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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flame_test"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Flame test</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flame_test-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantitative_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantitative_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Quantitative analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantitative_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gravimetric_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravimetric_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Gravimetric analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravimetric_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volumetric_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volumetric_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Volumetric analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volumetric_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instrumental_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instrumental_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Instrumental methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Instrumental_methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Instrumental methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Instrumental_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spectroscopy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spectroscopy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Spectroscopy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spectroscopy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass_spectrometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_spectrometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Mass spectrometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_spectrometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrochemical_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrochemical_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Electrochemical analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrochemical_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Thermal analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Separation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chromatographic_assays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chromatographic_assays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Chromatographic assays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chromatographic_assays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hybrid_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hybrid_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Hybrid techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hybrid_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microscopy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microscopy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Microscopy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microscopy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lab-on-a-chip" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lab-on-a-chip"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Lab-on-a-chip</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lab-on-a-chip-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Errors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Errors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Errors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Errors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Standards</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Standards-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Standards subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Standard_curve" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_curve"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Standard curve</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_curve-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Internal standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standard_addition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_addition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Standard addition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_addition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signals_and_noise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signals_and_noise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Signals and noise</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Signals_and_noise-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Signals and noise subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Signals_and_noise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thermal_noise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_noise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Thermal noise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_noise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shot_noise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shot_noise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Shot noise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shot_noise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flicker_noise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flicker_noise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Flicker noise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flicker_noise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_noise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_noise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Environmental noise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_noise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noise_reduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noise_reduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Noise reduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noise_reduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Analytical chemistry</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 99 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-99" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">99 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitiese_chemie" title="Analitiese chemie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Analitiese chemie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytische_Chemie" title="Analytische Chemie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Analytische Chemie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كيمياء تحليلية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كيمياء تحليلية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quimica_analitica" title="Quimica analitica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Quimica analitica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_anal%C3%ADtica" title="Química analítica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Química analítica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitik_kimya" title="Analitik kimya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Analitik kimya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="تجزیه شیمی‌سی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تجزیه شیمی‌سی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="বিশ্লেষণী রসায়ন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিশ্লেষণী রসায়ন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hun-sek_h%C3%B2a-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Hun-sek hòa-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hun-sek hòa-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аналитик химия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Аналитик химия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Аналітычная хімія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аналітычная хімія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Аналітычная хімія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Аналітычная хімія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimikang_analitikal" title="Kimikang analitikal – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kimikang analitikal" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аналитична химия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Аналитична химия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analiti%C4%8Dka_hemija" title="Analitička hemija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Analitička hemija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_anal%C3%ADtica" title="Química analítica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Química analítica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%C4%83%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Аналитикăлла хими – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Аналитикăлла хими" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytick%C3%A1_chemie" title="Analytická chemie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Analytická chemie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemeg_ddadansoddol" title="Cemeg ddadansoddol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cemeg ddadansoddol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytisk_kemi" title="Analytisk kemi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Analytisk kemi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytische_Chemie" title="Analytische Chemie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Analytische Chemie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal%C3%BC%C3%BCtiline_keemia" title="Analüütiline keemia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Analüütiline keemia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%BB%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Αναλυτική χημεία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αναλυτική χημεία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_anal%C3%ADtica" title="Química analítica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Química analítica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analiza_kemio" title="Analiza kemio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Analiza kemio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimika_analitiko" title="Kimika analitiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kimika analitiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%87" title="شیمی تجزیه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شیمی تجزیه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Analytical chemistry" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytisk_evnafr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Analytisk evnafrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Analytisk evnafrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie_analytique" title="Chimie analytique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chimie analytique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceimic_anail%C3%ADseach" title="Ceimic anailíseach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ceimic anailíseach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceimigeachd_anailiseach" title="Ceimigeachd anailiseach – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Ceimigeachd anailiseach" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_anal%C3%ADtica" title="Química