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forests </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_of_the_forests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Trade, manufacturing and the towns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governance_and_taxation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance_and_taxation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Governance and taxation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance_and_taxation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mid-medieval_growth_(1100–1290)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-medieval_growth_(1100–1290)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Mid-medieval growth (1100–1290) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mid-medieval_growth_(1100–1290)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mid-medieval growth (1100–1290) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mid-medieval_growth_(1100–1290)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture,_fishing_and_mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture,_fishing_and_mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Agriculture, fishing and mining </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture,_fishing_and_mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English_agriculture_and_the_landscape" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_agriculture_and_the_landscape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 English agriculture and the landscape </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_agriculture_and_the_landscape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_estate_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_estate_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Development of estate management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_estate_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_the_Church_in_agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_the_Church_in_agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Role of the Church in agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_the_Church_in_agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_of_mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_of_mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4 Expansion of mining </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_of_mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Trade, manufacturing and the towns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Growth_of_English_towns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_of_English_towns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Growth of English towns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_of_English_towns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_of_the_money_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_of_the_money_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Expansion of the money supply </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_of_the_money_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_the_guilds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_guilds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Rise of the guilds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_guilds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Merchants_and_the_development_of_the_charter_fairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Merchants_and_the_development_of_the_charter_fairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.4 Merchants and the development of the charter fairs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Merchants_and_the_development_of_the_charter_fairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_contribution_to_the_English_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_contribution_to_the_English_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.5 Jewish contribution to the English economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_contribution_to_the_English_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governance_and_taxation_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance_and_taxation_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Governance and taxation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance_and_taxation_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mid-medieval_economic_crisis_–_the_Great_Famine_and_the_Black_Death_(1290–1350)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-medieval_economic_crisis_–_the_Great_Famine_and_the_Black_Death_(1290–1350)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Mid-medieval economic crisis – the Great Famine and the Black Death (1290–1350) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mid-medieval_economic_crisis_–_the_Great_Famine_and_the_Black_Death_(1290–1350)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mid-medieval economic crisis – the Great Famine and the Black Death (1290–1350) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mid-medieval_economic_crisis_–_the_Great_Famine_and_the_Black_Death_(1290–1350)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Great_Famine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Famine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Great Famine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Famine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Black Death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_medieval_economic_recovery_(1350–1509)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_medieval_economic_recovery_(1350–1509)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Late medieval economic recovery (1350–1509) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_medieval_economic_recovery_(1350–1509)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Late medieval economic recovery (1350–1509) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Late_medieval_economic_recovery_(1350–1509)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Governance_and_taxation_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance_and_taxation_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Governance and taxation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance_and_taxation_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Peasants'_Revolt_of_1381" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peasants'_Revolt_of_1381"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Peasants' Revolt of 1381 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peasants'_Revolt_of_1381-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture,_fishing_and_mining_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture,_fishing_and_mining_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Agriculture, fishing and mining </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture,_fishing_and_mining_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Collapse_of_the_demesne_and_the_creation_of_the_farming_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse_of_the_demesne_and_the_creation_of_the_farming_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Collapse of the demesne and the creation of the farming system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collapse_of_the_demesne_and_the_creation_of_the_farming_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forests,_fishing_and_mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forests,_fishing_and_mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Forests, fishing and mining </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forests,_fishing_and_mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Trade, manufacturing and the towns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shrinking_towns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shrinking_towns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Shrinking towns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shrinking_towns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_the_cloth_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_cloth_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Rise of the cloth trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_cloth_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_of_the_fair_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_of_the_fair_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.3 Decline of the fair system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_of_the_fair_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav 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href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="মধ্যযুগে ইংল্যান্ডের অর্থনীতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মধ্যযুগে ইংল্যান্ডের অর্থনীতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa_de_Inglaterra_en_la_Edad_Media" title="Economía de Inglaterra en la Edad Media – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Economía de Inglaterra en la Edad Media" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Detail from an illuminated book, with three figures shown talking, a monk on the left, a knight in armour in the middle and a peasant with a spade on the right. The picture is accented in rich blues." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg/260px-Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg/390px-Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg/520px-Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1278" data-file-height="1262" /></a><figcaption>The medieval English saw their economy as comprising three groups – the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">clergy</a>, who prayed; the <a href="/wiki/Knights" class="mw-redirect" title="Knights">knights</a>, who fought; and the <a href="/wiki/Peasants" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants">peasants</a>, who worked the land.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GDP_per_capita_of_Middle_Age_England.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/GDP_per_capita_of_Middle_Age_England.jpg/220px-GDP_per_capita_of_Middle_Age_England.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/GDP_per_capita_of_Middle_Age_England.jpg/330px-GDP_per_capita_of_Middle_Age_England.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/GDP_per_capita_of_Middle_Age_England.jpg/440px-GDP_per_capita_of_Middle_Age_England.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1049" data-file-height="649" /></a><figcaption>GDP per capita in England, from 1270 to 1530</figcaption></figure> The economy of England in the Middle Ages, from the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman invasion</a> in 1066, to the death of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> in 1509, was fundamentally agricultural, though even before the invasion the local market economy was important to producers.<a href="#cite_note-DyerP14-1">[1]</a> Norman institutions, including <a href="/wiki/Serfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Serfs">serfdom</a>, were superimposed on an existing <a href="/wiki/Open_field_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Open field system">system of open fields</a> and mature, well-established towns involved in international trade.<a href="#cite_note-BartlettDyer-2">[2]</a> Over the five centuries of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the English economy would at first grow and then suffer an acute crisis, resulting in significant political and economic change. Despite economic dislocation in urban and extraction economies, including shifts in the holders of wealth and the location of these economies, the economic output of towns and mines developed and intensified over the period.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> By the end of the period, England had a weak government, by later standards, overseeing an economy dominated by rented farms controlled by gentry, and a thriving community of indigenous English merchants and corporations.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettRamsayKowalesk-4">[4]</a> The 12th and 13th centuries saw a small development of the English economy.<a href="#cite_note-Cantor_1982a,_p.18-5">[5]</a> This was partially driven by the growth in the population from around 1.5 million at the time of the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300.<a href="#cite_note-Cantor_1982a,_p.18-5">[5]</a> England remained a primarily agricultural economy, with the rights of major landowners and the duties of serfs increasingly enshrined in English law.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyBartlettCantor-6">[6]</a> More land, much of it at the expense of the royal forests, was brought into production to feed the growing population or to produce wool for export to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyBartlettCantor-6">[6]</a> Many hundreds of new towns, some of them <a href="/wiki/Planned_community" title="Planned community">planned</a>, sprung up across England, supporting the creation of <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charter_fair" title="Charter fair">charter fairs</a> and other important medieval institutions.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettBaileyPounds-7">[7]</a> The descendants of the Jewish financiers who had first come to England with <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> played a significant role in the growing economy, along with the new <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinian</a> religious orders that came to become major players in the <a href="/wiki/The_medieval_English_wool_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="The medieval English wool trade">wool trade</a> of the north.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Mining increased in England, with the silver boom of the 12th century helping to fuel a <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_penny_(1154%E2%80%931485)" title="History of the English penny (1154–1485)">fast-expanding currency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BlanchardP29-9">[9]</a> Economic growth began to falter by the end of the 13th century, owing to a combination of over-population, land shortages and depleted soils.<a href="#cite_note-JordanBaileyAberthCantorJordan-10">[10]</a> The loss of life in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%9317" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Famine of 1315–17">Great Famine of 1315–17</a> shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased; the first outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> in 1348 then killed around half the English population, with major implications for the post-plague economy.<a href="#cite_note-JordanBaileyAberthCantorJordan-10">[10]</a> The agricultural sector shrank, with higher wages, lower prices and shrinking profits leading to the final demise of the old <a href="/wiki/Demesne" title="Demesne">demesne</a> system and the advent of the modern farming system of cash rents for lands.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettBailey-11">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Peasants_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants Revolt">Peasants Revolt</a> of 1381 shook the older feudal order and limited the levels of royal taxation considerably for a century to come.<a href="#cite_note-JonesP201-12">[12]</a> The 15th century saw the growth of the English <a href="/wiki/Cloth" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloth">cloth</a> industry and the establishment of a new class of international English merchant, increasingly based in London and the South-West, prospering at the expense of the older, shrinking economy of the eastern towns.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettRamsayKowalesk-4">[4]</a> These new trading systems brought about the end of many of the international fairs and the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Livery_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Livery Company">chartered company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MyersRabanBarron-13">[13]</a> Together with improvements in <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">metalworking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">shipbuilding</a>, this represents the end of the medieval economy, and the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/England#Early_Modern" title="England">early modern period</a> in English economics.<a href="#cite_note-GeddesP181-14">[14]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Invasion_and_the_early_Norman_period_(1066–1100)">Invasion and the early Norman period (1066–1100)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Invasion and the early Norman period (1066–1100)">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> invaded England in 1066, defeating the Anglo-Saxon King <a href="/wiki/Harold_Godwinson" title="Harold Godwinson">Harold Godwinson</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a> and placing the country under <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman rule</a>. This campaign was followed by fierce military operations known as the <a href="/wiki/Harrying_of_the_North" title="Harrying of the North">Harrying of the North</a> in 1069–70, extending Norman authority across the north of England. William's system of government was broadly <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> in that the right to possess land was linked to service to the king, but in many other ways the invasion did little to alter the nature of the English economy.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Most of the damage done in the invasion was in the north and the west of England, some of it still recorded as "wasteland" in 1086.<a href="#cite_note-Cantor_1982a,_p.18-5">[5]</a> Many of the key features of the English agricultural and financial system remained in place in the decades immediately after the conquest.<a href="#cite_note-Cantor_1982a,_p.18-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture_and_mining">Agriculture and mining</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Agriculture and mining">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_English_Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of English Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Economics of English Agriculture in the Middle Ages</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English_agriculture">English agriculture</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: English agriculture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anglo-Saxon_ploughmen.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A crude medieval line drawing, showing a man with a team of two oxen ploughing a field, assisted by a woman. Both the man and woman are dressed in long medieval cloths." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Anglo-Saxon_ploughmen.png/240px-Anglo-Saxon_ploughmen.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Anglo-Saxon_ploughmen.png/360px-Anglo-Saxon_ploughmen.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Anglo-Saxon_ploughmen.png/480px-Anglo-Saxon_ploughmen.png 2x" data-file-width="1336" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">Ploughmen</a> at work with oxen</figcaption></figure> Agriculture formed the bulk of the English economy at the time of the Norman invasion.