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cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> Sexual reproduction is a type of <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a> that involves a complex <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a> in which a <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a> (<a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> reproductive cells, such as a <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> or <a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">egg cell</a>) with a single set of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> combines with another gamete to produce a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> that develops into an organism composed of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> with two sets of chromosomes (<a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a>).<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> This is typical in animals, though the number of chromosome sets and how that number changes in sexual reproduction varies, especially among plants, fungi, and other <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chalker-2013-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sexual_cycle_N-2N.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sexual_cycle_N-2N.svg/250px-Sexual_cycle_N-2N.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sexual_cycle_N-2N.svg/375px-Sexual_cycle_N-2N.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sexual_cycle_N-2N.svg/500px-Sexual_cycle_N-2N.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="800"></a><figcaption>In the first stage of sexual reproduction, <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, the number of chromosomes is reduced from a <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> number (2n) to a <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> number (n). During <a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">fertilisation</a>, haploid gametes come together to form a diploid <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>, and the original number of chromosomes is restored.</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Placental_mammal" class="mw-redirect" title="Placental mammal">placental mammals</a>, sperm cells exit the <a href="/wiki/Penis" title="Penis">penis</a> through the male <a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">urethra</a> and enter the <a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">vagina</a> during <a href="/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">copulation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> while egg cells enter the <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Oviduct" title="Oviduct">oviduct</a>. Other <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> of both sexes possess a <a href="/wiki/Cloaca" title="Cloaca">cloaca</a> for the release of sperm or egg cells. Sexual reproduction is the most common life cycle in <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular</a> eukaryotes, such as <a href="/wiki/Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Animals">animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Sexual reproduction also occurs in some <a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">unicellular</a> eukaryotes.<a href="#cite_note-Chalker-2013-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Sexual reproduction does not occur in <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>, unicellular organisms without <a href="/wiki/Cell_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell nuclei">cell nuclei</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>. However, some processes in bacteria, including <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation" title="Bacterial conjugation">bacterial conjugation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transduction_(genetics)" title="Transduction (genetics)">transduction</a>, may be considered analogous to sexual reproduction in that they incorporate new genetic information.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> and other features that are key for sexual reproduction may have arisen in bacteria, but sexual reproduction is believed to have developed in an ancient eukaryotic ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In eukaryotes, diploid precursor cells divide to produce haploid cells in a process called <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>. In meiosis, DNA is replicated to produce a total of four copies of each chromosome. This is followed by two cell divisions to generate haploid gametes. After the DNA is replicated in meiosis, the <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a> pair up so that their <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequences are aligned with each other. During this period before cell divisions, genetic information is exchanged between homologous chromosomes in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">genetic recombination</a>. Homologous chromosomes contain highly similar but not identical information, and by exchanging similar but not identical regions, genetic recombination increases genetic diversity among future generations.<a href="#cite_note-Nature-2014-11">[11]</a> During sexual reproduction, two haploid gametes combine into one diploid cell known as a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> in a process called <a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">fertilization</a>. The nuclei from the gametes fuse, and each gamete contributes half of the genetic material of the zygote. Multiple cell divisions by <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> (without change in the number of chromosomes) then develop into a multicellular diploid phase or generation. In plants, the diploid phase, known as the <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophyte</a>, produces spores by meiosis. These spores then germinate and divide by mitosis to form a haploid multicellular phase, the <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a>, which produces gametes directly by mitosis. This type of life cycle, involving alternation between two multicellular phases, the sexual haploid gametophyte and asexual diploid sporophyte, is known as <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">evolution of sexual reproduction</a> is considered paradoxical,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> because <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a> should be able to outperform it as every young organism created can bear its own young. This implies that an asexual population has an intrinsic capacity to grow more rapidly with each generation.<a href="#cite_note-Maynard_Smith-1978-13">[13]</a> This 50% cost is a <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> disadvantage of sexual reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The two-fold cost of sex includes this cost and the fact that any organism can only pass on 50% of its own genes to its offspring. However, one definite advantage of sexual reproduction is that it increases genetic diversity and impedes the accumulation of harmful genetic <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nature-2014-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> is a mode of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> in which some individuals out-reproduce others of a population because they are better at securing <a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">mates</a> for sexual reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Vogt-2014-17">[17]</a> It has been described as "a powerful evolutionary force that does not exist in asexual populations".<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Evolution">1 Evolution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Sexual_selection">2 Sexual selection</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Animals">3 Animals</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Arthropods">3.1 Arthropods</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Insects">3.1.1 Insects</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Mammals">3.2 Mammals</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Fish">3.3 Fish</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Plants">4 Plants</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Flowering_plants">4.1 Flowering plants</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Ferns">4.2 Ferns</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Bryophytes">4.3 Bryophytes</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Fungi">5 Fungi</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Bacteria_and_archaea">6 Bacteria and archaea</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#See_also">7 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#References">8 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Further_reading">9 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#External_links">10 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Evolution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a></div> The first <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossilized</a> evidence of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes is from the <a href="/wiki/Stenian" title="Stenian">Stenian</a> period, about 1.05 billion years old.