analítica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Química analítica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%84%EC%84%9D%ED%99%94%ED%95%99" title="분석화학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="분석화학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AE%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%84%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Վերլուծական քիմիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վերլուծական քիմիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="विश्लेषी रसायन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विश्लेषी रसायन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analiti%C4%8Dka_kemija" title="Analitička kemija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Analitička kemija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_analisis" title="Kimia analisis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kimia analisis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimia_analytic" title="Chimia analytic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Chimia analytic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efnagreining" title="Efnagreining – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Efnagreining" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimica_analitica" title="Chimica analitica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Chimica analitica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="כימיה אנליטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כימיה אנליטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_analitik" title="Kimia analitik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kimia analitik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ವಿಶ್ಲೇಷಕ ರಸಾಯನಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಶ್ಲೇಷಕ ರಸಾಯನಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ანალიზური ქიმია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ანალიზური ქიმია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аналитикалық химия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аналитикалық химия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemia_kichambuzi" title="Kemia kichambuzi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kemia kichambuzi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аналитикалык химия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Аналитикалык химия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemia_analytica" title="Chemia analytica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Chemia analytica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal%C4%ABtisk%C4%81_%C4%B7%C4%ABmija" title="Analītiskā ķīmija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Analītiskā ķīmija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitin%C4%97_chemija" title="Analitinė chemija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Analitinė chemija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimica_analitica" title="Chimica analitica – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Chimica analitica" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitikai_k%C3%A9mia" title="Analitikai kémia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Analitikai kémia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Аналитичка хемија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Аналитичка хемија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="വിശ്ലേഷകരസതന്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വിശ്ലേഷകരസതന്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_analisis" title="Kimia analisis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kimia analisis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Химийн шинжлэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Химийн шинжлэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytische_chemie" title="Analytische chemie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Analytische chemie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="分析化学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="分析化学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytisk_kjemi" title="Analytisk kjemi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Analytisk kjemi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytisk_kjemi" title="Analytisk kjemi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Analytisk kjemi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quimia_analitica" title="Quimia analitica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Quimia analitica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitik_kimyo" title="Analitik kimyo – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Analitik kimyo" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A3_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਵਿਸ਼ਲੇਸ਼ਣੀ ਰਸਾਇਣ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਸ਼ਲੇਸ਼ਣੀ ਰਸਾਇਣ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%B9%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%84_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="انیلیٹیکل کیمسٹری – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انیلیٹیکل کیمسٹری" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A_%DA%A9%DB%90%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="تحليلي کېميا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تحليلي کېميا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytsche_Chemie" title="Analytsche Chemie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Analytsche Chemie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemia_analityczna" title="Chemia analityczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chemia analityczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_anal%C3%ADtica" title="Química analítica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Química analítica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie_analitic%C4%83" title="Chimie analitică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Chimie analitică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аналитическая химия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аналитическая химия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%8B%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Анаалыстыыр химия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Анаалыстыыр химия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_analitike" title="Kimia analitike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kimia analitike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ACmica_anal%C3%ACtica" title="Chìmica analìtica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Chìmica analìtica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9A%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="විශ්ලේෂණාත්මක රසායන විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="විශ්ලේෂණාත්මක රසායන විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Analytical chemistry" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytick%C3%A1_ch%C3%A9mia" title="Analytická chémia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Analytická chémia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analizna_kemija" title="Analizna kemija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Analizna kemija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%84%DB%8E%DA%A9%DB%86%DA%B5%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95" title="کیمیای لێکۆڵەرەوە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کیمیای لێکۆڵەرەوە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Аналитичка хемија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Аналитичка хемија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analiti%C4%8Dka_hemija" title="Analitička hemija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Analitička hemija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_analitik" title="Kimia analitik – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kimia analitik" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analyyttinen_kemia" title="Analyyttinen kemia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Analyyttinen kemia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytisk_kemi" title="Analytisk kemi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Analytisk kemi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapanuring_kimika" title="Mapanuring kimika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mapanuring kimika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="பகுப்பாய்வு வேதியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பகுப்பாய்வு வேதியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аналитик химия – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Аналитик химия" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%8C" title="เคมีวิเคราะห์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เคมีวิเคราะห์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitik_kimya" title="Analitik kimya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Analitik kimya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Аналітична хімія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аналітична хімія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="تحلیلی کیمیاء – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تحلیلی کیمیاء" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitine_himii" title="Analitine himii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Analitine himii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B3a_ph%C3%A2n_t%C3%ADch" title="Hóa phân tích – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hóa phân tích" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimika_analitika" title="Kimika analitika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kimika analitika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="分析化学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="分析化学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%9B%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A2" title="אנאליטישע כעמיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אנאליטישע כעמיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="分析化學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="分析化學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal%C4%97z%C4%97n%C4%97_kem%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Analėzėnė kemėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Analėzėnė kemėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="分析化学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="分析化学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2346#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of the separation, identification, and quantification of matter</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg/50px-Mergefrom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg/75px-Mergefrom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg/100px-Mergefrom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="20" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that <i><a href="/wiki/Analytical_technique" title="Analytical technique">Analytical technique</a></i> be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Merging" title="Wikipedia:Merging">merged</a> into this article. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Analytical_chemistry#Proposed_merge_of_Analytical_technique_into_Analytical_chemistry" title="Talk:Analytical chemistry">Discuss</a>)<small><i> Proposed since September 2024.