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP41-16">[16]</a> Twenty years after the invasion, 35% of England was covered in <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable land</a>, 25% was put to <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a>, 15% was covered by woodlands and the remaining 25% was predominantly moorland, <a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">fens</a> and heaths.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Wheat was the single most important arable crop, but <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oats" class="mw-redirect" title="Oats">oats</a> were also cultivated extensively.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP44-18">[18]</a> In the more fertile parts of the country, such as the <a href="/wiki/Thames_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Thames valley">Thames valley</a>, the <a href="/wiki/English_Midlands" class="mw-redirect" title="English Midlands">Midlands</a> and the east of England, <a href="/wiki/Legumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Legumes">legumes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beans" class="mw-redirect" title="Beans">beans</a> were also cultivated.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP44-18">[18]</a> Sheep, <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ox" title="Ox">oxen</a> and pigs were kept on English holdings, although most of these breeds were much smaller than modern equivalents and most would have been slaughtered in winter.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Manorial_system">Manorial system</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Manorial system">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map in ink and colour wash, showing an archetypal medieval village in the centre with numerous field divided into strips radiating out across the view." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG/220px-Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG/330px-Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG/440px-Medieval_Open_Field_System.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="1755" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Open_field_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Open field system">open field system</a>, central to many medieval English communities</figcaption></figure> In the century prior to the Norman invasion, England's great estates, owned by the king, bishops, monasteries and <a href="/wiki/Thegn" title="Thegn">thegns</a>, had been slowly broken up as a consequence of inheritance, wills, marriage settlements or church purchases.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Most of the smaller landowning nobility lived on their properties and managed their own estates. The pre-Norman landscape had seen a trend away from isolated hamlets and towards larger villages engaged in arable cultivation in a band running north–south across England.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> These new villages had adopted an <a href="/wiki/Open_field_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Open field system">open field system</a> in which fields were divided into small strips of land, individually owned, with crops rotated between the field each year and the local woodlands and other <a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">common lands</a> carefully managed.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Agricultural land on a manor was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage and cultivate directly, called <a href="/wiki/Demesne" title="Demesne">demesne</a> land, and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants, who would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord's demesne fields or through cash or produce.<a href="#cite_note-Bartlett,_p.313-23">[23]</a> Around 6,000 <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermills</a> of varying power and efficiency had been built in order to grind flour, freeing up peasant labour for other more productive agricultural tasks.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The early English economy was not a subsistence economy and many crops were grown by peasant farmers for sale to the early English towns.<a href="#cite_note-DyerP14-1">[1]</a> The Normans initially did not significantly alter the operation of the manor or the village economy.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasP310-25">[25]</a> William reassigned large tracts of land amongst the Norman elite, creating vast estates in some areas, particularly along the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh border</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Sussex" title="Sussex">Sussex</a>. The biggest change in the years after the invasion was the rapid reduction in the number of slaves being held in England.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> In the 10th century slaves had been very numerous, although their number had begun to diminish as a result of economic and religious pressure.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Nonetheless, the new Norman aristocracy proved harsh landlords.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasP312-28">[28]</a> The wealthier, formerly more independent Anglo-Saxon peasants found themselves rapidly sinking down the economic hierarchy, swelling the numbers of unfree workers, or <a href="/wiki/Serfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Serfs">serfs</a>, forbidden to leave their manor and seek alternative employment.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasP312-28">[28]</a> Those Anglo-Saxon nobles who had survived the invasion itself were rapidly assimilated into the Norman elite or economically crushed.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Creation_of_the_forests">Creation of the forests</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Creation of the forests">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KinderJacobsLadder6466.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of moorland in summer; in the foreground is a dirt track on a small hill, in the mid-ground a small wood; in the background a treeless moorland skyline." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/KinderJacobsLadder6466.JPG/220px-KinderJacobsLadder6466.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/KinderJacobsLadder6466.JPG/330px-KinderJacobsLadder6466.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/KinderJacobsLadder6466.JPG/440px-KinderJacobsLadder6466.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Forest_of_High_Peak" title="Forest of High Peak">Forest of High Peak</a>, a moorland <a href="/wiki/Royal_forest" title="Royal forest">forest</a> established for royal lead mining</figcaption></figure> The Normans also established the <a href="/wiki/Royal_forest" title="Royal forest">royal forests</a>. In Anglo-Saxon times there had been special woods for hunting called "hays", but the Norman forests were much larger and backed by legal mandate.<a href="#cite_note-DyerP18-30">[30]</a> The new forests were not necessarily heavily wooded but were defined instead by their protection and exploitation by the crown. The Norman forests were subject to special royal jurisdiction; forest law was "harsh and arbitrary, a matter purely for the King's will".<a href="#cite_note-HuscroftP97-31">[31]</a> Forests were expected to supply the king with hunting grounds, raw materials, goods and money.<a href="#cite_note-HuscroftP97-31">[31]</a> Revenue from forest rents and fines came to become extremely significant and forest wood was used for castles and royal ship building.<a href="#cite_note-Cantor1982bP63-32">[32]</a> Several forests played a key role in mining, such as the iron mining and working in the <a href="/wiki/Forest_of_Dean" title="Forest of Dean">Forest of Dean</a> and lead mining in the <a href="/wiki/Forest_of_High_Peak" title="Forest of High Peak">Forest of High Peak</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cantor1982bP63-32">[32]</a> Several other groups bound up economically with forests; many monasteries had special rights in particular forests, for example for hunting or tree felling.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The royal forests were accompanied by the rapid creation of locally owned <a href="/wiki/Medieval_deer_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval deer park">parks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chase_(land)" title="Chase (land)">chases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns">Trade, manufacturing and the towns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Trade, manufacturing and the towns">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Domesday_Book_-_Warwickshire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A page from a medieval book, with hand writing in brown ink in two columns on an aged vellum page." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Domesday_Book_-_Warwickshire.png/200px-Domesday_Book_-_Warwickshire.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Domesday_Book_-_Warwickshire.png/300px-Domesday_Book_-_Warwickshire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Domesday_Book_-_Warwickshire.png/400px-Domesday_Book_-_Warwickshire.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="807" /></a><figcaption>A page of the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a>, which captures the economic condition of England in 1086</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_English_towns_and_trade_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Economics of English towns and trade in the Middle Ages">Economics of English towns and trade in the Middle Ages</a></div> Although primarily rural, England had a number of old, economically important towns in 1066.<a href="#cite_note-StentonP162166-35">[35]</a> A large amount of trade came through the Eastern towns, including London, <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_Lincolnshire" class="mw-redirect" title="Lincoln, Lincolnshire">Lincoln</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwich" title="Norwich">Norwich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ipswich" title="Ipswich">Ipswich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thetford" title="Thetford">Thetford</a>.<a href="#cite_note-StentonP162166-35">[35]</a> Much of this trade was with France, the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> and Germany, but the North-East of England traded with partners as far away as Sweden.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Cloth was already being imported to England before the invasion through the <a href="/wiki/Mercery" title="Mercery">mercery</a> trade.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Some towns, such as York, suffered from Norman sacking during William's northern campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasP313-38">[38]</a> Other towns saw the widespread demolition of houses to make room for new <a href="/wiki/Motte_and_bailey" class="mw-redirect" title="Motte and bailey">motte and bailey</a> fortifications, as was the case in Lincoln.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasP313-38">[38]</a> The Norman invasion also brought significant economic changes with the arrival of the first Jews to English cities.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> William I brought over wealthy Jews from the <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a> community in Normandy to settle in London, apparently to carry out financial services for the crown.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> In the years immediately after the invasion, a lot of wealth was drawn out of England in various ways by the Norman rulers and reinvested in Normandy, making William immensely wealthy as an individual ruler.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mint_(coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mint (coin)">minting</a> of coins was decentralised in the Saxon period; every borough was mandated to have a mint and therefore a centre for trading in bullion.<a href="#cite_note-StentonP162-42">[42]</a> Nonetheless, there was strict royal control over these <a href="/wiki/Moneyer" title="Moneyer">moneyers</a>, and coin <a href="/wiki/Die_(manufacturing)" title="Die (manufacturing)">dies</a> could only be made in London.<a href="#cite_note-StentonP162-42">[42]</a> William retained this process and generated a high standard of Norman coins, leading to the use of the term "sterling" as the name for the Norman silver coins.<a href="#cite_note-StentonP162-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governance_and_taxation">Governance and taxation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Governance and taxation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_medieval_England" title="Taxation in medieval England">Taxation in medieval England</a></div> William I inherited the Anglo-Saxon system in which the king drew his revenues from: a mixture of customs; profits from re-minting coinage; fines; profits from his own demesne lands; and the system of English land-based taxation called the <a href="/wiki/Danegeld" title="Danegeld">geld</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> William reaffirmed this system, enforcing collection of the geld through his new system of sheriffs and increasing the taxes on trade.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> William was also famous for commissioning the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> in 1086, a vast document which attempted to record the economic condition of his new kingdom. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mid-medieval_growth_(1100–1290)">Mid-medieval growth (1100–1290)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mid-medieval growth (1100–1290)">edit</a>]</div> The 12th and 13th centuries were a period of huge economic growth in England. The population of England rose from around 1.5 million in 1086 to around 4 or 5 million in 1300, stimulating increased agricultural outputs and the export of raw materials to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In contrast to the previous two centuries, England was relatively secure from invasion. Except for the years of <a href="/wiki/The_Anarchy" title="The Anarchy">the Anarchy</a>, most military conflicts either had only localised economic impact or proved only temporarily disruptive. English economic thinking remained conservative, seeing the economy as consisting of three groups: the ordines, those who fought, or the nobility; laboratores, those who worked, in particular the peasantry; and oratores, those who prayed, or the clerics.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Trade and merchants played little part in this model and were frequently vilified at the start of the period, although they were increasingly tolerated towards the end of the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture,_fishing_and_mining">Agriculture, fishing and mining</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Agriculture, fishing and mining">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English_agriculture_and_the_landscape">English agriculture and the landscape</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: English agriculture and the landscape">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_digging.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Detail from a medieval illustrated manuscript, showing a bearded peasant in long red robes digging with a spade; a stylised tree makes up the right hand side of the image." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_digging.jpg/170px-Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_digging.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_digging.jpg/255px-Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_digging.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_digging.jpg/340px-Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_digging.jpg 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="757" /></a><figcaption>An English <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serf</a> at work digging, c. 1170</figcaption></figure> Agriculture remained by far the most important part of the English economy during the 12th and 13th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP41-16">[16]</a> There remained a wide variety in English agriculture, influenced by local geography; in areas where grain could not be grown, other resources were exploited instead.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Weald" title="Weald">Weald</a>, for example, agriculture centred on grazing animals on the woodland pastures, whilst in <a href="/wiki/The_Fens" title="The Fens">the Fens</a> fishing and bird-hunting was supplemented by <a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">basket-making</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a>-cutting.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP51-49">[49]</a> In some locations, such as <a href="/wiki/Lincolnshire" title="Lincolnshire">Lincolnshire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Droitwich" class="mw-redirect" title="Droitwich">Droitwich</a>, salt manufacture was important, including production for the export market.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP53-50">[50]</a> Fishing became an important trade along the English coast, especially in <a href="/wiki/Great_Yarmouth" title="Great Yarmouth">Great Yarmouth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scarborough,_North_Yorkshire" title="Scarborough, North Yorkshire">Scarborough</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Herring" title="Herring">herring</a> was a particularly popular catch; salted at the coast, it could then be shipped inland or exported to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Piracy between competing English fishing fleets was not unknown during the period.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP53-50">[50]</a> Sheep were the most common farm animal in England during the period, their numbers doubling by the 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-BartlettBaileyP368-52">[52]</a> Sheep became increasingly widely used for <a href="/wiki/The_medieval_English_wool_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="The medieval English wool trade">wool</a>, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh borders</a>, Lincolnshire and the <a href="/wiki/Pennines" title="Pennines">Pennines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BartlettBaileyP368-52">[52]</a> Pigs remained popular on holdings because of their ability to scavenge for food.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP44-18">[18]</a> Oxen remained the primary plough animal, with horses used more widely on farms in the south of England towards the end of the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP44-18">[18]</a> Rabbits were introduced from France in the 13th century and farmed for their meat in special warrens.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The underlying productivity of English agriculture remained low, despite the increases in food production.