<a href="#cite_note-Butterfield-2000-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gibson-2018-20">[20]</a> Biologists studying <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> propose several explanations for the development of sexual reproduction and its maintenance. These reasons include reducing the likelihood of the <a href="/wiki/Mullers_ratchet" class="mw-redirect" title="Mullers ratchet">accumulation</a> of deleterious mutations, increasing rate of <a href="/wiki/Red_queen_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Red queen hypothesis">adaptation to changing environments</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gray-2012-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tangled_bank_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangled bank hypothesis">dealing with competition</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a>, masking deleterious mutations, and reducing genetic variation on the genomic level.<a href="#cite_note-Michod-2008-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-2010-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-2012-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> All of these ideas about why sexual reproduction has been maintained are generally supported, but ultimately the size of the population determines if sexual reproduction is entirely beneficial. Larger <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">populations</a> appear to respond more quickly to some of the benefits obtained through sexual reproduction than do smaller population sizes.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> However, newer models presented in recent years suggest a basic advantage for sexual reproduction in slowly reproducing <a href="/wiki/Complex_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex organism">complex organisms</a>. Sexual reproduction allows these species to exhibit characteristics that depend on the specific <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a> that they inhabit, and the particular survival strategies that they employ.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Sexual_selection">Sexual selection</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sexual selection" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></div> In order to reproduce sexually, both males and females need to find a <a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">mate</a>. Generally in animals <a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">mate choice</a> is made by females while males compete to be chosen. This can lead <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> to extreme efforts in order to reproduce, such as combat and display, or produce extreme features caused by a <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> known as a <a href="/wiki/Fisherian_runaway" title="Fisherian runaway">Fisherian runaway</a>. Thus sexual reproduction, as a form of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, has an effect on <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a> is where the basic <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">phenotypic traits</a> vary between males and females of the same <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>. Dimorphism is found in both <a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">sex organs</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sex_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary sex characteristics">secondary sex characteristics</a>, body size, physical strength and morphology, <a href="/wiki/Biological_ornament" title="Biological ornament">biological ornamentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a> and other bodily traits. However, sexual selection is only implied over an extended period of time leading to sexual dimorphism.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Animals">Animals</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Animals" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system#Animals" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system § Animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fertilisation#Fertilisation_in_animals" title="Fertilisation">Fertilisation § Fertilisation in animals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal sexual behavior">Animal sexual behavior</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arthropods">Arthropods</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Arthropods" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Arthropod#Reproduction_and_development" title="Arthropod">Arthropod § Reproduction and development</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arthropod&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Aphid-giving-birth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Aphid-giving-birth.jpg/200px-Aphid-giving-birth.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="372"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 124px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Aphid-giving-birth.jpg/200px-Aphid-giving-birth.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="200" data-height="124" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Aphid-giving-birth.jpg/300px-Aphid-giving-birth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Aphid-giving-birth.jpg/400px-Aphid-giving-birth.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid">Aphid</a> giving birth to live young from an unfertilized egg</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Harvestmen_mating_(44325686201).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Harvestmen_mating_%2844325686201%29.jpg/200px-Harvestmen_mating_%2844325686201%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 133px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Harvestmen_mating_%2844325686201%29.jpg/200px-Harvestmen_mating_%2844325686201%29.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="200" data-height="133" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Harvestmen_mating_%2844325686201%29.jpg/300px-Harvestmen_mating_%2844325686201%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Harvestmen_mating_%2844325686201%29.jpg/400px-Harvestmen_mating_%2844325686201%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Opiliones" title="Opiliones">Harvestmen</a> mating</div></div></div></div></div> A few arthropods, such as <a href="/wiki/Barnacle" title="Barnacle">barnacles</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Hermaphroditic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermaphroditic">hermaphroditic</a>, that is, each can have the organs of both <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sexes</a>. However, individuals of most species remain of one sex their entire lives.<a href="#cite_note-Arthropod_Ruppert-7-29">[29]</a> A few species of <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> and crustaceans can reproduce by <a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">parthenogenesis</a>, especially if conditions favor a "population explosion". However, most arthropods rely on sexual reproduction, and parthenogenetic species often revert to sexual reproduction when conditions become less favorable.<a href="#cite_note-Arthropod_Olive-2001-30">[30]</a> The ability to undergo <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> is widespread among arthropods including both those that reproduce sexually and those that reproduce <a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">parthenogenetically</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Although meiosis is a major characteristic of arthropods, understanding of its fundamental adaptive benefit has long been regarded as an unresolved problem,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> that appears to have remained unsettled. <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Aquatic</a> arthropods may breed by external fertilization, as for example <a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_crab" title="Horseshoe crab">horseshoe crabs</a> do,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> or by <a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">internal fertilization</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ova</a> remain in the female's body and the <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> must somehow be inserted. All known terrestrial arthropods use internal fertilization. <a href="/wiki/Opiliones" title="Opiliones">Opiliones</a> (harvestmen), <a href="/wiki/Millipede" title="Millipede">millipedes</a>, and some crustaceans use modified appendages such as <a href="/wiki/Gonopod" title="Gonopod">gonopods</a> or <a href="/wiki/Opiliones_penis" title="Opiliones penis">penises</a> to transfer the sperm directly to the female. However, most male <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_animal" title="Terrestrial animal">terrestrial</a> arthropods produce <a href="/wiki/Spermatophore" title="Spermatophore">spermatophores</a>, waterproof packets of <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a>, which the females take into their bodies. A few such species rely on females to find spermatophores that have already been deposited on the ground, but in most cases males only deposit spermatophores when complex <a href="/wiki/Courtship" title="Courtship">courtship</a> rituals look likely to be successful.