</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg/300px-Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg/450px-Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg/600px-Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">Gas chromatography</a> 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sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #A2B8BF"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#82C3D8; padding:0.2em; font-size:175%; font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gnome-applications-science.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gnome-applications-science.svg/100px-Gnome-applications-science.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gnome-applications-science.svg/150px-Gnome-applications-science.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gnome-applications-science.svg/200px-Gnome-applications-science.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="padding:0 0 0.8em;"><b>The science of matter</b></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.15em 0.15em 0.25em; display:block; background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles" title="Index of chemistry articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry" title="Outline of chemistry">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" title="Glossary of chemistry terms">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)"> Phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond"> Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction" title="Acid–base reaction">Acid–base reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">Redox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">Chemical equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_law" title="Chemical law">Chemical law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Analytical_skill" title="Analytical skill">Analytical</a> chemistry</b> studies and uses instruments and methods to <a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">separate</a>, identify, and <a href="/wiki/Quantification_(science)" title="Quantification (science)">quantify</a> matter.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-03-005938-0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-03-005938-0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separation isolates <a href="/wiki/Analyte" title="Analyte">analytes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_inorganic_analysis" title="Qualitative inorganic analysis">Qualitative analysis</a> identifies analytes, while <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_analysis_(chemistry)" title="Quantitative analysis (chemistry)">quantitative analysis</a> determines the numerical amount or concentration. </p><p>Analytical chemistry consists of classical, <a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">wet chemical methods</a> and modern, <a href="#Instrumental_methods">instrumental methods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-03-002078-6_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-03-002078-6-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Classical qualitative methods use separations such as <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extraction_(chemistry)" title="Extraction (chemistry)">extraction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a>. Identification may be based on differences in color, odor, melting point, boiling point, solubility, radioactivity or reactivity. Classical quantitative analysis uses mass or volume changes to quantify amount. Instrumental methods may be used to separate samples using <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">chromatography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">electrophoresis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Field_flow_fractionation" title="Field flow fractionation">field flow fractionation</a>. Then qualitative and quantitative analysis can be performed, often with the same instrument and may use <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">light interaction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">heat interaction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electric fields</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">magnetic fields</a>. Often the same instrument can separate, identify and quantify an analyte. </p><p>Analytical chemistry is also focused on improvements in <a href="/wiki/Experimental_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental design">experimental design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemometrics" title="Chemometrics">chemometrics</a>, and the creation of new measurement tools. Analytical chemistry has broad applications to medicine, science, and engineering. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bunsen-Kirchhoff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Bunsen-Kirchhoff.jpg/170px-Bunsen-Kirchhoff.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Bunsen-Kirchhoff.jpg/255px-Bunsen-Kirchhoff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Bunsen-Kirchhoff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Gustav Kirchhoff</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bunsen" title="Robert Bunsen">Robert Bunsen</a> (right)</figcaption></figure> <p>Analytical chemistry has been important since the early days of chemistry, providing methods for determining which elements and chemicals are present in the object in question. During this period, significant contributions to analytical chemistry included the development of systematic <a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">elemental analysis</a> by <a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a> and systematized organic analysis based on the specific reactions of functional groups. </p><p>The first instrumental analysis was flame emissive spectrometry developed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bunsen" title="Robert Bunsen">Robert Bunsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Gustav Kirchhoff</a> who discovered <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a> (Rb) and <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> (Cs) in 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the major developments in analytical chemistry took place after 1900. During this period, instrumental analysis became progressively dominant in the field. In particular, many of the basic spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques were discovered in the early 20th century and refined in the late 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Separation_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Separation processes">separation sciences</a> follow a similar time line of development and also became increasingly transformed into high performance instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1970s many of these techniques began to be used together as hybrid techniques to achieve a complete characterization of samples. </p><p>Starting in the 1970s, analytical chemistry became progressively more inclusive of biological questions (<a href="/wiki/Bioanalytical_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioanalytical chemistry">bioanalytical chemistry</a>), whereas it had previously been largely focused on inorganic or <a href="/wiki/Small_molecule" title="Small molecule">small organic molecules</a>. Lasers have been increasingly used as probes and even to initiate and influence a wide variety of reactions. The late 20th century also saw an expansion of the application of analytical chemistry from somewhat academic chemical questions to <a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">forensic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">environmental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">medical</a> questions, such as in <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern analytical chemistry is dominated by instrumental analysis. Many analytical chemists focus on a single type of instrument. Academics tend to either focus on new applications and discoveries or on new methods of analysis. The discovery of a chemical present in blood that increases the risk of cancer would be a discovery that an analytical chemist might be involved in. An effort to develop a new method might involve the use of a <a href="/wiki/Tunable_laser" title="Tunable laser">tunable laser</a> to increase the specificity and sensitivity of a spectrometric method. Many methods, once developed, are kept purposely static so that data can be compared over long periods of time. This is particularly true in industrial <a href="/wiki/Quality_Assurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Quality Assurance">quality assurance</a> (QA), forensic and environmental applications. Analytical chemistry plays an increasingly important role in the pharmaceutical industry where, aside from QA, it is used in the discovery of new drug candidates and in clinical applications where understanding the interactions between the drug and the patient are critical. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_methods">Classical methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classical methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flame_test.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flame_test.jpg/220px-Flame_test.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flame_test.jpg/330px-Flame_test.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flame_test.jpg/440px-Flame_test.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1253" data-file-height="1169" /></a><figcaption>The presence of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> in this qualitative analysis is indicated by the bluish-green color of the flame</figcaption></figure> <p>Although modern analytical chemistry is dominated by sophisticated instrumentation, the roots of analytical chemistry and some of the principles used in modern instruments are from traditional techniques, many of which are still used today. These techniques also tend to form the backbone of most undergraduate analytical chemistry educational labs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qualitative_analysis">Qualitative analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Qualitative analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualitative analysis determines the presence or absence of a particular compound, but not the mass or concentration. By definition, qualitative analyses do not measure quantity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chemical_tests">Chemical tests</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chemical tests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_test" title="Chemical test">Chemical test</a></div> <p>There are numerous qualitative chemical tests, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Acid_test_(gold)" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid test (gold)">acid test</a> for <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kastle-Meyer_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Kastle-Meyer test">Kastle-Meyer test</a> for the presence of <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flame_test">Flame test</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Flame test"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Flame_test" title="Flame test">Flame test</a></div> <p>Inorganic qualitative analysis generally refers to a systematic scheme to confirm the presence of certain aqueous ions or elements by performing a series of reactions that eliminate a range of possibilities and then confirm suspected ions with a confirming test. Sometimes small carbon-containing ions are included in such schemes. With modern instrumentation, these tests are rarely used but can be useful for educational purposes and in fieldwork or other situations where access to state-of-the-art instruments is not available or expedient. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantitative_analysis">Quantitative analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Quantitative analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_analysis_(chemistry)" title="Quantitative analysis (chemistry)">Quantitative analysis (chemistry)</a></div> <p>Quantitative analysis is the measurement of the quantities of particular chemical constituents present in a substance. Quantities can be measured by mass (gravimetric analysis) or volume (volumetric analysis). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gravimetric_analysis">Gravimetric analysis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Gravimetric analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gravimetric_analysis" title="Gravimetric analysis">Gravimetric analysis</a></div> <p>The gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of material present by weighing the sample before and/or after some transformation. A common example used in undergraduate education is the determination of the amount of water in a hydrate by heating the sample to remove the water such that the difference in weight is due to the loss of water. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Volumetric_analysis">Volumetric analysis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Volumetric analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></div> <p>Titration involves the gradual addition of a measurable reactant to an exact volume of a solution being analyzed until some equivalence point is reached. Titrating accurately to either the half-equivalence point or the endpoint of a titration allows the chemist to determine the amount of moles used, which can then be used to determine a concentration or composition of the titrant. Most familiar to those who have taken chemistry during secondary education is the acid-base titration involving a color-changing indicator, such as <a href="/wiki/Phenolphthalein" title="Phenolphthalein">phenolphthalein</a>. There are many other types of titrations, for example, potentiometric titrations or precipitation titrations. Chemists might also create titration curves in order by systematically testing the pH every drop in order to understand different properties of the titrant. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Instrumental_methods">Instrumental methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Instrumental methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental analysis">Instrumental analysis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Analytical_instrument.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Analytical_instrument.png/260px-Analytical_instrument.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Analytical_instrument.png/390px-Analytical_instrument.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Analytical_instrument.png/520px-Analytical_instrument.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1619" /></a><figcaption>Block diagram of an analytical instrument showing the stimulus and measurement of response</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Spectroscopy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></div> <p>Spectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules with <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic radiation</a>. Spectroscopy consists of many different applications such as <a href="/wiki/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Atomic absorption spectroscopy">atomic absorption spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emission_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission spectroscopy">atomic emission spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet-visible_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy">ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/X-ray_spectroscopy" title="X-ray spectroscopy">X-ray spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_spectroscopy" title="Fluorescence spectroscopy">fluorescence spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">infrared spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dual_polarization_interferometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual polarization interferometry">dual polarization interferometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photoemission_spectroscopy" title="Photoemission spectroscopy">photoemission spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Mössbauer spectroscopy">Mössbauer spectroscopy</a> and so on. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass_spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mass spectrometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1_MV_accelerator_mass_spectrometer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/1_MV_accelerator_mass_spectrometer.jpg/220px-1_MV_accelerator_mass_spectrometer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/1_MV_accelerator_mass_spectrometer.jpg/330px-1_MV_accelerator_mass_spectrometer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/1_MV_accelerator_mass_spectrometer.jpg/440px-1_MV_accelerator_mass_spectrometer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Accelerator_mass_spectrometry" title="Accelerator mass spectrometry">accelerator mass spectrometer</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> and other analysis</figcaption></figure> <p>Mass spectrometry measures <a href="/wiki/Mass-to-charge_ratio" title="Mass-to-charge ratio">mass-to-charge ratio</a> of molecules using <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a>. There are several ionization methods: <a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">electron ionization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_ionization" title="Chemical ionization">chemical ionization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrospray_ionization" title="Electrospray ionization">electrospray ionization</a>, fast atom bombardment, <a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization</a>, and others. Also, mass spectrometry is categorized by approaches of mass analyzers: <a href="/wiki/Magnetic-sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic-sector">magnetic-sector</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quadrupole_mass_analyzer" title="Quadrupole mass analyzer">quadrupole mass analyzer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quadrupole_ion_trap" title="Quadrupole ion trap">quadrupole ion trap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Time-of-flight_mass_spectrometry" title="Time-of-flight mass spectrometry">time-of-flight</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fourier_transform_ion_cyclotron_resonance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance">Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance</a>, and so on. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrochemical_analysis">Electrochemical analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Electrochemical analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroanalytical method">Electroanalytical method</a></div> <p>Electroanalytical methods measure the <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">potential</a> (<a href="/wiki/Volts" class="mw-redirect" title="Volts">volts</a>) and/or <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amps</a>) in an <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cell" title="Electrochemical cell">electrochemical cell</a> containing the analyte.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These methods can be categorized according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The four main categories are <a href="/wiki/Ion_selective_electrode" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion selective electrode">potentiometry</a> (the difference in electrode potentials is measured), <a href="/wiki/Coulometry" title="Coulometry">coulometry</a> (the transferred charge is measured over time), <a href="/wiki/Amperometry" title="Amperometry">amperometry</a> (the cell's current is measured over time), and <a href="/wiki/Voltammetry" title="Voltammetry">voltammetry</a> (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_analysis">Thermal analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Thermal analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_analysis" title="Thermal analysis">Thermal analysis</a></div> <p>Calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis measure the interaction of a material and <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separation">Separation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Separation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TLC_black_ink.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/TLC_black_ink.jpg/220px-TLC_black_ink.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/TLC_black_ink.jpg/330px-TLC_black_ink.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/TLC_black_ink.jpg/440px-TLC_black_ink.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Separation of black ink on a <a href="/wiki/Thin-layer_chromatography" title="Thin-layer chromatography">thin-layer chromatography</a> plate</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">Electrophoresis</a></div> <p>Separation processes are used to decrease the complexity of material mixtures. <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">electrophoresis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Field_Flow_Fractionation" class="mw-redirect" title="Field Flow Fractionation">field flow fractionation</a> are representative of this field. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chromatographic_assays">Chromatographic assays</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Chromatographic assays"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></div> <p>Chromatography can be used to determine the presence of substances in a sample as different components in a mixture have different tendencies to adsorb onto the stationary phase or dissolve in the mobile phase. Thus, different components of the mixture move at different speed. Different components of a mixture can therefore be identified by their respective <a href="/wiki/Retardation_factor" title="Retardation factor">R<sub><i>ƒ</i></sub> values</a>, which is the ratio between the migration distance of the substance and the migration distance of the solvent front during chromatography. In combination with the instrumental methods, chromatography can be used in quantitative determination of the substances. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hybrid_techniques">Hybrid techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Hybrid techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Combinations of the above techniques produce a "hybrid" or "hyphenated" technique.