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP44-18">[18]</a> Wheat prices fluctuated heavily year to year, depending on local harvests; up to a third of the grain produced in England was potentially for sale, and much of it ended up in the growing towns.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Despite their involvement in the market, even the wealthiest peasants prioritised spending on housing and clothing, with little left for other personal consumption.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Records of household belongings show most possessing only "old, worn-out and mended utensils" and tools.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The royal forests grew in size for much of the 12th century, before contracting in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">Henry I</a> extended the size and scope of royal forests, especially in <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a>; after the Anarchy of 1135–53, <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a> continued to expand the forests until they comprised around 20% of England.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In 1217 the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Forest" title="Charter of the Forest">Charter of the Forest</a> was enacted, in part to mitigate the worst excesses of royal jurisdiction, and established a more structured range of fines and punishments for peasants who illegally hunted or felled trees in the forests.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> By the end of the century the king had come under increasing pressure to reduce the size of the royal forests, leading to the "<a href="/wiki/Royal_forest#Great_Perambulation_and_after" title="Royal forest">Great Perambulation</a>" around 1300; this significantly reduced the extent to the forests, and by 1334 they were only around two-thirds the size they had been in 1250.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Royal revenue streams from the shrinking forests diminished considerably in the early 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Development_of_estate_management">Development of estate management</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Development of estate management">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pipeandbelldavid.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A painting showing a man in orange clothes playing a pipe and ringing a small bell. He is surrounded by numerous small white sheep, and two trees sit on either side of him. A small village is depicted in the upper left hand corner." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Pipeandbelldavid.png/220px-Pipeandbelldavid.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Pipeandbelldavid.png/330px-Pipeandbelldavid.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Pipeandbelldavid.png 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="517" /></a><figcaption>Sheep, shown here c. 1250, became increasingly important to English agriculture.</figcaption></figure> The Normans retained and reinforced the manorial system with its division between <a href="/wiki/Demesne" title="Demesne">demesne</a> and peasant lands paid for in agricultural labour.<a href="#cite_note-Bartlett,_p.313-23">[23]</a> Landowners could profit from the sales of goods from their demesne lands and a local lord could also expect to receive income from fines and local customs, whilst more powerful nobles profited from their own regional courts and rights.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> During the 12th century major landowners tended to rent out their demesne lands for money, motivated by static prices for produce and the chaos of the Anarchy between 1135 and 1153.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> This practice began to alter in the 1180s and 1190s, spurred by the greater political stability.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> In the first years of <a href="/wiki/John_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="John I of England">John</a>'s reign, agricultural prices almost doubled, at once increasing the potential profits on the demesne estates and also increasing the cost of living for the landowners themselves.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Landowners now attempted wherever possible to bring their demesne lands back into direct management, creating a system of administrators and officials to run their new system of estates.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> New land was brought into cultivation to meet demand for food, including drained marshes and fens, such as <a href="/wiki/Romney_Marsh" title="Romney Marsh">Romney Marsh</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Somerset_Levels" title="Somerset Levels">Somerset Levels</a> and the Fens; royal forests from the late 12th century onwards; and poorer lands in the north, south-west and in the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh Marches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmills</a> in England began to appear along the south and east coasts in the 12th century, expanding in number in the 13th, adding to the mechanised power available to the manors.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> By 1300 it has been estimated that there were more than 10,000 watermills in England, used both for grinding corn and for <a href="/wiki/Fulling" title="Fulling">fulling</a> cloth.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Fish ponds were created on most estates to provide freshwater fish for the consumption of the nobility and church; these ponds were extremely expensive to create and maintain.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Improved ways of running estates began to be circulated and were popularised in <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Henley" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Henley">Walter de Henley</a>'s famous book Le Dite de Hosebondrie, written around 1280. In some regions and under some landowners, investment and innovation increased yields significantly through improved ploughing and fertilisers – particularly in <a href="/wiki/Norfolk" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a>, where yields eventually equalled later 18th-century levels.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_of_the_Church_in_agriculture">Role of the Church in agriculture</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Role of the Church in agriculture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fountains_Abbey_-_geograph.org.uk_-_85950.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of a ruined abbey; a river passes by in the lower left hand of the picture, overhung with dark trees. A ruined abbey building in stone makes up the midground of the right side of the photograph." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Fountains_Abbey_-_geograph.org.uk_-_85950.jpg/240px-Fountains_Abbey_-_geograph.org.uk_-_85950.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Fountains_Abbey_-_geograph.org.uk_-_85950.jpg/360px-Fountains_Abbey_-_geograph.org.uk_-_85950.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Fountains_Abbey_-_geograph.org.uk_-_85950.jpg/480px-Fountains_Abbey_-_geograph.org.uk_-_85950.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fountains_Abbey" title="Fountains Abbey">Fountains Abbey</a>, one of the new <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercian</a> monasteries built in the medieval period with wealth derived from agriculture and trade</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England_and_Wales" title="Catholic Church in England and Wales">Church in England</a> was a major landowner throughout the medieval period and played an important part in the development of agriculture and rural trade in the first two centuries of Norman rule. The <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercian order</a> first arrived in England in 1128, establishing around 80 new <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monastic houses</a> over the next few years; the wealthy <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinians</a> also established themselves and expanded to occupy around 150 houses, all supported by agricultural estates, many of them in the north of England.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> By the 13th century these and other orders were acquiring new lands and had become major economic players both as landowners and as middlemen in the expanding <a href="/wiki/The_medieval_English_wool_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="The medieval English wool trade">wool trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> In particular, the Cistercians led the development of the <a href="/wiki/Monastic_grange" title="Monastic grange">grange</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Granges were separate manors in which the fields were all cultivated by the monastic officials, rather than being divided up between demesne and rented fields, and became known for trialling new agricultural techniques during the period.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Elsewhere, many monasteries had significant economic impact on the landscape, such as the monks of <a href="/wiki/Glastonbury_Abbey" title="Glastonbury Abbey">Glastonbury</a>, responsible for the draining of the <a href="/wiki/Somerset_Levels" title="Somerset Levels">Somerset Levels</a> to create new pasture land.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The military crusading order of the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a> also held extensive property in England, bringing in around £2,200 per annum by the time of their fall.<a href="#cite_note-ForeyPostanP111-76">[76]</a> It comprised primarily rural holdings rented out for cash, but also included some urban properties in London.<a href="#cite_note-ForeyPostanP111-76">[76]</a> Following the dissolution of the Templar order in France by <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip IV of France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_II_of_England" title="Edward II of England">Edward II</a> ordered their properties to be seized and passed to the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Hospitaller</a> order in 1313, but in practice many properties were taken by local landowners and the hospital was still attempting to reclaim them twenty-five years later.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> The Church was responsible for the system of <a href="/wiki/Tithe" title="Tithe">tithes</a>, a levy of 10% on "all agrarian produce... other natural products gained via labour... wages received by servants and labourers, and to the profits of rural merchants".<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Tithes gathered in the form of produce could be either consumed by the recipient, or sold on and bartered for other resources.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The tithe was relatively onerous for the typical peasant, although in many instances the actual levy fell below the desired 10%.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Many clergy moved to the towns as part of the urban growth of the period, and by 1300 around one in twenty city dwellers was a clergyman.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer2009P195-81">[81]</a> One effect of the tithe was to transfer a considerable amount of agriculture wealth into the cities, where it was then spent by these urban clergy.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer2009P195-81">[81]</a> The need to sell tithe produce that could not be consumed by the local clergy also spurred the growth of trade.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Expansion_of_mining">Expansion of mining</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Expansion of mining">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bas_fourneau.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A sketch of four men working in an open air workshop; one is putting objects into a chimney-like object in the middle of the picture, from which smoke is emerging. Behind them is the front of another building with a tiled roof." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/170px-Bas_fourneau.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/255px-Bas_fourneau.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/340px-Bas_fourneau.png 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="1156" /></a><figcaption>Early iron-smelting using a <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomery</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_English_Mining_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Economics of English Mining in the Middle Ages">Economics of English Mining in the Middle Ages</a></div> Mining did not make up a large part of the English medieval economy, but the 12th and 13th centuries saw an increased demand for metals in the country, thanks to the considerable population growth and building construction, including the great cathedrals and churches.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Four metals were mined commercially in England during the period, namely <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>; <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> was also mined from the 13th century onwards, using a variety of refining techniques.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Iron mining occurred in several locations, including the main English centre in the <a href="/wiki/Forest_of_Dean" title="Forest of Dean">Forest of Dean</a>, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Durham,_England" title="Durham, England">Durham</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Weald" title="Weald">Weald</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Some iron to meet English demand was also imported from the continent, especially by the late 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-GEDDESP169-86">[86]</a> By the end of the 12th century, the older method of acquiring iron ore through <a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">strip mining</a> was being supplemented by more advanced techniques, including <a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(soft_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (soft rock)">tunnels, trenches and bell-pits</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GEDDESP169-86">[86]</a> Iron ore was usually locally processed at a <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomery</a>, and by the 14th century the first water-powered iron forge in England was built at <a href="/wiki/River_Bewl" title="River Bewl">Chingley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> As a result of the diminishing woodlands and consequent increases in the cost of both wood and <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>, demand for coal increased in the 12th century and it began to be commercially produced from bell-pits and strip mining.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP53-50">[50]</a> A silver boom occurred in England after the discovery of silver near <a href="/wiki/Carlisle,_Cumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlisle, Cumbria">Carlisle</a> in 1133. Huge quantities of silver were produced from a semicircle of mines reaching across <a href="/wiki/Cumberland" title="Cumberland">Cumberland</a>, Durham and <a href="/wiki/Northumberland" title="Northumberland">Northumberland</a> – up to three to four tonnes of silver were mined each year, more than ten times the previous annual production across the whole of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-BlanchardP29-9">[9]</a> The result was a local economic boom and a major uplift to 12th-century royal finances.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tin_mining" title="Tin mining">Tin mining</a> was centred in <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a>, exploiting <a href="/wiki/Alluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Alluvial">alluvial</a> deposits and governed by the special <a href="/wiki/Stannary_Courts_and_Parliaments" class="mw-redirect" title="Stannary Courts and Parliaments">Stannary Courts and Parliaments</a>. Tin formed a valuable <a href="/wiki/Export_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Export good">export good</a>, initially to Germany and then later in the 14th century to the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Lead was usually mined as a by-product of mining for silver, with mines in <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a>, Durham and the north, as well as in Devon.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Economically fragile, the lead mines usually survived as a result of being subsidised by silver production.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns_2">Trade, manufacturing and the towns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Trade, manufacturing and the towns">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Growth_of_English_towns">Growth of English towns</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Growth of English towns">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Original_7_streets_of_Liverpool.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white map, showing a town with a central street, criss-crossed by two adjoining small roads and a small castle on the far right of the map." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Original_7_streets_of_Liverpool.jpg/220px-Original_7_streets_of_Liverpool.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Original_7_streets_of_Liverpool.jpg/330px-Original_7_streets_of_Liverpool.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Original_7_streets_of_Liverpool.jpg/440px-Original_7_streets_of_Liverpool.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>The medieval plan for <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, a new English town founded by order of <a href="/wiki/King_John_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King John of England">King John</a> in 1207</figcaption></figure> After the end of the Anarchy, the number of small towns in England began to increase sharply.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> By 1297, 120 new towns had been established, and in 1350 – by when the expansion had effectively ceased – there were around 500 towns in England.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettBaileyPounds-7">[7]</a> Many of these new towns were <a href="/wiki/Planned_community" title="Planned community">centrally planned</a>: <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard I</a> created <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="John I of England">John</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, and successive monarchs followed with <a href="/wiki/Harwich" title="Harwich">Harwich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stony_Stratford" title="Stony Stratford">Stony Stratford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunstable" title="Dunstable">Dunstable</a>, <a href="/wiki/Royston,_Hertfordshire" title="Royston, Hertfordshire">Royston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baldock" title="Baldock">Baldock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wokingham" title="Wokingham">Wokingham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maidenhead" title="Maidenhead">Maidenhead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reigate" title="Reigate">Reigate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The new towns were usually located with access to trade routes in mind, rather than defence,<a href="#cite_note-AstillPP48-94">[94]</a> and the streets were laid out to make access to the town's market convenient.