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<span>Equalization of rates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equalization_of_rates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appropriation_from_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appropriation_from_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Appropriation from production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appropriation_from_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Absolute_vs._relative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absolute_vs._relative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Absolute vs. relative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absolute_vs._relative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production_versus_realisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production_versus_realisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Production versus realisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production_versus_realisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_taxation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_taxation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Relation to taxation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_taxation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_the_circuits_of_capital" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_the_circuits_of_capital"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Relation to the circuits of capital</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_the_circuits_of_capital-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Measurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Different_conceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Different_conceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Different conceptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Different_conceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morality_and_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morality_and_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Morality and power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morality_and_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Surplus value</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">41 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B6_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="فائض القيمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فائض القيمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0zafi_d%C9%99y%C9%99r" title="İzafi dəyər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İzafi dəyər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Принадена стойност – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Принадена стойност" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plusv%C3%A0lua" title="Plusvàlua – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Plusvàlua" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadhodnota" title="Nadhodnota – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nadhodnota" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merv%C3%A6rdi" title="Merværdi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Merværdi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrwert_(Marxismus)" title="Mehrwert (Marxismus) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mehrwert (Marxismus)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plusvalor" title="Plusvalor – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Plusvalor" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plusvaloro" title="Plusvaloro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Plusvaloro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gainbalio" title="Gainbalio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gainbalio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C" title="ارزش اضافی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ارزش اضافی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plus-value_(marxisme)" title="Plus-value (marxisme) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Plus-value (marxisme)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plusval%C3%ADa" title="Plusvalía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Plusvalía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%89%EC%97%AC%EA%B0%80%EC%B9%98" title="잉여가치 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="잉여가치" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AC_%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AA%D5%A5%D6%84" title="Հավելյալ արժեք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հավելյալ արժեք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plusvalore" title="Plusvalore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Plusvalore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9A_%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A3_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%9F" title="ערך עודף של יצרן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ערך עודף של יצרן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%88%D0%B0_%D2%9A%D2%B1%D0%BD" title="Қосымша Құн – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қосымша Құн" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plusvalor" title="Plusvalor – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Plusvalor" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plusval%C3%B4" title="Plusvalô – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Plusvalô" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="മിച്ചമൂല്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മിച്ചമൂല്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerwaarde_(Marx)" title="Meerwaarde (Marx) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Meerwaarde (Marx)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%89%B0%E4%BD%99%E4%BE%A1%E5%80%A4" title="剰余価値 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="剰余価値" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overskuddsverdi" title="Overskuddsverdi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Overskuddsverdi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A7%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%B2" title="ਵਾਧੂ ਮੁੱਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਾਧੂ ਮੁੱਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%DA%9A%D8%AA" title="زياتي ارزښت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="زياتي ارزښت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mais-valia" title="Mais-valia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mais-valia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Прибавочная стоимость – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Прибавочная стоимость" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadhodnota" title="Nadhodnota – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Nadhodnota" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prese%C5%BEna_vrednost" title="Presežna vrednost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Presežna vrednost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AE%DB%8C_%D8%B2%DB%8E%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95%D8%B1" title="بایەخی زێدەوەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بایەخی زێدەوەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Вишак вредности – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вишак вредности" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lis%C3%A4arvo" title="Lisäarvo – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lisäarvo" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merv%C3%A4rde" title="Mervärde – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mervärde" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="มูลค่าส่วนเกิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มูลค่าส่วนเกิน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%C4%B1_de%C4%9Fer" title="Artı değer – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Artı değer" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Додаткова вартість – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Додаткова вартість" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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.tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-spacing:0.2em 0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.1em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Marxian_economics" title="Category:Marxian economics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#B60202;padding-bottom:0;font-size:175%;font-weight:normal;color:white;"><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Marxian economics</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0 1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Karl_Marx_001.jpg/110px-Karl_Marx_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Karl_Marx_001.jpg/165px-Karl_Marx_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Karl_Marx_001.jpg/220px-Karl_Marx_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1428" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">Capital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Capitalism#Capital_accumulation" title="Capitalism">accumulation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Capitalist mode of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_in_Marxist_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Class in Marxist theory">Class process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_(Marxism)" title="Commodity (Marxism)">Commodity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_labour_and_concrete_labour" title="Abstract labour and concrete labour">Concrete and abstract labuor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant capital">Constant capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_value" title="Exchange value">Exchange value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_power" title="Labour power">Labour power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_value" title="Labor theory of value">Labour theory of value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_accumulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of accumulation">Law of accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_value" title="Law of value">Law of value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">Means of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_of_production" title="Mode of production">Mode of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">Monopoly capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_composition_of_capital" title="Organic composition of capital">Organic composition of capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productive_forces" title="Productive forces">Productive forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prices_of_production" title="Prices of production">Prices of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rate_of_exploitation" title="Rate of exploitation">Rate of exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rate_of_profit" title="Rate of profit">Rate of profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_prices_and_ideal_prices" title="Real prices and ideal prices">Real prices and ideal prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_of_production" title="Relations of production">Relations of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction_(economics)" title="Reproduction (economics)">Reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour" title="Reserve army of labour">Reserve army of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_necessary_labour_time" title="Socially necessary labour time">Socially necessary labour time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_(Marxism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialism (Marxism)">Socialist mode of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization_(Marxism)" title="Socialization (Marxism)">Socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_commodity_production" title="Simple commodity production">Simple commodity production</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surplus value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surplus_labour" title="Surplus labour">Surplus labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surplus_product" title="Surplus product">Surplus product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use_value" title="Use value">Use value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value-form" title="Value-form">Value-form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_product" title="Value product">Value product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable capital">Variable capital</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital controversy">Capital controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_theory" title="Crisis theory">Crisis theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_determinism" title="Economic determinism">Economic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immiseration_thesis" title="Immiseration thesis">Immiseration thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okishio%27s_theorem" title="Okishio's theorem">Okishio's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overaccumulation" title="Overaccumulation">Overaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdetermination" title="Overdetermination">Overdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overproduction" title="Overproduction">Overproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kondratiev_wave" title="Kondratiev wave">Kondratiev wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">Technological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Temporal_single-system_interpretation" title="Temporal single-system interpretation">Temporal single-system<br />interpretation</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendency_of_the_rate_of_profit_to_fall" title="Tendency of the rate of profit to fall">Falling profit-rate tendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_problem" title="Transformation problem">Transformation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underconsumption" title="Underconsumption">Underconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(economics)" title="Value (economics)">Value</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Marxism" title="Classical Marxism">Classical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Marxism" title="Orthodox Marxism">Orthodox Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Marxian economics">Neo-Marxian economics</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;;font-style:italic;"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/A_Contribution_to_the_Critique_of_Political_Economy" title="A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy">A Contribution to the<br />Critique of Political Economy</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grundrisse" title="Grundrisse">Grundrisse</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Philosophical_Manuscripts_of_1844" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844">Economic and Philosophical<br />Manuscripts of 1844</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Accumulation_of_Capital" title="The Accumulation of Capital">The Accumulation of Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_Capital" title="Monopoly Capital">Monopoly Capital</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Capitalist_Development" title="The Theory of Capitalist Development">The Theory of<br />Capitalist Development</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hilferding#Finance_Capital" title="Rudolf Hilferding">Finance Capital</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Marxian_economists" title="List of Marxian economists">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Rosa Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hilferding" title="Rudolf Hilferding">Rudolf Hilferding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Karl Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Mandel" title="Ernest Mandel">Ernest Mandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_Pannekoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonie Pannekoek">Antonie Pannekoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Kornai" title="János Kornai">János Kornai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Kliman" title="Andrew Kliman">Andrew Kliman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Wolff" title="Richard D. Wolff">Richard D. Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Kondratiev" title="Nikolai Kondratiev">Nikolai Kondratiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Sweezy" title="Paul Sweezy">Paul Sweezy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobuo_Okishio" title="Nobuo Okishio">Nobuo Okishio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Steedman" title="Ian Steedman">Ian Steedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Roemer" title="John Roemer">John Roemer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Laibman" title="David Laibman">David Laibman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_A._Baran" title="Paul A. Baran">Paul A. Baran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Resnick" title="Stephen Resnick">Stephen Resnick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Michał Kalecki</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Journals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;;font-style:italic;"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Journal_of_Economics" title="Cambridge Journal of Economics">Cambridge Journal of<br />Economics</a></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Political_Economy" title="International Journal of Political Economy">International Journal of<br />Political Economy</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review" title="Monthly Review">Monthly Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_School#Academic_journals" title="The New School">New School Economic Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-World_Economics_Review" title="Real-World Economics Review">Real-World Economics Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rethinking_Marxism" title="Rethinking Marxism">Rethinking Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and Society">Science and Society</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" 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class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">Austerity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Businessperson" title="Businessperson">Businessperson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">Capital accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_market" title="Capital market">Capital markets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competitive markets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">Economic interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_surplus" title="Economic surplus">Economic surplus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">Entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_capital" title="Fictitious capital">Fictitious capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_market" title="Financial market">Financial market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_price_system" title="Free price system">Free price system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Free market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goods_and_services" title="Goods and services">Goods and services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investor" title="Investor">Investor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_hand_(economics)" title="Visible hand (economics)">Visible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalization" title="Liberalization">Liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">Money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rent_seeking" class="mw-redirect" title="Rent seeking">Rent seeking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">Supply and demand</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surplus value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(economics)" title="Value (economics)">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Economic systems</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon capitalism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market#General_principles" title="Free market">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez-faire capitalism">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal capitalism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian capitalism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market capitalism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed capitalism">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="National capitalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic capitalism">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Raw capitalism">Raw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">Regulated market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capitalism" title="Regulatory capitalism">Regulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine capitalism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="State-sponsored capitalism">State-sponsored</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Economic theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Monetary_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Monetary Theory">MMT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_monetarism" title="Market monetarism">Market monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Islam" title="Capitalism and Islam">Capitalism and Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Revolution">Commercial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_commodity_production" title="Simple commodity production">Simple commodity production</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Development</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_capitalism" title="Advanced capitalism">Advanced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_capitalism" title="Consumer capitalism">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_capitalism" title="Community capitalism">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crony_capitalism" title="Crony capitalism">Crony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finance_capitalism" title="Finance capitalism">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Global capitalism">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Illiberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_capitalism" title="Late capitalism">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_capitalism" title="Merchant capitalism">Merchant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_capitalism" title="Progressive capitalism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rentier_capitalism" title="Rentier capitalism">Rentier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">State monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocapitalism" title="Technocapitalism">Technological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Coase</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_propaganda" title="Capitalist propaganda">Capitalist propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_realism" title="Capitalist realism">Capitalist realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_state" title="Capitalist state">Capitalist state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_theory" title="Crisis theory">Crisis theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">Cronyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_capitalism" title="Culture of capitalism">Culture of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evergreening" title="Evergreening">Evergreening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalist_theory" title="History of capitalist theory">History of theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodizations_of_capitalism" title="Periodizations of capitalism">Periodizations of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspectives on capitalism">Perspectives on capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-capitalism" title="Post-capitalism">Post-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculation" title="Speculation">Speculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_philanthropy" title="Venture philanthropy">Venture philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Anarcho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-capitalism" title="Eco-capitalism">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_capitalism" title="Inclusive capitalism">Inclusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal capitalism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian capitalism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Capitalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordoliberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatism" title="Privatism">Privatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitalismlogo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Capitalismlogo.svg/16px-Capitalismlogo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Capitalismlogo.svg/24px-Capitalismlogo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Capitalismlogo.svg/32px-Capitalismlogo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="912" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Capitalism" title="Portal:Capitalism">Capitalism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Capitalism_sidebar" title="Template:Capitalism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Capitalism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Capitalism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian economics</a>, <b>surplus value</b> is the difference between the amount raised through a sale of a product and the amount it cost to manufacture it: i.e. the amount raised through sale of the product minus the cost of the materials, plant and <a href="/wiki/Labour_power" title="Labour power">labour power</a>. The concept originated in <a href="/wiki/Ricardian_socialism" title="Ricardian socialism">Ricardian socialism</a>, with the term "surplus value" itself being coined by <a href="/wiki/William_Thompson_(philosopher)" title="William Thompson (philosopher)">William Thompson</a> in 1824; however, it was not consistently distinguished from the related concepts of <a href="/wiki/Surplus_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Surplus labor">surplus labor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surplus_product" title="Surplus product">surplus product</a>. The concept was subsequently developed and popularized by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>. Marx's formulation is the standard sense and the primary basis for further developments, though how much of Marx's concept is original and distinct from the Ricardian concept is disputed (see <a href="#Origin">§ Origin</a>). Marx's term is the German word "<i>Mehrwert</i>", which simply means <a href="/wiki/Value_added" title="Value added">value added</a> (sales revenue minus the cost of materials used up), and is <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> to English "more worth". </p><p>It is a major concept in <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>'s critique of political economy. Conventionally, value-added is equal to the sum of gross wage income and gross profit income. However, Marx uses the term <i>Mehrwert</i> to describe the yield, profit or return on production capital invested, i.e. the amount of the increase in the value of capital. Hence, Marx's use of <i>Mehrwert</i> has always been translated as "surplus value", distinguishing it from "value-added". According to Marx's theory, surplus value is equal to the new value created by workers in excess of their own labor-cost, which is appropriated by the capitalist as profit when products are sold.