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id="toc-Flavian_and_Antonine_hairstyles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flavian_and_Antonine_hairstyles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Flavian and Antonine hairstyles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flavian_and_Antonine_hairstyles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Severan_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Severan_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Severan dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Severan_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Men's_hairstyles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Men's_hairstyles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Men's hairstyles</span> </div> </a> <ul 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decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Salonina_Matidia_Musei_Capitolini_MC889_n2.jpg/330px-Salonina_Matidia_Musei_Capitolini_MC889_n2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Salonina_Matidia_Musei_Capitolini_MC889_n2.jpg/440px-Salonina_Matidia_Musei_Capitolini_MC889_n2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="3450" /></a><figcaption>Marble bust 'Matidia 1' c.119 CE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Woman_statue_detail_Istanbul_Archaeological_Museum_-_inv._2269_T.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Roman_Woman_statue_detail_Istanbul_Archaeological_Museum_-_inv._2269_T.jpg/220px-Roman_Woman_statue_detail_Istanbul_Archaeological_Museum_-_inv._2269_T.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Roman_Woman_statue_detail_Istanbul_Archaeological_Museum_-_inv._2269_T.jpg/330px-Roman_Woman_statue_detail_Istanbul_Archaeological_Museum_-_inv._2269_T.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Roman_Woman_statue_detail_Istanbul_Archaeological_Museum_-_inv._2269_T.jpg/440px-Roman_Woman_statue_detail_Istanbul_Archaeological_Museum_-_inv._2269_T.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3744" data-file-height="5616" /></a><figcaption>Roman statue of a woman with elaborate hairstyle (<a href="/wiki/Aphrodisias" title="Aphrodisias">Aphrodisias</a>, 2nd century AD)</figcaption></figure><p>Hairstyle fashion in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> was ever changing, and particularly in the Roman <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Imperial Period</a> there were a number of different ways to style hair. As with clothes, there were several hairstyles that were limited to certain people in ancient society. Styles are so distinctive they allow scholars today to create a chronology of <a href="/wiki/Roman_portraiture" title="Roman portraiture">Roman portraiture</a> and art; we are able to date pictures of the empresses on coins or identify busts depending on their hairstyles. </p><p>Barbery was introduced to Rome by <a href="/wiki/Titinia_gens" title="Titinia gens">Publius Titinius Menas</a>, who, in 209 or 300 BCE, brought a barber from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Greek colonies</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>. During earlier parts of Roman history, most people acted as their own barber. Due to the difficulty in handling the tools of barbery the craft became a profession. This profession prospered most during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Imperial period.</a> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance">Significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_dei_Misteri_IX_-_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Villa_dei_Misteri_IX_-_1.jpg/220px-Villa_dei_Misteri_IX_-_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Villa_dei_Misteri_IX_-_1.jpg/330px-Villa_dei_Misteri_IX_-_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Villa_dei_Misteri_IX_-_1.jpg/440px-Villa_dei_Misteri_IX_-_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="1210" /></a><figcaption>A young woman sits while a servant fixes her hair with the help of a <a href="/wiki/Cupid" title="Cupid">cupid</a>, who holds up a <a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">mirror</a> to offer a reflection, detail of a <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Mysteries" title="Villa of the Mysteries">Villa of the Mysteries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, c. 50 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Much like today, hair for the Romans was as much an expression of personal identity as clothes. Hairstyles were determined by a number of factors, namely gender, age, social status, wealth and profession. A woman's hairstyle expressed her individuality in the ancient Roman World. How one dressed one's hair was an indication of a person's status and role in society. </p><p>Hair was a very erotic area of the female body for the Romans, and attractiveness of a woman was tied to the presentation of her hair. As a result, it was seen as appropriate for a woman to spend time on her hair in order to create a flattering appearance. Hairdressing and its necessary accompaniment, mirror gazing, were seen as distinctly feminine activities. Lengthy grooming sessions for women were tolerated, despite writers such as Tertullian and Pliny commenting on their abhorrence for time and energy women dedicate to their hair.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the numerous depictions of women hairdressing and mirror-gazing in tomb reliefs and portraiture is a testament to how much hairdressing was seen as part of the female domain.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For more than just attractiveness, hairstyling was the leisure pursuit of the cultured, elegant woman. Hair was seen as much as an indication of wealth and social status as it was of taste and fashion. But unlike modern-day hairstyles, comfort and naturalism for the Romans took a back-seat to hairstyles that displayed the wearer's wealth to a maximum. In other words, having a complex and unnatural hairstyle would be preferred to a simple one, because it would illustrate the wealth of the wearer in being able to afford to take the time to style their hair.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartman_2001,_6_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartman_2001,_6-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For women to have a fashionable hairstyle showed they were part of the elegant Roman culture. </p><p>A 'natural' style was associated with barbarians, who the Romans believed had neither the money nor the culture to create these styles. "Natural" showed a lack of culture, and grooming of the hair went hand-in-hand with being part of a sophisticated civilization. The association with barbarians was why Roman men kept their hair cut short.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartman_2001,_6_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartman_2001,_6-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the job of slave hairdressers, called <i>ornatrices</i>, to create their master's hairstyle new each day, as well as pulling out any grey hairs.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from society, hair was used symbolically to mark rites of passage; for instance, loosened hair was common at a funeral, and the <i>seni crines</i> was the hairstyle worn by brides and <a href="/wiki/Vestal_Virgin" title="Vestal Virgin">Vestal Virgins</a>; divided and plaited into six braids, and in the case of the bride, it was parted with a spear.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A bride's hair was parted with a <i>hasta recurva</i> or <i>hasta caelibaris</i>, a bent iron spearhead and crowned with flowers. In addition to ceremonies hairstyle defined the age of a woman.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a marked difference in hair acceptable for preadolescent girls and sexually mature women. Preadolescent girls would often have long hair cascading down the back where as women would have equally long hair but it would be controlled through wrapping and braiding. