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cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greco-Roman_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greco-Roman_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Greco-Roman philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greco-Roman_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance_observations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance_observations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Renaissance observations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance_observations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interaction_with_religion_and_mythology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interaction_with_religion_and_mythology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Interaction with religion and mythology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interaction_with_religion_and_mythology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_volcanologists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_volcanologists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Notable volcanologists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_volcanologists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 71 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-71" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">71 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%86" title="علم البراكين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم البراكين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanolox%C3%ADa" title="Vulcanoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Vulcanoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologiya" title="Vulkanologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vulkanologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%C3%A9-soa%E2%81%BF-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Hoé-soaⁿ-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoé-soaⁿ-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Вулканалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вулканалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulkanolohiya" title="Bulkanolohiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Bulkanolohiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Вулканология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вулканология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuikanologie" title="Vuikanologie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Vuikanologie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkanegezh" title="Volkanegezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Volkanegezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanologia" title="Vulcanologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vulcanologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologie" title="Vulkanologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vulkanologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologi" title="Vulkanologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vulkanologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologie" title="Vulkanologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vulkanologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanoloogia" title="Vulkanoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vulkanoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ηφαιστειολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηφαιστειολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanolog%C3%ADa" title="Vulcanología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vulcanología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologio" title="Vulkanologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vulkanologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolkanologia" title="Bolkanologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bolkanologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="آتشفشان‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آتشفشان‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanologie" title="Volcanologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Volcanologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanologjie" title="Vulcanologjie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Vulcanologjie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanolox%C3%ADa" title="Vulcanoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Vulcanoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%EC%82%B0%ED%95%99" title="화산학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화산학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հրաբխագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հրաբխագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="ज्वालामुखी विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ज्वालामुखी विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologija" title="Vulkanologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vulkanologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologi" title="Vulkanologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Vulkanologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eldfjallafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Eldfjallafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Eldfjallafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanologia" title="Vulcanologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vulcanologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="וולקנולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="וולקנולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ვულკანოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ვულკანოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Вулканология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Вулканология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Вулканология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Вулканология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanolo%C4%A3ija" title="Vulkanoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Vulkanoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologie" title="Vulkanologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Vulkanologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologija" title="Vulkanologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vulkanologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9E%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="അഗ്നിപർവ്വതവിജ്ഞാനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അഗ്നിപർവ്വതവിജ്ഞാനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ვულკანოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ვულკანოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkanologi" title="Volkanologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Volkanologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologi" title="Vulkanologi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Vulkanologi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%C5%8Di-s%C4%83ng-h%C5%8Fk" title="Huōi-