<a href="#cite_note-AstillPP48-94">[94]</a> A growing percentage of England's population lived in urban areas; estimates suggest that this rose from around 5.5% in 1086 to up to 10% in 1377.<a href="#cite_note-PoundsP80-95">[95]</a> London held a special status within the English economy. The nobility purchased and consumed many luxury goods and services in the capital, and as early as the 1170s the London markets were providing exotic products such as spices, <a href="/wiki/Incense" title="Incense">incense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, gems, silks, furs and foreign weapons.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> London was also an important hub for industrial activity; it had many blacksmiths making a wide range of goods, including decorative ironwork and early clocks.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pewter" title="Pewter">Pewter-working</a>, using English tin and lead, was also widespread in London during the period.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The provincial towns also had a substantial number of trades by the end of the 13th century – a large town like <a href="/wiki/Coventry" title="Coventry">Coventry</a>, for example, contained over three hundred different specialist occupations, and a smaller town such as <a href="/wiki/Durham,_England" title="Durham, England">Durham</a> could support some sixty different professions.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP51-49">[49]</a> The increasing wealth of the nobility and the church was reflected in the widespread building of <a href="/wiki/Cathedral" title="Cathedral">cathedrals</a> and other prestigious buildings in the larger towns, in turn making use of lead from English mines for roofing.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Land transport remained much more expensive than river or sea transport during the period.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Many towns in this period, including <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exeter" title="Exeter">Exeter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_Lincolnshire" class="mw-redirect" title="Lincoln, Lincolnshire">Lincoln</a>, were linked to the oceans by navigable rivers and could act as seaports, with <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>'s port coming to dominate the lucrative trade in wine with <a href="/wiki/Gascony" title="Gascony">Gascony</a> by the 13th century, but shipbuilding generally remained on a modest scale and economically unimportant to England at this time.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Transport remained very costly in comparison to the overall price of products.<a href="#cite_note-HODGETTP109-102">[102]</a> By the 13th century, groups of common carriers ran carting businesses, and carting brokers existed in London to link traders and carters.<a href="#cite_note-BartlettHodgettP363-103">[103]</a> These used the four major land routes crossing England: <a href="/wiki/Ermine_Street" title="Ermine Street">Ermine Street</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fosse_Way" title="Fosse Way">Fosse Way</a>, <a href="/wiki/Icknield_Street" title="Icknield Street">Icknield Street</a> and <a href="/wiki/Watling_Street" title="Watling Street">Watling Street</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BartlettHodgettP363-103">[103]</a> A large number of bridges were built during the 12th century to improve the trade network.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> In the 13th century, England was still primarily supplying raw materials for export to Europe, rather than finished or processed goods.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettP147-105">[105]</a> There were some exceptions, such as very high-quality cloths from <a href="/wiki/Stamford,_Lincolnshire" title="Stamford, Lincolnshire">Stamford</a> and Lincoln, including the famous "Lincoln Scarlet" dyed cloth.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettP147-105">[105]</a> Despite royal efforts to encourage it, however, barely any English cloth was being exported by 1347.<a href="#cite_note-RamsayPxxxi-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Expansion_of_the_money_supply">Expansion of the money supply</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Expansion of the money supply">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_I_silver_penny_lincoln_mint.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A faded silver coin with an indistinct king's head in the centre with long hair, surrounded by faded writing." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Edward_I_silver_penny_lincoln_mint.jpg/200px-Edward_I_silver_penny_lincoln_mint.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Edward_I_silver_penny_lincoln_mint.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="243" /></a><figcaption>An Edward I <a href="/wiki/Penny" title="Penny">silver penny</a> from Lincoln; Edward increased the controls on the minting of coins begun under Henry II, creating the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Mint" title="Master of the Mint">Master of the Mint</a>.</figcaption></figure> There was a gradual reduction in the number of locations allowed to mint coins in England; under <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a>, only 30 boroughs were still able to use their own moneyers, and the tightening of controls continued throughout the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> By the reign of <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a> there were only nine mints outside London and the king created a new official called the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Mint" title="Master of the Mint">Master of the Mint</a> to oversee these and the thirty furnaces operating in London to meet the demand for new coins.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> The amount of money in circulation hugely increased in this period; before the Norman invasion there had been around £50,000 in circulation as coin, but by 1311 this had risen to more than £1 million.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> At any particular point in time, though, much of this currency might be being stored prior to being used to support military campaigns or to be sent overseas to meet payments, resulting in bursts of temporary <a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">deflation</a> as coins ceased to circulate within the English economy.<a href="#cite_note-BoltonP32-110">[110]</a> One physical consequence of the growth in the coinage was that coins had to be manufactured in large numbers, being moved in barrels and sacks to be stored in local treasuries for royal use as the king travelled.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_of_the_guilds">Rise of the guilds</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Rise of the guilds">edit</a>]</div> The first English <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a> emerged during the early 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-Ramsay,_p.xx-112">[112]</a> These guilds were fraternities of craftsmen that set out to manage their local affairs including "prices, workmanship, the welfare of its workers, and the suppression of interlopers and sharp practices".<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Amongst these early guilds were the "guilds merchants", who ran the local markets in towns and represented the merchant community in discussions with the crown.<a href="#cite_note-Ramsay,_p.xx-112">[112]</a> Other early guilds included the "craft guilds", representing specific trades. By 1130 there were major <a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">weavers</a>' guilds in six English towns, as well as a <a href="/wiki/Fulling" title="Fulling">fullers</a>' guild in <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Over the following decades more guilds were created, often becoming increasingly involved in both local and national politics, although the guilds merchants were largely replaced by official groups established by new royal charters.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> The craft guilds required relatively stable markets and a relative equality of income and opportunity amongst their members to function effectively.<a href="#cite_note-MyersP69-116">[116]</a> By the 14th century these conditions were increasingly uncommon.<a href="#cite_note-MyersP69-116">[116]</a> The first strains were seen in London, where the old guild system began to collapse – more trade was being conducted at a national level, making it hard for craftsmen to both manufacture goods and trade in them, and there were growing disparities in incomes between the richer and poorer craftsmen.<a href="#cite_note-MyersP69-116">[116]</a> As a result, under <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a> many guilds became companies or <a href="/wiki/Livery_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Livery Company">livery companies</a>, chartered companies focusing on trade and finance, leaving the guild structures to represent the interests of the smaller, poorer manufacturers.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Merchants_and_the_development_of_the_charter_fairs">Merchants and the development of the charter fairs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Merchants and the development of the charter fairs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bridgnorth,_Marketplace_-_geograph.org.uk_-_11188.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of a building on a clear summer's day, with a white stone base and a black and white timbered first floor. An archway leads through the middle of the building, apparently located in the middle of a small town." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Bridgnorth%2C_Marketplace_-_geograph.org.uk_-_11188.jpg/220px-Bridgnorth%2C_Marketplace_-_geograph.org.uk_-_11188.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Bridgnorth%2C_Marketplace_-_geograph.org.uk_-_11188.jpg/330px-Bridgnorth%2C_Marketplace_-_geograph.org.uk_-_11188.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Bridgnorth%2C_Marketplace_-_geograph.org.uk_-_11188.jpg 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>The market place at <a href="/wiki/Bridgnorth" title="Bridgnorth">Bridgnorth</a>, one of many medieval English towns to be granted the right to hold <a href="/wiki/Charter_fair" title="Charter fair">fairs</a>, in this case annually on the feast of the Translation of <a href="/wiki/Leonard_of_Noblac" title="Leonard of Noblac">St. Leonard</a></figcaption></figure> The period also saw the development of <a href="/wiki/Charter_fair" title="Charter fair">charter fairs</a> in England, which reached their heyday in the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> From the 12th century onwards, many English towns acquired a charter from the Crown allowing them to hold an annual fair, usually serving a regional or local customer base and lasting for two or three days.<a href="#cite_note-DanzigerGillinghamReyersonP65-119">[119]</a> The practice increased in the next century and over 2,200 charters were issued to markets and fairs by English kings between 1200 and 1270.<a href="#cite_note-DanzigerGillinghamReyersonP65-119">[119]</a> Fairs grew in popularity as the international wool trade increased: the fairs allowed English wool producers and ports on the east coast to engage with visiting foreign merchants, circumnavigating those English merchants in London keen to make a profit as middlemen.<a href="#cite_note-Danziger_and_Gillingham,_p.65-120">[120]</a> At the same time, wealthy <a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">magnate</a> consumers in England began to use the new fairs as a way to buy goods like spices, wax, preserved fish and foreign cloth in bulk from the international merchants at the fairs, again bypassing the usual London merchants.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Some fairs grew into major international events, falling into a set sequence during the economic year, with the <a href="/wiki/Stamford,_Lincolnshire" title="Stamford, Lincolnshire">Stamford</a> fair in Lent, <a href="/wiki/St_Ives,_Cambridgeshire" title="St Ives, Cambridgeshire">St Ives</a>' in Easter, <a href="/wiki/Boston,_Lincolnshire" title="Boston, Lincolnshire">Boston</a>'s in July, Winchester's in September and <a href="/wiki/Northampton" title="Northampton">Northampton</a>'s in November, with the many smaller fairs falling in-between.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Although not as large as the famous <a href="/wiki/Champagne_fairs" title="Champagne fairs">Champagne fairs</a> in France, these English "great fairs" were still huge events; St Ives' Great Fair, for example, drew merchants from <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a>, Norway, Germany and France for a four-week event each year, turning the normally small town into "a major commercial emporium".<a href="#cite_note-Danziger_and_Gillingham,_p.65-120">[120]</a> The structure of the fairs reflected the importance of foreign merchants in the English economy and by 1273 only one-third of the English wool trade was actually controlled by English merchants.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettP148-123">[123]</a> Between 1280 and 1320 the trade was primarily dominated by Italian merchants, but by the early 14th century German merchants had begun to present serious competition to the Italians.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettP148-123">[123]</a> The Germans formed a self-governing alliance of merchants in London called the "<a href="/wiki/Merchants_of_the_Steelyard" title="Merchants of the Steelyard">Hanse of the Steelyard</a>" – the eventual <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a> – and their role was confirmed under the Great Charter of 1303, which exempted them from paying the customary tolls for foreign merchants.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[nb 1]</a> One response to this was the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Merchants_of_the_Staple" title="Merchants of the Staple">Company of the Staple</a>, a group of merchants established in English-held <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a> in 1314 with royal approval, who were granted a monopoly on wool sales to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jewish_contribution_to_the_English_economy">Jewish contribution to the English economy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Jewish contribution to the English economy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clifford%27s_Tower_-_geograph.org.uk_-_257813.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of a small castle on top of a green mound; the castle has three circular walls visible. Behind the castle the sky is overcast and dark grey." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Clifford%27s_Tower_-_geograph.org.uk_-_257813.jpg/240px-Clifford%27s_Tower_-_geograph.org.uk_-_257813.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Clifford%27s_Tower_-_geograph.org.uk_-_257813.jpg/360px-Clifford%27s_Tower_-_geograph.org.uk_-_257813.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Clifford%27s_Tower_-_geograph.org.uk_-_257813.jpg/480px-Clifford%27s_Tower_-_geograph.org.uk_-_257813.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/York_Castle" title="York Castle">Clifford's Tower</a> in the city of <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>, a major hub for Jewish economic activity and the site of an early Jewish <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogrom</a> in 1190</figcaption></figure> The Jewish community in England continued to provide essential money-lending and banking services that were otherwise banned by the <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">usury</a> laws, and grew in the 12th century by Jewish immigrants fleeing the fighting around <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> The Jewish community spread beyond London to eleven major English cities, primarily the major trading hubs in the east of England with functioning mints, all with suitable castles for protection of the often persecuted Jewish minority.<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> By the time of the Anarchy and the reign of <a href="/wiki/King_Stephen_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King Stephen I of England">Stephen</a>, the communities were flourishing and providing financial loans to the king.<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a> Under Henry II, the Jewish financial community continued to grow richer still.<a href="#cite_note-Stenton,_pp193-4-130">[129]</a> All major towns had Jewish centres, and even smaller towns, such as Windsor, saw visits by travelling Jewish merchants.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> Henry II used the Jewish community as "instruments for the collection of money for the Crown", and placed them under royal protection.<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> The Jewish community at <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a> lent extensively to fund the Cistercian order's acquisition of land and prospered considerably.<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> Some Jewish merchants grew extremely wealthy, <a href="/wiki/Aaron_of_Lincoln" title="Aaron of Lincoln">Aaron of Lincoln</a> so much that upon his death a special royal department had to be established to unpick his financial holdings and affairs.<a href="#cite_note-StentonP200-134">[133]</a> By the end of Henry's reign the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to an aggressive campaign of <a href="/wiki/Tallage" title="Tallage">tallage</a> taxation and fines.<a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> Financial and anti-Semite violence grew under Richard I. After the <a href="/wiki/York_Castle" title="York Castle">massacre of the York community</a>, in which numerous financial records were destroyed, seven towns were nominated to separately store Jewish bonds and money records and this arrangement ultimately evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Exchequer_of_the_Jews" title="Exchequer of the Jews">Exchequer of the Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> After an initially peaceful start to John's reign, the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community, imprisoning the wealthier members, including <a href="/wiki/Isaac_of_Norwich" title="Isaac of Norwich">Isaac of Norwich</a>, until a huge, new taillage was paid.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/First_Barons%27_War" title="First Barons' War">Baron's War</a> of 1215–17, the Jews were subjected to fresh anti-Semitic attacks.<a href="#cite_note-StentonP200-134">[133]</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a> restored some order and Jewish money-lending became sufficiently successful again to allow fresh taxation.