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_and_religious">Medical and religious</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Medical and religious"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It was common for sailors to shave their eyebrows and dedicate the hair to the gods, to earn their protection. The <a href="/wiki/Vestal_Virgin" title="Vestal Virgin">Vestal virgins</a> would hang leftover hair on trees as a religious service and to <a href="/wiki/Consecration" class="mw-redirect" title="Consecration">consecrate</a> a person. In <a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial's</a> <a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">Epigrams</a> a <a href="/wiki/Character_(arts)" title="Character (arts)">character</a> named Encolpus dedicates their hair to a character named Phoebus.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans also believed that shaving one's head was necessary for <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosing</a> certain <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">illnesses</a>. Pliny the Elder suggested many possible <a href="/wiki/Cure" title="Cure">cures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">remedies</a> for <a href="/wiki/Hair_loss" title="Hair loss">balding</a> hair.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a popular <a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">custom</a> to dedicate the hair from someone's first haircut to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">gods</a>. Usually, the time a Roman would perform this act was when they reached the age of <a href="/wiki/20_(number)" title="20 (number)">20</a> or donned the <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga virillis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Headgear">Headgear</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Headgear"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perge_-_Faustina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Perge_-_Faustina.jpg/220px-Perge_-_Faustina.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Perge_-_Faustina.jpg/330px-Perge_-_Faustina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Perge_-_Faustina.jpg/440px-Perge_-_Faustina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Statue showing <i><a href="/wiki/Palla_(garment)" title="Palla (garment)">palla</a></i> drawn over head. This hairstyle is that of the Antonine Period.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Veils">Veils</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Veils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Perhaps due to its erotic association, hair was often linked with Roman ideas of female modesty and honour. We know that veils were important in this case, as they protected against (or encouraged, according to <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a>) solicitations by men.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Palla_(garment)" title="Palla (garment)">palla</a></i> was the mark of a married, respectable woman. It was a piece of cloth wrapped around the body with one end over the shoulder. There is significant evidence for the <i>palla</i> being draped over the back of the head as a veil.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>palla</i> supposedly signified the dignity and sexual modesty of a married woman, but due to its encumbering nature as a veil, there has been much debate whether it was only worn in public by the aristocracy, or if at all by working women of lower classes.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Vittae" title="Vittae">Vittae</a></i> were woollen fillets that bound a married woman's hair. They were another indication of a wife's modesty and purity and were seen as part of the clothing and presentation of a matron.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Vittae</i> could be inset with precious stones, or in the case of the <a href="/wiki/Flamen_Dialis" title="Flamen Dialis"><i>Flaminicae</i></a>, they would be purple in colour. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wigs">Wigs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Wigs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the nature of hair and the relatively wet climate in the upper reaches of the Roman Empire, there are very few examples of wigs that survive to this day. Women wore wigs whether they were bald or not. So too did men; Emperor <a href="/wiki/Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a> wore a wig, as did <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wigs allowed women to better achieve the kind of 'tall' styles that particularly punctuated the <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian</a> and Trajanic eras (e.g. the periods of 69–96 and 98–117 AD). So tall were these hairstyles, that ancient writer <a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a> likens them to multi-storey buildings. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>So important is the business of beautification; so numerous are the tiers and storeys piled one upon another on her head!</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Juvenal, <i>Satires</i><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fresco_showing_a_woman_looking_in_a_mirror_as_she_dresses_(or_undresses)_her_hair,_from_the_Villa_of_Arianna_at_Stabiae_(Castellammare_di_Stabia),_Naples_National_Archaeological_Museum_(17392924485).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Fresco_showing_a_woman_looking_in_a_mirror_as_she_dresses_%28or_undresses%29_her_hair%2C_from_the_Villa_of_Arianna_at_Stabiae_%28Castellammare_di_Stabia%29%2C_Naples_National_Archaeological_Museum_%2817392924485%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Fresco_showing_a_woman_looking_in_a_mirror_as_she_dresses_%28or_undresses%29_her_hair%2C_from_the_Villa_of_Arianna_at_Stabiae_%28Castellammare_di_Stabia%29%2C_Naples_National_Archaeological_Museum_%2817392924485%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Fresco_showing_a_woman_looking_in_a_mirror_as_she_dresses_%28or_undresses%29_her_hair%2C_from_the_Villa_of_Arianna_at_Stabiae_%28Castellammare_di_Stabia%29%2C_Naples_National_Archaeological_Museum_%2817392924485%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3067" data-file-height="4812" /></a><figcaption>Fresco showing a woman looking in a mirror as she dresses (or undresses) her hair, from the Villa of Arianna at <a href="/wiki/Stabiae" title="Stabiae">Stabiae</a> (Castellammare di Stabia), 1st century AD</figcaption></figure> <p>Wigs were made from human hair; <a href="/wiki/Blonde" class="mw-redirect" title="Blonde">blonde</a> hair from Germany and black from India were particularly prized, especially if the hair came from the head of a person from a conquered civilisation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The blond hair of various <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> symbolized the spoils of war. In cases where wigs were used to hide baldness, a natural look was preferred, therefore a wig with a hair colour similar to the wearer's original was worn. But in instances where a wig was worn for the purpose of showing off, naturalism did not play much of a part. Obviously fake wigs were preferred, sometimes intertwined with two contrasting hair colours with blonde hair from Germany and black from India.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gold dust also gave the appearance of blond hair and enhanced already blond hair. Emperor <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a> (r. 161 – 169 AD), who had natural blond hair, was said to sprinkle gold dust on his head to make himself even blonder.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marble_portrait_of_a_young_girl_wearing_a_wig,_about_120-230_AD,_British_Museum_(22810105149).