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid6353577_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6353577-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid9008869_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9008869-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid9253184_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9253184-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid12462614_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12462614-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid12462615_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12462615-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several examples are in popular use today and new hybrid techniques are under development. For example, <a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography-mass_spectrometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry">gas chromatography-mass spectrometry</a>, gas chromatography-<a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">infrared spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid_chromatography-mass_spectrometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry">liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry</a>, liquid chromatography-<a href="/wiki/NMR_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="NMR spectroscopy">NMR spectroscopy</a>, liquid chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, and capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry. </p><p>Hyphenated separation techniques refer to a combination of two (or more) techniques to detect and separate chemicals from solutions. Most often the other technique is some form of <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">chromatography</a>. Hyphenated techniques are widely used in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)" title="Slash (punctuation)">slash</a> is sometimes used instead of <a href="/wiki/Hyphen" title="Hyphen">hyphen</a>, especially if the name of one of the methods contains a hyphen itself. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microscopy">Microscopy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Microscopy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3D-SIM-3_Prophase_3_color.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/3D-SIM-3_Prophase_3_color.jpg/220px-3D-SIM-3_Prophase_3_color.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/3D-SIM-3_Prophase_3_color.jpg/330px-3D-SIM-3_Prophase_3_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/3D-SIM-3_Prophase_3_color.jpg/440px-3D-SIM-3_Prophase_3_color.jpg 2x" data-file-width="902" data-file-height="896" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_microscope" title="Fluorescence microscope">Fluorescence microscope</a> image of two mouse cell nuclei in <a href="/wiki/Prophase" title="Prophase">prophase</a> (scale bar is 5 μm)<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">Microscopy</a></div> <p>The visualization of single molecules, single cells, biological tissues, and <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanomaterial">nanomaterials</a> is an important and attractive approach in analytical science. Also, hybridization with other traditional analytical tools is revolutionizing analytical science. <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">Microscopy</a> can be categorized into three different fields: <a href="/wiki/Optical_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical microscopy">optical microscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scanning_probe_microscopy" title="Scanning probe microscopy">scanning probe microscopy</a>. Recently, this field is rapidly progressing because of the rapid development of the computer and camera industries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lab-on-a-chip">Lab-on-a-chip</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Lab-on-a-chip"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Microfluidics" title="Microfluidics">Microfluidics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lab-on-a-chip" title="Lab-on-a-chip">Lab-on-a-chip</a></div> <p>Devices that integrate (multiple) laboratory functions on a single chip of only millimeters to a few square centimeters in size and that are capable of handling extremely small fluid volumes down to less than picoliters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Errors">Errors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Errors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Approximation_error" title="Approximation error">Approximation error</a></div> <p>Error can be defined as numerical difference between observed value and true value.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The experimental error can be divided into two types, systematic error and random error. Systematic error results from a flaw in equipment or the design of an experiment while random error results from uncontrolled or uncontrollable variables in the experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In error the true value and observed value in chemical analysis can be related with each other by the equation </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {a}}=|x-{\bar {x}}|}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {a}}=|x-{\bar {x}}|}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/69c685d80413cd1741999a4b4f263f7efcc59682" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.03ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {a}}=|x-{\bar {x}}|}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {a}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {a}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9062d05f58f851285ca18e9d261b65226d3ab083" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.138ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {a}}}"></span> is the absolute error.</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> is the true value.</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\bar {x}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\bar {x}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/466e03e1c9533b4dab1b9949dad393883f385d80" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\bar {x}}}"></span> is the observed value.</li></ul> <p>An error of a measurement is an inverse measure of accurate measurement, i.e. smaller the error greater the accuracy of the measurement. </p><p>Errors can be expressed relatively. Given the relative error(<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {r}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {r}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/26ac98c3c0c277255cec8348e5d356f6c4432f29" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.96ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {r}}}"></span>): </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {r}}={\frac {\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}}{|x|}}=\left|{\frac {x-{\bar {x}}}{x}}\right|}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>|</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>|</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {r}}={\frac {\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}}{|x|}}=\left|{\frac {x-{\bar {x}}}{x}}\right|}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aa70d4d4017e9a48404ca0135bd0335f9950d50c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:19.246ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {r}}={\frac {\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}}{|x|}}=\left|{\frac {x-{\bar {x}}}{x}}\right|}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The percent error can also be calculated: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {r}}\times 100\%}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>×</mo> <mn>100</mn> <mi mathvariant="normal">%</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {r}}\times 100\%}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/faab85fc91f51de6abe715761c22f57cd79d8050" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:10.224ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {r}}\times 100\%}"></span></dd></dl> <p>If we want to use these values in a function, we may also want to calculate the error of the function. Let <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f}"></span> be a function with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>N</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f5e3890c981ae85503089652feb48b191b57aae3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.064ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N}"></span> variables. Therefore, the <a href="/wiki/Propagation_of_uncertainty" title="Propagation of uncertainty">propagation of uncertainty</a> must be calculated in order to know the error in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f}"></span>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(f)\approx \sum _{i=1}^{N}\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{i}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{i})=\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{1}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{1})+\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{2}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{2})+\ldots +\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{N}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{N})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>≈</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow> <mo>|</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>|</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mrow> <mo>|</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mrow> <mo>|</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(f)\approx \sum _{i=1}^{N}\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{i}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{i})=\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{1}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{1})+\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{2}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{2})+\ldots +\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{N}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{N})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/89f84756ada910174345c060dde26b488580208c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:77.374ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(f)\approx \sum _{i=1}^{N}\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{i}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{i})=\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{1}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{1})+\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{2}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{2})+\ldots +\left|{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{N}}}\right|\varepsilon _{\rm {a}}(x_{N})}"></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standards">Standards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Analytical_quality_control" title="Analytical quality control">Analytical quality control</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_curve">Standard curve</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Standard curve"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calibration_curve.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Calibration_curve.png/260px-Calibration_curve.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Calibration_curve.png/390px-Calibration_curve.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Calibration_curve.png/520px-Calibration_curve.