<a href="#cite_note-Arthropod_Ruppert-7-29">[29]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shrimp_nauplius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shrimp_nauplius.jpg/220px-Shrimp_nauplius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="588"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 219px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shrimp_nauplius.jpg/220px-Shrimp_nauplius.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="219" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shrimp_nauplius.jpg/330px-Shrimp_nauplius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shrimp_nauplius.jpg/440px-Shrimp_nauplius.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The nauplius larva of a <a href="/wiki/Penaeid_shrimp" class="mw-redirect" title="Penaeid shrimp">penaeid shrimp</a></figcaption></figure> Most arthropods lay eggs,<a href="#cite_note-Arthropod_Ruppert-7-29">[29]</a> but scorpions are <a href="/wiki/Ovoviviparity" title="Ovoviviparity">ovoviviparous</a>: they produce live young after the eggs have hatched inside the mother, and are noted for prolonged maternal care.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Newly born arthropods have diverse forms, and insects alone cover the range of extremes. Some hatch as apparently miniature adults (direct development), and in some cases, such as <a href="/wiki/Silverfish" title="Silverfish">silverfish</a>, the hatchlings do not feed and may be helpless until after their first moult. Many insects hatch as grubs or <a href="/wiki/Caterpillar" title="Caterpillar">caterpillars</a>, which do not have segmented limbs or hardened cuticles, and <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">metamorphose</a> into adult forms by entering an inactive phase in which the larval tissues are broken down and re-used to build the adult body.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dragonfly" title="Dragonfly">Dragonfly</a> larvae have the typical cuticles and jointed limbs of arthropods but are flightless water-breathers with extendable jaws.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Crustaceans commonly hatch as tiny <a href="/wiki/Nauplius_(larva)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauplius (larva)">nauplius</a> larvae that have only three segments and pairs of appendages.<a href="#cite_note-Arthropod_Ruppert-7-29">[29]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Insects">Insects</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Insects" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Insect#Reproduction_and_development" title="Insect">Insect § Reproduction and development</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_Emperor_mating_and_laying.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Australian_Emperor_mating_and_laying.jpg/250px-Australian_Emperor_mating_and_laying.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 167px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Australian_Emperor_mating_and_laying.jpg/250px-Australian_Emperor_mating_and_laying.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="167" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Australian_Emperor_mating_and_laying.jpg/375px-Australian_Emperor_mating_and_laying.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Australian_Emperor_mating_and_laying.jpg/500px-Australian_Emperor_mating_and_laying.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Australian_emperor" title="Australian emperor">Australian emperor dragonfly</a> laying eggs, guarded by a male</figcaption></figure> Insect species make up more than two-thirds of all <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</a> animal species. Most insect species reproduce sexually, though some species are facultatively <a href="/wiki/Parthenogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthenogenetic">parthenogenetic</a>. Many insect species have <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexual dimorphism</a>, while in others the sexes look nearly identical. Typically they have two sexes with males producing spermatozoa and females ova. The ova develop into eggs that have a covering called the <a href="/wiki/Chorion" title="Chorion">chorion</a>, which forms before internal fertilization. Insects have very diverse mating and reproductive strategies most often resulting in the male depositing a <a href="/wiki/Spermatophore" title="Spermatophore">spermatophore</a> within the female, which she stores until she is ready for egg fertilization. After fertilization, and the formation of a zygote, and varying degrees of development, in many species the eggs are deposited outside the female; while in others, they develop further within the female and the young are born live.<a href="#cite_note-Gullan-2005-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mammals">Mammals</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mammals" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mammalian_reproduction" title="Mammalian reproduction">Mammalian reproduction</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">Human reproduction</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:123px;max-width:123px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:183px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatomy_of_the_cat_(1991)_(17571533394).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571533394%29.jpg/121px-Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571533394%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="121" height="184" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1006" data-file-height="1526"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 121px;height: 184px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571533394%29.jpg/121px-Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571533394%29.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="121" data-height="184" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571533394%29.jpg/182px-Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571533394%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571533394%29.jpg/242px-Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571533394%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:85px;max-width:85px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:183px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatomy_of_the_cat_(1991)_(17571535364).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571535364%29.jpg/83px-Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571535364%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="83" height="183" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1006" data-file-height="2214"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 83px;height: 183px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571535364%29.jpg/83px-Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571535364%29.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="83" data-height="183" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571535364%29.jpg/125px-Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571535364%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571535364%29.jpg/166px-Anatomy_of_the_cat_%281991%29_%2817571535364%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">Genitourinary system</a> of a male and female cat</div></div></div></div> There are three extant kinds of mammals: <a href="/wiki/Monotreme" title="Monotreme">monotremes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Placental" class="mw-redirect" title="Placental">placentals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">marsupials</a>, all with internal fertilization. In placental mammals, offspring are born as juveniles: complete animals with the <a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">sex organs</a> present although not reproductively functional. After several months or years, depending on the species, the sex organs develop further to maturity and the animal becomes <a href="/wiki/Sexual_maturity" title="Sexual maturity">sexually mature</a>. Most female mammals are only <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertile</a> during certain periods during their <a href="/wiki/Estrous" class="mw-redirect" title="Estrous">estrous</a> cycle, at which point they are ready to mate.