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Marble_portrait_of_a_young_girl_wearing_a_wig%2C_about_120-230_AD%2C_British_Museum_%2822810105149%29.jpg/170px-Marble_portrait_of_a_young_girl_wearing_a_wig%2C_about_120-230_AD%2C_British_Museum_%2822810105149%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Marble_portrait_of_a_young_girl_wearing_a_wig%2C_about_120-230_AD%2C_British_Museum_%2822810105149%29.jpg/255px-Marble_portrait_of_a_young_girl_wearing_a_wig%2C_about_120-230_AD%2C_British_Museum_%2822810105149%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Marble_portrait_of_a_young_girl_wearing_a_wig%2C_about_120-230_AD%2C_British_Museum_%2822810105149%29.jpg/340px-Marble_portrait_of_a_young_girl_wearing_a_wig%2C_about_120-230_AD%2C_British_Museum_%2822810105149%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3190" data-file-height="4719" /></a><figcaption>Marble portrait of a young girl wearing a wig, about 120–230 AD, British Museum</figcaption></figure> <p>A convenience of wigs used by Romans is that they could be directly pinned onto the head of the wearer, meaning a style could be achieved much faster than if it had been done with the wearer's own hair. Further, it would lessen the inconvenience of having to grow one's own hair too long. It has been suggested that the necessary length to be able to create these hairstyles daily would be well below the shoulder, perhaps to the waist.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were two types of wig in Roman times: the full wig, called the <i>capillamentum</i>, and the half wig, called the <i>galerus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>galerus</i> could be in the form of a fillet of woolen hair used as padding to build an elaborate style, or as a toupee on the back or front of the head. Toupees were attached by pins, or by sewing it onto a piece of leather and attaching it as a wig. Further, glue could be used to affix it to the scalp or alternatively, as a bust from the British Museum illustrates, the toupee could be braided into the existing hair.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Janet_Stephens" title="Janet Stephens">Janet Stephens</a> is an amateur archaeologist and hairdresser who has reconstructed some of the hairstyles of ancient Rome, attempting to prove that they were not done with wigs, as commonly believed, but with the person's own hair.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Detachable_marble_wigs">Detachable marble wigs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Detachable marble wigs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bust_(sculpture)" title="Bust (sculpture)">Busts</a> themselves could have detachable wigs. There have been many suggestions as to why some busts have been created with detachable wigs and some without. Perhaps the main reason was to keep the bust looking up-to-date. It would have been too expensive to commission a new bust every time hair fashion changed, so a mix-and-match bust would have been preferable for women with less money.<sup id="cite_ref-Kleiner_and_Matheson_1996,_174_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kleiner_and_Matheson_1996,_174-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps another reason was to accommodate the <a href="/wiki/Syrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian">Syrian</a> ritual of anointing the skull of the bust with oil.<sup id="cite_ref-Kleiner_and_Matheson_1996,_174_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kleiner_and_Matheson_1996,_174-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Or further, in cases where the bust was a funerary commission, it can be safely assumed that the subject of the bust would not have had an opportunity to sit for another portrait after their death.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although exactly how these marble wigs were attached is unknown, the likely difficulty of changing the 'wigs' effectively would have probably put many women off choosing a detachable and reattachable bust in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Profession">Profession</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Profession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dyes">Dyes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dyes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dyeing hair was popular among women, although frequent dyeing often made it weaker. Tertullian discusses a hair dye that burnt the scalp and was harmful for the head.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artificial colors were applied as powders and gels. <a href="/wiki/Henna" title="Henna">Henna</a> or animal fat could be applied to make the hair more manageable.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To prevent graying, some Romans wore a paste at night made from herbs and earthworms; in addition, pigeon dung was used to lighten hair. In order to dye hair black, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> suggests applying leeches that have rotted in red wine for 40 days.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dyeing hair red involved a mixture of animal fat and beechwood ashes<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whilst saffron was used for golden tones.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ovid mentions several vegetable dyes.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To cure diseases such as hair loss, Pliny suggests the application of a sow's gall bladder, mixed with bull's urine, or the ashes of an ass's genitals, or other mixtures such as the ashes of a deer's antlers mixed with wine. Further, goat's milk or goat's dung is said to cure head lice.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_bone_pin_with_traces_of_green_dye_(FindID_67619).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Roman_bone_pin_with_traces_of_green_dye_%28FindID_67619%29.jpg/220px-Roman_bone_pin_with_traces_of_green_dye_%28FindID_67619%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Roman_bone_pin_with_traces_of_green_dye_%28FindID_67619%29.jpg/330px-Roman_bone_pin_with_traces_of_green_dye_%28FindID_67619%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Roman_bone_pin_with_traces_of_green_dye_%28FindID_67619%29.jpg/440px-Roman_bone_pin_with_traces_of_green_dye_%28FindID_67619%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Roman <a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">bone pin</a> with traces of a green dye</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, in his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars" title="The Twelve Caesars">The Twelve Caesars</a></i> states:<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>These he reserved for his parade, compelling them not only to dye their hair red and to let it grow long,</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars</cite></div></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_ancient_Rome" title="Prostitution in ancient Rome">Roman prostitutes</a> <a href="/wiki/Hair_coloring" title="Hair coloring">dyed</a> their hair yellow to indicate their profession. Usually, they would just wear a <a href="/wiki/Wig" title="Wig">wig</a> dyed yellow. To dye their hair yellow they used a mixture of the ashes of burnt nuts or plants. Romans would make a black dye by <a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermenting</a> <a href="/wiki/Leech" title="Leech">leeches</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sappho_fresco.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Round painting of a woman with curly hair wearing a gold hairnet while holding a wax writing tablet. She has the stylus in her right hand and the tip in her mouth." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Sappho_fresco.jpg/220px-Sappho_fresco.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Sappho_fresco.jpg/330px-Sappho_fresco.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Sappho_fresco.jpg/440px-Sappho_fresco.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1047" /></a><figcaption>Gold Hairnet, Imperial period, <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Curling_irons,_pins_and_hairnets"><span id="Curling_irons.2C_pins_and_hairnets"></span>Curling irons, pins and hairnets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Curling irons, pins and hairnets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>calamistrum</i> was the name for the Roman <a href="/wiki/Curling_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Curling iron">curling iron</a>. It consisted of a hollow metal outer cylinder and a smaller solid cylinder inside it. The hair would be wrapped around the solid cylinder and inserted into the metal outer. The metal outer would be heated in a fire, making the hair curly. It has been reported that because of the frequency and temperature that hair was curled at, thinning and damaged hair was common amongst women.