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A calibration curve plot showing <a href="/wiki/Detection_limit" title="Detection limit">limit of detection</a> (LOD), <a href="/wiki/Detection_limit" title="Detection limit">limit of quantification</a> (LOQ), dynamic range, and limit of <a href="/wiki/Linearity" title="Linearity">linearity</a> (LOL)</figcaption></figure> <p>A general method for analysis of concentration involves the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Calibration_curve" title="Calibration curve">calibration curve</a>. This allows for the determination of the amount of a chemical in a material by comparing the results of an unknown sample to those of a series of known standards. If the concentration of element or compound in a sample is too high for the detection range of the technique, it can simply be diluted in a pure solvent. If the amount in the sample is below an instrument's range of measurement, the method of addition can be used. In this method, a known quantity of the element or compound under study is added, and the difference between the concentration added and the concentration observed is the amount actually in the sample. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_standards">Internal standards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Internal standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sometimes an <a href="/wiki/Internal_standard" title="Internal standard">internal standard</a> is added at a known concentration directly to an analytical sample to aid in quantitation. The amount of analyte present is then determined relative to the internal standard as a calibrant. An ideal internal standard is an isotopically enriched analyte which gives rise to the method of <a href="/wiki/Isotope_dilution" title="Isotope dilution">isotope dilution</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_addition">Standard addition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Standard addition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The method of <a href="/wiki/Standard_addition" title="Standard addition">standard addition</a> is used in instrumental analysis to determine the concentration of a substance (<a href="/wiki/Analyte" title="Analyte">analyte</a>) in an unknown sample by comparison to a set of samples of known concentration, similar to using a <a href="/wiki/Calibration_curve" title="Calibration curve">calibration curve</a>. Standard addition can be applied to most analytical techniques and is used instead of a <a href="/wiki/Calibration_curve" title="Calibration curve">calibration curve</a> to solve the <a href="/wiki/Matrix_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix effect">matrix effect</a> problem. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signals_and_noise">Signals and noise</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Signals and noise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most important components of analytical chemistry is maximizing the desired signal while minimizing the associated <a href="/wiki/Noise_(electronics)" title="Noise (electronics)">noise</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-495-01201-7_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-495-01201-7-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The analytical figure of merit is known as the <a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">signal-to-noise ratio</a> (S/N or SNR). </p><p>Noise can arise from environmental factors as well as from fundamental physical processes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_noise">Thermal noise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Thermal noise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Nyquist_noise" title="Johnson–Nyquist noise">Johnson–Nyquist noise</a></div> <p>Thermal noise results from the motion of charge carriers (usually electrons) in an electrical circuit generated by their thermal motion. Thermal noise is <a href="/wiki/White_noise" title="White noise">white noise</a> meaning that the power <a href="/wiki/Spectral_density" title="Spectral density">spectral density</a> is constant throughout the <a href="/wiki/Frequency_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency spectrum">frequency spectrum</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Root_mean_square" title="Root mean square">root mean square</a> value of the thermal noise in a resistor is given by<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-495-01201-7_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-495-01201-7-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{\rm {RMS}}={\sqrt {4k_{\rm {B}}TR\Delta f}},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">R</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">M</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">S</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mn>4</mn> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mi>T</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>f</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{\rm {RMS}}={\sqrt {4k_{\rm {B}}TR\Delta f}},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a298ca39fe02e8687b61dddae81ed19749b2e98a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:21.444ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v_{\rm {RMS}}={\sqrt {4k_{\rm {B}}TR\Delta f}},}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>k</i><sub>B</sub> is the <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant" title="Boltzmann constant">Boltzmann constant</a>, <i>T</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <i>R</i> is the resistance, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta f}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>f</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta f}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ff38db24bc80b80a0a1ecfce75f3dca3fc79d54e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.214ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta f}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a> of the frequency <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f}"></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shot_noise">Shot noise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Shot noise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shot_noise" title="Shot noise">Shot noise</a></div> <p>Shot noise is a type of <a href="/wiki/Electronic_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic noise">electronic noise</a> that occurs when the finite number of particles (such as <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> in an electronic circuit or <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> in an optical device) is small enough to give rise to statistical fluctuations in a signal. </p><p>Shot noise is a <a href="/wiki/Poisson_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Poisson process">Poisson process</a>, and the charge carriers that make up the current follow a <a href="/wiki/Poisson_distribution" title="Poisson distribution">Poisson distribution</a>. The root mean square current fluctuation is given by<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-495-01201-7_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-495-01201-7-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i_{\rm {RMS}}={\sqrt {2eI\Delta f}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>i</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">R</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">M</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">S</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mn>2</mn> <mi>e</mi> <mi>I</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>f</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i_{\rm {RMS}}={\sqrt {2eI\Delta f}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a82836bd20d1bcb672dcd6165f423b68bf5f639b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:16.719ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i_{\rm {RMS}}={\sqrt {2eI\Delta f}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>e</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">elementary charge</a> and <i>I</i> is the average current. Shot noise is white noise. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flicker_noise">Flicker noise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Flicker noise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flicker_noise" title="Flicker noise">flicker noise</a></div> <p>Flicker noise is electronic noise with a 1/<i>ƒ</i> frequency spectrum; as <i>f</i> increases, the noise decreases. Flicker noise arises from a variety of sources, such as impurities in a conductive channel, generation, and <a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination">recombination</a> noise in a <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> due to base current, and so on. This noise can be avoided by <a href="/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulation</a> of the signal at a higher frequency, for example, through the use of a <a href="/wiki/Lock-in_amplifier" title="Lock-in amplifier">lock-in amplifier</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_noise">Environmental noise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Environmental noise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Analyse_thermo_gravimetrique_bruit.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Analyse_thermo_gravimetrique_bruit.png/260px-Analyse_thermo_gravimetrique_bruit.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Analyse_thermo_gravimetrique_bruit.png/390px-Analyse_thermo_gravimetrique_bruit.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Analyse_thermo_gravimetrique_bruit.png/520px-Analyse_thermo_gravimetrique_bruit.png 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="548" /></a><figcaption>Noise in a <a href="/wiki/Thermogravimetric_analysis" title="Thermogravimetric analysis">thermogravimetric analysis</a>; lower noise in the middle of the plot results from less human activity (and environmental noise) at night</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Environmental_noise" title="Environmental noise">Environmental noise</a> arises from the surroundings of the analytical instrument. Sources of electromagnetic noise are <a href="/wiki/Power_lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Power lines">power lines</a>, radio and television stations, <a href="/wiki/Wireless_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless device">wireless devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compact_fluorescent_lamp" title="Compact fluorescent lamp">compact fluorescent lamps</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motors</a>. Many of these noise sources are narrow bandwidth and, therefore, can be avoided. Temperature and <a href="/wiki/Vibration_isolation" title="Vibration isolation">vibration isolation</a> may be required for some instruments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noise_reduction">Noise reduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Noise reduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Noise reduction can be accomplished either in <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">computer hardware</a> or <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a>. Examples of hardware noise reduction are the use of <a href="/wiki/Shielded_cable" title="Shielded cable">shielded cable</a>, <a href="/wiki/Analog_filter" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog filter">analog filtering</a>, and signal modulation. Examples of software noise reduction are <a href="/wiki/Digital_filter" title="Digital filter">digital filtering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ensemble_average" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensemble average">ensemble average</a>, boxcar average, and <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> methods.