA_Learning_%26_Research" title="Centre for Enabling EA Learning & Research">Centre for Enabling EA Learning & Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_High_Impact_Philanthropy" title="Center for High Impact Philanthropy">Center for High Impact Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_Media_International" title="Development Media International">Development Media International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_Action" title="Evidence Action">Evidence Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunalytics" title="Faunalytics">Faunalytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fistula_Foundation" title="Fistula Foundation">Fistula Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Pledge" title="Founders Pledge">Founders Pledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GiveDirectly" title="GiveDirectly">GiveDirectly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GiveWell" title="GiveWell">GiveWell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giving_Multiplier" title="Giving Multiplier">Giving Multiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giving_What_We_Can" title="Giving What We Can">Giving What We Can</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Food_Fund" title="Good Food Fund">Good Food Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Food_Institute" title="The Good Food Institute">The Good Food Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Ventures" title="Good Ventures">Good Ventures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Humane_League" title="The Humane League">The Humane League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy_for_Animals" title="Mercy for Animals">Mercy for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Intelligence_Research_Institute" title="Machine Intelligence Research Institute">Machine Intelligence Research Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_Consortium" title="Malaria Consortium">Malaria Consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Philanthropy_(organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Philanthropy (organization)">Open Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raising_for_Effective_Giving" title="Raising for Effective Giving">Raising for Effective Giving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentience_Institute" title="Sentience Institute">Sentience Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimit_Health" title="Unlimit Health">Unlimit Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Animal_Initiative" title="Wild Animal Initiative">Wild Animal Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Focus areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_stability" title="Economic stability">Economic stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial general intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risk</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="Global poverty">Global poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">Intensive animal farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_extension" title="Life extension">Life extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_prevention" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaria prevention">Malaria prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_deworming" title="Mass deworming">Mass deworming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">Neglected tropical diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_of_astronomical_suffering" title="Risk of astronomical suffering">Risk of astronomical suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doing_Good_Better" title="Doing Good Better">Doing Good Better</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Animal_Farming" title="The End of Animal Farming">The End of Animal Farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famine,_Affluence,_and_Morality" title="Famine, Affluence, and Morality">Famine, Affluence, and Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Life_You_Can_Save" title="The Life You Can Save">The Life You Can Save</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_High_and_Letting_Die" title="Living High and Letting Die">Living High and Letting Die</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Most_Good_You_Can_Do" title="The Most Good You Can Do">The Most Good You Can Do</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Precipice:_Existential_Risk_and_the_Future_of_Humanity" title="The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity">The Precipice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superintelligence:_Paths,_Dangers,_Strategies" title="Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies">Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/What_We_Owe_the_Future" title="What We Owe the Future">What We Owe the Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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