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gotha_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gotha-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marx thought that the gigantic increase in wealth and population from the 19th century onwards was mainly due to the competitive striving to obtain <i>maximum surplus-value from the employment of labor</i>, resulting in an equally gigantic increase of <a href="/wiki/Productivity_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Productivity (economics)">productivity</a> and capital resources. To the extent that increasingly the economic surplus is convertible into money and expressed in money, the amassment of wealth is possible on a larger and larger scale (see <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surplus_product" title="Surplus product">surplus product</a>). The concept is closely connected to <a href="/wiki/Producer_surplus" class="mw-redirect" title="Producer surplus">producer surplus</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> in the 18th century the French <a href="/wiki/Physiocrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiocrats">physiocrats</a> were already writing on the surplus value that was being extracted from labor by "the employer, the owner, and all exploiters" although they used the term <i>net product</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tcherkesoff1902_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tcherkesoff1902-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of surplus value continued to be developed under <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> who also used the term "net product" while his successors the <a href="/wiki/Ricardian_socialism" title="Ricardian socialism">Ricardian socialists</a>, began using the term "surplus value" decades later after its coinage by <a href="/wiki/William_Thompson_(philosopher)" title="William Thompson (philosopher)">William Thompson</a> in 1824: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Two measures of the value of this use, here present themselves; the measure of the laborer, and the measure of the capitalist. The measure of the laborer consists in the contribution of such sums as would replace the waste and value of the capital by the time it would be consumed, with such added compensation to the owner and superintendent of it as would support him in equal comfort with the more actively employed productive laborers. The measure of the capitalist, on the contrary, would be the additional value produced by the same quantity of labor in consequence of the use of the machinery or other capital; the whole of such <b>surplus value</b> to be enjoyed by the capitalist for his superior intelligence and skill in accumulating and advancing to the laborers his capital or the use of it. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/William_Thompson_(philosopher)" title="William Thompson (philosopher)">William Thompson</a>, <i>An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth</i> (1824), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aninquiryintopr00paregoog/page/n164">p. 128</a> (2nd ed.), emphasis added</cite></div></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">William Godwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hall_(economist)" title="Charles Hall (economist)">Charles Hall</a> are also credited as earlier developers of the concept. Early authors also used the terms "<a href="/wiki/Surplus_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Surplus labor">surplus labor</a>" and "surplus produce" (in Marx's language, <a href="/wiki/Surplus_product" title="Surplus product">surplus product</a>), which have distinct meanings in Marxian economics: surplus labor <i>produces</i> surplus product, which has surplus value. Some authors consider Marx as completely borrowing from Thompson, notably <a href="/wiki/Anton_Menger" title="Anton Menger">Anton Menger</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... Marx is completely under the influence of the earlier English socialists, and more particularly of William Thompson. ... [T]he whole theory of surplus value, its conception, its name, and the estimates of its amounts are borrowed in all essentials from Thompson's writings. </p><p>... </p><p>Cf. Marx, <i>Das Kapital</i>, English trans. 1887, pp. 156, 194, 289, with Thompson, <i>Distribution of Wealth</i>, p. 163; 2nd ed. p. 125. ... The real discovers of the theory of surplus value are Godwin, Hall, and especially W. Thompson. </p> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Anton_Menger" title="Anton Menger">Anton Menger</a>, <i>The Right to the Whole Produce of Labour</i> (1886),<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/righttowholepro00menggoog/page/n225">p. 101</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>This claim of priority has been vigorously contested, notably in an article by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>, completed by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Karl Kautsky</a> and published anonymously in 1887, reacting to and criticizing Menger in a review of his <i>The Right to the Whole Produce of Labour</i>, arguing that there is nothing in common but the term "surplus value" itself.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An intermediate position acknowledges the early development by Ricardian socialists and others, but credits Marx with substantial development. For example:<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What is original in Marx is the explanation of the manner in which surplus value is produced. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/John_Spargo" title="John Spargo">John Spargo</a>, <i>Socialism</i> (1906)</cite></div></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Johann_Karl_Rodbertus" title="Johann Karl Rodbertus">Johann Karl Rodbertus</a> developed a theory of surplus value in the 1830s and 1840s, notably in <i>Zur Erkenntnis unserer staatswirthschaftlichen Zustände</i> (<i>Toward an appreciation of our economic circumstances</i>, 1842), and claimed earlier priority to Marx, specifically to have "shown practically in the same way as Marx, only more briefly and clearly, the source of the surplus value of the capitalists". The debate, taking the side of Marx's priority, is detailed in the Preface to <i>Capital, Volume II</i> by Engels. </p><p>Marx first elaborated his doctrine of surplus value in 1857–58 manuscripts of <i><a href="/wiki/A_Contribution_to_the_Critique_of_Political_Economy" title="A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy">A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy</a></i> (1859), following earlier developments in his 1840s writings.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It forms the subject of his 1862–63 manuscript <i><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_Surplus_Value" title="Theories of Surplus Value">Theories of Surplus Value</a></i> (which was subsequently published as <i><a href="/wiki/Capital,_Volume_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital, Volume IV">Capital, Volume IV</a></i>), and features in his <i><a href="/wiki/Capital,_Volume_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital, Volume I">Capital, Volume I</a></i> (1867). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The problem of explaining the source of surplus value is expressed by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Whence comes this surplus-value? It cannot come either from the buyer buying the commodities under their value, or from the seller selling them above their value. For in both cases the gains and the losses of each individual cancel each other, as each individual is in turn buyer and seller. Nor can it come from cheating, for though cheating can enrich one person at the expense of another, it cannot increase the total sum possessed by both, and therefore cannot augment the sum of the values in circulation. (...) This problem must be solved, and it must be solved in a <i>purely economic way</i>, excluding all cheating and the intervention of any force — the problem being: how is it possible constantly to sell dearer than one has bought, even on the hypothesis that equal values are always exchanged for equal values?<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Marx's solution was first to distinguish between labor-time worked and <a href="/wiki/Labor_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor power">labor power</a>, and secondly to distinguish between <i>absolute surplus value</i> and <i>relative surplus value</i>. A worker who is sufficiently productive can produce an output value greater than what it costs to hire him. Although his wage seems to be based on hours worked, in an economic sense this wage does not reflect the full value of what the worker produces. Effectively it is not labour which the worker sells, but his capacity to work. </p><p>Imagine a worker who is hired for an hour and paid $10 per hour. Once in the capitalist's employ, the capitalist can have him operate a boot-making machine with which the worker produces $10 worth of work every 15 minutes. Every hour, the capitalist receives $40 worth of work and only pays the worker $10, capturing the remaining $30 as gross revenue. Once the capitalist has deducted fixed and variable operating costs of (say) $20 (leather, depreciation of the machine, etc.), he is left with $10. Thus, for an outlay of capital of $30, the capitalist obtains a surplus value of $10; his capital has not only been replaced by the operation, but also has increased by $10. </p><p>This "simple" exploitation characterizes the realization of <i>absolute surplus value</i>, which is then claimed by the capitalist. The worker cannot capture this benefit directly because he has no claim to the means of production (e.g. the boot-making machine) or to its products, and his capacity to bargain over wages is restricted by laws and the supply/demand for wage labour. This form of exploitation was well understood by pre-Marxian Socialists and left-wing followers of Ricardo, such as <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Proudhon</a>, and by early labor organizers, who sought to unite workers in unions capable of <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a>, in order to gain a share of profits and limit the length of the working day.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Relative</i> surplus value is not created in a single enterprise or site of production. It arises instead from the total relation between multiple enterprises and multiple branches of industry when the necessary labor-time of production is reduced, effecting a change in the value of labor-power. For example, when new technology or new business practices increase the productivity of labor a capitalist already employs, or when the commodities necessary for workers' subsistence fall in value, the amount of socially necessary labor-time is decreased, the value of labor-power is reduced, and a relative surplus value is realized as profit for the capitalist, increasing the overall general rate of surplus value in the total economy: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The surplus-value produced by prolongation of the working day, I call <i>absolute</i> surplus-value. On the other hand, the surplus-value arising from the curtailment of the necessary labour-time, and from the corresponding alteration in the respective lengths of the two components of the working day, I call <i>relative surplus-value</i>. </p><p>In order to effect a fall in the value of labour-power, the increase in the productiveness of labour must seize upon those branches of industry whose products determine the value of labour-power, and consequently either belong to the class of customary means of subsistence, or are capable of supplying the place of those means. But the value of a commodity is determined, not only by the quantity of labour which the labourer directly bestows upon that commodity, but also by the labour contained in the means of production. For instance, the value of a pair of boots depends not only on the cobbler’s labour, but also on the value of the leather, wax, thread, &c. Hence, a fall in the value of labour-power is also brought about by an increase in the productiveness of labour, and by a corresponding cheapening of commodities in those industries which supply the instruments of labour and the raw material, that form the material elements of the constant capital required for producing the necessaries of life. </p> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Marx, <i>Capital</i> Vol. 1, ch. 12, "The Concept of Relative Surplus-Value" <sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Total</i> surplus-value in an economy (Marx refers to the <i>mass</i> or volume of surplus-value) is basically equal to the sum of net distributed and undistributed <a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">profit</a>, net <a href="/wiki/Interest" title="Interest">interest</a>, net <a href="/wiki/Renting" title="Renting">rents</a>, net <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">tax</a> on production and various net receipts associated with <a href="/wiki/Royalties" class="mw-redirect" title="Royalties">royalties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Licensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Licensing">licensing</a>, leasing, certain honorariums etc. (see also <a href="/wiki/Value_product" title="Value product">value product</a>). Of course, the way generic profit income is grossed and netted in social accounting may differ somewhat from the way an individual business does that (see also <a href="/wiki/Operating_surplus" title="Operating surplus">Operating surplus</a>). </p><p>Marx's own discussion focuses mainly on profit, interest and rent, largely ignoring taxation and royalty-type fees which were proportionally very small components of the national income when he lived. Over the last 150 years, however, the role of the state in the economy has increased in almost every country in the world. Around 1850, the average share of government spending in <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a> (See also <a href="/wiki/Government_spending" title="Government spending">Government spending</a>) in the advanced capitalist economies was around 5%; in 1870, a bit above 8%; on the eve of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, just under 10%; just before the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, around 20%; by 1950, nearly 30%; and today the average is around 35–40%. (see for example Alan Turner Peacock, "The growth of public expenditure", in <i>Encyclopedia of Public Choice</i>, Springer 2003, pp. 594–597). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interpretations">Interpretations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Interpretations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Marxism" title="Category:Marxism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;"><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marx_Engels_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels"><img alt="Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marx_Engels_icon.svg/75px-Marx_Engels_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marx_Engels_icon.svg/113px-Marx_Engels_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marx_Engels_icon.svg/150px-Marx_Engels_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="333" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_bibliography" title="Marxist bibliography">Theoretical works</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Philosophic_Manuscripts_of_1844" title="Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844">Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Condition_of_the_Working_Class_in_England" title="The Condition of the Working Class in England">The Condition of the Working Class in England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_German_Ideology" title="The German Ideology">The German Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eighteenth_Brumaire_of_Louis_Bonaparte" title="The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte">The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grundrisse" title="Grundrisse">Grundrisse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_the_Gotha_Programme" title="Critique of the Gotha Programme">Critique of the Gotha Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectics_of_Nature" title="Dialectics of Nature">Dialectics of Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/What_Is_to_Be_Done%3F" title="What Is to Be Done?">What Is to Be Done?