săng-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Huōi-săng-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologie" title="Vulkanologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vulkanologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E5%AD%A6" title="火山学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="火山学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologi" title="Vulkanologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vulkanologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologi" title="Vulkanologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vulkanologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanologia" title="Vulcanologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Vulcanologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologiya" title="Vulkanologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Vulkanologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%96%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਜਵਾਲਾਮੁਖੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜਵਾਲਾਮੁਖੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B4%DB%90%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%87_(%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%BA%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%81%D9%88%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%88_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%DA%85%DB%90%DA%93%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%88_%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%87)" title="اورشېندی پېژندنه (د اور غورځونکو غرونو څېړنه او مطالعه) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اورشېندی پېژندنه (د اور غورځونکو غرونو څېړنه او مطالعه)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologie" title="Vulkanologie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Vulkanologie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulkanologia" title="Wulkanologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wulkanologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanologia" title="Vulcanologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vulcanologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanologie" title="Vulcanologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Vulcanologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Вулканология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вулканология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanulugg%C3%ACa" title="Vulcanuluggìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Vulcanuluggìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanology" title="Volcanology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Volcanology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanol%C3%B3gia" title="Vulkanológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vulkanológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DA%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="گڕکانناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گڕکانناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Вулканологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вулканологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologija" title="Vulkanologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vulkanologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologia" title="Vulkanologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vulkanologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanologi" title="Vulkanologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vulkanologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="எரிமலையியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எரிமலையியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F" title="วิทยาภูเขาไฟ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิทยาภูเขาไฟ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Оташфишоншиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Оташфишоншиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkanoloji" title="Volkanoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Volkanoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Вулканологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вулканологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAi_l%E1%BB%ADa_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Núi lửa học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Núi lửa học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulkanolohiya" title="Bulkanolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Bulkanolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E5%AD%A6" title="火山学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="火山学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E5%AD%A6" title="火山学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="火山学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q102904#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">Volcanism</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sampling_lava_with_hammer_and_bucket.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Sampling_lava_with_hammer_and_bucket.jpg/280px-Sampling_lava_with_hammer_and_bucket.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Sampling_lava_with_hammer_and_bucket.jpg/420px-Sampling_lava_with_hammer_and_bucket.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Sampling_lava_with_hammer_and_bucket.jpg/560px-Sampling_lava_with_hammer_and_bucket.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">volcanologist</a> sampling lava using a rock hammer and a bucket of water</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stromboli_Eruption.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Stromboli_Eruption.jpg/220px-Stromboli_Eruption.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Stromboli_Eruption.jpg/330px-Stromboli_Eruption.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Stromboli_Eruption.jpg/440px-Stromboli_Eruption.jpg 2x" data-file-width="939" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>Eruption of <a href="/wiki/Stromboli" title="Stromboli">Stromboli</a> (Isole Eolie/Italia), ca. 100m (300ft) vertically. Exposure of several seconds. The dashed trajectories are the result of lava pieces with a bright hot side and a cool dark side rotating in mid-air.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Volcanology</b> (also spelled <b>vulcanology</b>) is the study of <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> and related <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geophysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Geophysical">geophysical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">geochemical</a> phenomena (<a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>). The term <i>volcanology</i> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> word <i><a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">vulcan</a></i>. Vulcan was the ancient <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman god</a> of fire. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">volcanologist</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologist</a> who studies the eruptive activity and formation of volcanoes and their current and historic eruptions. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, especially active ones, to observe <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_eruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic eruption">volcanic eruptions</a>, collect eruptive products including <a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">tephra</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">ash</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a>), <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rock</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> samples. One major focus of enquiry is the prediction of eruptions; there is currently no accurate way to do this, but predicting or forecasting eruptions, like predicting earthquakes, could save many lives. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_volcanology">Modern volcanology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Modern volcanology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Icelandic_tephra.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Icelandic_tephra.JPG/220px-Icelandic_tephra.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Icelandic_tephra.JPG/330px-Icelandic_tephra.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Icelandic_tephra.JPG/440px-Icelandic_tephra.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Volcanologist examining <a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">tephra</a> horizons in south-central <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Destructive_plate_margin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Destructive_plate_margin.png/220px-Destructive_plate_margin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Destructive_plate_margin.png/330px-Destructive_plate_margin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Destructive_plate_margin.png/440px-Destructive_plate_margin.png 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of a <a href="/wiki/Destructive_plate_margin" class="mw-redirect" title="Destructive plate margin">destructive plate margin</a>, where subduction fuels volcanic activity at the subduction zones of tectonic plate boundaries.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1841, the first volcanological observatory, the <a href="/wiki/Vesuvius_Observatory" title="Vesuvius Observatory">Vesuvius Observatory</a>, was founded in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Volcanology advances have required more than just structured observation, and the science relies upon the understanding and integration of knowledge in many fields including <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tectonics" title="Tectonics">tectonics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, with many advances only being able to occur after the advance had occurred in another field of science. For example, the study of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactivity</a> only commenced in 1896,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its application to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a> took about 50 years after this. Many other developments in <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a>, experimental physics and chemistry, techniques of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical modelling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">instrumentation</a> and in other sciences have been applied to volcanology since 1841. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Techniques">Techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seismic observations are made using <a href="/wiki/Seismograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismograph">seismographs</a> deployed near volcanic areas, watching out for increased seismicity during volcanic events, in particular looking for long period harmonic tremors, which signal <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> movement through volcanic conduits.<sup id="cite_ref-Decker_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Decker-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Surface <a href="/wiki/Deformation_Monitoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Deformation Monitoring">deformation monitoring</a> includes the use of geodetic techniques such as leveling, tilt, strain, angle and distance measurements through tiltmeters, total stations and EDMs. This also includes <a href="/wiki/GNSS" class="mw-redirect" title="GNSS">GNSS observations</a> and InSAR.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surface deformation indicates magma upwelling: increased <a href="/wiki/Magma_supply_rate" title="Magma supply rate">magma supply</a> produces bulges in the volcanic center's surface. </p><p>Gas emissions may be monitored with equipment including portable ultra-violet spectrometers (COSPEC, now superseded by the miniDOAS), which analyzes the presence of <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">volcanic gases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a>; or by infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR). Increased gas emissions, and more particularly changes in gas compositions, may signal an impending volcanic eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-Decker_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Decker-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Temperature changes are monitored using thermometers and observing changes in thermal properties of volcanic lakes and vents, which may indicate upcoming activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Francis_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Francis-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellites</a> are widely used to monitor volcanoes, as they allow a large area to be monitored easily. They can measure the spread of an ash plume, such as the one from <a href="/wiki/Eyjafjallaj%C3%B6kull" title="Eyjafjallajökull">Eyjafjallajökull</a>'s 2010 eruption,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">SO<sub>2</sub></a> emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/InSAR" class="mw-redirect" title="InSAR">InSAR</a> and thermal imaging can monitor large, scarcely populated areas where it would be too expensive to maintain instruments on the ground. </p><p>Other <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">geophysical techniques</a> (electrical, gravity and magnetic observations) include monitoring fluctuations and sudden change in resistivity, gravity anomalies or magnetic anomaly patterns that may indicate volcano-induced faulting and magma upwelling.