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While gel and henna, as mentioned above, were used to manage hair, hairnets and pins were in common usage too. Poorer women would have used wooden pins, while the aristocracy used gold, ivory, crystal, silver or painted bone. The pins were decorated with carvings of the gods, or beads and pendants.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society">Society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most barber shops were located in <a href="/wiki/Taberna" title="Taberna">tabernae</a>. Many shops clustered around the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Flora" title="Temple of Flora">Temple of Flora</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Circus_Maximus" title="Circus Maximus">Circus Maximus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is possible that only barbers with connections to wealthy people were allowed or able to practice in tabernae, while most others would have been forced to practice in the open. They would be identified of signs depicting scissors or mirrors located outside the shop's premises. <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a>, an ancient <a href="/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright">Roman playwright</a>, wrote about <a href="/wiki/Character_(arts)" title="Character (arts)">characters</a> going to the barber's shop. Whilst there, they would often discuss <a href="/wiki/Gossip" title="Gossip">gossip</a> and talk about <a href="/wiki/News" title="News">news</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resulted in Roman barbers gaining a habit of excessively talking about the latest news and gossip to their <a href="/wiki/Customer" title="Customer">customers</a>. Oftentimes barber's shops became incredibly crowded. Emperor <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">regulated</a> barbershops, prohibiting <a href="/wiki/Razor" title="Razor">razors</a> from being drawn in the middle of a dense crowd, and barbers from practicing in public places. Another emperor, <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, once pondered how the <a href="/wiki/Lex_Aquilia" title="Lex Aquilia">Lex Aquilia</a>, a law concerning <a href="/wiki/Liability_insurance" title="Liability insurance">liability</a>, would conflict with this law. Trajan cited an example of a <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">slave</a> who had their throat slit by a barber because the barber, who was practicing in a public space, had their hand moved by a ball. There were also barber <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">labor unions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:13_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Process">Process</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To begin the haircut the customer would step on a low stool. Then the barber would place a wrapper around them in order to protect their <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga</a>. He would proceed to comb through the customer's hair while asking them what he should do with their hair. Most Romans liked their hairs to be of even <a href="/wiki/Length" title="Length">length</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes the head or <a href="/wiki/Eyebrow" title="Eyebrow">eyebrows</a> were even shaved.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aside from cutting hair Roman barbers would also clean and <a href="/wiki/Kitchen_knife" title="Kitchen knife">pare</a> the <a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">nails</a> of their customer using special knives.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Corn_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corn (medicine)">corns</a> were also cut, stray hairs plucked, and <a href="/wiki/Wart" title="Wart">warts</a> removed.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hair-cutting_shears" title="Hair-cutting shears">Shears</a> were used to cut the hair on the <a href="/wiki/Crown_(anatomy)" title="Crown (anatomy)">crown</a> of the head. At the end of the barber's work they would place a <a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">mirror</a> up to the customer's face so that they could judge the quality of their work.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The barber would also use a <a href="/wiki/Hair_iron" title="Hair iron">curling iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tweezers" title="Tweezers">tweezers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Razor" title="Razor">razors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each razor had its own case.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some barbers made enough money to own 20 <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">slaves</a> and 20 <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Styles_over_time">Styles over time</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Styles over time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roman hairstyles changed, but there were several constant hairstyles that were used continuously, such as the <i>tutulus</i>, or the bun. The beehive, helmet, hairbouquet or pillbox are modern day names given to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> hairstyles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tutulus">Tutulus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Tutulus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>tutulus</i> was originally an <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_society" title="Etruscan society">Etruscan</a> style worn commonly in the late 6th and early 5th century BCE<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a hairstyle worn primarily by the <i>materfamilias</i>, the mother of the family.<sup id="cite_ref-Olson_2008,_39_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson_2008,_39-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It remained in constant use even when fashion changed. To achieve it, the hair was divided and piled high and shaped into a bun, after which it was tied with purple fillets of wool. By the end, the hair would be conical in shape. It was also the hairstyle worn by the <i>flaminicae</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Olson_2008,_39_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson_2008,_39-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_(Rome_MC_434)_2022_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_2022_crop.jpg/220px-Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_2022_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_2022_crop.jpg/330px-Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_2022_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_2022_crop.jpg/440px-Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_2022_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2094" data-file-height="2815" /></a><figcaption>Portrait head of a young woman on a modern bust, late 1st–early 2nd century CE (Rome, Capitoline Museums 434)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republican_period_and_Augustan_era_styles">Republican period and Augustan era styles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Republican period and Augustan era styles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>nodus</i> style was particularly common in the Republican period. In Imperial iconography the nodus coiffure was associated predominately with the women of Augustus' household. The <i>nodus</i> style saw the hair parted in three, with the hair from the sides of the head tied in a bun at the back while the middle section is looped back on itself, creating an effect not unlike the (comparably modern) <a href="/wiki/Pompadour_(hairstyle)" title="Pompadour (hairstyle)">Pompadour</a> style.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Livia" title="Livia">Livia</a>, wife of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Octavia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavia Minor">Octavia</a>, sister of Augustus, particularly favoured the <i>nodus</i> style, both continuing to use it well into the Imperial Period.