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Accumulation_of_Capital" title="The Accumulation of Capital">The Accumulation of Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Notebooks" title="Philosophical Notebooks">Philosophical Notebooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_Communism" title="Terrorism and Communism">Terrorism and Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_State_and_Revolution" title="The State and Revolution">The State and Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essays_on_Marx%27s_Theory_of_Value" title="Essays on Marx's Theory of Value">Essays on Marx's Theory of Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Notebooks" title="Prison Notebooks">Prison Notebooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Jacobins" title="The Black Jacobins">The Black Jacobins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Practice" title="On Practice">On Practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theses_on_the_Philosophy_of_History" title="Theses on the Philosophy of History">Theses on the Philosophy of History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic_of_Enlightenment" title="Dialectic of Enlightenment">Dialectic of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Critique_of_Soviet_Economics" title="A Critique of Soviet Economics">A Critique of Soviet Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Long_Revolution" title="The Long Revolution">The Long Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_Warfare_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla Warfare (book)">Guerrilla Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Wretched_of_the_Earth" title="The Wretched of the Earth">The Wretched of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading_Capital" title="Reading Capital">Reading Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogy_of_the_Oppressed" title="Pedagogy of the Oppressed">Pedagogy of the Oppressed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_and_Ideological_State_Apparatuses" title="Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses">Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ways_of_Seeing" title="Ways of Seeing">Ways of Seeing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/How_Europe_Underdeveloped_Africa" title="How Europe Underdeveloped Africa">How Europe Underdeveloped Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Justice_and_the_City" title="Social Justice and the City">Social Justice and the City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women,_Race_and_Class" title="Women, Race and Class">Women, Race and Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_the_Oppression_of_Women" title="Marxism and the Oppression of Women">Marxism and the Oppression of Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_Communities" title="Imagined Communities">Imagined Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony_and_Socialist_Strategy" title="Hegemony and Socialist Strategy">Hegemony and Socialist Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sublime_Object_of_Ideology" title="The Sublime Object of Ideology">The Sublime Object of Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time,_Labor_and_Social_Domination" title="Time, Labor and Social Domination">Time, Labor and Social Domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Extremes" title="The Age of Extremes">The Age of Extremes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_Capitalism" title="The Origin of Capitalism">The Origin of Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_(Hardt_and_Negri_book)" title="Empire (Hardt and Negri book)">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Victorian_Holocausts" title="Late Victorian Holocausts">Late Victorian Holocausts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Change_the_World_Without_Taking_Power" title="Change the World Without Taking Power">Change the World Without Taking Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliban_and_the_Witch" title="Caliban and the Witch">Caliban and the Witch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Three_Volumes_of_Karl_Marx%27s_Capital" title="An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital">An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_Realism" title="Capitalist Realism">Capitalist Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_in_the_Anthropocene" title="Capital in the Anthropocene">Capital in the Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towards_Socialism_or_Capitalism%3F" title="Towards Socialism or Capitalism?">Towards Socialism or Capitalism?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolution_Betrayed" title="The Revolution Betrayed">The Revolution Betrayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_and_Revolution" title="Literature and Revolution">Literature and Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Struggle_Against_Fascism_in_Germany" title="The Struggle Against Fascism in Germany">The Struggle Against Fascism in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Their_Morals_and_Ours:_The_class_foundations_of_moral_practice" title="Their Morals and Ours: The class foundations of moral practice">Their Morals and Ours: The class foundations of moral practice</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Philosophy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_alienation" title="Marx's theory of alienation">Alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">Dialectical materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology#Marxist_interpretation" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy_of_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist philosophy of nature">Philosophy of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Philosophy in the Soviet Union">Philosophy in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_ethics" title="Marxist ethics">Marxist ethics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_(Marxism)" title="Capital (Marxism)">Capital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">accumulation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_theory" title="Crisis theory">Crisis theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_(Marxism)" title="Commodity (Marxism)">Commodity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_labour_and_concrete_labour" title="Abstract labour and concrete labour">Concrete and abstract labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production#Marxism" title="Factors of production">Factors of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendency_of_the_rate_of_profit_to_fall" title="Tendency of the rate of profit to fall">Falling profit-rate tendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">Means of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_of_production" title="Mode of production">Mode of production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production" title="Socialist mode of production">Socialist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productive_forces" title="Productive forces">Productive forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism">Scientific socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surplus_product" title="Surplus product">Surplus product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_necessary_labour_time" title="Socially necessary labour time">Socially necessary labour time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value-form" title="Value-form">Value-form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Sociology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Base_and_superstructure" title="Base and superstructure">Base and superstructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie#Marxist_theory" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_class_theory" title="Marxian class theory">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_consciousness" title="Class consciousness">Class consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_fetishism" title="Commodity fetishism">Commodity fetishism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_society" title="Communist society">Communist society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">Cultural hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Marxism" title="Democracy in Marxism">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat" title="Dictatorship of the proletariat">Dictatorship of the proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_democracy" title="Soviet democracy">Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_democracy" title="Radical democracy">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">Democratic centralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour#Marxist_theory" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_consciousness" title="False consciousness">False consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_human_nature" title="Marx's theory of human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immiseration_thesis" title="Immiseration thesis">Immiseration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_imperialism#Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">Lumpenproletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_rift" title="Metabolic rift">Metabolic rift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_of_production" title="Relations of production">Relations of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_the_state" title="Marx's theory of the state">State theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">Working class</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">Historical determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">Proletarian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_revolution" title="World revolution">World revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_historical_trajectory" title="Theory of historical trajectory">Theory of historical trajectory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Aspects</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_aesthetics" title="Marxist aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_archaeology" title="Marxist archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_cultural_analysis" title="Marxist cultural analysis">Cultural analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_ethics" title="Marxist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_film_theory" title="Marxist film theory">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_literary_criticism" title="Marxist literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_religion" title="Marxism and religion">Marxism and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Common variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.2em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/Structural_Marxism" title="Structural Marxism">Structural</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Gramscianism" title="Neo-Gramscianism">Neo-Gramscianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_school" title="Regulation school">Regulation school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism%E2%80%93Third_Worldism" title="Maoism–Third Worldism">Third-worldist</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.2em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness#Summary" title="History and Class Consciousness">Hegelian</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_humanism" title="Marxist humanism">Humanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neue_Marx-Lekt%C3%BCre" title="Neue Marx-Lektüre">Neue Marx-Lektüre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Marxism" title="Open Marxism">Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Marxism" title="Political Marxism">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praxis_School" title="Praxis School">Praxis School</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.2em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Both</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_radical_tradition" title="Black radical tradition">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Marxism" title="Classical Marxism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communization" title="Communization">Communization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_feminism" title="Marxist feminism">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Marxism" title="Post-Marxism">Post</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_schools_of_thought" title="Marxist schools of thought">Other variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austromarxism" title="Austromarxism">Austromarxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_Marxism" title="Centrist Marxism">Centrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_communism" title="Council communism">Council communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_Marxism" title="Instrumental Marxism">Instrumental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism">Marxism–Leninism–Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkrumaism" title="Nkrumaism">Nkrumaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Marxism" title="Orthodox Marxism">Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situationist" class="mw-redirect" title="Situationist">Situationist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wertkritik" class="mw-redirect" title="Wertkritik">Wertkritik</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_Marxist_theory" title="List of contributors to Marxist theory">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lafargue" title="Paul Lafargue">Lafargue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaak_Illich_Rubin" title="Isaak Illich Rubin">Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Plekhanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht" title="Karl