<sup id="cite_ref-Francis_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Francis-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphic analyses</a> includes analyzing <a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">tephra</a> and lava deposits and dating these to give volcano eruption patterns,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with estimated cycles of intense activity and size of eruptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Decker_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Decker-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Compositional analysis has been very successful in the grouping of volcanoes by type,<sup id="cite_ref-Davidson2007_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 274">: 274 </span></sup> origin of magma,<sup id="cite_ref-Davidson2007_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 274">: 274 </span></sup> including matching of volcanoes to a <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">mantle plume</a> of a particular <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hotspot</a>, mantle plume melting depths,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the history of recycled subducted crust,<sup id="cite_ref-Davidson2007_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 302–3">: 302–3 </span></sup> matching of tephra deposits to each other and to volcanoes of origin,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the understanding the formation and evolution of magma reservoirs,<sup id="cite_ref-Davidson2007_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 296–303">: 296–303 </span></sup> an approach which has now been validated by real time sampling.<sup id="cite_ref-Halldórsson2022_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halldórsson2022-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forecasting">Forecasting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Forecasting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prediction_of_volcanic_activity" title="Prediction of volcanic activity">Prediction of volcanic activity</a></div> <p>Some of the techniques mentioned above, combined with modelling, have proved useful and successful in the forecasting of some eruptions,<sup id="cite_ref-Bebbington2019_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bebbington2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 1–2">: 1–2 </span></sup> such as the evacuation of the locality around <a href="/wiki/Mount_Pinatubo" title="Mount Pinatubo">Mount Pinatubo</a> in 1991 that may have saved 20,000 lives.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Short-term forecasts tend to use seismic or multiple monitoring data with long term forecasting involving the study of the previous history of local volcanism.<sup id="cite_ref-Bebbington2019_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bebbington2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> However, volcanology forecasting does not just involve predicting the next initial onset time of an eruption, as it might also address the size of a future eruption, and evolution of an eruption once it has begun.<sup id="cite_ref-Bebbington2019_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bebbington2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 1–2">: 1–2 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Volcanology has an extensive history. The earliest known recording of a volcanic eruption may be on a wall painting dated to about 7,000 BCE found at the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> site at <a href="/wiki/%C3%87atal_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk" class="mw-redirect" title="Çatal Höyük">Çatal Höyük</a> in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chester2007_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chester2007-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 203">: 203 </span></sup> This painting has been interpreted as a depiction of an erupting volcano, with a cluster of houses below shows a twin peaked volcano in eruption, with a town at its base (though archaeologists now question this interpretation).<sup id="cite_ref-Meece_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meece-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The volcano may be either <a href="/wiki/Mount_Hasan" title="Mount Hasan">Hasan Dağ</a>, or its smaller neighbour, Melendiz Dağ.<sup id="cite_ref-Ülkekul_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ülkekul-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greco-Roman_philosophy">Greco-Roman philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Greco-Roman philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Volcanology" title="Special:EditPage/Volcanology">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vesuvius1822scrope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Vesuvius1822scrope.jpg/220px-Vesuvius1822scrope.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Vesuvius1822scrope.jpg/330px-Vesuvius1822scrope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Vesuvius1822scrope.jpg/440px-Vesuvius1822scrope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>Eruption of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Vesuvius" title="Mount Vesuvius">Vesuvius</a> in 1822. The eruption of CE 79 would have appeared very similar.</figcaption></figure> <p>The classical world of Greece and the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> explained volcanoes as sites of various gods. Greeks considered that <a href="/wiki/Hephaestus" title="Hephaestus">Hephaestus</a>, the god of fire, sat below the volcano <a href="/wiki/Mount_Etna" title="Mount Etna">Etna</a>, forging the weapons of <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>. The Greek word used to describe volcanoes was <i>etna</i>, or <i>hiera</i>, after <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>, the son of Zeus. The Roman poet <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, in interpreting the Greek mythos, held that the giant <a href="/wiki/Enceladus_(giant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enceladus (giant)">Enceladus</a> was buried beneath Etna by the goddess Athena as punishment for rebellion against the gods; the mountain's rumblings were his tormented cries, the flames his breath and the tremors his railing against the bars of his prison. Enceladus' brother <a href="/wiki/Mimas_(Giant)" title="Mimas (Giant)">Mimas</a> was buried beneath <a href="/wiki/Vesuvius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesuvius">Vesuvius</a> by Hephaestus, and the blood of other defeated giants welled up in the Phlegrean Fields surrounding Vesuvius.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomaidis2021_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomaidis2021-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> (c. 490-430 BCE) saw the world divided into four elemental forces, of Earth, Air, Fire and Water. Volcanoes, Empedocles maintained, were the manifestation of Elemental Fire. Plato contended that channels of hot and cold waters flow in inexhaustible quantities through subterranean rivers. In the depths of the earth snakes a vast river of fire, the <i>Pyriphlegethon</i>, which feeds all the world's volcanoes. Aristotle considered underground fire as the result of "the...friction of the wind when it plunges into narrow passages." </p><p>Wind played a key role in volcano explanations until the 16th century after <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a>, in the fifth century BC, had proposed eruptions were caused by a great wind.