<a href="#cite_note-Preston-2024-38">[38]</a> For most mammals, males and females <a href="/wiki/Promiscuity" title="Promiscuity">exchange sexual partners throughout their adult lives</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lipton-2001-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morell-1998-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish">Fish</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fish" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Fish#Reproductive_system" title="Fish">Fish § Reproductive system</a></div> The vast majority of fish species lay eggs that are then fertilized by the male.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Some species lay their eggs on a substrate like a rock or on plants, while others scatter their eggs and the eggs are fertilized as they drift or sink in the water column. Some fish species use internal fertilization and then disperse the developing eggs or give birth to live offspring. Fish that have live-bearing offspring include the <a href="/wiki/Guppy" title="Guppy">guppy</a> and mollies or <a href="/wiki/Poecilia" title="Poecilia">Poecilia</a>. Fishes that give birth to live young can be <a href="/wiki/Ovoviviparous" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovoviviparous">ovoviviparous</a>, where the eggs are fertilized within the female and the eggs simply hatch within the female body, or in <a href="/wiki/Seahorse" title="Seahorse">seahorses</a>, the male carries the developing young within a pouch, and gives birth to live young.<a href="#cite_note-Cavendish-2001-43">[43]</a> Fishes can also be <a href="/wiki/Viviparous" class="mw-redirect" title="Viviparous">viviparous</a>, where the female supplies nourishment to the internally growing offspring. Some fish are <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodites</a>, where a single fish is both male and female and can produce eggs and sperm. In hermaphroditic fish, some are male and female at the same time while in other fish they are serially hermaphroditic; starting as one sex and changing to the other. In at least one hermaphroditic species, self-fertilization occurs when the eggs and sperm are released together. Internal self-fertilization may occur in some other species.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> One fish species does not reproduce by sexual reproduction but uses sex to produce offspring; <a href="/wiki/Poecilia_formosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Poecilia formosa">Poecilia formosa</a> is a unisex species that uses a form of <a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">parthenogenesis</a> called <a href="/wiki/Gynogenesis" title="Gynogenesis">gynogenesis</a>, where unfertilized eggs develop into embryos that produce female offspring. Poecilia formosa mate with males of other fish species that use internal fertilization, the sperm does not fertilize the eggs but stimulates the growth of the eggs which develops into embryos.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Plants">Plants</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Plants" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Plant reproduction</a></div> Animals have life cycles with a single diploid multicellular phase that produces haploid gametes directly by meiosis. Male gametes are called sperm, and female gametes are called eggs or ova. In animals, fertilization of the ovum by a sperm results in the formation of a diploid zygote that develops by repeated mitotic divisions into a diploid adult. Plants have two multicellular life-cycle phases, resulting in an <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a>. Plant zygotes germinate and divide repeatedly by mitosis to produce a diploid multicellular organism known as the sporophyte. The mature sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis that germinate and divide by mitosis to form a multicellular gametophyte phase that produces gametes at maturity. The gametophytes of different groups of plants vary in size. Mosses and other pteridophytic plants may have gametophytes consisting of several million cells, while <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a> have as few as three cells in each pollen grain. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flowering_plants">Flowering plants</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Flowering plants" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hosta3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Hosta3.jpg/220px-Hosta3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1748"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 275px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Hosta3.jpg/220px-Hosta3.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="275" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Hosta3.jpg/330px-Hosta3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Hosta3.jpg/440px-Hosta3.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Flowers contain the sexual organs of flowering plants.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plants</a> are the dominant plant form on land<a href="#cite_note-Judd-2002-46">[46]</a>: 168, 173 and they reproduce either sexually or asexually. Often their most distinctive feature is their reproductive organs, commonly called flowers. The <a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">anther</a> produces <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen grains</a> which contain the male <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophytes</a> that produce sperm nuclei. For pollination to occur, pollen grains must attach to the stigma of the female reproductive structure (<a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpel</a>), where the female gametophytes are located within ovules enclose within the <a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">ovary</a>. After the pollen tube grows through the carpel's style, the <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sex</a> cell nuclei from the pollen grain migrate into the ovule to fertilize the egg cell and endosperm nuclei within the female gametophyte in a process termed <a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">double fertilization</a>. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo, while the triploid endosperm (one sperm cell plus two female cells) and female tissues of the ovule give rise to the surrounding tissues in the developing seed. The ovary, which produced the female gametophyte(s), then grows into a <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruit</a>, which surrounds the seed(s). Plants may either <a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">self-pollinate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">cross-pollinate</a>. In 2013, flowers dating from the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> (100 million years before present) were found encased in amber, the oldest evidence of sexual reproduction in a flowering plant. Microscopic images showed tubes growing out of pollen and penetrating the flower's stigma. The pollen was sticky, suggesting it was carried by insects.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ferns">Ferns</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ferns" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></div> Ferns produce large diploid <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophytes</a> with <a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">rhizomes</a>, roots and leaves. Fertile leaves produce <a href="/wiki/Sporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporangia">sporangia</a> that contain haploid <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>. The spores are released and germinate to produce small, thin gametophytes that are typically heart shaped and green in color. The gametophyte <a href="/wiki/Prothallus" title="Prothallus">prothalli</a>, produce motile sperm in the <a href="/wiki/Antheridia" class="mw-redirect" title="Antheridia">antheridia</a> and egg cells in <a href="/wiki/Archegonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Archegonia">archegonia</a> on the same or different plants.