<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a> The Jewish community became poorer towards the end of the century and was finally expelled from England in 1290 by Edward I, being largely replaced by foreign merchants.<a href="#cite_note-Stenton,_pp193-4-130">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governance_and_taxation_2">Governance and taxation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Governance and taxation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rievaulx_Abbey_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of a sandstone carving, broken into two pieces; on the left is the front half of a donkey, in the middle a fat man with a stick and a whip whilst on the right is a stylised windmill." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Rievaulx_Abbey_2.jpg/220px-Rievaulx_Abbey_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Rievaulx_Abbey_2.jpg/330px-Rievaulx_Abbey_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Rievaulx_Abbey_2.jpg/440px-Rievaulx_Abbey_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A medieval carving from <a href="/wiki/Rievaulx_Abbey" title="Rievaulx Abbey">Rievaulx Abbey</a> showing one of the many new windmills established during the 13th century</figcaption></figure> During the 12th century the Norman kings attempted to formalise the feudal governance system initially created after the invasion. After the invasion the king had enjoyed a combination of income from his own demesne lands, the Anglo-Saxon geld tax and fines. Successive kings found that they needed additional revenues, especially in order to pay for <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenary</a> forces.<a href="#cite_note-LawlerLawlerP6-139">[138]</a> One way of doing this was to exploit the feudal system, and kings adopted the French <a href="/wiki/Feudal_aid" title="Feudal aid">feudal aid</a> model, a levy of money imposed on feudal subordinates when necessary; another method was to exploit the <a href="/wiki/Scutage" title="Scutage">scutage</a> system, in which feudal military service could be transmuted to a cash payment to the king.<a href="#cite_note-LawlerLawlerP6-139">[138]</a> Taxation was also an option, although the old geld tax was increasingly ineffective due to a growing number of exemptions. Instead, a succession of kings created alternative land taxes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tallage" title="Tallage">tallage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carucage" title="Carucage">carucage</a> taxes. These were increasingly unpopular and, along with the feudal charges, were condemned and constrained in <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> of 1215. As part of the formalisation of the royal finances, Henry I created the <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer" title="Chancellor of the Exchequer">Chancellor of the Exchequer</a>, a post which would lead to the maintenance of the <a href="/wiki/Pipe_rolls" title="Pipe rolls">Pipe rolls</a>, a set of royal financial records of lasting significance to historians in tracking both royal finances and medieval prices.<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> Royal revenue streams still proved insufficient and from the middle of the 13th century there was a shift away from the earlier land-based tax system towards one based on a mixture of indirect and direct taxation.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettP203-141">[140]</a> At the same time, <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a> had introduced the practice of consulting with leading nobles on tax issues, leading to the system whereby the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament of England</a> agreed on new taxes when required. In 1275, the "Great and Ancient Custom" began to tax woollen products and hides, with the Great Charter of 1303 imposing additional levies on foreign merchants in England, with the <a href="/wiki/Poundage" title="Poundage">poundage</a> tax introduced in 1347.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettP203-141">[140]</a> In 1340, the discredited tallage tax system was finally abolished by <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a> Assessing the total impact of changes to royal revenues between 1086 and 1290 is difficult.<a href="#cite_note-CarpenterP51-143">[142]</a> At best, Edward I was struggling in 1300 to match in real terms the revenues that Henry II had enjoyed in 1100, and considering the growth in the size of the English economy, the king's share of the national income had dropped considerably.<a href="#cite_note-CarpenterP51-143">[142]</a> In the English towns the <a href="/wiki/Burgage" title="Burgage">burgage</a> tenure for urban properties was established early on in the medieval period, and was based primarily on tenants paying cash rents rather than providing labour services.<a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a> Further development of a set of taxes that could be raised by the towns included <a href="/wiki/Murage" class="mw-redirect" title="Murage">murage</a> for walls, <a href="/wiki/Pavage" title="Pavage">pavage</a> for streets, and <a href="/wiki/Pontage" title="Pontage">pontage</a>, a temporary tax for the repair of bridges.<a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a> Combined with the <a href="/wiki/Lex_mercatoria" title="Lex mercatoria">lex mercatoria</a>, which was a set of codes and customary practices governing trading, these provided a reasonable basis for the economic governance of the towns.<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a> The 12th century also saw a concerted attempt to curtail the remaining rights of unfree peasant workers and to set out their labour rents more explicitly in the form of the English Common Law.<a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a> This process resulted in Magna Carta explicitly authorising feudal landowners to settle law cases concerning feudal labour and fines through their own manorial courts rather than through the royal courts.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a> These class relationships between lords and unfree peasants had complex economic implications. Peasant workers resented being unfree, but having continuing access to agricultural land was also important.<a href="#cite_note-BartlettP316-149">[148]</a> Under those rare circumstances where peasants were offered a choice between freedom but no land, and continued servitude, not all chose freedom and a minority chose to remain in servitude on the land.<a href="#cite_note-BartlettP316-149">[148]</a> Lords benefited economically from their control of the manorial courts and dominating the courts made it easier to manipulate land ownership and rights in their own favour when land became in particularly short supply at the end of this period.<a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> Many of the labour duties lords could compel from the local peasant communities became less useful over the period.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer2009P134-151">[150]</a> Duties were fixed by custom, inflexible and understandably resented by the workers involved.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer2009P134-151">[150]</a> As a result, by the end of the 13th century the productivity of such forced labour was significantly lower than that of free labour employed to do the same task.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer2009P134-151">[150]</a> A number of lords responded by seeking to commute the duties of unfree peasants to cash alternatives, with the aim of hiring labour instead.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer2009P134-151">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mid-medieval_economic_crisis_–_the_Great_Famine_and_the_Black_Death_(1290–1350)">Mid-medieval economic crisis – the Great Famine and the Black Death (1290–1350)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Mid-medieval economic crisis – the Great Famine and the Black Death (1290–1350)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bubonic_plague-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A computer generated map of Europe, with bands of colour marking the spread of the Black Death. England appears in amber, showing infection halfway through the epidemic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Bubonic_plague-en.svg/220px-Bubonic_plague-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Bubonic_plague-en.svg/330px-Bubonic_plague-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Bubonic_plague-en.svg/440px-Bubonic_plague-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="790" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> reached England in 1348 from Europe.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Famine">Great Famine</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Great Famine">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a> of 1315 began a number of acute crises in the English agrarian economy. The famine centred on a sequence of harvest failures in 1315, 1316 and 1321 and combined with an outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Murrain" title="Murrain">murrain</a>, a sickness amongst sheep and oxen in 1319–21 and the fatal <a href="/wiki/Ergotism" title="Ergotism">ergotism</a>, a fungus amongst the remaining stocks of wheat.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> Many people died in the ensuing famine, and the peasantry were said to have been forced to eat horses, dogs and cats as well as conducted <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a> against children, although these last reports are usually considered to be exaggerations.<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a> Poaching and encroachment on the royal forests surged, sometimes on a mass scale.<a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> Sheep and cattle numbers fell by up to a half, significantly reducing the availability of wool and meat, and <a href="/wiki/Food_prices" title="Food prices">food prices</a> almost doubled, with grain prices particularly inflated.<a href="#cite_note-JordanAberthP38-155">[154]</a> Food prices remained at similar levels for the next decade.<a href="#cite_note-JordanAberthP38-155">[154]</a> Salt prices also increased sharply due to the wet weather.<a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a> Various factors exacerbated the crisis. Economic growth had already begun to slow significantly in the years prior to the crisis and the English rural population was increasingly under economic stress, with around half the peasantry estimated to possess insufficient land to provide them with a secure livelihood.<a href="#cite_note-JordanBaileyAberthCantorJordan-10">[10]</a> Where additional land was being brought into cultivation, or existing land cultivated more intensively, the soil may have become exhausted and useless.<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a> Bad weather also played an important part in the disaster; 1315–16 and 1318 saw torrential rains and an incredibly cold winter, which in combination badly impacted on harvests and stored supplies.<a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a> The rains of these years were followed by drought in the 1320s and another fierce winter in 1321, complicating recovery.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> Disease, independent of the famine, was also high during the period, striking at the wealthier as well as the poorer classes. The commencement of <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Hundred Years War">war with France</a> in 1337 only added to the economic difficulties.<a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> The Great Famine firmly reversed the population growth of the 12th and 13th centuries and left a domestic economy that was "profoundly shaken, but not destroyed".<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages#Dubious" title="Talk:Economy of England in the Middle Ages">discuss</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_Death">Black Death</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Black Death">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> epidemic first arrived in England in 1348, re-occurring in waves during 1360–62, 1368–69, 1375 and more sporadically thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a> The most immediate economic impact of this disaster was the widespread loss of life, between around 27% mortality amongst the upper classes, to 40–70% amongst the peasantry.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[nb 2]</a> Despite the very high loss of life, few settlements were abandoned during the epidemic itself, but many were badly affected or nearly eliminated altogether.<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> The medieval authorities did their best to respond in an organised fashion, but the economic disruption was immense.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> Building work ceased and many mining operations paused.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> In the short term, efforts were taken by the authorities to control wages and enforce pre-epidemic working conditions.<a href="#cite_note-FrydeP753-168">[166]</a> Coming on top of the previous years of famine, however, the longer-term economic implications were profound.<a href="#cite_note-FrydeP753-168">[166]</a> In contrast to the previous centuries of rapid growth, the English population would not begin to recover for over a century, despite the many positive reasons for a resurgence.<a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> The crisis would dramatically affect English agriculture, wages and prices for the remainder of the medieval period.<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_medieval_economic_recovery_(1350–1509)">Late medieval economic recovery (1350–1509)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Late medieval economic recovery (1350–1509)">edit</a>]</div> The events of the crisis between 1290 and 1348 and the subsequent epidemics produced many challenges for the English economy. In the decades after the disaster, the economic and social issues arising from the Black Death combined with the costs of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Hundred Years War">Hundred Years War</a> resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Peasants_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants Revolt">Peasants Revolt</a> of 1381.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> Although the revolt was suppressed, it undermined many of the vestiges of the feudal economic order, and the countryside became dominated by estates organised as farms, frequently owned or rented by the new economic class of the <a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">gentry</a>. The English agricultural economy remained depressed throughout the 15th century; growth at this time came from the greatly increased English cloth trade and manufacturing.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> The economic consequences of this varied considerably from region to region, but generally London, the South and the West prospered at the expense of the Eastern and the older cities.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> The role of merchants and trade became increasingly seen as important to the country, and usury gradually became more widely accepted, with English economic thinking increasingly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanist</a> theories.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governance_and_taxation_3">Governance and taxation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Governance and taxation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Froissart,_Chroniques,_154v,_12148_btv1b8438605hf336,_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A detailed medieval painting showing a group of wealthy men in a wooden boat on the near left, apparently arriving or leaving a large number of armed soldiers on the right. In the background is a large city on the left, and an open area of ground on the right." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Jean_Froissart%2C_Chroniques%2C_154v%2C_12148_btv1b8438605hf336%2C_crop.jpg/220px-Jean_Froissart%2C_Chroniques%2C_154v%2C_12148_btv1b8438605hf336%2C_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Jean_Froissart%2C_Chroniques%2C_154v%2C_12148_btv1b8438605hf336%2C_crop.jpg/330px-Jean_Froissart%2C_Chroniques%2C_154v%2C_12148_btv1b8438605hf336%2C_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Jean_Froissart%2C_Chroniques%2C_154v%2C_12148_btv1b8438605hf336%2C_crop.jpg/440px-Jean_Froissart%2C_Chroniques%2C_154v%2C_12148_btv1b8438605hf336%2C_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3261" data-file-height="3144" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Richard_II_of_England" title="Richard II of England">Richard II</a> meets the rebels calling for economic and political reform during the <a href="/wiki/Peasants_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants Revolt">Peasants Revolt</a> of 1381.</figcaption></figure> Even before the end of the first outbreak of the Black Death, there were efforts by the authorities to stem the upward pressure on wages and prices, with parliament passing the emergency <a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Labourers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinance of Labourers">Ordinance of Labourers</a> in 1349 and the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Labourers_1351" title="Statute of Labourers 1351">Statute of Labourers</a> in 1351.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> The efforts to regulate the economy continued as wages and prices rose, putting pressure on the landed classes, and in 1363 parliament attempted unsuccessfully to centrally regulate craft production, trading and retailing.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> A rising amount of the royal courts' time was involved in enforcing the failing labour legislation – as much as 70% by the 1370s.<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> Many land owners attempted to vigorously enforce rents payable through agricultural service rather than money through their local manor courts, leading to attempts by many village communities to legally challenge local feudal practices using the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> as a legal basis for their claims.<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> With the wages of the lower classes still rising, the government also attempted to regulate demand and consumption by reinstating the <a href="/wiki/Sumptuary_law" title="Sumptuary law">sumptuary laws</a> in 1363.<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a> These laws banned the lower classes from consuming certain products or wearing high-status clothes, and reflected the significance of the consumption of high-quality breads, ales and fabrics as a way of signifying social class in the late medieval period.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> The 1370s also saw the government facing difficulties in funding the long-running war with France. The impact of the Hundred Years War on the English economy as a whole remains uncertain; one suggestion is that the high taxation required to pay for the conflict "shrunk and depleted" the English economy, whilst others have argued for a more modest or even neutral economic impact for the war.