Liebknecht">Liebknecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Kollontai" title="Alexandra Kollontai">Kollontai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Bogdanov</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Trotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Grossman" title="Henryk Grossman">Grossman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Zinoviev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Bloch" title="Ernst Bloch">Bloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Korsch" title="Karl Korsch">Korsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Bukharin" title="Nikolai Bukharin">Bukharin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Serge" title="Victor Serge">Serge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirsaid_Sultan-Galiev" title="Mirsaid Sultan-Galiev">Galiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_Bordiga" title="Amadeo Bordiga">Bordiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyoti_Basu" title="Jyoti Basu">Basu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Carlos_Mari%C3%A1tegui" title="José Carlos Mariátegui">Mariátegui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._Palme_Dutt" title="R. Palme Dutt">Dutt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Brecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cox" title="Oliver Cox">Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._L._R._James" title="C. L. R. James">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Padmore" title="George Padmore">Padmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Deutscher" title="Isaac Deutscher">Deutscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enver_Hoxha" title="Enver Hoxha">Hoxha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Sweezy" title="Paul Sweezy">Sweezy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arghiri_Emmanuel" title="Arghiri Emmanuel">Emmanuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hill_(historian)" title="Christopher Hill (historian)">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bettelheim" title="Charles Bettelheim">Bettelheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hal_Draper" title="Hal Draper">Draper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudia_Jones" title="Claudia Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Hobsbawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Hinton" title="William H. Hinton">Hinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Freire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Mandel" title="Ernest Mandel">Mandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambalavaner_Sivanandan" title="Ambalavaner Sivanandan">Sivanandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Miliband" title="Ralph Miliband">Miliband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Cabral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Kos%C3%ADk" title="Karel Kosík">Kosik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Berger" title="John Berger">Berger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara" title="Che Guevara">Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Liebman" title="Marcel Liebman">Liebman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Heller" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnes Heller">Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_M%C3%A9sz%C3%A1ros_(philosopher)" title="István Mészáros (philosopher)">Mészáros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_O%27Connor_(academic)" title="James O'Connor (academic)">O'Connor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Wallerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Mies" title="Maria Mies">Mies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Tronti" title="Mario Tronti">Tronti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Nairn" title="Tom Nairn">Nairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Parenti" title="Michael Parenti">Parenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abimael_Guzm%C3%A1n" title="Abimael Guzmán">Gonzalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrique_Dussel" title="Enrique Dussel">Dussel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bahro" title="Rudolf Bahro">Bahro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicos_Poulantzas" title="Nicos Poulantzas">Poulantzas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gianni_Vattimo" title="Gianni Vattimo">Vattimo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marta_Harnecker" title="Marta Harnecker">Harnecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmar_Altvater" title="Elmar Altvater">Altvater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_Anderson" title="Perry Anderson">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L%C3%B6wy" title="Michael Löwy">Löwy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Vogel" title="Lise Vogel">Vogel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jose_Maria_Sison" title="Jose Maria Sison">Sison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Easthope" title="Antony Easthope">Easthope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Berman" title="Marshall Berman">Berman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Przeworski" title="Adam Przeworski">Przeworski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._A._Cohen" title="G. A. Cohen">Cohen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ran_Therborn" title="Göran Therborn">Therborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domenico_Losurdo" title="Domenico Losurdo">Losurdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Ture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moishe_Postone" title="Moishe Postone">Postone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himani_Bannerji" title="Himani Bannerji">Bannerji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gayatri_Chakravorty_Spivak" title="Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak">Spivak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlers:_The_Mythology_of_the_White_Proletariat" title="Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat">Sakai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Meiksins_Wood" title="Ellen Meiksins Wood">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvia_Federici" title="Silvia Federici">Federici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Wolff" title="Richard D. Wolff">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Balibar" title="Étienne Balibar">Balibar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Eagleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kurz" title="Robert Kurz">Kurz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Hartsock" title="Nancy Hartsock">Hartsock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheila_Rowbotham" title="Sheila Rowbotham">Rowbotham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Geras" title="Norman Geras">Geras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brenner" title="Robert Brenner">Brenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doreen_Massey_(geographer)" title="Doreen Massey (geographer)">Massey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Cleaver" title="Harry Cleaver">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Bishop" title="Maurice Bishop">Bishop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Haraway" title="Donna Haraway">Haraway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Panitch" title="Leo Panitch">Panitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Clarke_(sociologist)" title="Simon Clarke (sociologist)">Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Jessop" title="Bob Jessop">Jessop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Davis_(scholar)" title="Mike Davis (scholar)">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Olin_Wright" title="Erik Olin Wright">Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Burawoy" title="Michael Burawoy">Burawoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Holloway_(sociologist)" title="John Holloway (sociologist)">Holloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillian_Rose" title="Gillian Rose">Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Screpanti" title="Ernesto Screpanti">Screpanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A1sp%C3%A1r_Mikl%C3%B3s_Tam%C3%A1s" title="Gáspár Miklós Tamás">Tamás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Cano" title="Alfonso Cano">Cano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Berardi" title="Franco Berardi">Berardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sankara" title="Thomas Sankara">Sankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosemary_Hennessy" title="Rosemary Hennessy">Hennessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costas_Douzinas" title="Costas Douzinas">Douzinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Roediger" title="David Roediger">Roediger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bellamy_Foster" title="John Bellamy Foster">Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuradha_Ghandy" title="Anuradha Ghandy">Ghandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcomandante_Marcos" title="Subcomandante Marcos">Marcos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Heinrich" title="Michael Heinrich">Heinrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijay_Prashad" title="Vijay Prashad">Prashad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Kelley" title="Robin Kelley">Kelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jodi_Dean" title="Jodi Dean">Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Lordon" title="Frédéric Lordon">Lordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Garc%C3%ADa_Linera" title="Álvaro García Linera">Linera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Minqi" title="Li Minqi">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glen_Coulthard" title="Glen Coulthard">Coulthard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Malm" title="Andreas Malm">Malm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Seymour_(21st-century_writer)" title="Richard Seymour (21st-century writer)">Seymour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Toscano" title="Alberto Toscano">Toscano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithi_Bhattacharya" title="Tithi Bhattacharya">Bhattacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Moufawad-Paul" title="J. 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class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_communist_theorists" title="21st-century communist theorists">21st-century communist theorists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_destruction" title="Creative destruction">Creative destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Marxism" title="Criticism of Marxism">Criticism of Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a 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plainlist" style="line-height:1.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Marxism" title="Outline of Marxism">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/16px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/24px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/32px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Communism" title="Portal:Communism">Communism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_flag_II.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/16px-Red_flag_II.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/24px-Red_flag_II.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/32px-Red_flag_II.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="411" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Socialism" title="Portal:Socialism">Socialism portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Marxism_sidebar" title="Template:Marxism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Marxism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Marxism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Marxism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Marxism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Surplus-value may be viewed in five ways: </p> <ul><li>As a component of the new <a href="/wiki/Value_product" title="Value product">value product</a>, which Marx himself defines as equal to the sum of <a href="/wiki/Labor_costs" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor costs">labor costs</a> in respect of capitalistically <a href="/wiki/Productive_and_unproductive_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Productive and unproductive labor">productive labor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Variable_capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable capital">variable capital</a>) and surplus-value. In production, he argues, the workers produce a value equal to their wages plus an additional value, the surplus-value. They also transfer part of the value of fixed assets and materials to the new product, equal to economic depreciation (consumption of fixed capital) and <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_consumption" title="Intermediate consumption">intermediate goods</a> used up (<a href="/wiki/Constant_capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant capital">constant capital</a> inputs). Labor costs and surplus-value are the monetary valuations of what Marx calls the <a href="/wiki/Necessary_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessary product">necessary product</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Surplus_product" title="Surplus product">surplus product</a>, or paid labour and unpaid labour.</li> <li>Surplus-value can also be viewed as a <a href="/wiki/Stock_and_flow" title="Stock and flow">flow</a> of net income appropriated by the owners of capital in virtue of asset ownership, comprising both distributed personal income and undistributed business income. In the whole economy, this will include both income directly from production and property income.</li> <li>Surplus-value can be viewed as the source of society's <i>accumulation fund</i> or <i>investment fund</i>; part of it is re-invested, but part is appropriated as personal income, and used for consumptive purposes by the owners of capital assets (see <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a>); in exceptional circumstances, part of it may also be hoarded in some way. In this context, surplus value can also be measured as the increase in the value of the <a href="/wiki/Stock_and_flow" title="Stock and flow">stock</a> of capital assets through an accounting period, prior to distribution.