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> After rains or when dew deposits a film of water, the motile sperm are splashed away from the antheridia, which are normally produced on the top side of the thallus, and swim in the film of water to the archegonia where they fertilize the egg. To promote out crossing or cross fertilization the sperm are released before the eggs are receptive of the sperm, making it more likely that the sperm will fertilize the eggs of different thallus. After fertilization, a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> is formed which grows into a new sporophytic plant. The condition of having separate sporophyte and gametophyte plants is called <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternation of generation">alternation of generations</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bryophytes">Bryophytes</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bryophytes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">bryophytes</a>, which include <a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">liverworts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">hornworts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>, reproduce both sexually and <a href="/wiki/Vegetative_reproduction" title="Vegetative reproduction">vegetatively</a>. They are small plants found growing in moist locations and like ferns, have motile sperm with <a href="/wiki/Flagella" class="mw-redirect" title="Flagella">flagella</a> and need water to facilitate sexual reproduction. These plants start as a haploid spore that grows into the dominant gametophyte form, which is a multicellular haploid body with leaf-like structures that <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesize</a>. Haploid gametes are produced in antheridia (male) and archegonia (female) by mitosis. The sperm released from the antheridia respond to chemicals released by ripe archegonia and swim to them in a film of water and fertilize the egg cells thus producing a zygote. The <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> divides by mitotic division and grows into a multicellular, diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte produces spore capsules (<a href="/wiki/Sporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporangia">sporangia</a>), which are connected by stalks (<a href="/wiki/Seta" title="Seta">setae</a>) to the archegonia. The spore capsules produce spores by meiosis and when ripe the capsules burst open to release the spores. Bryophytes show considerable variation in their reproductive structures and the above is a basic outline. Also in some species each plant is one sex (<a href="/wiki/Dioicous" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioicous">dioicous</a>) while other species produce both sexes on the same plant (<a href="/wiki/Monoicous" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoicous">monoicous</a>).<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Fungi">Fungi</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Fungi" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">Mating in fungi</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Fungus#Reproduction" title="Fungus">Fungus § Reproduction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puffballs_emitting_spores.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Puffballs_emitting_spores.jpg/220px-Puffballs_emitting_spores.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2126" data-file-height="2630"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 272px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Puffballs_emitting_spores.jpg/220px-Puffballs_emitting_spores.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="272" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Puffballs_emitting_spores.jpg/330px-Puffballs_emitting_spores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Puffballs_emitting_spores.jpg/440px-Puffballs_emitting_spores.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Puffballs emitting spores</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a> are classified by the methods of sexual reproduction they employ. The outcome of sexual reproduction most often is the production of <a href="/wiki/Resting_spore" title="Resting spore">resting spores</a> that are used to survive inclement times and to spread. There are typically three phases in the sexual reproduction of fungi: <a href="/wiki/Plasmogamy" title="Plasmogamy">plasmogamy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karyogamy" title="Karyogamy">karyogamy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>. The cytoplasm of two parent cells fuse during plasmogamy and the nuclei fuse during karyogamy. New haploid gametes are formed during meiosis and develop into spores. The adaptive basis for the maintenance of sexual reproduction in the <a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dikaryon" title="Dikaryon">dikaryon</a>) <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> was reviewed by Wallen and Perlin.<a href="#cite_note-Wallen-2018-50">[50]</a> They concluded that the most plausible reason for maintaining this capability is the benefit of <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">repairing DNA damage</a>, caused by a variety of stresses, through <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">recombination</a> that occurs during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wallen-2018-50">[50]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Bacteria_and_archaea">Bacteria and archaea</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bacteria and archaea" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> Three distinct processes in <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a> are regarded as similar to <a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">eukaryotic sex</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_transformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial transformation">bacterial transformation</a>, which involves the incorporation of foreign DNA into the bacterial chromosome; <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation" title="Bacterial conjugation">bacterial conjugation</a>, which is a transfer of <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> DNA between bacteria, but the plasmids are rarely incorporated into the bacterial chromosome; and <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote#DNA_transfer" title="Prokaryote">gene transfer and genetic exchange in archaea</a>. Bacterial transformation involves the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">recombination of genetic material</a> and its function is mainly associated with <a href="/wiki/Sexual_recombination#Recombinational_repair" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual recombination">DNA repair</a>. Bacterial transformation is a complex process encoded by numerous bacterial genes, and is a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer.<a href="#cite_note-Michod-2008-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-2010-23">[23]</a> This process occurs naturally in at least 40 bacterial species.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> For a bacterium to bind, take up, and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must enter a special physiological state referred to as competence (see <a href="/wiki/Natural_competence" title="Natural competence">Natural competence</a>). Sexual reproduction in early single-celled eukaryotes may have evolved from bacterial transformation,<a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-2012-24">[24]</a> or from a similar process in <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> (see below). On the other hand, bacterial conjugation is a type of direct transfer of DNA between two bacteria mediated by an external appendage called the conjugation pilus.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Bacterial conjugation is controlled by <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid genes</a> that are adapted for spreading copies of the plasmid between bacteria. The infrequent integration of a plasmid into a host bacterial chromosome, and the subsequent transfer of a part of the host chromosome to another cell do not appear to be bacterial adaptations.<a href="#cite_note-Michod-2008-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Exposure of hyperthermophilic archaeal Sulfolobus species to DNA damaging conditions induces cellular aggregation accompanied by high frequency <a href="/wiki/Genetic_marker" title="Genetic marker">genetic marker</a> exchange<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ajon-2011-55">[55]</a> Ajon et al.<a href="#cite_note-Ajon-2011-55">[55]</a> hypothesized that this cellular aggregation enhances species-specific DNA repair by homologous recombination. DNA transfer in Sulfolobus may be an early form of sexual interaction similar to the more well-studied bacterial transformation systems that also involve species-specific DNA transfer leading to homologous recombinational repair of DNA damage. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphimixis_(psychology)" title="Amphimixis (psychology)">Amphimixis (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androgenesis" title="Androgenesis">Androgenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_reproduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological reproduction">Biological reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioecy" title="Dioecy">Dioecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexuality" title="Heterosexuality">Heterosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphroditism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermaphroditism">Hermaphroditism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">Isogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">Mating in fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_sex_ratio" title="Operational sex ratio">Operational sex ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcrossing" title="Outcrossing">Outcrossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allogamy" title="Allogamy">Allogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-incompatibility" title="Self-incompatibility">Self-incompatibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation (genetics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynogenesis" title="Gynogenesis">Gynogenesis</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> John Maynard Smith & Eörz Szathmáry, The Major Transitions in Evolution, <a href="/wiki/W._H._Freeman_and_Company" title="W. H. Freeman and Company">W. H. Freeman and Company</a>, 1995, p 149 </li> <li id="cite_note-Chalker-2013-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chalker-2013_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chalker-2013_2-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChalker2013" class="citation journal cs1">Chalker, Douglas (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/content/5/12/a017764.full">"Epigenetics of Ciliates"</a>. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 5 (12): a017764. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fcshperspect.a017764">10.1101/cshperspect.a017764</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3839606">3839606</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24296171">24296171</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220913054521/https://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/content/5/12/a017764.full">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-09-13. 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Freeman and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-4004-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-4004-4"><bdi>0-7167-4004-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+Monogamy%3A+Fidelity+and+Infidelity+in+Animals+and+People&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7167-4004-4&rft.aulast=Lipton&rft.aufirst=Judith+Eve&rft.au=Barash%2C+David+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780716740049&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+reproduction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morell-1998-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Morell-1998_41-0">^</a> Research conducted by <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Adair_Gowaty" title="Patricia Adair Gowaty">Patricia Adair Gowaty</a>. 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Science. 281 (5385): 1982–1983. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.281.5385.1982">10.1126/science.281.5385.1982</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9767050">9767050</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31391458">31391458</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+sex%3A+A+new+look+at+monogamy&rft.volume=281&rft.issue=5385&rft.pages=1982-1983&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31391458%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9767050&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.281.5385.1982&rft.aulast=Morell&rft.aufirst=V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+reproduction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131003122913/http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/bony-fish/reproduction.htm">"BONY FISHES – Reproduction"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/bony-fish/reproduction.htm">the original</a> on 2013-10-03. Retrieved 2008-02-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BONY+FISHES+%E2%80%93+Reproduction&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seaworld.org%2Fanimal-info%2Finfo-books%2Fbony-fish%2Freproduction.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+reproduction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cavendish-2001-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Cavendish-2001_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Cavendish2001" class="citation book cs1">M. Cavendish (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s5zZJVu2hxYC&pg=PA1254">Endangered Wildlife and Plants of the World</a>. Marshall Cavendish. p. 1252. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7194-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7194-3"><bdi>978-0-7614-7194-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2013-11-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Endangered+Wildlife+and+Plants+of+the+World&rft.pages=1252&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7614-7194-3&rft.au=M.+Cavendish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds5zZJVu2hxYC%26pg%3DPA1254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+reproduction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrlandoKatsuMiyagawaIguchi2006" class="citation journal cs1">Orlando, EF; Katsu, Y; Miyagawa, S; Iguchi, T (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjme.1.02101">"Cloning and differential expression of estrogen receptor and aromatase genes in the self-fertilizing hermaphrodite and male mangrove rivulus, Kryptolebias marmoratus"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Molecular_Endocrinology" title="Journal of Molecular Endocrinology">Journal of Molecular Endocrinology</a>. 37 (2): 353–365. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjme.1.02101">10.1677/jme.1.02101</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17032750">17032750</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Endocrinology&rft.atitle=Cloning+and+differential+expression+of+estrogen+receptor+and+aromatase+genes+in+the+self-fertilizing+hermaphrodite+and+male+mangrove+rivulus%2C+Kryptolebias+marmoratus&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=353-365&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1677%2Fjme.1.02101&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17032750&rft.aulast=Orlando&rft.aufirst=EF&rft.au=Katsu%2C+Y&rft.au=Miyagawa%2C+S&rft.au=Iguchi%2C+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1677%252Fjme.1.02101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+reproduction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchluppParzefallEpplenSchartl1996" class="citation journal cs1">Schlupp, I.; Parzefall, J.; Epplen, J. 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Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lewinsgenesx0000unse/page/289">289–292</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-6632-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-6632-0"><bdi>978-0-7637-6632-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lewin%27s+GENES+X&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=289-292&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-6632-0&rft.aulast=Krebs&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft.au=Goldstein%2C+E.+S.&rft.au=Kilpatrick%2C+ST&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flewinsgenesx0000unse%2Fpage%2F289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+reproduction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrölsAjonWagnerTeichmann2008" class="citation journal cs1">Fröls, Sabrina; Ajon, Malgorzata; Wagner, Michaela; et al. (9 October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2958.2008.06459.x">"UV-inducible cellular aggregation of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus is mediated by pili formation"</a>. Molecular Microbiology. 70 (4). Wiley: 938–952. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2958.2008.06459.x">10.1111/j.1365-2958.2008.06459.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0950-382X">0950-382X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990182">18990182</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12797510">12797510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Microbiology&rft.atitle=UV-inducible+cellular+aggregation+of+the+hyperthermophilic+archaeon+Sulfolobus+solfataricus+is+mediated+by+pili+formation&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=938-952&rft.date=2008-10-09&rft.issn=0950-382X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12797510%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18990182&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2958.2008.06459.x&rft.aulast=Fr%C3%B6ls&rft.aufirst=Sabrina&rft.au=Ajon%2C+Malgorzata&rft.au=Wagner%2C+Michaela&rft.au=Teichmann%2C+Daniela&rft.au=Zolghadr%2C+Behnam&rft.au=Folea%2C+Mihaela&rft.au=Boekema%2C+Egbert+J.