<a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a> The English government clearly found it difficult to pay for its army and from 1377 turned to a new system of <a href="/wiki/Tax_per_head" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax per head">poll taxes</a>, aiming to spread the costs of taxation across the entirety of English society.<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peasants'_Revolt_of_1381">Peasants' Revolt of 1381</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Peasants' Revolt of 1381">edit</a>]</div> One result of the economic and political tensions was the <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_Revolt" title="Peasants' Revolt">Peasants' Revolt</a> of 1381, in which widespread rural discontent was followed by an invasion of London involving thousands of rebels.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> The rebels had many demands, including the effective end of the feudal institution of serfdom and a cap on the levels of rural rents.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> The ensuing violence took the political classes by surprise and the revolt was not fully put down until the autumn; up to 7,000 rebels were executed in the aftermath.<a href="#cite_note-JonesP201-12">[12]</a> As a result of the revolt, parliament retreated from the poll tax and instead focused on a system of indirect taxes centring on foreign trade, drawing 80% of tax revenues from the exports of wool.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> Parliament continued to collect direct tax levies at historically high levels up until 1422, although they reduced them in later years.<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> As a result, successive monarchs found that their tax revenues were uncertain, and <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> enjoyed less than half the annual tax revenue of the late 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-McFarlaneHodgettP143P204-187">[185]</a> England's monarchs became increasingly dependent on borrowing and forced loans to meet the gap between taxes and expenditure and even then faced later rebellions over levels of taxation, including the <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire_rebellion_1489" class="mw-redirect" title="Yorkshire rebellion 1489">Yorkshire rebellion of 1489</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cornish_Rebellion_of_1497" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornish Rebellion of 1497">Cornish rebellion of 1497</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture,_fishing_and_mining_2">Agriculture, fishing and mining</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Agriculture, fishing and mining">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Collapse_of_the_demesne_and_the_creation_of_the_farming_system">Collapse of the demesne and the creation of the farming system</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Collapse of the demesne and the creation of the farming system">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Embleton_Church,_County_Durham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of a small stone church with open, glass-less windows. The church is surrounded by rough, uncultivated ground and the sky behind the church is bleak." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Embleton_Church%2C_County_Durham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2917.jpg/220px-Embleton_Church%2C_County_Durham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2917.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Embleton_Church%2C_County_Durham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2917.jpg/330px-Embleton_Church%2C_County_Durham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Embleton_Church%2C_County_Durham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2917.jpg/440px-Embleton_Church%2C_County_Durham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The ruined church in the deserted village of <a href="/wiki/Embleton,_County_Durham" title="Embleton, County Durham">Embleton, County Durham</a>, one of nearly 1,500 medieval villages abandoned after the agrarian crisis of the 14th century</figcaption></figure> The agricultural sector of the English economy, still by far the largest, was transformed by the Black Death. With the shortage of manpower after the Black Death, wages for agricultural labourers rapidly increased and continued to then grow steadily throughout the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> As their incomes increased, labourers' living conditions and diet improved steadily.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a> A trend for labourers to eat less barley and more wheat and rye, and to replace bread in their diet with more meat, had been apparent since before the Black Death, but intensified during this later period.<a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a> Nonetheless, England's much smaller population needed less food and the demand for agricultural products fell. The position of the larger landowners became increasingly difficult. Revenues from demesne lands were diminishing as demand remained low and wage costs increased; nobles were also finding it more difficult to raise revenue from their local courts, fines and privileges in the years after the Peasants Revolt of 1381.<a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a> Despite attempts to increase money rents, by the end of the 14th century the rents paid from peasant lands were also declining, with revenues falling as much as 55% between the 1380s and 1420s.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettBailey-11">[11]</a> Noble and church landowners responded in various ways. They began to invest significantly less in agriculture and land was increasingly taken out of production altogether.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettBailey-11">[11]</a> In some cases entire settlements were abandoned, and nearly 1,500 villages were lost during this period.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettP206-193">[191]</a> Landowners also abandoned the system of direct management of their demesne lands, which had begun back in the 1180s, and turned instead to "farming" out large blocks of land for fixed money rents. Initially, livestock and land were rented out together under "stock and lease" contracts, but this was found to be increasingly impractical and contracts for farms became centred purely on land.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettP206-193">[191]</a> Many of the rights to church parish tithes were also "farmed" out in exchange for fixed rents.<a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a> This process was encouraged by the trend for tithe revenues being increasing "appropriated" by central church authorities, rather than being used to support local clergy: around 39% of parish tithes had been centralised in this way by 1535.<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a> As the major estates transformed, a new economic grouping, the gentry, became evident, many of them benefiting from the opportunities of the farming system. Land distribution remained heavily unequal; estimates suggest that the English nobility owned 20% of English lands, the Church and Crown 33%, the gentry 25%, and the remainder was owned by peasant farmers.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP41-16">[16]</a> Agriculture itself continued to innovate, and the loss of many English oxen to the murrain sickness in the crisis increased the number of horses used to plough fields in the 14th century, a significant improvement on older methods.<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Forests,_fishing_and_mining">Forests, fishing and mining</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Forests, fishing and mining">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Klippfisk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two triangular pieces of hung, preserved cod; the nearer piece is more brightly lit." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Klippfisk.jpg/220px-Klippfisk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Klippfisk.jpg/330px-Klippfisk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Klippfisk.jpg/440px-Klippfisk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="2067" /></a><figcaption>The more prestigious salted <a href="/wiki/Cod" title="Cod">cod</a> began to replace the <a href="/wiki/Herring" title="Herring">herring</a> as the catch of choice for English fishing fleets in the 15th century, requiring deep-sea fishing.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Royal_forest" title="Royal forest">royal forests</a> continued to diminish in size and decline in economic importance in the years after the Black Death. Royal enforcement of forest rights and laws became harder after 1348 and certainly after 1381, and by the 15th century the royal forests were a "shadow of their former selves" in size and economic significance.<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> In contrast, the English fishing industry continued to grow, and by the 15th century domestic merchants and financiers owned fleets of up to a hundred fishing vessels operating from key ports.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP53-50">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Herring" title="Herring">Herring</a> remained a key fishing catch, although as demand for herring declined with rising prosperity, the fleets began to focus instead on <a href="/wiki/Cod" title="Cod">cod</a> and other deep-sea fish from the Icelandic waters.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP53-50">[50]</a> Despite being critical to the fishing industry, <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a> production in England diminished in the 15th century due to competition from French producers.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP53-50">[50]</a> The use of expensive freshwater fish ponds on estates began to decline during this period, as more of the gentry and nobility opted to purchase freshwater fish from commercial river fisheries.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> Mining generally performed well at the end of the medieval period, helped by buoyant demand for manufactured and luxury goods. Cornish tin production plunged during the Black Death itself, leading to a doubling of prices.<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a> Tin exports also collapsed catastrophically, but picked up again over the next few years.<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> By the turn of the 16th century, the available <a href="/wiki/Alluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Alluvial">alluvial</a> tin deposits in Cornwall and Devon had begun to decline, leading to the commencement of bell and surface mining to support the tin boom that had occurred in the late 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP55-201">[199]</a> Lead mining increased, and output almost doubled between 1300 and 1500.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP55-201">[199]</a> Wood and charcoal became cheaper once again after the Black Death, and coal production declined as a result, remaining depressed for the rest of the period – nonetheless, some coal production was occurring in all the major English coalfields by the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP54-202">[200]</a> Iron production continued to increase; the <a href="/wiki/Weald" title="Weald">Weald</a> in the South-East began to make increased use of water-power, and overtook the <a href="/wiki/Forest_of_Dean" title="Forest of Dean">Forest of Dean</a> in the 15th century as England's main iron-producing region.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyP54-202">[200]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> in England, a major technical step forward in metal smelting, was created in 1496 in <a href="/wiki/Ashdown_Forest" title="Ashdown Forest">Newbridge</a> in the Weald.<a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade,_manufacturing_and_the_towns_3">Trade, manufacturing and the towns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Trade, manufacturing and the towns">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shrinking_towns">Shrinking towns</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Shrinking towns">edit</a>]</div> The percentage of England's population living in towns continued to grow but in absolute terms English towns shrunk significantly as a consequence of the Black Death, especially in the formerly prosperous east.<a href="#cite_note-PoundsP80-95">[95]</a> The importance of England's Eastern ports declined over the period, as trade from London and the South-West increased in relative significance.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> Increasingly elaborate road networks were built across England, some involving the construction of up to thirty bridges to cross rivers and other obstacles.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettP110-205">[203]</a> Nonetheless, it remained cheaper to move goods by water, and consequently timber was brought to London from as far away as the Baltic, and stone from Caen brought over the Channel to the South of England.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettP110-205">[203]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a>, particular in the South-West, became a major industry for the first time and investment in trading ships such as <a href="/wiki/Cog_(ship)" title="Cog (ship)">cogs</a> was probably the single biggest form of late medieval investment in England.<a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_of_the_cloth_trade">Rise of the cloth trade</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Rise of the cloth trade">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kieler_Hansekogge_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of a small wooden ship with white sail traversing an estuary; behind the ship is a wooded shoreline." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Kieler_Hansekogge_2007.jpg/220px-Kieler_Hansekogge_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Kieler_Hansekogge_2007.jpg/330px-Kieler_Hansekogge_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Kieler_Hansekogge_2007.jpg/440px-Kieler_Hansekogge_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cog_(ship)" title="Cog (ship)">Cog</a> ships were increasingly important to English trade as both exports and imports grew.</figcaption></figure> Cloth manufactured in England increasingly dominated European markets during the 15th and early 16th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a> England exported almost no cloth at all in 1347, but by 1400 around 40,000 cloths<a href="#cite_note-208">[nb 3]</a> a year were being exported – the trade reached its first peak in 1447 when exports reached 60,000.<a href="#cite_note-RamsayPxxxi-106">[106]</a> Trade fell slightly during the serious depression of the mid-15th century, but picked up again and reached 130,000 cloths a year by the 1540s.<a href="#cite_note-RamsayPxxxi-106">[106]</a> The centres of weaving in England shifted westwards towards the <a href="/wiki/River_Stour,_Suffolk" title="River Stour, Suffolk">Stour Valley</a>, the <a href="/wiki/West_Riding_of_Yorkshire" title="West Riding of Yorkshire">West Riding</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cotswolds" title="Cotswolds">Cotswolds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exeter" title="Exeter">Exeter</a>, away from the former weaving centres in <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coventry" title="Coventry">Coventry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norwich" title="Norwich">Norwich</a>.<a href="#cite_note-209">[206]</a> The wool and cloth trade was primarily now being run by English merchants themselves rather than by foreigners. Increasingly, the trade was also passing through London and the ports of the South-West. By the 1360s, 66–75% of the export trade was in English hands and by the 15th century this had risen to 80%; London managed around 50% of these exports in 1400, and as much as 83% of wool and cloth exports by 1540.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettRamsayKowalesk-4">[4]</a> The growth in the numbers of chartered trading companies in London, such as the <a href="/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Drapers" title="Worshipful Company of Drapers">Worshipful Company of Drapers</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Company_of_Merchant_Adventurers_of_London" title="Company of Merchant Adventurers of London">Company of Merchant Adventurers of London</a>, continued, and English producers began to provide credit to European buyers, rather than the other way around.<a href="#cite_note-HodgettP148-123">[123]</a> Usury grew during the period, and few cases were prosecuted by the authorities.<a href="#cite_note-210">[207]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_Merchant%27s_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_166280.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of a medieval building with white rendering and plain woodwork; a barrel is hung above the entrance and a small visitor's sign is placed on the street alongside the building." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Medieval_Merchant%27s_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_166280.jpg/200px-Medieval_Merchant%27s_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_166280.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Medieval_Merchant%27s_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_166280.jpg/300px-Medieval_Merchant%27s_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_166280.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Medieval_Merchant%27s_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_166280.jpg/400px-Medieval_Merchant%27s_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_166280.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>A medieval merchant's <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Merchant%27s_House" title="Medieval Merchant's House">trading house</a> in <a href="/wiki/Southampton" title="Southampton">Southampton</a>, restored to its mid-14th-century appearance</figcaption></figure> There were some reversals. The attempts of English merchants to break through the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_league" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanseatic league">Hanseatic league</a> directly into the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_region" title="Baltic region">Baltic</a> markets failed in the domestic political chaos of the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a> in the 1460s and 1470s.<a href="#cite_note-211">[208]</a> The wine trade with <a href="/wiki/Gascony" title="Gascony">Gascony</a> fell by half during the war with France, and the eventual loss of the province brought an end to the English domination of the business and temporary disruption to <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>'s prosperity until wines began to be imported through the city a few years later.