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other styles in the <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian</a> era were designed to be simple, with hair parted in two and tied in a bun at the back. This was perhaps done in order to juxtapose Roman modesty against <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a> and her flamboyance.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flavian_and_Antonine_hairstyles">Flavian and Antonine hairstyles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Flavian and Antonine hairstyles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_(Rome_MC_434)_back.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_back.jpg/220px-Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_back.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_back.jpg/330px-Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_back.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_back.jpg/440px-Portrait_bust_of_a_Roman_woman_%28Rome_MC_434%29_back.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2260" data-file-height="2976" /></a><figcaption>The back of the portrait head shown above, late 1st–early 2nd century CE (Rome, Capitoline Museums 434)</figcaption></figure> <p>Flavian and Antonine hairstyles differed greatly between men and women in real life and in the physical appearance of hair for male and female sculptures. In ancient Rome hair was a major determinant of a woman's physical attractiveness; women preferred to be presented as young, and beautiful. Therefore, female sculptures were known to have dramatic curls carved with strong <a href="/wiki/Chiaroscuro" title="Chiaroscuro">chiaroscuro</a> effects. On the other hand, most men in the Flavian period of the late first century CE have their hair trimmed short on the crown like the portrait of <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> for example (pictured) that implied an active role in society, while a woman's connoted passivity. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nervan-Antonine_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Nervan-Antonine dynasty">Antonine</a> hairstyles are perhaps the most famous, and extravagant, of Imperial Rome's styles. During this time the aristocratic women's style became the most flamboyant (Cypriote curls). The styles were lofty, with masses of shaped curls and braids. The high arching crowns on the front were made using fillets of wool and toupees, and could be attached to the back of the head as well as the front. Typically, as in the case of the famous Fonseca Bust (pictured), this particular hairstyle appears to have been popular during the Flavian period. The hair was combed into two parts; the front section was combed forwards and built with curls, while the back was plaited and coiled into an elaborate bun (<i>orbis comarum</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This fashion was described by the writer Juvenal as the hairstyles that made women appear tall from the front but quite the opposite from the back. </p><p>The later Antonine period saw curls at the front of the head brought to a lower level than the Flavian period. The braids coiled at the back of the head were brought further forward, instead often resting on the top of the head. Another style of the Antonine period saw the hair separated into rivets and tied at the back.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, whether Roman portraits faithfully translate the actual hairstyles worn by the sitters is problematic because of the scarcity of surviving hair which leaves little basis of comparison. The second problem is the physical accuracy of the Roman portraits itself. However, as a result of the many sculptures that have some reference to hair, ethnographers and anthropologists have recognized hair to play a key role in identifying gender and determining societies in which individuals belonged.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Severan_dynasty">Severan dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Severan dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a>, wife of <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>, had a particularly notable hairstyle. Julia Domna was the wig's most influential patron. She wore a heavy, globular wig with simple finger-sized waves with a simple center parting. Julia Domna was the daughter of a high-ranking priest from <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, and it has been suggested that her style was indicative of her foreign origins.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite being from the East, she adopted a wig to project a familiar Roman guise and particularly in order to imitate her predecessor, Faustina the Younger.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartman_2001,_17-8_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartman_2001,_17-8-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012 <a href="/wiki/Janet_Stephens" title="Janet Stephens">Janet Stephens</a>'s video <i>Julia Domna: Forensic Hairdressing</i>, a recreation of a later hairstyle of the Roman empress, was presented at the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a>’s annual meeting in Philadelphia. Foreign women often wore their hair differently from Roman women, and women from <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> typically wore their hair waved in a simple center-parting, accompanied by diadems and turbans according to local customs. Women from the East were not known to commonly wear wigs, preferring to create elaborate hairstyles from their own hair instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartman_2001,_17-8_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartman_2001,_17-8-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As time progressed, Severan hairstyles switched from the finger-waved center parting style, to one with more curls and ringlets at the front and back of the head, often accompanied by a wig.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Men's_hairstyles"><span id="Men.27s_hairstyles"></span>Men's hairstyles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Men's hairstyles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg/170px-Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg/255px-Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg/340px-Bust_of_Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_in_Naples.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1450" /></a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> in the <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum_of_Naples" class="mw-redirect" title="National Archaeological Museum of Naples">National Archaeological Museum of Naples</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Roman hairstyles for men would change throughout ancient times. While men's hair may have required no less daily attention than women's, the styling as well as the social response it engendered were radically different. Lengthy grooming sessions for men were looked at as taboo. For example, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> employed two to three barbers to simultaneously trim his hair, in order to speed up the process.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women's hair was carved according to different techniques based on the sex. For example, one of the primary features that is seen in many women but never in men is long hair divided by a center part. It is apparent men never wore this, since there is no biological difference in hair growth between sexes; how hair is parted is a practice determined solely by culture. Eyebrows of both sexes were tended to be treated in the same manner.