&rft.au=Driessen%2C+Arnold+J.+M.&rft.au=Schleper%2C+Christa&rft.au=Albers%2C+Sonja-Verena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1365-2958.2008.06459.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+reproduction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ajon-2011-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ajon-2011_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ajon-2011_55-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAjonFrölsvan_WolferenStoecker2011" class="citation journal cs1">Ajon, Małgorzata; Fröls, Sabrina; van Wolferen, Marleen; et al. (18 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/6771142/2011MolMicrobiolAjon.pdf">"UV-inducible DNA exchange in hyperthermophilic archaea mediated by type IV pili"</a> (PDF). Molecular Microbiology. 82 (4). Wiley: 807–817. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2958.2011.07861.x">10.1111/j.1365-2958.2011.07861.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0950-382X">0950-382X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21999488">21999488</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42880145">42880145</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211010101112/https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/6771142/2011MolMicrobiolAjon.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2021. Retrieved 13 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Microbiology&rft.atitle=UV-inducible+DNA+exchange+in+hyperthermophilic+archaea+mediated+by+type+IV+pili&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=807-817&rft.date=2011-10-18&rft.issn=0950-382X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42880145%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21999488&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2958.2011.07861.x&rft.aulast=Ajon&rft.aufirst=Ma%C5%82gorzata&rft.au=Fr%C3%B6ls%2C+Sabrina&rft.au=van+Wolferen%2C+Marleen&rft.au=Stoecker%2C+Kilian&rft.au=Teichmann%2C+Daniela&rft.au=Driessen%2C+Arnold+J.+M.&rft.au=Grogan%2C+Dennis+W.&rft.au=Albers%2C+Sonja-Verena&rft.au=Schleper%2C+Christa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.rug.nl%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F6771142%2F2011MolMicrobiolAjon.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+reproduction" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li>Pang, K. "Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts", Hong Kong, 2004</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biolreprod.org/">Journal of Biology of Reproduction</a>, accessed in August 2005.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/02/030203071703.htm">"Sperm Use Heat Sensors To Find The Egg; Weizmann Institute Research Contributes To Understanding Of Human Fertilization"</a>, Science Daily, 3 February 2003</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Michod, R. E.; Levin, B.E., eds. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionofsexex0000unse">The Evolution of sex: An examination of current ideas</a>. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-458-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-458-4"><bdi>978-0-87893-458-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+sex%3A+An+examination+of+current+ideas&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-458-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionofsexex0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+reproduction" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Michod, R. E. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/erosevolutionnat0000mich">Eros and Evolution: A Natural Philosophy of Sex</a>. Perseus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-40754-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-40754-9"><bdi>978-0-201-40754-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eros+and+Evolution%3A+A+Natural+Philosophy+of+Sex&rft.pub=Perseus+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-201-40754-9&rft.aulast=Michod&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ferosevolutionnat0000mich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+reproduction" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_reproduction&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kaSIjIzAtYA">Khan Academy, video lecture</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/sexual-reproduction-and-the-evolution-of-sex-824/">Sexual Reproduction and the Evolution of Sex</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20231008141323/https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/sexual-reproduction-and-the-evolution-of-sex-824/">Archived (2023)</a>) − <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature journal</a> (2008)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschlechtliche_Fortpflanzung" title="Geschlechtliche Fortpflanzung – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Geschlechtliche Fortpflanzung" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="تكاثر جنسي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تكاثر جنسي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducci%C3%B3n_sexual" title="Reproducción sexual – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reproducción sexual" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinsi_%C3%A7oxalma" title="Cinsi çoxalma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Cinsi çoxalma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%A8" title="যৌন প্রজনন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="যৌন প্রজনন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%BA-s%C3%A8ng_se%E2%81%BF-si%CC%8Dt" title="Iú-sèng seⁿ-si̍t – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iú-sèng seⁿ-si̍t" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Палавое размнажэнне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Палавое размнажэнне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekswal_na_reproduksyon" title="Sekswal na reproduksyon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Sekswal na reproduksyon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Полово размножаване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Полово размножаване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolno_razmno%C5%BEavanje" title="Spolno razmnožavanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Spolno razmnožavanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducci%C3%B3_sexual" title="Reproducció sexual – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reproducció sexual" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pohlavn%C3%AD_rozmno%C5%BEov%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Pohlavní rozmnožování – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pohlavní rozmnožování" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B8nnet_formering" title="Kønnet formering – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kønnet formering" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschlechtliche_Fortpflanzung" title="Geschlechtliche Fortpflanzung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschlechtliche Fortpflanzung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suguline_sigimine" title="Suguline sigimine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Suguline sigimine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B3%CF%89%CE%B3%CE%AE" title="Σεξουαλική αναπαραγωγή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σεξουαλική αναπαραγωγή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducci%C3%B3n_sexual" title="Reproducción sexual – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reproducción sexual" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksa_reproduktado" title="Seksa reproduktado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Seksa reproduktado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexu_ugalketa" title="Sexu ugalketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sexu ugalketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%AB%D9%84_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="تولیدمثل جنسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تولیدمثل جنسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_reproduction" title="Biological reproduction – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Biological reproduction" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexualit%C3%A9_(reproduction)" title="Sexualité (reproduction) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sexualité (reproduction)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%A1irgeadh_gn%C3%A9asach" title="Atáirgeadh gnéasach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Atáirgeadh gnéasach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduci%C3%B3n_sexual" title="Reprodución sexual – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reprodución sexual" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%84%B1_%EC%83%9D%EC%8B%9D" title="유성 생식 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유성 생식" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Սեռական բազմացում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սեռական բազմացում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A8" title="लैंगिक जनन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लैंगिक जनन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolno_razmno%C5%BEavanje" title="Spolno razmnožavanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Spolno razmnožavanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduksi_seksual" title="Reproduksi seksual – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Reproduksi seksual" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyn%C3%A6xlun" title="Kynæxlun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kynæxlun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riproduzione_sessuata" title="Riproduzione sessuata – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Riproduzione sessuata" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="רבייה מינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רבייה מינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%BA%D3%A9%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%8E_%D0%B6%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D2%B1%D1%80%D1%8B%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83_%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96" title="Жынысты көбею және ұрықтану ерекшеліктері – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жынысты көбею және ұрықтану ерекшеліктері" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repwodiksyon_seksy%C3%A8l" title="Repwodiksyon seksyèl – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Repwodiksyon seksyèl" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirb%C3%BBna_zayend%C3%AE" title="Pirbûna zayendî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Pirbûna zayendî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzimumvairo%C5%A1an%C4%81s" title="Dzimumvairošanās – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dzimumvairošanās" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reprodui_sesal" title="Reprodui sesal – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Reprodui sesal" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivaros_szaporod%C3%A1s" title="Ivaros szaporodás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ivaros szaporodás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="ലൈംഗികപ്രത്യുൽപ്പാദനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലൈംഗികപ്രത്യുൽപ്പാദനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%89" title="تكاثر جنسى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تكاثر جنسى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembiakan_seks" title="Pembiakan seks – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembiakan seks" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%96%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="လိင်ဖြင့်မျိုးပွားခြင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လိင်ဖြင့်မျိုးပွားခြင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geslachtelijke_voortplanting" title="Geslachtelijke voortplanting – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geslachtelijke voortplanting" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%80%A7%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96" title="有性生殖 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="有性生殖" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kj%C3%B8nnet_formering" title="Kjønnet formering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjønnet formering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kj%C3%B8nna_formeiring" title="Kjønna formeiring – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kjønna formeiring" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinsiy_ko%CA%BBpayish" title="Jinsiy koʻpayish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Jinsiy koʻpayish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="جنسی تولید – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جنسی تولید" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AF" title="جنسي بیا توليد – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جنسي بیا توليد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozmna%C5%BCanie_p%C5%82ciowe" title="Rozmnażanie płciowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rozmnażanie płciowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reprodu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_sexuada" title="Reprodução sexuada – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reprodução sexuada" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducere_sexuat%C4%83" title="Reproducere sexuată – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Reproducere sexuată" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Половое размножение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Половое размножение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="ලිංගික ප්‍රජනනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ලිංගික ප්‍රජනනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sexual reproduction" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pohlavn%C3%A9_rozmno%C5%BEovanie" title="Pohlavné rozmnožovanie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pohlavné rozmnožovanie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolno_razmno%C5%BEevanje" title="Spolno razmnoževanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Spolno razmnoževanje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polno_razmno%C5%BEavanje" title="Polno razmnožavanje – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Polno razmnožavanje" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suvullinen_lis%C3%A4%C3%A4ntyminen" title="Suvullinen lisääntyminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Suvullinen lisääntyminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexuell_f%C3%B6r%C3%B6kning" title="Sexuell förökning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sexuell förökning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduksiyong_seksuwal" title="Reproduksiyong seksuwal – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Reproduksiyong seksuwal" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பாலியல் இனப்பெருக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பாலியல் இனப்பெருக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyaraw_azufan" title="Amyaraw azufan – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Amyaraw azufan" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%96%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B8_%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%87%D2%AF" title="Җенси үрчү – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Җенси үрчү" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A8" title="การสืบพันธุ์แบบอาศัยเพศ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การสืบพันธุ์แบบอาศัยเพศ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%9Feyli_%C3%BCreme" title="Eşeyli üreme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Eşeyli üreme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Статеве розмноження – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Статеве розмноження" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="جنسی تولید – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جنسی تولید" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_s%E1%BA%A3n_h%E1%BB%AFu_t%C3%ADnh" title="Sinh sản hữu tính – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sinh sản hữu tính" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugulin%C3%B5_siginemine" title="Sugulinõ siginemine – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Sugulinõ siginemine" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%80%A7%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96" title="有性生殖 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="有性生殖" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%80%A7%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="有性繁殖 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="有性繁殖" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%80%A7%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96" title="有性生殖 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="有性生殖" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 2 November 2024, at 14:41 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a 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