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-495-01201-7_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-495-01201-7-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portable_Screening_Devices_(1435)_(8225044148).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Portable_Screening_Devices_%281435%29_%288225044148%29.jpg/170px-Portable_Screening_Devices_%281435%29_%288225044148%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Portable_Screening_Devices_%281435%29_%288225044148%29.jpg/255px-Portable_Screening_Devices_%281435%29_%288225044148%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Portable_Screening_Devices_%281435%29_%288225044148%29.jpg/340px-Portable_Screening_Devices_%281435%29_%288225044148%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1848" data-file-height="2784" /></a><figcaption>A US <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> scientist uses a portable near-infrared spectroscopy device to inspect <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a> for adulteration with <a href="/wiki/Melamine" title="Melamine">melamine</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Analytical chemistry has applications including in <a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensic science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioanalysis" title="Bioanalysis">bioanalysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">clinical analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_analysis" title="Environmental analysis">environmental analysis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods" title="List of materials analysis methods">materials analysis</a>. Analytical chemistry research is largely driven by performance (sensitivity, <a href="/wiki/Detection_limit" title="Detection limit">detection limit</a>, selectivity, robustness, <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_range" title="Dynamic range">dynamic range</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linear_range" title="Linear range">linear range</a>, accuracy, precision, and speed), and cost (purchase, operation, training, time, and space). Among the main branches of contemporary analytical atomic spectrometry, the most widespread and universal are optical and mass spectrometry.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the direct elemental analysis of solid samples, the new leaders are <a href="/wiki/Laser-induced_breakdown_spectroscopy" title="Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy">laser-induced breakdown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laser_ablation" title="Laser ablation">laser ablation</a> mass spectrometry, and the related techniques with transfer of the laser ablation products into <a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma" title="Inductively coupled plasma">inductively coupled plasma</a>. Advances in design of diode lasers and optical parametric oscillators promote developments in fluorescence and ionization spectrometry and also in absorption techniques where uses of optical cavities for increased effective absorption pathlength are expected to expand. The use of plasma- and laser-based methods is increasing. An interest towards absolute (standardless) analysis has revived, particularly in emission spectrometry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Great effort is being put into shrinking the analysis techniques to <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">chip</a> size. Although there are few examples of such systems competitive with traditional analysis techniques, potential advantages include size/portability, speed, and cost. (micro <a href="/wiki/Total_analysis_system" title="Total analysis system">total analysis system</a> (μTAS) or <a href="/wiki/Lab-on-a-chip" title="Lab-on-a-chip">lab-on-a-chip</a>). <a href="/wiki/Microscale_chemistry" title="Microscale chemistry">Microscale chemistry</a> reduces the amounts of chemicals used. </p><p>Many developments improve the analysis of biological systems. Examples of rapidly expanding fields in this area are <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a> and related research in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_fingerprinting" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic fingerprinting">genetic fingerprinting</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a>; <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a>, the analysis of protein concentrations and modifications, especially in response to various stressors, at various developmental stages, or in various parts of the body, <a href="/wiki/Metabolomics" title="Metabolomics">metabolomics</a>, which deals with metabolites; <a href="/wiki/Transcriptomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcriptomics">transcriptomics</a>, including mRNA and associated fields; <a href="/wiki/Lipidomics" title="Lipidomics">lipidomics</a> - lipids and its associated fields; peptidomics - peptides and its associated fields; and metallomics, dealing with metal concentrations and especially with their binding to proteins and other molecules.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Analytical chemistry has played a critical role in the understanding of basic science to a variety of practical applications, such as biomedical applications, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">environmental monitoring</a>, quality control of industrial manufacturing, forensic science, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The recent developments in computer automation and information technologies have extended analytical chemistry into a number of new biological fields. For example, automated DNA sequencing machines were the basis for completing human genome projects leading to the birth of <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a>. Protein identification and peptide sequencing by mass spectrometry opened a new field of <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a>. In addition to automating specific processes, there is effort to automate larger sections of lab testing, such as in companies like <a href="/wiki/Emerald_Cloud_Lab" title="Emerald Cloud Lab">Emerald Cloud Lab</a> and Transcriptic.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Analytical chemistry has been an indispensable area in the development of <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>. Surface characterization instruments, <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopes">electron microscopes</a> and scanning probe microscopes enable scientists to visualize atomic structures with chemical characterizations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical techniques">Analytical techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_chemistry#Analytical_chemistry" title="List of important publications in chemistry">Important publications in analytical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_analysis_methods" title="List of chemical analysis methods">List of chemical analysis methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods" title="List of materials analysis methods">List of materials analysis methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measurement_uncertainty" title="Measurement uncertainty">Measurement uncertainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrology" title="Metrology">Metrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_analysis" title="Sensory analysis">Sensory analysis</a> - in the field of <a href="/wiki/Food_science" title="Food science">Food science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_instrumentation" title="Virtual instrumentation">Virtual instrumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microanalysis" title="Microanalysis">Microanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_of_analytical_results" title="Quality of analytical results">Quality of analytical results</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_range" title="Working range">Working range</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-03-005938-0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-03-005938-0_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSkoog,_Douglas_A.West,_Donald_M.Holler,_F._JamesCrouch,_Stanley_R.2014" class="citation book cs1">Skoog, Douglas A.; West, Donald M.; Holler, F. James; Crouch, Stanley R. (2014). <i>Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry</i>. Belmont: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-55832-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-55832-3"><bdi>978-0-495-55832-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Analytical+Chemistry&rft.place=Belmont&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Brooks%2FCole%2C+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-495-55832-3&rft.au=Skoog%2C+Douglas+A.&rft.au=West%2C+Donald+M.&rft.au=Holler%2C+F.+James&rft.au=Crouch%2C+Stanley+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytical+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-03-002078-6-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-03-002078-6_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkoog,_Douglas_A.Holler,_F._JamesCrouch,_Stanley_R.2007" class="citation book cs1">Skoog, Douglas A.; Holler, F. 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Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Thomson. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-01201-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-01201-6"><bdi>978-0-495-01201-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Instrumental+Analysis&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Brooks%2FCole%2C+Thomson&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-495-01201-6&rft.au=Skoog%2C+Douglas+A.&rft.au=Holler%2C+F.+James&rft.au=Crouch%2C+Stanley+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytical+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArikawa2001" class="citation journal cs1">Arikawa, Yoshiko (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/analscisp/17icas/0/17icas_0_i571/_pdf">"Basic Education in Analytical Chemistry"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(pdf)</span>. <i>Analytical Sciences</i>. <b>17</b> (Supplement): i571–i573<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analytical+Sciences&rft.atitle=Basic+Education+in+Analytical+Chemistry&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=Supplement&rft.pages=i571-i573&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Arikawa&rft.aufirst=Yoshiko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstage.jst.go.jp%2Farticle%2Fanalscisp%2F17icas%2F0%2F17icas_0_i571%2F_pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytical+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerSynovec2000" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, K; Synovec, RE (2000). "Review of analytical measurements facilitated by drop formation technology". <i>Talanta</i>. <b>51</b> (5): 921–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0039-9140%2899%2900358-6">10.1016/S0039-9140(99)00358-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18967924">18967924</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Talanta&rft.atitle=Review+of+analytical+measurements+facilitated+by+drop+formation+technology&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=921-33&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0039-9140%2899%2900358-6&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18967924&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Synovec%2C+RE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytical+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartleMyers2002" class="citation journal cs1">Bartle, Keith D.; Myers, Peter (2002). "History of gas chromatography". <i>TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry</i>. <b>21</b> (9–10): 547. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0165-9936%2802%2900806-3">10.1016/S0165-9936(02)00806-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TrAC+Trends+in+Analytical+Chemistry&rft.atitle=History+of+gas+chromatography&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=9%E2%80%9310&rft.pages=547&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0165-9936%2802%2900806-3&rft.aulast=Bartle&rft.aufirst=Keith+D.&rft.au=Myers%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytical+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaitinen1989" class="citation journal cs1">Laitinen, H.A. 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"History of analytical chemistry in the U.S.A". <i>Talanta</i>. <b>36</b> (1–2): 1–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0039-9140%2889%2980077-3">10.1016/0039-9140(89)80077-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18964671">18964671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Talanta&rft.atitle=History+of+analytical+chemistry+in+the+U.S.A&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=1-9&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0039-9140%2889%2980077-3&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18964671&rft.aulast=Laitinen&rft.aufirst=H.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytical+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBardFaulkner2000" class="citation book cs1">Bard, Allen J.; Faulkner, Larry R. 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"Prospects in analytical atomic spectrometry". <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_Chemical_Reviews" title="Russian Chemical Reviews">Russian Chemical Reviews</a></i>. <b>75</b> (4): 289. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0607078">physics/0607078</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006RuCRv..75..289B">2006RuCRv..75..289B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1070%2FRC2006v075n04ABEH001174">10.1070/RC2006v075n04ABEH001174</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:95353695">95353695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Chemical+Reviews&rft.atitle=Prospects+in+analytical+atomic+spectrometry&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=289&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0607078&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A95353695%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1070%2FRC2006v075n04ABEH001174&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006RuCRv..75..289B&rft.aulast=Bol%27Shakov&rft.aufirst=Aleksandr+A&rft.au=Ganeev%2C+Aleksandr+A&rft.au=Nemets%2C+Valerii+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytical+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/careers/college-to-career/areas-of-chemistry/analytical-chemistry.html">"Analytical Chemistry - American Chemical Society"</a>. <i>American Chemical Society</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-05-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=Analytical+Chemistry+-+American+Chemical+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acs.org%2Fcontent%2Facs%2Fen%2Fcareers%2Fcollege-to-career%2Fareas-of-chemistry%2Fanalytical-chemistry.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytical+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrothCox2017" class="citation journal cs1">Groth, P.; Cox, J. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5681851">"Indicators for the use of robotic labs in basic biomedical research: A literature analysis"</a>. <i>PeerJ</i>. <b>5</b>: e3997. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7717%2Fpeerj.3997">10.7717/peerj.3997</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5681851">5681851</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29134146">29134146</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PeerJ&rft.atitle=Indicators+for+the+use+of+robotic+labs+in+basic+biomedical+research%3A+A+literature+analysis&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=e3997&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5681851%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29134146&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.3997&rft.aulast=Groth&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Cox%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5681851&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytical+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytical_chemistry&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Gurdeep, Chatwal Anand (2008). <i>Instrumental Methods of Chemical Analysis</i> Himalaya Publishing House (India) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8318-802-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8318-802-9">978-81-8318-802-9</a></li> <li>Ralph L. Shriner, Reynold C. Fuson, David Y. Curtin, Terence C. Morill: <i>The systematic identification of organic compounds - a laboratory manual</i>, Verlag Wiley, New York 1980, 6. edition, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-78874-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-78874-0">0-471-78874-0</a>.</li> <li>Bettencourt da Silva, R; Bulska, E; Godlewska-Zylkiewicz, B; Hedrich, M; Majcen, N; Magnusson, B; Marincic, S; Papadakis, I; Patriarca, M; Vassileva, E; Taylor, P; Analytical measurement: measurement uncertainty and statistics, 2012, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-79-23071-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-79-23071-4">978-92-79-23071-4</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Analytical chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Analytical_chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Analytical chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Measuring_instrument" class="mw-redirect" title="Measuring instrument">Instrumentation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Atomic absorption spectroscopy">Atomic absorption spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flame_emission_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Flame emission spectroscopy">Flame emission spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">Gas chromatograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">High-performance liquid chromatograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">Infrared spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting_point_apparatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Melting point apparatus">Melting point apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_spectrometer" title="Optical spectrometer">Optical spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">Spectrophotometer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravimetric_analysis" title="Gravimetric analysis">Gravimetric analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_mobility_spectrometry" title="Ion mobility spectrometry">Ion mobility spectrometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sampling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sub-sampling_(chemistry)#Coning_and_quartering" title="Sub-sampling (chemistry)">Coning and quartering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilution_(equation)" title="Dilution (equation)">Dilution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">Dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masking_agent" title="Masking agent">Masking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_(substance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Powder (substance)">Pulverization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sample_preparation" title="Sample preparation">Sample preparation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-sampling_(chemistry)" title="Sub-sampling (chemistry)">Sub-sampling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Calibration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemometrics" title="Chemometrics">Chemometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calibration_curve" title="Calibration curve">Calibration curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix_(chemical_analysis)" title="Matrix (chemical analysis)">Matrix effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_standard" title="Internal standard">Internal standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_addition" title="Standard addition">Standard addition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_dilution" title="Isotope dilution">Isotope dilution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prominent <a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_chemistry#Analytical_chemistry" title="List of important publications in chemistry">publications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Analyst_(journal)" title="Analyst (journal)">Analyst</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Analytica_Chimica_Acta" title="Analytica Chimica Acta">Analytica Chimica Acta</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Analytical_and_Bioanalytical_Chemistry" title="Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry">Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Chemistry_(journal)" title="Analytical Chemistry (journal)">Analytical Chemistry</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Biochemistry" title="Analytical Biochemistry">Analytical Biochemistry</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" title="List of inorganic compounds">List of inorganic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Analytical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry" title="Instrumental chemistry">Instrumental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_chemistry" title="Clay chemistry">Clay chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbochemistry" title="Carbochemistry">Carbochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_physical_chemistry" title="Food physical chemistry">Food physical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemistry" title="Agricultural chemistry">Agricultural chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_chemistry" title="Amateur chemistry">Amateur chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_chemistry" title="General chemistry">General chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" title="Clandestine chemistry">Clandestine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanochemistry" title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span 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