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the days of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a> and Early Republic, it is most likely Roman men wore their hair long with beards, in the style of Greeks. With the introduction of barbers called <i>tonsors</i> in about 300 BC it became customary to wear hair short. In Ancient Rome, household slaves would perform hairdressing functions for wealthy men. However, men who lacked access to private hairdressing and shaving services or those who preferred a more social atmosphere went to a barbershop (<i>tonstrina</i>). Barbershops were places of social gatherings and a young man's first shave was often even celebrated as a passage to manhood in the community. The barbers usually shaved the customers faces with iron razors and applied an aftershave with ointments that may have contained spider webs. </p><p>Among the <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patrician class</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a>, a clean shave and a closely trimmed head of hair would become the rule in Rome beginning in the second century BC. Shaving one's beard became popularized and then normalized by General <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Scipio Africanus</a> and his legions during the time of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a>. Scipio both sought to emulate the style of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, who shaved to prevent enemy soldiers from grabbing his beard in battle,<sup id="cite_ref-Barba_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barba-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as to signal to the conservative Roman senate that new ways of thinking were needed to defeat <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among those Roman men who wished to keep some facial hair, it was acceptable to shave one's mustache but not the remainder of one's face, a style then popular in Greece and seen as <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman men who wore beards would not be admitted into the senate unless they shaved.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germanicus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Germanicus.jpg/170px-Germanicus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Germanicus.jpg/255px-Germanicus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Germanicus.jpg/340px-Germanicus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="431" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A bust of Tiberius' nephew, <a href="/wiki/Germanicus" title="Germanicus">Germanicus</a>, demonstrating the traditional Claudian hairstyle of short front and sides and long back. From the <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>, Paris.</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite rigid class expectations, there were exceptions to social custom when it came to men's hairstyles. For example, beards were permitted if the wearer was in mourning. <a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">Numismatic</a> evidence demonstrates Emperors and other prominent figures wearing beards during periods following the death of a close family member or military defeat.<sup id="cite_ref-Barba_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barba-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A notable exception to trimmed hair in the early Imperial period was the Emperor Tiberius, who wore his hair longer in the back than on the front or sides of his hair, so that it covered the nape of his neck. The historian <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> notes this as a family tradition of the men of the <a href="/wiki/Claudia_gens" title="Claudia gens">Claudian family</a>. The Claudians were one of the oldest families in Rome, and could trace their lineage back to the first days of the Republic, when longer hair was in style and favored especially by the Patrician class.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tiberius' successor, his great-nephew <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a>, carried on this hairstyle, even after he had begun to go bald, as did other male members of Tiberius' family.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817_cropped.jpg/220px-Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817_cropped.jpg/330px-Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817_cropped.jpg/440px-Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1350" /></a><figcaption>Bust of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In Ancient Rome it was desirable for men to have a full head of hair. This was a problem for <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>. Being bald was considered a deformity at the time, so Caesar went to great pains to hide his thinning hair, combing his thin locks forward over the crown of his head. <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> wrote: "His baldness was something that greatly bothered him." Caesar was allowed by the Senate to wear a laurel crown with which he was able to mask his receding hairline. </p><p>During the Roman times it is easy to know how the emperors wore their hair. For example, one constant feature of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>'s portraits is his hairstyle, with its distinctive forked locks of hair on his forehead.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emperor was most often looked at as the trendsetter during these times. This is shown by the emperor <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> (54–68 AD), who adopted elaborate hairstyles with curls and was the first Emperor to have facial hair, specifically a <a href="/wiki/List_of_facial_hairstyles#Neckbeard" title="List of facial hairstyles">neckbeard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In imitation of Nero, men began to curl their hair, although there is no evidence they began wearing beards in his style. Following Nero, in the Flavian period, most men had hair trimmed short on the crown and lacking strong plasticity.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the next few decades a straight hair cut with forehead bangs was popular with <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajanic</a> men. </p><p>Following Trajan, his adopted heir <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (117–138 AD) became the first emperor to wear a full beard, kicking off a trend among emperors. Every emperor for the next 100 years wore a full beard, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>'s co-regent <a href="/wiki/Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a>, who only ruled for 11 months alongside his brother and was murdered at 22.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hadrian's decision to grow a beard has usually been seen as a mark of his devotion to Greece and Greek culture. One literary source, the <i>Historia Augusta</i>, claims that Hadrian wore a beard to hide blemishes on his face, although most historians consider the book's reliability dubious.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_cut" title="Caesar cut">Caesar cut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_hairstyle" title="Greco-Roman hairstyle">Greco-Roman hairstyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hairstyles" title="List of hairstyles">List of hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Greece" title="Clothing in ancient Greece">Clothing in ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing in ancient Rome</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf04/anf04-07.htm#P419_87976">Tertullian., De Culti Feminarum,2:7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kampman (1981), 149–52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bartman_2001,_6-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bartman_2001,_6_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartman_2001,_6_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/507324?&Search=yes&term=%22Elizabeth+Bartman%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dau%253A%2522Elizabeth%2BBartman%2522%26wc%3Don&item=2&ttl=26&returnArticleService=showArticle">Bartman (2001), 6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5LiIJEU4bE8C&q=daily+life+in+ancient+rome+carcopino">Carcopino (1973), 167</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/507324?&Search=yes&term=%22Elizabeth+Bartman%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dau%253A%2522Elizabeth%2BBartman%2522%26wc%3Don&item=2&ttl=26&returnArticleService=showArticle">Bartman (2001), 4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tribunesandtriumphs.org/roman-clothing/roman-wedding-clothing.htm">"Roman Wedding Clothing"</a>. <i>www.tribunesandtriumphs.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-11-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.tribunesandtriumphs.org&rft.atitle=Roman+Wedding+Clothing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tribunesandtriumphs.org%2Froman-clothing%2Froman-wedding-clothing.