</li> <li>Surplus-value can be viewed as a social <a href="/wiki/Relations_of_production" title="Relations of production">relation of production</a>, or as the monetary valuation of <a href="/wiki/Surplus-labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Surplus-labour">surplus-labour</a> – a sort of "index" of the balance of power between social classes or nations in the process of the division of the social product.</li> <li>Surplus-value can, in a developed capitalist economy, be viewed also as an indicator of the level of social <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> that has been reached by the working population, i.e. the net amount of value it can produce with its labour in excess of its own consumption requirements.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Equalization_of_rates">Equalization of rates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Equalization of rates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marx believed that the long-term historical tendency would be for differences in rates of surplus value between enterprises and economic sectors to level out, as Marx explains in two places in <i>Capital</i> Vol. 3: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If capitals that set in motion unequal quantities of living labour produce unequal amounts of surplus-value, this assumes that the level of exploitation of labour, or the rate of surplus-value, is the same, at least to a certain extent, or that the distinctions that exist here are balanced out by real or imaginary (conventional) grounds of compensation. This assumes competition among workers, and an equalization that takes place by their constant migration between one sphere of production and another. Assume a general rate of surplus value of this kind, as a tendency, like all economic laws, as a theoretical simplification; but in any case this is in practice an actual presupposition of the capitalist mode of production, even if inhibited to a greater or lesser extent by practical frictions that produce more or less significant local differences, such as the settlement laws for agricultural labourers in England, for example. In theory, we assume that the laws of the capitalist mode of production develop in their pure form. In reality, this is only an approximation; but that approximation is all the more exact, the more the capitalist mode of production is developed and the less it is adulterated by survivals of earlier economic conditions with which it is amalgamated – Capital Vol. 3, ch. 10, Pelican edition p. 275.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Hence, he assumed a uniform rate of surplus value in his models of how surplus value would be shared out under competitive conditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Appropriation_from_production">Appropriation from production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Appropriation from production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both in <a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a> and in preparatory manuscripts such as the <i>Grundrisse</i> and <i>Results of the immediate process of production</i>, Marx asserts that commerce by stages transforms a non-capitalist production process into a capitalist production process, integrating it fully into markets, so that all inputs and outputs become marketed goods or services. When that process is complete, according to Marx, the whole of production has become simultaneously a <a href="/wiki/Labor_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor process">labor process</a> creating <a href="/wiki/Use_value" title="Use value">use-values</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Valorisation" title="Valorisation">valorisation</a> process creating new value, and more specifically a surplus-value appropriated as net income (see also <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Marx contends that the whole purpose of production in this situation becomes the growth of capital; i.e. that production of output becomes <i>conditional</i> on <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> If production becomes unprofitable, capital will be withdrawn from production sooner or later. </p><p>The implication is that the main driving force of capitalism becomes the quest to maximise the appropriation of surplus-value augmenting the stock of capital. The overriding motive behind efforts to economise resources and labor would thus be to obtain the maximum possible increase in income and capital assets ("business growth"), and provide a steady or growing return on investment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Absolute_vs._relative">Absolute vs. relative</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Absolute vs. relative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Marx, <i>absolute surplus value</i> is obtained by increasing the amount of time worked per worker in an accounting period.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marx talks mainly about the length of the working day or week, but in modern times the concern is about the number of hours worked per year. </p><p>In many parts of the world, as productivity rose, the workweek decreased from 60 hours to 50, 40 or 35 hours. </p><p><i>Relative surplus value</i> is obtained mainly by: </p> <ul><li>Reducing wages<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — this can only go to a certain point, because if wages fall below the ability of workers to purchase their means of subsistence, they will be unable to reproduce themselves and the capitalists will not be able to find sufficient <a href="/wiki/Labor_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor power">labor power</a>.</li> <li>Reducing the cost of wage-goods by various means, so that wage increases can be curbed.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Increasing the productivity and intensity<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> of labour generally, through mechanisation and rationalisation, yielding a bigger output per hour worked.</li></ul> <p>The attempt to extract more and more surplus-value from labor on the one side, and on the other side the resistance to this exploitation, are according to Marx at the core of the conflict between <a href="/wiki/Social_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="Social classes">social classes</a>, which is sometimes muted or hidden, but at other times erupts in open class warfare and <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggle</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production_versus_realisation">Production versus realisation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Production versus realisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marx distinguished sharply between value and <a href="/wiki/Price" title="Price">price</a>, in part because of the sharp distinction he draws between the <i>production of surplus-value</i> and the <i>realisation of profit income</i> (see also <a href="/wiki/Value-form" title="Value-form">value-form</a>). Output may be <i>produced</i> containing surplus-value (<a href="/wiki/Valorisation" title="Valorisation">valorisation</a>), but <i>selling</i> that output (realisation) is not at all an automatic process. </p><p>Until payment from sales is received, it is uncertain how much of the surplus-value produced will actually be realised as profit from sales. So, the magnitude of <i>profit realised</i> in the form of money and the magnitude of <i>surplus-value produced</i> in the form of products may differ greatly, depending on what happens to market prices and the vagaries of supply and demand fluctuations. This insight forms the basis of Marx's theory of market value, <a href="/wiki/Prices_of_production" title="Prices of production">prices of production</a> and the tendency of the rate of profit of different enterprises to be levelled out by competition. </p><p>In his published and unpublished manuscripts, Marx went into great detail to examine many different factors which could affect the production and realisation of surplus-value. He regarded this as crucial for the purpose of understanding the dynamics and dimensions of capitalist <a href="/wiki/Competition" title="Competition">competition</a>, not just business competition but also competition between capitalists and workers and among workers themselves. But his analysis did not go much beyond specifying some of the overall outcomes of the process. </p><p>His main conclusion though is that employers will aim to maximise the productivity of labour and economise on the use of labour, to reduce their unit-costs and maximise their net returns from sales at current market prices; at a given ruling market price for an output, every reduction of costs and every increase in productivity and sales turnover will increase profit income for that output. The main method is <i>mechanisation</i>, which raises the <a href="/wiki/Fixed_capital" title="Fixed capital">fixed capital</a> outlay in investment. </p><p>In turn, this causes the unit-values of commodities to decline over time, and a <a href="/wiki/Tendency_of_the_rate_of_profit_to_fall" title="Tendency of the rate of profit to fall"><i>decline of the average rate of profit</i></a> in the sphere of production occurs, culminating in a crisis of <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a>, in which a sharp reduction in productive investments combines with mass unemployment, followed by an intensive rationalisation process of take-overs, mergers, fusions, and restructuring aiming to restore profitability. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_taxation">Relation to taxation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Relation to taxation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Government_tax_vs_dividends_and_buybacks.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Government_tax_vs_dividends_and_buybacks.webp/330px-Government_tax_vs_dividends_and_buybacks.webp.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Government_tax_vs_dividends_and_buybacks.webp/495px-Government_tax_vs_dividends_and_buybacks.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Government_tax_vs_dividends_and_buybacks.webp/660px-Government_tax_vs_dividends_and_buybacks.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1532" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>S&P 500 dividends and buybacks vs. Federal and State tax collections <br /> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fcf75e; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/State_income_tax" title="State income tax">State tax revenue</a> <br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF355E; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Corporate_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Corporate tax in the United States">Federal tax revenue </a> <br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:lightgreen; color:black;"> </span> S&P 500 <a href="/wiki/Stock_buyback" class="mw-redirect" title="Stock buyback">Stock buyback</a> <br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:green; color:white;"> </span> S&P 500 <a href="/wiki/Dividend" title="Dividend">Dividends</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>In general, business leaders and investors are hostile to any attempts to encroach on total profit volume, especially those of government <a href="/wiki/Taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxation">taxation</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The lower taxes are, other things being equal, the bigger the mass of profit that can be distributed as income to private investors. It was <i>tax revolts</i> that originally were a powerful stimulus motivating the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> to wrest state power from the feudal <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> at the beginning of the capitalist era.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In reality, of course, a substantial portion of tax money is also <i>redistributed</i> to private enterprise in the form of government contracts and subsidies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Capitalists may therefore be in conflict among themselves about taxes, since what is a cost to some, is a source of profit to others.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Marx never analysed all this in detail; but the concept of surplus value will apply mainly to taxes on gross income (personal and business income from production) and on the trade in products and services.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Estate duty for example rarely contains a surplus value component, although profit could be earned in the transfer of the estate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Generally, Marx seems to have regarded taxation imposts as a "form" which disguised real product <i>values</i>. Apparently following this view, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Mandel" title="Ernest Mandel">Ernest Mandel</a> in his 1960 treatise <i>Marxist Economic Theory</i> refers to (indirect) taxes as "arbitrary additions to commodity prices". But this is something of a misnomer, and disregards that taxes become part of the normal cost-structure of production. In his later treatise on <a href="/wiki/Late_capitalism" title="Late capitalism">late capitalism</a>, Mandel astonishingly hardly mentions the significance of taxation at all, a very serious omission from the point of view of the real world of modern capitalism since taxes can reach a magnitude of a third, or even half of GDP (see E. Mandel, <i>Late Capitalism</i>. London: Verso, 1975).For example in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> alone 75% of all taxation revenue comes from just three taxes <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">Income tax</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Insurance" title="National Insurance">National insurance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Value-added_tax" title="Value-added tax">VAT</a> which in reality is 75% of the GDP of the country. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_the_circuits_of_capital">Relation to the circuits of capital</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Relation to the circuits of capital"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Generally, Marx focused in <a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a> on the new surplus-value generated by production, and the distribution of this surplus value. In this way, he aimed to reveal the "origin of the wealth of nations" given a <a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">capitalist mode of production</a>. However, in any real economy, a distinction must be drawn between the primary circuit of capital, and the secondary circuits. To some extent, <a href="/wiki/National_accounts" title="National accounts">national accounts</a> also do this. </p><p>The primary circuit refers to the incomes and products generated and distributed from productive activity (reflected by <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a>). The secondary circuits refer to trade, transfers and transactions occurring <i>outside</i> that sphere, which can also generate incomes, and these incomes may also involve the realisation of a surplus-value or profit. </p><p>It is true that Marx argues no net additions to value can be created through acts of exchange, economic value being an attribute of labour-products (previous or newly created) only. Nevertheless, trading activity outside the sphere of production can obviously also yield a surplus-value which represents a <i>transfer</i> of value from one person, country or institution to another. </p><p>A very simple example would be if somebody sold a second-hand asset at a profit. This transaction is not recorded in gross product measures (after all, it isn't new production), nevertheless a surplus-value is obtained from it. Another example would be capital gains from property sales. Marx occasionally refers to this kind of profit as <i>profit upon alienation</i>, <a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienation</a> being used here in the juridical, not sociological sense. By implication, if we just focused on surplus-value newly created in production, we would <i>underestimate</i> total surplus-values <i>realised as income</i> in a country. This becomes obvious if we compare census estimates of income & expenditure with GDP data. </p><p>This is another reason why surplus-value <i>produced</i> and surplus-value <i>realised</i> are two different things, although this point is largely ignored in the economics literature. But it becomes highly important when the real growth of production stagnates, and a growing portion of capital shifts out of the sphere of production in search of surplus-value from other deals. </p><p>Nowadays the volume of world <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a> grows significantly faster than <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a>, suggesting to Marxian economists such as <a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a> that surplus-value realised from commercial trade (representing to a large extent a transfer of value by intermediaries between producers and consumers) grows faster than surplus-value realised directly from production. </p><p>Thus, if we took the final price of a good (the cost to the final consumer) and analysed the cost structure of that good, we might find that, over a period of time, the direct producers get less income and intermediaries between producers and consumers (traders) get more income from it. That is, control over the <i>access</i> to a good, asset or resource as such may increasingly become a very important factor in realising a surplus-value. In the worst case, this amounts to <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Extortion" title="Extortion">extortion</a>. This analysis illustrates a key feature of surplus value which is that it accumulated by the owners of capital only within <i>inefficient</i> markets because only inefficient markets – i.e. those in which transparency and competition are low – have profit margins large enough to facilitate capital accumulation. Ironically, profitable – meaning inefficient – markets have difficulty meeting the definition a <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free market</a> because a free market is to some extent defined as an efficient one: one in which goods or services are exchanged without coercion or fraud, or in other words with competition (to prevent monopolistic coercion) and transparency (to prevent fraud). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement">Measurement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first attempt to measure the rate of surplus-value in money-units was by Marx himself in chapter 9 of <i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i>, using factory data of a spinning mill supplied by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> (though Marx credits "a Manchester spinner"). Both in published and unpublished manuscripts, Marx examines variables affecting the rate and mass of surplus-value in detail. </p><p>Some Marxian economists argue that Marx thought the possibility of measuring surplus value depends on the publicly available data. We can develop statistical <i>indicators</i> of trends, without mistakenly conflating data with the real thing they represent, or postulating "perfect measurements or perfect data" in the <a href="/wiki/Empiricist" class="mw-redirect" title="Empiricist">empiricist</a> manner. </p><p>Since early studies by Marxian economists like <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Varga" title="Eugen Varga">Eugen Varga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bettelheim" title="Charles Bettelheim">Charles Bettelheim</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Gillmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Gillmann (page does not exist)">Joseph Gillmann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Wolff" title="Edward Wolff">Edward Wolff</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shane_Mage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shane Mage (page does not exist)">Shane Mage</a>, there have been numerous attempts by Marxian economists to measure the trend in surplus-value statistically using national accounts data. The most convincing modern attempt is probably that of <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Shaikh_(Economist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anwar Shaikh (Economist)">Anwar Shaikh</a> and Ahmet Tonak.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Usually this type of research involves reworking the components of the official measures of gross output and capital outlays to approximate Marxian categories, in order to estimate empirically the trends in the ratios thought important in the Marxian explanation of <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a>: the rate of <a href="/wiki/Surplus-value" class="mw-redirect" title="Surplus-value">surplus-value</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Organic_composition_of_capital" title="Organic composition of capital">organic composition of capital</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rate_of_profit" title="Rate of profit">rate of profit</a>, the rate of increase in the capital stock, and the rate of reinvestment of realised surplus-value in production. </p><p>The Marxian mathematicians <a href="/w/index.php?title=Emmanuel_Farjoun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emmanuel Farjoun (page does not exist)">Emmanuel Farjoun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosh%C3%A9_Machover" title="Moshé Machover">Moshé Machover</a> argue that "even if the rate of surplus value has changed by 10–20% over a hundred years, the real problem [to explain] is why it has changed so little" (quoted from <i>The Laws of Chaos: A Probabilistic Approach to Political Economy</i> (1983), p. 192). The answer to that question must, in part, be sought in artifacts (statistical distortion effects) of data collection procedures. Mathematical extrapolations are ultimately based on the data available, but that data itself may be fragmentary and not the "complete picture". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Different_conceptions">Different conceptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Different conceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In neo-Marxist thought, <a href="/wiki/Paul_A._Baran" title="Paul A. Baran">Paul A. Baran</a> for example substitutes the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Economic_surplus" title="Economic surplus">economic surplus</a>" for Marx's surplus value. In a joint work, Paul Baran and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sweezy" title="Paul Sweezy">Paul Sweezy</a> define the economic surplus as "the difference between what a society produces and the costs of producing it" (<i>Monopoly Capitalism</i>, New York 1966, p. 9). Much depends here on how the costs are valued, and which costs are taken into account. <a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Piero Sraffa</a> also refers to a "physical surplus" with a similar meaning, calculated according to the relationship between prices of physical inputs and outputs. </p><p>In these theories, <a href="/wiki/Surplus_product" title="Surplus product">surplus product</a> and surplus value are equated, while value and price are identical, but the <i>distribution</i> of the surplus tends to be separated theoretically from its <i>production</i>; whereas Marx insists that the distribution of wealth is governed by the social conditions in which it is <i>produced</i>, especially by property relations giving entitlement to products, incomes and assets (see also <a href="/wiki/Relations_of_production" title="Relations of production">relations of production</a>). </p><p>In <i>Kapital</i> Vol. 3, Marx insists strongly that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...the specific economic form, in which unpaid <a href="/wiki/Surplus_labour" title="Surplus labour">surplus labour</a> is pumped out of direct producers, determines the relationship of rulers and ruled, as it grows directly out of production itself and, in turn, reacts upon it as a determining element. Upon this, however, is founded the entire formation of the economic community which grows up out of the production relations themselves, thereby simultaneously its specific political form. It is always the direct relationship of the owners of the conditions of production to the direct producers – a relation always naturally corresponding to a definite stage of the methods of labour and thereby its social productivity – which reveals the innermost secret, the hidden basis of the entire social structure, and with it the political form of the relation of sovereignty and dependence, in short, the corresponding specific form of the state. This does not prevent the same economic basis – the same from the standpoint of its main conditions – due to innumerable different, empirical circumstances, natural environment, racial relations, external historical influence, etc. from showing infinite variations and gradations in appearance, which can be ascertained only by analysis of the empirically given circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This is a substantive – if abstract – thesis about the basic <a href="/wiki/Social_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Social relations">social relations</a> involved in giving and getting, taking and receiving in human <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>, and their consequences for the way work and wealth is shared out. It suggests a <i>starting point</i> for an inquiry into the problem of <a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">social change</a>. But obviously it is <i>only</i> a starting point, not the whole story, which would include all the "variations and gradations". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morality_and_power">Morality and power</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Morality and power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248332772"><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Surplus_value" title="Special:EditPage/Surplus value">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Surplus_value" title="Talk:Surplus value">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Review plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>is written like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#SOAPBOX" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">review</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit">improve this article</a> by rewriting it in <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Encyclopedic_style" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Encyclopedic style">encyclopedic style</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2019</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Essay-like plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-essay-like" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>is written like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_publisher_of_original_thought" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay</a></b> that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in an <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Information_style_and_tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">encyclopedic style</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A textbook-type example of an alternative interpretation to Marx's is provided by <a href="/wiki/Lester_Thurow" title="Lester Thurow">Lester Thurow</a>. He argues:<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "In a capitalistic society, profits – and losses – hold center stage." But what, he asks, explains profits? </p><p>There are <i>five</i> reasons for profit, according to Thurow: </p> <ul><li>Capitalists are willing to delay their own personal gratification, and profit is their reward.</li> <li>Some profits are a return to those who take risks.</li> <li>Some profits are a return to organizational ability, enterprise, and entrepreneurial energy</li> <li>Some profits are economic rents – a firm that has a monopoly in producing some product or service can set a price higher than would be set in a competitive market and, thus, earn higher than normal returns.</li> <li>Some profits are due to market imperfections – they arise when goods are traded above their competitive equilibrium price.