<sup id="cite_ref-Sigurdsson2000_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sigurdsson2000-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, a Roman philosopher, claimed Etna was completely hollow and the fires of the underground driven by a fierce wind circulating near sea level. Ovid believed that the flame was fed from "fatty foods" and eruptions stopped when the food ran out. <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> contended that sulfur, alum and bitumen fed the deep fires. Observations by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> noted the presence of earthquakes preceded an eruption; he died in the eruption of <a href="/wiki/Vesuvius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesuvius">Vesuvius</a> in 79 CE while investigating it at <a href="/wiki/Stabiae" title="Stabiae">Stabiae</a>. His nephew, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a>, gave detailed descriptions of the eruption in which his uncle died, attributing his death to the effects of toxic gases. Such eruptions have been named <a href="/wiki/Plinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Plinian">Plinian</a> in honour of the two authors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thirteenth century <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Restoro_d%27Arezzo" title="Restoro d'Arezzo">Restoro d'Arezzo</a> devoted two entire chapters (11.6.4.6 and 11.6.4.7) of his seminal treatise <i>La composizione del mondo colle sue cascioni</i> to the origin of the endogenous energy of the Earth. Restoro maintained that the interior of the Earth was very hot and insisted, following <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a>, that the Earth had a molten center and that volcanoes erupted through the rise of molten rock to the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance_observations">Renaissance observations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Renaissance observations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MSH80_st_helens_eruption_plume_07-22-80.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/MSH80_st_helens_eruption_plume_07-22-80.jpg/220px-MSH80_st_helens_eruption_plume_07-22-80.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/MSH80_st_helens_eruption_plume_07-22-80.jpg/330px-MSH80_st_helens_eruption_plume_07-22-80.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/MSH80_st_helens_eruption_plume_07-22-80.jpg/440px-MSH80_st_helens_eruption_plume_07-22-80.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1980" data-file-height="2888" /></a><figcaption>After the <a href="/wiki/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens" title="1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens">first eruption of Mount St. Helens</a> on May 18, five more explosive eruptions occurred in 1980, including this event on July 22. This eruption sent pumice and ash 6 to 11 miles (10-18 kilometers) into the air, and was visible in <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a>, Washington, 100 miles (160 kilometers) to the north. The view here is from the south.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Volcanology" title="Special:EditPage/Volcanology">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During the Renaissance, observers as <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Palissy" title="Bernard Palissy">Bernard Palissy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gessner" title="Conrad Gessner">Conrad Gessner</a>, and Johannes Kentmann (1518–1568) showed a deep intense interest in the nature, behavior, origin and history of the terrestrial globe. Many theories of volcanic action were framed during the late sixteenth mid-seventeenth centuries. <a href="/wiki/Georgius_Agricola" title="Georgius Agricola">Georgius Agricola</a> argued the rays of the sun, as later proposed by <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> had nothing to do with volcanoes. Agricola believed vapor under pressure caused eruptions of 'mointain oil' and basalt. <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> considered volcanoes as conduits for the tears and excrement of the Earth, voiding bitumen, tar and sulfur.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="cited source reference – an article in "Morning Calm", a Korean airline's in-flight magazine for passengers – is probably not a reliable source of science history (March 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Descartes, pronouncing that God had created the Earth in an instant, declared he had done so in three layers; the fiery depths,<sup id="cite_ref-Sigurdsson200022_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sigurdsson200022-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a layer of water, and the air. Volcanoes, he said, were formed where the rays of the sun pierced the earth. </p><p>The volcanoes of southern Italy attracted naturalists ever since the Renaissance led to the rediscovery of Classical descriptions of them by wtiters like <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>. Vesuvius, <a href="/wiki/Stromboli" title="Stromboli">Stromboli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vulcano" title="Vulcano">Vulcano</a> provided an opportunity to study the nature of volcanic phenomena. Italian natural philosophers living within reach of these volcanoes wrote long and learned books on the subject: <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli" title="Giovanni Alfonso Borelli">Giovanni Alfonso Borelli</a>'s account of the eruption of Mount Etna in 1669 became a standard source of information, as did Giulio Cesare Recupito's account of the <a href="/wiki/1631_eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius" title="1631 eruption of Mount Vesuvius">1631 eruption of Mount Vesuvius</a> (1632 and later editions) and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Serao" title="Francesco Serao">Francesco Serao</a>'s account of the eruption of Vesuvius in 1737 (1737, with editions in French and English).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a> (1602–1680) witnessed eruptions of Mount Etna and Stromboli, then visited the crater of Vesuvius and published his view of an Earth with a central fire connected to numerous others caused by the burning of sulfur, bitumen and coal. He published his view of this in <i><a href="/wiki/Mundus_Subterraneus" title="Mundus Subterraneus">Mundus Subterraneus</a></i> with volcanoes acting as a type of safety valve.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The causes of these phenomena were discussed in the large number of theories of the Earth that were published in the hundred years after 1650. The authors of these theories were not themselves observers, but combined the observations of others with Newtonian, Cartesian, Biblical or animistic science to produce a variety of all-embracing systems. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes were generally linked in these systems to the existence of great open caverns under the Earth where inflammable vapours could accumulate until they were ignited. According to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Burnet_(theologian)" title="Thomas Burnet (theologian)">Thomas Burnet</a>, much of the Earth itself was inflammable, with pitch, coal and brimstone all ready to burn. In <a href="/wiki/William_Whiston" title="William Whiston">William Whiston</a>'s theory the presence of underground air was necessary if ignition were to take place, while <a href="/wiki/John_Woodward_(naturalist)" title="John Woodward (naturalist)">John Woodward</a> stressed that water was essential. Athanasius Kircher maintained that the caverns and sources of the heat were deep, and reached down towards the centre of the Earth, while other writers, notably <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges Buffon</a>, believed they were relatively superficial, and that volcanic fires were seated well up within the volcanic cone itself. A number of writers, most notably Thomas Robinson, believed that the Earth was an animal, and that its internal heat, earthquakes and eruptions were all signs of life. This animistic philosophy was waning by the end of the seventeenth century, but traces continued well into the eighteenth. Science wrestled with the ideas of the combustion of <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a> with water, that rock was solidified bitumen, and with notions of rock being formed from water (<a href="/wiki/Neptunism" title="Neptunism">Neptunism</a>). Of the volcanoes then known, all were near the water, hence the action of the sea upon the land was used to explain <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interaction_with_religion_and_mythology">Interaction with religion and mythology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Interaction with religion and mythology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peleshair_on_antenna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Peleshair_on_antenna.jpg/220px-Peleshair_on_antenna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Peleshair_on_antenna.jpg/330px-Peleshair_on_antenna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Peleshair_on_antenna.jpg/440px-Peleshair_on_antenna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Pele's hair caught on a radio antenna mounted on the south rim of <a href="/wiki/Pu%CA%BBu_%CA%BB%C5%8C%CA%BB%C5%8D" title="Puʻu ʻŌʻō">Puʻu ʻŌʻō</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaiʻi</a>, July 22, 2005</figcaption></figure> <p>Tribal legends of <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> abound from the Pacific <a href="/wiki/Ring_of_Fire" title="Ring of Fire">Ring of Fire</a> and the Americas, usually invoking the forces of the supernatural or the divine to explain the violent outbursts of volcanoes.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mount_Taranaki/Egmont" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Taranaki/Egmont">Taranaki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tongariro" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongariro">Tongariro</a>, according to Māori mythology, were lovers who fell in love with <a href="/wiki/Pihanga" title="Pihanga">Pihanga</a>, and a spiteful jealous fight ensued. Some Māori will not to this day live on the direct line between Tongariro and Taranaki for fear of the dispute flaring up again.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pele_(deity)" title="Pele (deity)">Pele</a> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span></span>/</a></span></span> Pel-a; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="haw-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Hawaiian" title="Help:IPA/Hawaiian">[ˈpɛlɛ]</a></span>) is the goddess of volcanoes and a popular figure in <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawaiian mythology">Hawaiian mythology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nimmo_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nimmo-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pele was used for various scientific terms as for <a href="/wiki/Pele%27s_hair" title="Pele's hair">Pele's hair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pele%27s_tears" title="Pele's tears">Pele's tears</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Limu_o_Pele" title="Limu o Pele">Limu o Pele</a> (Pele's seaweed). A volcano on the <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jovian</a> moon <a href="/wiki/Io_(Moon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Io (Moon)">Io</a> is also named <a href="/wiki/Pele_(volcano)" title="Pele (volcano)">Pele</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Radebaugh2004_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radebaugh2004-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Saint_Agatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Agatha">Saint Agatha</a> is patron saint of <a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catania</a>, close to mount Etna, and an important highly venerated (till today<sup id="cite_ref-foley_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-foley-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) example of virgin martyrs of Christian antiquity.<sup id="cite_ref-kirsch_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kirsch-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 253 CE, one year after her violent death, the stilling of an eruption of Mt. Etna was attributed to her intercession. Catania was however nearly completely destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Etna in 1169, and over 15,000 of its inhabitants died. Nevertheless, the saint was invoked again for the <a href="/wiki/1669_Etna_eruption" class="mw-redirect" title="1669 Etna eruption">1669 Etna eruption</a> and, for an outbreak that was endangering the town of <a href="/wiki/Nicolosi" title="Nicolosi">Nicolosi</a> in 1886.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The way the saint is invoked and dealt with in Italian <a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">folk religion</a>, in a quid pro quo manner, or bargaining approach which is sometimes used in prayerful interactions with saints, has been related (in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/James_Frazer" class="mw-redirect" title="James Frazer">James Frazer</a>) to earlier pagan beliefs and practices.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1660 the eruption of Vesuvius rained <a href="/wiki/Crystal_twinning" title="Crystal twinning">twinned</a> <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxene</a> crystals and ash upon the nearby villages. The crystals resembled the crucifix and this was interpreted as the work of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Januarius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Januarius">Saint Januarius</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, the relics of St Januarius are paraded through town at every major eruption of Vesuvius. The register of these processions and the 1779 and 1794 diary of Father <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Piaggio" title="Antonio Piaggio">Antonio Piaggio</a> allowed British diplomat and amateur naturalist <a href="/wiki/William_Hamilton_(diplomat)" title="William Hamilton (diplomat)">Sir William Hamilton</a> to provide a detailed chronology and description of Vesuvius' eruptions.