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martialis, Marcus Valerius. <i>Epigrams</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pliny the Elder. <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Rackham,_Jones,_%26_Eichholz)/Book_20" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Natural History (Rackham, Jones, & Eichholz)/Book 20">Natural History</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaufman, David B (March 21, 1932). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4339078?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">Roman Barbers</a>". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Classical_Weekly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Classical Weekly (page does not exist)">The Classical Weekly</a></i>. No. 25. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> 4339078.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seneca the Elder., Controversiae 2.7.6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olson (2008), 33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fantham (2008), 166-7; Olsen (2008), 33-6 both offer discussion on this</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olson (2008), 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suetonius, Life of Otho, 12 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0132%3Alife%3Dotho%3Achapter%3D12">[1]</a>; Morgan (1997), 214</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/juvenal_satires_06.htm">Juvenal., Satire Book 6, 58-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ovid, Amores, 1:14:45-6 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.today/20120714110118/http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.03.0016;layout=;query=toc;loc=1.14.1">[2]</a>; Bartman (2001), 14 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/507324?&Search=yes&term=%22Elizabeth+Bartman%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dau%253A%2522Elizabeth%2BBartman%2522%26wc%3Don&item=2&ttl=26&returnArticleService=showArticle">[3]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/507324?&Search=yes&term=%22Elizabeth+Bartman%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dau%253A%2522Elizabeth%2BBartman%2522%26wc%3Don&item=2&ttl=26&returnArticleService=showArticle">Bartman (2001), 14</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Grant (1994). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1KTVnjWiEo0C&q=The+Antonines:+The+Roman+Empire+in+Transition">The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition</a></i>. 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"Ancient Roman hairdressing: on (hair)pins and needles". <i>Journal of Roman Archaeology</i>. <b>21</b>: <span class="nowrap">110–</span>132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759400004402">10.1017/S1047759400004402</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:193177068">193177068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Ancient+Roman+hairdressing%3A+on+%28hair%29pins+and+needles&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E110-%3C%2Fspan%3E132&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1047759400004402&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A193177068%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPesta2013" class="citation news cs1">Pesta, Abigail (2013-02-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324900204578286272195339456">"On Pins and Needles: Stylist Turns Ancient Hairdo Debate on Its Head"</a>. Wall Street Journal<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-01-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=On+Pins+and+Needles%3A+Stylist+Turns+Ancient+Hairdo+Debate+on+Its+Head&rft.date=2013-02-06&rft.aulast=Pesta&rft.aufirst=Abigail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB10001424127887324900204578286272195339456&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kleiner_and_Matheson_1996,_174-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kleiner_and_Matheson_1996,_174_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kleiner_and_Matheson_1996,_174_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleiner and Matheson (1996), 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fittschen and Zanker (1983), 105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jstor-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jstor_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/507324?&Search=yes&term=%22Elizabeth+Bartman%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dau%253A%2522Elizabeth%2BBartman%2522%26wc%3Don&item=2&ttl=26&returnArticleService=showArticle">Bartman (2001), 19</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf04/anf04-07.htm#P419_87976">Tertullian, De Culti Feminarum, 2:6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bartman (2001), 12 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/507324">Hair and the Artifice of Roman Female Adornment</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F507324">10.2307/507324</a>; Allason-Jones (1989), 133-7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137;layout=;query=toc;loc=32.47">Pliny the Elder., Natural History, 32:23</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137;layout=;query=toc;loc=32.47">Pliny the Elder., Natural History, 28:51</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf04/anf04-07.htm#P419_87976">Tertullian, De Culti Feminarum, 2:6:1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/ovid/lboo/lboo60.htm">Ovid., Ars Amatoria, 3:158-64</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137;layout=;query=toc;loc=32.47">Pliny the Elder., Natural History, 28:46</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suetonius Tranquillus, Gaius. <i>The Twelve Caesars</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny, Erin; Ph.D, Elizabeth Gackstetter Nichols (2017-06-22). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VAUmDwAAQBAJ&q=Dying">Beauty around the World: A Cultural Encyclopedia</a></i>. ABC-CLIO. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-945-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-945-7">978-1-61069-945-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olson (2008), 73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleiner and Matheson (1996), 162; Olson (2008), 75-6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holleran, Claire (2012-04-26). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oO7NwmbyxwAC">Shopping in Ancient Rome: The Retail Trade in the Late Republic and the Principate</a></i>. OUP Oxford. pp. 125–126. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969821-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969821-9">978-0-19-969821-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Apuleius, Lucius. <i>Metamorphoses</i> Liber 3.16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_40-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_40-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolson1891" class="citation journal cs1">Nicolson, Frank W. 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No. 25. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4339078">4339078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Weekly&rft.atitle=Roman+Barbers&rft.issue=25&rft.date=1932-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4339078%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=David+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4339078&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4cf1EQzzlIUC&dq=Barbery+Ancient+Rome&pg=PA51"><i>The Living Age</i></a>. Living Age Company. 1919.