</li></ul> <p>The problem here is that Thurow doesn't really provide an objective <a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">explanation</a> of profits so much as a <a href="/wiki/Moral" title="Moral">moral</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/justification" class="extiw" title="wikt:justification">justification</a> for profits, i.e. as a legitimate entitlement or claim, in return for the supply of capital. </p><p>He adds that "Attempts have been made to organize productive societies without the profit motive (...) [but] since the industrial revolution... there have been essentially no successful economies that have not taken advantage of the profit motive." The problem here is again a <a href="/wiki/Moral" title="Moral">moral</a> judgement, dependent on what you mean by success. Some societies using the profit motive were ruined; profit is no guarantee of success, although you can say that it has powerfully stimulated economic growth. </p><p>Thurow goes on to note that "When it comes to actually measuring profits, some difficult accounting issues arise." Why? Because after deduction of costs from gross income, "It is hard to say exactly how much must be reinvested to maintain the size of the capital stock". Ultimately, Thurow implies, the <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">tax</a> department is the arbiter of the profit volume, because it determines <a href="/wiki/Depreciation" title="Depreciation">depreciation</a> allowances and other costs which capitalists may annually deduct in calculating taxable gross income. </p><p>This is obviously a theory very different from Marx's. In Thurow's theory, the aim of business is to <i>maintain</i> the capital stock. In Marx's theory, <a href="/wiki/Competition" title="Competition">competition</a>, desire and <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a> fluctuations create the striving and pressure to <i>increase</i> the capital stock; the whole aim of capitalist production is <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a>, i.e. business growth maximising net income. Marx argues there is no evidence that the <i>profit</i> accruing to capitalist owners is <i>quantitatively connected</i> to the "productive contribution" of the capital they own. In practice, within the capitalist firm, no standard procedure exists for measuring such a "productive contribution" and for distributing the residual income accordingly. </p><p>In Thurow's theory, profit is mainly just "something that happens" when costs are deducted from sales, or else a <i>justly deserved</i> income. For Marx, increasing profits is, at least in the longer term, the "bottom line" of business behaviour: the quest for obtaining extra surplus-value, and the incomes obtained from it, are what guides capitalist development (in modern language, "creating maximum shareholder value"). </p><p>That quest, Marx notes, always involves a <a href="/wiki/Power_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (sociology)">power</a> relationship between different social classes and nations, inasmuch as attempts are made to force <i>other</i> people to pay for costs as much as possible, while maximising one's own entitlement or claims to <i>income</i> from economic activity. The clash of economic interests that invariably results, implies that the battle for surplus value will always involve an irreducible <a href="/wiki/Moral" title="Moral">moral</a> dimension; the whole process rests on complex system of negotiations, dealing and bargaining in which reasons for claims to wealth are asserted, usually within a legal framework and sometimes through wars. Underneath it all, Marx argues, was an exploitative relationship. </p><p>That was the main reason why, Marx argues, the real sources of surplus-value were shrouded or obscured by <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a>, and why Marx thought that <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> merited a critique. Quite simply, economics proved unable to theorise capitalism as a <i>social system</i>, at least not without moral biases intruding in the very <i>definition</i> of its conceptual distinctions. Hence, even the most simple economic concepts were often riddled with contradictions. But market trade could function fine, even if the <i>theory</i> of markets was false; all that was required was an agreed and legally enforceable accounting system. On this point, Marx probably would have agreed with <a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian School</a> economics – no knowledge of "markets in general" is required to participate in markets. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Capital,_Volume_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital, Volume I">Capital, Volume I</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_mask" title="Character mask">Character mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_fetishism" title="Commodity fetishism">Commodity fetishism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensation_of_employees" title="Compensation of employees">Compensation of employees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_capital" title="Cost of capital">Cost of capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_value" title="Labor theory of value">Labor theory of value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_value" title="Law of value">Law of value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation of capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rate_of_exploitation" title="Rate of exploitation">Rate of exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Return_on_capital" title="Return on capital">Return on capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superprofit" title="Superprofit">Superprofit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surplus_economics" title="Surplus economics">Surplus economics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_Surplus_Value" title="Theories of Surplus Value">Theories of Surplus Value</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spago incorrectly claims that "surplus value" appears in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Source_and_Remedy_of_the_National_Difficulties" class="mw-redirect" title="The Source and Remedy of the National Difficulties">The Source and Remedy of the National Difficulties</a></i> (1821), by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wentworth_Dilke" title="Charles Wentworth Dilke">Charles Wentworth Dilke</a>, claiming that "the quantity of the surplus value appropriated by the capitalist" appears in that text. This is a misreading of the Preface to <i>Capital, Volume II</i> by Engels, who quotes from this pamphlet but uses the phrase himself (not in quotes); the pamphlet uses "surplus labour".</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch08.htm">Marx, The Capital, Chapter 8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gotha-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gotha_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"...It was made clear that the wage worker has permission to work for his own subsistence—that is, to live, only insofar as he works for a certain time gratis for the capitalist (and hence also for the latter's co-consumers of surplus value)..." Karl Marx, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch02.htm"><i>Critique of the Gotha Programme</i>. Sec.II</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tcherkesoff1902-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tcherkesoff1902_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFW._Tcherkesoff1902" class="citation book cs1">W. Tcherkesoff (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1UdYAAAAMAAJ"><i>Pages of Socialist History: Teachings and Acts of Social Democracy</i></a>. C.B. Cooper. p. 19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pages+of+Socialist+History%3A+Teachings+and+Acts+of+Social+Democracy&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=C.B.+Cooper&rft.date=1902&rft.au=W.+Tcherkesoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1UdYAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurplus+value" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenger1899" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Anton_Menger" title="Anton Menger">Menger, Anton</a> (1899) [1886]. <i>Das Recht auf den vollen Arbeitsertrag in geschichtlicher Darstellung</i> [<i>The Right to the Whole Produce of Labour</i>] (in German).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Das+Recht+auf+den+vollen+Arbeitsertrag+in+geschichtlicher+Darstellung&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Menger&rft.aufirst=Anton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurplus+value" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">"Juristen-Sozialismus" [Juridical Socialism]. <i><a href="/wiki/Die_Neue_Zeit" title="Die Neue Zeit">Die Neue Zeit</a></i> (in German). 1887.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Die+Neue+Zeit&rft.atitle=Juristen-Sozialismus&rft.date=1887&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurplus+value" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpargo1906" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Spargo" title="John Spargo">Spargo, John</a> (1906). <i>Socialism: A Summary and Interpretation of Socialist Principles</i>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialismsummary00sparuoft/page/203">203</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialismsummary00sparuoft/page/206">206</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Socialism%3A+A+Summary+and+Interpretation+of+Socialist+Principles&rft.pages=203-206&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Spargo&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurplus+value" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch12.htm">"Economic Manuscripts: Capital Vol. I - Chapter Twelve"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Economic+Manuscripts%3A+Capital+Vol.+I+-+Chapter+Twelve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Fmarx%2Fworks%2F1867-c1%2Fch12.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurplus+value" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1894-c3/ch10.htm">Marxists Internet Archive</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Marx and Frederick <i>The Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 34</i> (New York: International Publishers, 1994) p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, <i>Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 34</i>, pp. 75–76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, <i>Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 34</i>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521564794">"Measuring the Wealth of Nations - Cambridge University Press"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Measuring+the+Wealth+of+Nations+-+Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fus%2Fcatalogue%2Fcatalogue.asp%3Fisbn%3D0521564794&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurplus+value" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1894-c3/ch47.htm">Karl Marx, Economic Manuscripts: Capital, Vol.3, Chapter 47.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lester_Thurow" title="Lester Thurow">Thurow, Lester C.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Profits.html">"Profits"</a>. <i>Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Liberty Fund</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories-surplus-value/"><i>Theories of Surplus-Value</i> (1863)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1865/value-price-profit/index.htm"><i>Value, Price and Profit</i> (1865)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/index.htm"><i>Capital</i>, Volume 1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1885-c2/index.htm">Volume 2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1894-c3/index.htm">Volume 3</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1894-c3/supp.htm#intro">Supplement B of Volume 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anwar_Shaikh_(economist)" title="Anwar Shaikh (economist)">Anwar Shaikh</a> and Ahmet Tonak, <i>Measuring the Wealth of Nations</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anwar_Shaikh_(economist)" title="Anwar Shaikh (economist)">Anwar Shaikh</a> papers <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://homepage.newschool.edu/%7eAShaikh/">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._A._Cohen" title="G. A. Cohen">G. A. Cohen</a> (1988), <i>History, Labour and Freedom: Themes from Marx</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a></li> <li>Shane Mage, <i>The Law of the Falling Tendency of the Rate of Profit; Its Place in the Marxian Theoretical System and Relevance to the US Economy</i>. Phd Thesis, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, 1963.</li> <li>Tatyana Volkova and Felix Volkov, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatissurplusvalue">What Is Surplus Value?</a></i> (Moscow: <a href="/wiki/Progress_Publishers" title="Progress Publishers">Progress Publishers</a>), 1987.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.mtholyoke.edu/~fmoseley/fred.html">Fred Moseley papers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110806050911/http://www.jourdan.ens.fr/~levy/">Gerard Dumenil and Dominique Levy papers</a></li> <li>Steve Keen, <i>Debunking Economics; The Naked Emperor of the Social Sciences</i>. London: Zed Press, 2004.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.debunkingeconomics.com/">Economics: Debunking Economics Overview </a></li> <li>Emmanuel Farjoun and Moshe Machover, <i>Laws of Chaos; A Probabilistic Approach to Political Economy</i>, London: Verso, 1983.</li> <li>Ian Wright, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.probabilisticpoliticaleconomy.net">iwright – Probabilistic Political Economy "Laws of Chaos" in the 21st Century.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Mandel" title="Ernest Mandel">Ernest Mandel</a>, Marxist Economic Theory, Vol. 1 and Late Capitalism.</li> <li>Harry W. Pearson, "The economy has no surplus" in "Trade and market in the early empires. Economies in history and theory", edited by Karl Polanyi, Conrad M. Arensberg and Harry W. Pearson (New York/London: The Free Press: Collier-Macmillan, 1957).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_A._Baran" title="Paul A. Baran">Paul A. Baran</a>, The Political Economy of Growth.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Piero Sraffa</a>, <i>Production of Commodities by means of commodities</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Michał Kalecki</a>, "The Determinants of Profits", in <i>Selected Essays on the Dynamics of the Capitalist Economy 1933–1970</i>.</li> <li>John B. Davis (ed), The economic surplus in advanced economies. Aldershot, Hants, England/Brookfield, Vt.: Elgar, 1992.</li> <li>Anders Danielson, The economic surplus : theory, measurement, applications. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1994.</li> <li>Helen Boss, Theories of surplus and transfer : parasites and producers in economic thought. Boston: Hyman, 1990.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surplus_value&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080410180912/http://journal.ilovephilosophy.com/Article/The-Concepts-of-Alienation-and-Surplus-Value--A-Brief-Look/216">'The Concepts of Alienation and Surplus-value, a Brief Look' (Archive.org)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 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