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_volcanologists">Notable volcanologists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notable volcanologists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1775_volcan_Pacaya_Guatemala.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/1775_volcan_Pacaya_Guatemala.jpg/220px-1775_volcan_Pacaya_Guatemala.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/1775_volcan_Pacaya_Guatemala.jpg/330px-1775_volcan_Pacaya_Guatemala.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/1775_volcan_Pacaya_Guatemala.jpg/440px-1775_volcan_Pacaya_Guatemala.jpg 2x" data-file-width="977" data-file-height="1404" /></a><figcaption>Spanish depiction of a volcanic eruption in Guatemala, 1775.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">Volcanologist</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (428–348 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (23–79 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a> (61 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 113 AD</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">George-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a> (1707–1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a> (1726–1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9odat_Gratet_de_Dolomieu" title="Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu">Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu</a> (1750–1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Julius_Poulett_Scrope" title="George Julius Poulett Scrope">George Julius Poulett Scrope</a> (1797–1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mercalli" title="Giuseppe Mercalli">Giuseppe Mercalli</a> (1850–1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jaggar" title="Thomas Jaggar">Thomas Jaggar</a> (1871–1953), founder of the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Volcano_Observatory" title="Hawaiian Volcano Observatory">Hawaiian Volcano Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haroun_Tazieff" title="Haroun Tazieff">Haroun Tazieff</a> (1914–1998), advisor to the <a href="/wiki/French_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="French Government">French Government</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_P._L._Walker" title="George P. L. Walker">George P. L. Walker</a> (1926–2005), pioneering volcanologist who transformed the subject into a quantitative science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haraldur_Sigurdsson" class="mw-redirect" title="Haraldur Sigurdsson">Haraldur Sigurdsson</a> (born 1939), Icelandic volcanologist and geochemist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katia_and_Maurice_Krafft" title="Katia and Maurice Krafft">Katia and Maurice Krafft</a> (1942–1991 and 1946–1991, respectively), died at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Unzen" title="Mount Unzen">Mount Unzen</a> in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, 1991</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_A._Johnston" title="David A. Johnston">David A. Johnston</a> (1949–1980), killed during the 1980 eruption of <a href="/wiki/Mount_St._Helens" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Glicken" title="Harry Glicken">Harry Glicken</a> (1958–1991), died at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Unzen" title="Mount Unzen">Mount Unzen</a> in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, 1991</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arenal_at_night.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica at night."><img alt="Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica at night." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arenal_at_night.jpg/120px-Arenal_at_night.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arenal_at_night.jpg/180px-Arenal_at_night.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arenal_at_night.jpg/240px-Arenal_at_night.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Arenal_Volcano" title="Arenal Volcano">Arenal Volcano</a>, Costa Rica at night. </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Krysuvik_Iceland_037.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Krýsuvík, a thermal area in the Southwest of Iceland."><img alt="Krýsuvík, a thermal area in the Southwest of Iceland." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Krysuvik_Iceland_037.JPG/120px-Krysuvik_Iceland_037.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Krysuvik_Iceland_037.JPG/180px-Krysuvik_Iceland_037.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Krysuvik_Iceland_037.JPG/240px-Krysuvik_Iceland_037.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kr%C3%BDsuv%C3%ADk" title="Krýsuvík">Krýsuvík</a>, a thermal area in the Southwest of Iceland.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Halemaumau.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sulphur deposit at Halemaʻumaʻu on Kīlauea in Big Island, Hawaii"><img alt="Sulphur deposit at Halemaʻumaʻu on Kīlauea in Big Island, Hawaii" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Halemaumau.jpg/120px-Halemaumau.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Halemaumau.jpg/180px-Halemaumau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Halemaumau.jpg/240px-Halemaumau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1506" data-file-height="1050" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sulphur" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphur">Sulphur</a> deposit at <a href="/wiki/Halema%CA%BBuma%CA%BBu" title="Halemaʻumaʻu">Halemaʻumaʻu</a> on <a href="/wiki/K%C4%ABlauea" title="Kīlauea">Kīlauea</a> in Big Island, Hawaii</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinatubo_-_pyroclastic_fall.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Erosional dissection of an ash deposit at Pinatubo volcano in the Philippines."><img alt="Erosional dissection of an ash deposit at Pinatubo volcano in the Philippines." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Pinatubo_-_pyroclastic_fall.jpg/120px-Pinatubo_-_pyroclastic_fall.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Pinatubo_-_pyroclastic_fall.jpg/180px-Pinatubo_-_pyroclastic_fall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Pinatubo_-_pyroclastic_fall.jpg/240px-Pinatubo_-_pyroclastic_fall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="432" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Erosional dissection of an ash deposit at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Pinatubo" title="Mount Pinatubo">Pinatubo</a> volcano in the Philippines.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Strokkur_geyser_eruption,_close-up_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The eruption of the geysir Strokkur in early morning."><img alt="The eruption of the geysir Strokkur in early morning." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg/120px-Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg/180px-Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg/240px-Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2977" data-file-height="1983" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The eruption of the geysir <a href="/wiki/Strokkur" title="Strokkur">Strokkur</a> in early morning. </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spaccato_vulcano.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spaccato_vulcano.svg/30px-Spaccato_vulcano.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spaccato_vulcano.svg/45px-Spaccato_vulcano.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spaccato_vulcano.svg/60px-Spaccato_vulcano.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Volcanoes" title="Portal:Volcanoes">Volcanoes portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Volcanism_Program" title="Global Volcanism Program">Global Volcanism Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GNS_Science" title="GNS Science">GNS Science</a> (formerly the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences) (in New Zealand)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">Igneous rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiyoo_Mogi" title="Kiyoo Mogi">Kiyoo Mogi</a>, developer of the Mogi model of volcano deformation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephrochronology" title="Tephrochronology">Tephrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">Volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano_Number" title="Volcano Number">Volcano Number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">Volcanism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vulcani.ingv.it/it/">Vulcani attivi</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180322200110/http://vulcani.ingv.it/it">Archived</a> 2018-03-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/INGV" class="mw-redirect" title="INGV">INGV</a>, accessed 29 August 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Living+Memory+and+the+Travelling+Mountain+Narrative+of+Taranaki&rft.aulast=Ng%C4%81whare-Pounamu&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F41338806.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nimmo-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nimmo_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH._Arlo_Nimmo2011" class="citation book cs1">H. Arlo Nimmo (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n2ii6J0C0hYC"><i>Pele, Volcano Goddess of Hawai'i: A History</i></a>. McFarland. p. 208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-6347-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-6347-3"><bdi>978-0-7864-6347-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pele%2C+Volcano+Goddess+of+Hawai%27i%3A+A+History&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-6347-3&rft.au=H.+Arlo+Nimmo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn2ii6J0C0hYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Radebaugh2004-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Radebaugh2004_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadebaugh2004" class="citation journal cs1">Radebaugh, J.; et al. (2004). "Observations and temperatures of Io's Pele Patera from Cassini and Galileo spacecraft images". <i>Icarus</i>. <b>169</b> (1): 65–79. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Icar..169...65R">2004Icar..169...65R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.icarus.2003.10.019">10.1016/j.icarus.2003.10.019</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Icarus&rft.atitle=Observations+and+temperatures+of+Io%27s+Pele+Patera+from+Cassini+and+Galileo+spacecraft+images&rft.volume=169&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-79&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.icarus.2003.10.019&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004Icar..169...65R&rft.aulast=Radebaugh&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-foley-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-foley_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Saints/saint.aspx?id=1282">Foley O.F.M., Leonard. <i>Saint of the Day</i>, (revised by Pat McCloskey O.F.M.), Franciscan Media</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86716-887-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86716-887-7">978-0-86716-887-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kirsch-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kirsch_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01203c.htm">Kirsch, Johann Peter. "St. Agatha." <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 25 April 2013</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volcanoes: Crucibles of Change Richard V. Fisher, Grant Heiken, Jeffrey B. Hulen Princeton University Press, 1998</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Festa: Recipes and Recollections of Italian Holidays</i> Helen Barolini Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/james-hamilton/lure-volcanoes">The Lure of Volcanoes</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/author/james-hamilton">James Hamilton</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/archive/history-today/latest">History Today</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/archive/history-today/volume-60-issue-7-july-2010">Volume 60 Issue 7 July 2010 </a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sveurop.org">European Volcanological Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://volcanoes.usgs.gov">United States Geological Survey- Volcanic Hazards Program</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915044457/http://www.volcanolive.com/volcanologist.html">Volcano Live – What is a volcanologist?</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005490h">Vulcanology</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wovo.org">World Organization of Volcano Observatories</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrother1915" class="citation journal cs1">Strother, French (April 1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l_2rn8M7DSsC&pg=RA1-PA688">"Frank A. Perret, Volcanologist"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a></i>. <b>XXIX</b>: 688–706<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-08-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time&rft.atitle=Frank+A.+Perret%2C+Volcanologist&rft.volume=XXIX&rft.pages=688-706&rft.date=1915-04&rft.aulast=Strother&rft.aufirst=French&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl_2rn8M7DSsC%26pg%3DRA1-PA688&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanology" class="Z3988"></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrother1915" class="citation journal cs1">Strother, French (May 1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N69E9klDugUC&pg=PA85">"Frank A. Perret, Volcanologist (Concluded)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a></i>. <b>XXX</b>: 85–98<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Volcanology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a 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