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Living+Age&rft.pub=Living+Age+Company&rft.date=1919&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4cf1EQzzlIUC%26dq%3DBarbery%2BAncient%2BRome%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebesta2001" class="citation book cs1">Sebesta, Judith Lynn (2001). <i>World of Roman Costume</i>. Madison: University of Wisconsin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+of+Roman+Costume&rft.place=Madison&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Sebesta&rft.aufirst=Judith+Lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olson_2008,_39-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Olson_2008,_39_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Olson_2008,_39_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Olson (2008), 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.vroma.org/images/raia_images/julia.jpg">[4]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/matrona_vatican1.jpg">Examples of the Nodus style</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Further examples of the Nodus <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/octavia_aureus.jpg">[5]</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/julia_similar.jpg">[6]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleiner and Matheson (1996), 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/507324?&Search=yes&term=%22Elizabeth+Bartman%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dau%253A%2522Elizabeth%2BBartman%2522%26wc%3Don&item=2&ttl=26&returnArticleService=showArticle">Bartman (2001), 18</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Examples of the Antonine styles <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.vroma.org/images/raia_images/woman_head3b.jpg">[7]</a> and riveted <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.vroma.org/images/raia_images/woman_bust2.jpg">[8]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews1904" class="citation book cs1">Andrews, William (1904). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz6BAAAAMAAJ&q=Rome"><i>At the Sign of the Barber's Pole: Studies in Hirsute History</i></a>. J. R. Tutin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+the+Sign+of+the+Barber%27s+Pole%3A+Studies+in+Hirsute+History&rft.pub=J.+R.+Tutin&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Duz6BAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DRome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/507324?&Search=yes&term=%22Elizabeth+Bartman%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dau%253A%2522Elizabeth%2BBartman%2522%26wc%3Don&item=2&ttl=26&returnArticleService=showArticle">Bartman (2001), 17</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bartman_2001,_17-8-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bartman_2001,_17-8_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartman_2001,_17-8_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/507324?&Search=yes&term=%22Elizabeth+Bartman%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dau%253A%2522Elizabeth%2BBartman%2522%26wc%3Don&item=2&ttl=26&returnArticleService=showArticle">Bartman (2001), 17-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vroma.org/images/scaife_images/092b.jpg">Example of Severan style, finger waves underneath Palla</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suetonius, "Augustus", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#79">79</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartman" class="citation journal cs1">Bartman, Elizabeth. "Artifice of Roman Female Adornment". <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Artifice+of+Roman+Female+Adornment.&rft.aulast=Bartman&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barba-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barba_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barba_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forumancientcoins.com/numiswiki/view.asp?key=Barba">"Barba"</a>. <i>Forum Ancient Coins</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forum+Ancient+Coins&rft.atitle=Barba&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forumancientcoins.com%2Fnumiswiki%2Fview.asp%3Fkey%3DBarba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beclearly.com/blog/2015/3/31/could-your-leadership-vision-do-with-a-clean-shave">"Could Your Leadership Vision Do with a Clean Shave?"</a>. <i>Be Clearly</i>. 7 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Be+Clearly&rft.atitle=Could+Your+Leadership+Vision+Do+with+a+Clean+Shave%3F&rft.date=2015-05-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.beclearly.com%2Fblog%2F2015%2F3%2F31%2Fcould-your-leadership-vision-do-with-a-clean-shave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Por. G. Ryan Nagie posągi, brzuchaci gladiatorzy i słonie bojowe, Poznań 2023, str. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherrow2006" class="citation book cs1">Sherrow, Victoria (2006). <i>Encyclopedia of Hair: A Cultural History</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood. p. 162.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Hair%3A+A+Cultural+History&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Sherrow&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suetonius, "Tiberius", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Tiberius*.html#68">68</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collezionegalleriaborghese.it/en/opere/portrait-of-caligula">"Portrait of Caligua"</a>. <i>Galleria Borghese Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Galleria+Borghese+Museum&rft.atitle=Portrait+of+Caligua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collezionegalleriaborghese.it%2Fen%2Fopere%2Fportrait-of-caligula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/8212/unknown-maker-portrait-head-of-augustus-roman-25-1-bc/">"Portrait Head of Augustus"</a>. <i>Getty Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Getty+Museum&rft.atitle=Portrait+Head+of+Augustus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.getty.edu%2Fart%2Fcollection%2Fobjects%2F8212%2Funknown-maker-portrait-head-of-augustus-roman-25-1-bc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/blog/5-iconic-beards-of-ancient-history/">"5 Iconic Beards of Ancient History"</a>. <i>PBS.com</i>. 14 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS.com&rft.atitle=5+Iconic+Beards+of+Ancient+History&rft.date=2019-11-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwnet%2Fsecrets%2Fblog%2F5-iconic-beards-of-ancient-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forumancientcoins.com/numiswiki/view.asp?key=The+Portraiture+of+Nero+on+Roman+Imperial+Coins&srsltid=AfmBOooIwKp1c6B9Qd3yWnGnOyorU0yS_ha18nvEg-llIiVGA8wXHggk">"Portraiture of Nero on Roman Imperial Coins"</a>. <i>Forum Ancient Coins</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forum+Ancient+Coins&rft.atitle=Portraiture+of+Nero+on+Roman+Imperial+Coins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forumancientcoins.com%2Fnumiswiki%2Fview.asp%3Fkey%3DThe%2BPortraiture%2Bof%2BNero%2Bon%2BRoman%2BImperial%2BCoins%26srsltid%3DAfmBOooIwKp1c6B9Qd3yWnGnOyorU0yS_ha18nvEg-llIiVGA8wXHggk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlchin" class="citation web cs1">Alchin, Linda. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tribunesandtriumphs.org/roman-clothing/roman-hairstyles.htm">"Roman Hairstyles"</a>. <i>Tribunes and Triumphs</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tribunes+and+Triumphs&rft.atitle=Roman+Hairstyles&rft.aulast=Alchin&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tribunesandtriumphs.org%2Froman-clothing%2Froman-hairstyles.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/themes/leaders_and_rulers/hadrian/the_image_of_a_ruler.aspx">"British Museum - Hadrian – the image of a ruler"</a>. <i>www.britishmuseum.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-11-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britishmuseum.org&rft.atitle=British+Museum+-+Hadrian+%E2%80%93+the+image+of+a+ruler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fexplore%2Fthemes%2Fleaders_and_rulers%2Fhadrian%2Fthe_image_of_a_ruler.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+hairstyles" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.cnr.edu/home/araia/body.html"><i>Catalogue of hairstyles</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091129131721/http://www2.cnr.edu/home/araia/body.html">Archived</a> 2009-11-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&oldid=1269285911">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_hairstyles&oldid=1269285911</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_of_ancient_Greece" title="Category:Culture of ancient Greece">Culture of ancient Greece</a></li><li><a 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