<a href="#cite_note-212">[209]</a> Indeed, the disruption to both the Baltic and the Gascon trade contributed to a sharp reduction in the consumption of furs and wine by the English gentry and nobility during the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-213">[210]</a> There were advances in manufacturing, especially in the South and West. Despite some French attacks, the war created much coastal prosperity thanks to the huge expenditure on shipbuilding during the war, and the South-West also became a centre for English piracy against foreign vessels.<a href="#cite_note-214">[211]</a> Metalworking continued to grow, and in particular pewter working, which generated exports second only to cloth.<a href="#cite_note-215">[212]</a> By the 15th century pewter working in London was a large industry, with a hundred pewter workers recorded in London alone, and pewter working had also spread from the capital to eleven major cities across England.<a href="#cite_note-216">[213]</a> London goldsmithing remained significant but saw relatively little growth, with around 150 goldsmiths working in London during the period.<a href="#cite_note-HomerP70-217">[214]</a> Iron-working continued to expand and in 1509 the first <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast-iron</a> <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannon</a> was made in England.<a href="#cite_note-GeddesP181-14">[14]</a> This was reflected in the rapid growth in the number of iron-working guilds, from three in 1300 to fourteen by 1422.<a href="#cite_note-218">[215]</a> The result was a substantial <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_payments" title="Balance of payments">influx of money</a> that in turn encouraged the import of manufactured luxury goods; by 1391 shipments from abroad routinely included "ivory, mirrors, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pax" class="extiw" title="wikt:pax">paxes</a>, armour, paper..., painted clothes, spectacles, tin images, razors, <a href="/wiki/Calamine" title="Calamine">calamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treacle" title="Treacle">treacle</a>, sugar-candy, marking irons, <a href="/wiki/Paten" title="Paten">patens</a>..., ox-horns and quantities of <a href="/wiki/Panelling" title="Panelling">wainscot</a>".<a href="#cite_note-219">[216]</a> Imported spices now formed a part of almost all noble and gentry diets, with the quantities being consumed varying according to the wealth of the household.<a href="#cite_note-220">[217]</a> The English government was also importing large quantities of raw materials, including <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, for manufacturing weapons.<a href="#cite_note-221">[218]</a> Many major landowners tended to focus their efforts on maintaining a single major castle or house rather than the dozens a century before, but these were usually decorated much more luxurious than previously. Major merchants' dwellings, too, were more lavish than in previous years.<a href="#cite_note-222">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decline_of_the_fair_system">Decline of the fair system</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Decline of the fair system">edit</a>]</div> Towards the end of the 14th century, the position of fairs began to decline. The larger merchants, particularly in London, began to establish direct links with the larger landowners such as the nobility and the church; rather than the landowner buying from a chartered fair, they would buy directly from the merchant.<a href="#cite_note-MyersRabanBarron-13">[13]</a> Meanwhile, the growth of the indigenous England merchant class in the major cities, especially London, gradually crowded out the foreign merchants upon whom the great chartered fairs had largely depended.<a href="#cite_note-MyersRabanBarron-13">[13]</a> The crown's control over trade in the towns, especially the emerging newer towns towards the end of the 15th century that lacked central civic government, was increasingly weaker, making chartered status less relevant as more trade occurred from private properties and took place all year around.<a href="#cite_note-223">[220]</a> Nonetheless, the great fairs remained of importance well into the 15th century, as illustrated by their role in exchanging money, regional commerce and in providing choice for individual consumers.<a href="#cite_note-224">[221]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eileen_Power.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black-and-white photograph of a middle-aged woman facing the camera. She had dark black hair and has her hands clasped. She is wearing a plain necklace and earrings." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Eileen_Power.jpg/170px-Eileen_Power.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Eileen_Power.jpg/255px-Eileen_Power.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Eileen_Power.jpg/340px-Eileen_Power.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="774" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eileen_Power" title="Eileen Power">Eileen Power</a>, one of the academics responsible for the reinvigoration of the study of the English medieval economy in the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">inter-war years</a></figcaption></figure> The first studies into the medieval economy of England began in the 1880s, principally around the work of English <a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurist</a> and historian <a href="/wiki/Frederic_William_Maitland" title="Frederic William Maitland">Frederic Maitland</a>. This scholarship, drawing extensively on documents such as the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>, became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whiggish</a>" view of economic history, focusing on law and government.<a href="#cite_note-225">[222]</a> Late Victorian writers argued that change in the English medieval economy stemmed primarily from the towns and cities, leading to a progressive and <a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">universalist</a> interpretation of development over the period, focusing on trade and commerce.<a href="#cite_note-226">[223]</a> Influenced by the evolution of Norman laws, Maitland argued that there was a clear discontinuity between the Anglo-Saxon and Norman economic systems.<a href="#cite_note-227">[224]</a> In the 1930s the Whiggish view of the English economy was challenged by a group of scholars at the University of Cambridge, led by <a href="/wiki/Eileen_Power" title="Eileen Power">Eileen Power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[225]</a> Power and her colleagues widened the focus of study from legal and government documents to include "agrarian, archaeological, demographic, settlement, landscape and urban" evidence.<a href="#cite_note-229">[226]</a> This was combined with a <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">neo-positivist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometric</a> leaning that was at odds with the older Victorian tradition in the subject. Power died in 1940, but <a href="/wiki/Michael_Postan" title="Michael Postan">Michael Postan</a>, who had previously been her student but later became her husband, brought their work forward, and it came to dominate the post-war field. Postan argued that <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a> was the principal driving force in the medieval English economy.<a href="#cite_note-230">[227]</a> In a distinctly <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthusian</a> fashion, Postan proposed that the English agrarian economy saw little technical development during the period and by the early 14th century was unable to support the growing population, leading to inevitable famines and economic depression as the population came back into balance with land resources.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer,_p.5-231">[228]</a> Postan began the trend towards stressing continuities between the pre- and post-invasion economies, aided by fresh evidence emerging from the use of <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> techniques to understand the medieval economy from the 1950s onwards.<a href="#cite_note-232">[229]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monk%27s_Field_-_A_burial_site_or_a_by-pass%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_101622.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of a wide flat area of dirt, with a handful of men scattered across it engaged in some sort of work. In the near ground one man is standing looking at the camera. All the men cast long shadows across the picture." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Monk%27s_Field_-_A_burial_site_or_a_by-pass%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_101622.jpg/220px-Monk%27s_Field_-_A_burial_site_or_a_by-pass%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_101622.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Monk%27s_Field_-_A_burial_site_or_a_by-pass%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_101622.jpg/330px-Monk%27s_Field_-_A_burial_site_or_a_by-pass%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_101622.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Monk%27s_Field_-_A_burial_site_or_a_by-pass%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_101622.jpg/440px-Monk%27s_Field_-_A_burial_site_or_a_by-pass%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_101622.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rescue_archaeology" title="Rescue archaeology">Rescue archaeology</a>, such as this investigation into a medieval site, has increasingly contributed to understanding the English economy.</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> critique of Postan emerged from the 1950s onwards, captured in the academic journal <a href="/wiki/Past_%26_Present_(journal)" title="Past & Present (journal)">Past & Present</a>.<a href="#cite_note-233">[230]</a> This school of thought agreed that the agrarian economy was central to medieval England, but argued that agrarian issues had less to do with demography than with the <a href="/wiki/Mode_of_production" title="Mode of production">mode of production</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> <a href="/wiki/Relations_of_production" title="Relations of production">class relations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-234">[231]</a> In this model the English economy entered the crisis of the early 14th century because of the struggles between landlords and peasant for resources and excessive extraction of rents by the nobility.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer,_p.5-231">[228]</a> Similar issues underpinned the <a href="/wiki/Peasants_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants Revolt">Peasants Revolt</a> of 1381 and later tax rebellions. Historians such as <a href="/wiki/Frank_Stenton" title="Frank Stenton">Frank Stenton</a> developed the "<a href="/wiki/Honour_(land)" class="mw-redirect" title="Honour (land)">honour</a>" as a unit of economic analysis and a focus for understanding feudal relations in peasant communities; <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Hilton" title="Rodney Hilton">Rodney Hilton</a> developed the idea of the rise of the gentry as a key feature for understanding the late medieval period.<a href="#cite_note-235">[232]</a> Fresh work in the 1970s and 1980s challenged both Postan's and Marxist approaches to the medieval economy. Local studies of medieval economics, often in considerable detail and fusing new archaeological techniques and <a href="/wiki/Rescue_archaeology" title="Rescue archaeology">rescue archaeology</a> with historical sources, often ran counter to their broader interpretations of change and development.<a href="#cite_note-236">[233]</a> The degree to which feudalism really existed and operated in England after the initial years of the invasion was thrown into considerable doubt, with historians such as <a href="/wiki/David_Crouch_(historian)" title="David Crouch (historian)">David Crouch</a> arguing that it existed primarily as a legal and fiscal model, rather than an actual economic system.<a href="#cite_note-237">[234]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">anthropological</a> studies of contemporary economies, including the work of <a href="/wiki/Ester_Boserup" title="Ester Boserup">Ester Boserup</a> showed many flaws with Postan's key assumptions about demography and land use.<a href="#cite_note-238">[235]</a> The current academic preference is to see the English medieval economy as an "overlapping network of diverse communities",<a href="#cite_note-239">[236]</a> in which active local choices and decisions are the result of independent agency, rather than a result of historically deterministic processes.<a href="#cite_note-240">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/32px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/48px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/64px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:England" title="Portal:England">England portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/28px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/42px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/56px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="267" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Middle Ages portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/42px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/56px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Business and economics">Business and economics portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Medieval demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_penny_(c._600_%E2%80%93_1066)" title="History of the English penny (c. 600 – 1066)">History of the English penny (c. 600 – 1066)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_penny_(1154%E2%80%931485)" title="History of the English penny (1154–1485)">History of the English penny (1154–1485)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_and_William_Merfold" title="John and William Merfold">John and William Merfold</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Hanse is the old English word for "group". </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> The precise mortality figures for the Black Death have been debated at length for many years. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> A "cloth" in medieval times was a single piece of woven fabric from a loom of a fixed size; an English <a href="/wiki/Broadcloth" title="Broadcloth">broadcloth</a>, for example, was 24 yards long and 1.75 yards wide (22 m by 1.6 m). </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-DyerP14-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DyerP14_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DyerP14_1-1">b</a> Dyer 2009, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-BartlettDyer-2"><a href="#cite_ref-BartlettDyer_2-0">^</a> Bartlett, p. 313; Dyer 2009, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Homer, p. 58; Hatcher 1996, p. 40; Bailey, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-HodgettRamsayKowalesk-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettRamsayKowalesk_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettRamsayKowalesk_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettRamsayKowalesk_4-2">c</a> Hodgett, p. 148; Ramsay, p. xxxi; Kowalesk, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor_1982a,_p.18-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor_1982a,_p.18_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor_1982a,_p.18_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor_1982a,_p.18_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor_1982a,_p.18_5-3">d</a> Cantor 1982a, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-BaileyBartlettCantor-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyBartlettCantor_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyBartlettCantor_6-1">b</a> Bailey, p. 41; Bartlett, p. 321; Cantor 1982a, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-HodgettBaileyPounds-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettBaileyPounds_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettBaileyPounds_7-1">b</a> Hodgett, p. 57; Bailey, p. 47; Pounds, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Hillaby, p. 16; Dyer 2009, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-BlanchardP29-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BlanchardP29_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlanchardP29_9-1">b</a> Blanchard, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-JordanBaileyAberthCantorJordan-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JordanBaileyAberthCantorJordan_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JordanBaileyAberthCantorJordan_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JordanBaileyAberthCantorJordan_10-2">c</a> Jordan, p. 12; Bailey, p. 46; Aberth, pp. 26–7; Cantor 1982a, p. 18; Jordan, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-HodgettBailey-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettBailey_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettBailey_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettBailey_11-2">c</a> Hodgett, p. 206; Bailey, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-JonesP201-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JonesP201_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JonesP201_12-1">b</a> Jones, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-MyersRabanBarron-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MyersRabanBarron_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MyersRabanBarron_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MyersRabanBarron_13-2">c</a> Myers, pp. 161–4; Raban, p. 50; Barron, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-GeddesP181-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GeddesP181_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GeddesP181_14-1">b</a> Geddes, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-BaileyP41-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP41_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP41_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP41_16-2">c</a> Bailey, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Cantor 1982a, pp. 17–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-BaileyP44-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP44_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP44_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP44_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP44_18-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP44_18-4">e</a> Bailey, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Dyer 2009, pp. 27, 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Dyer 2009, pp. 19, 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Dyer 2009, pp. 19–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bartlett,_p.313-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bartlett,_p.313_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartlett,_p.313_23-1">b</a> Bartlett, p. 313. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-DouglasP310-25"><a href="#cite_ref-DouglasP310_25-0">^</a> Douglas, p. 310. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Bartlett, p. 319; Douglas, p. 311. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Dyer 2009, pp. 36–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-DouglasP312-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DouglasP312_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DouglasP312_28-1">b</a> Douglas, p. 312. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Dyer 2009, pp. 81–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-DyerP18-30"><a href="#cite_ref-DyerP18_30-0">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-HuscroftP97-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HuscroftP97_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HuscroftP97_31-1">b</a> Huscroft, p. 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor1982bP63-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor1982bP63_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor1982bP63_32-1">b</a> Cantor 1982b, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Cantor 1982b, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Cantor 1982a, p. 18; Cantor 1982b, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-StentonP162166-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-StentonP162166_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-StentonP162166_35-1">b</a> Stenton, pp. 162, 166. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Douglas, p. 303. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Sutton, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-DouglasP313-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DouglasP313_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DouglasP313_38-1">b</a> Douglas, p. 313. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Douglas, p. 314. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Hillaby, pp. 16–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Douglas, pp. 303–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-StentonP162-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-StentonP162_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-StentonP162_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-StentonP162_42-2">c</a> Stenton, p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Douglas, p. 299. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Douglas, pp. 299, 302. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Cantor 1982a, p. 18, suggests an English population of 4 million; Jordan, p. 12, suggests 5 million. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Burton, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Wood, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Myers, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-BaileyP51-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP51_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP51_49-1">b</a> Bailey, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-BaileyP53-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP53_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP53_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP53_50-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP53_50-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP53_50-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaileyP53_50-5">f</a> Bailey, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Bailey, p. 53; Keen, p. 134. </li> <li id="cite_note-BartlettBaileyP368-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BartlettBaileyP368_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BartlettBaileyP368_52-1">b</a> Bartlett, p. 368; Bailey, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Cantor 1982b, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Bailey, pp. 44, 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Dyer 2002, p. 164; Dyer 2009, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Cantor 1982b, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Huscroft, p. 173; Birrell, p. 149, </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Cantor 1982b, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Cantor 1982b, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Bartlett, p. 315. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Postan 1972, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Postan 1972, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Danziger and Gillingham, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Danziger and Gillingham, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Cantor 1982a, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Danziger and Gillingham, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Dyer 2000, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Bailey, p.44; Dyer 2009, p. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Burton, pp. 55, 69; Dyer 2009, p. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Dyer 2009, pp. 156–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Danziger and Gillingham, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-ForeyPostanP111-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ForeyPostanP111_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ForeyPostanP111_76-1">b</a> Forey, pp. 111, 230; Postan 1972, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Forey, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Swanson, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Swanson, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Swanson, p. 89; Dyer 2009, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-Dyer2009P195-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dyer2009P195_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dyer2009P195_81-1">b</a> Dyer 2009, p. 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Swanson, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Hodgett, p. 158; Barnes, p. 245. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Homer, p. 57; Bayley, pp. 131–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Geddes, p. 169; Bailey, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-GEDDESP169-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GEDDESP169_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GEDDESP169_86-1">b</a> Geddes, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Geddes, pp. 169, 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Blanchard, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Homer, p. 57, pp. 61–2; Bailey, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Homer, pp. 57, 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Homer, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Astill, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Hodgett, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-AstillPP48-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AstillPP48_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AstillPP48_94-1">b</a> Astill, pp. 48–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-PoundsP80-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PoundsP80_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PoundsP80_95-1">b</a> Pounds, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Nightingale, p. 92; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Geddes, pp. 174–5, 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Homer, pp. 57–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Bailey, p. 46; Homer, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Bartlett, p. 361. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Bartlett, p. 361; Bailey, p. 52; Pilkinton p. xvi. </li> <li id="cite_note-HODGETTP109-102"><a href="#cite_ref-HODGETTP109_102-0">^</a> Hodgett, p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-BartlettHodgettP363-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BartlettHodgettP363_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BartlettHodgettP363_103-1">b</a> Bartlett, p. 363; Hodgett p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Bartlett, p. 364. </li> <li id="cite_note-HodgettP147-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettP147_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettP147_105-1">b</a> Hodgett, p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-RamsayPxxxi-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RamsayPxxxi_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RamsayPxxxi_106-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RamsayPxxxi_106-2">c</a> Ramsay, p. xxxi. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Stenton, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Stenton, pp. 169–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Bailey, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-BoltonP32-110"><a href="#cite_ref-BoltonP32_110-0">^</a> Bolton pp. 32–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Stenton, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ramsay,_p.xx-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ramsay,_p.xx_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ramsay,_p.xx_112-1">b</a> Ramsay, p. xx. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Myers, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Hodgett, p. 147; Ramsay, p. xx. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Myers, p. 69; Ramsay, p. xx. </li> <li id="cite_note-MyersP69-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MyersP69_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MyersP69_116-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MyersP69_116-2">c</a> Myers, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Myers, p. 69; Ramsay, p. xxiii. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 209. </li> <li id="cite_note-DanzigerGillinghamReyersonP65-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DanzigerGillinghamReyersonP65_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DanzigerGillinghamReyersonP65_119-1">b</a> Danziger and Gillingham, p. 65; Reyerson, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-Danziger_and_Gillingham,_p.65-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Danziger_and_Gillingham,_p.65_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Danziger_and_Gillingham,_p.65_120-1">b</a> Danziger and Gillingham, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 192; Harding, p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 209; Ramsay, p. xxiv; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-HodgettP148-123">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettP148_123-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettP148_123-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettP148_123-2">c</a> Hodgett, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Hodgett, p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Postan 1972, pp. 245–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Hillaby, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Hillaby, pp. 21–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Hillaby, p. 22; Stenton, pp. 193–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stenton,_pp193-4-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stenton,_pp193-4_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stenton,_pp193-4_130-1">b</a> Stenton, pp. 193–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Stenton, p. 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Stenton, p. 197. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Hillaby, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-StentonP200-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-StentonP200_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-StentonP200_134-1">b</a> Stenton, p. 200. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Hillaby, p. 29; Stenton, p. 200. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Stenton, p. 199. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Hillaby, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Stacey, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-LawlerLawlerP6-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LawlerLawlerP6_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LawlerLawlerP6_139-1">b</a> Lawler and Lawler, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Bartlett, p. 159; Postan 1972, p. 261. </li> <li id="cite_note-HodgettP203-141">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettP203_141-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HodgettP203_141-1">b</a> Hodgett, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Brown, Alfred 1989, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-CarpenterP51-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CarpenterP51_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CarpenterP51_143-1">b</a> Carpenter, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Tait, pp. 102–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Cooper, p.127. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Swedberg, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Bartlett, p. 321. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Danziger and Gillingham, pp. 41–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-BartlettP316-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BartlettP316_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BartlettP316_149-1">b</a> Bartlett, p. 316. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Postan 1972, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-Dyer2009P134-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dyer2009P134_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dyer2009P134_151-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dyer2009P134_151-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dyer2009P134_151-3">d</a> Dyer 2009, p. 134. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Cantor 1982a, p. 20; Aberth, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Aberth, pp. 13–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Richardson, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-JordanAberthP38-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JordanAberthP38_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JordanAberthP38_155-1">b</a> Jordan, pp. 38, 54; Aberth, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Jordan, p.54. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Postan 1972, pp. 26–7; Aberth, p. 26; Cantor 1982a, p. 18; Jordan, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Aberth, p. 34; Jordan, pp. 17, 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Jordan, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Fryde and Fryde, p. 754. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Jordan, p. 78; Hodgett, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Dyer 2009, pp. 271, 274; Hatcher 1996, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 272; Hatcher 1996, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 274. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Dyer 2009, pp. 272–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 273. </li> <li id="cite_note-FrydeP753-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FrydeP753_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FrydeP753_168-1">b</a> Fryde and Fryde, p. 753. </li> 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Dyer 2009, p. 4; Coss, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Rahman, pp. 177–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Gerrard, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Crouch, pp. 178–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Langdon, Astill and Myrdal, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-Dyer,_p.5-231">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dyer,_p.5_231-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dyer,_p.5_231-1">b</a> Dyer 2009, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Gerrard, pp. 98, 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Coss, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 5; Langdon, Astill and Myrdal, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> Crouch, p. 181; Coss, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> Hinton, pp. vii–viii. </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> Crouch, p. 271; Coss, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> Dyer 2009, p. 5; Langdon, Astill and Myrdal, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Crouch, p. 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> Dyer 2009, pp. 7–8; Langdon, Astill and Myrdal, p. 3. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Aberth, John. (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4xyp-SscNBkC">From the Brink of the Apocalypse: Confronting Famine, War, Plague and Death in the Later Middle Ages.</a> London: Routledge. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-92715-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-92715-3">0-415-92715-3</a>.</li> <li>Abulafia, David. (ed) (1999) The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 1198-c. 1300. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36289-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36289-4">978-0-521-36289-4</a>.</li> <li>Anderson, Michael. (ed) (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZluHqgMuoqkC">British Population History: From the Black Death to the Present Day</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57884-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57884-4">978-0-521-57884-4</a>.</li> <li>Archer, Rowena E. and Simon Walker. (eds) (1995) Rulers and Ruled in Late Medieval England. London: Hambledon Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-133-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-133-0">978-1-85285-133-0</a>.</li> <li>Armstrong, Lawrin, Ivana Elbl and Martin M. Elbl. (eds) (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MiOgMTvLwZwC">Money, Markets and Trade in Late Medieval Europe: Essays in Honour of John H. A. Munro</a>. Leiden: BRILL. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15633-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15633-3">978-90-04-15633-3</a>.</li> <li>Astill, Grenville. (2000) "General Survey 600–1300," in Palliser (ed) 2000.</li> <li>Astill, Grenville and John Langdon (eds) (2007) Medieval Farming and Technology: the Impact of Agricultural Change in Northwest Europe. Leiden: BRILL. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10582-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10582-9">978-90-04-10582-9</a>.</li> <li>Bailey, Mark. (1996) "Population and Economic Resources," in Given-Wilson (ed) 1996.</li> <li>Barron, Caroline. (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OM0Wy2NbWooC">London in the Later Middle Ages: Government and People 1200–1500</a>. 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(2009) "Medieval Precious Metal Refining: Archaeology and Contemporary Texts Compared," in Martinon-Torres and Rehren (eds) 2009.</li> <li>Birrell, Jean. (1988) "Forest Law and the Peasantry in the Later Thirteenth Century," in Coss and Lloyd (eds) 1988.</li> <li>Blair, John and Nigel Ramsay. (eds) (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mxjCN8R4pgsC">English Medieval Industries: Craftsmen, Techniques, Products</a>. London: Hambledon Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-326-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-326-6">978-1-85285-326-6</a>.</li> <li>Blanchard, Ian. (2002) "Lothian and Beyond: the Economy of the "English Empire" of David I," in Britnell and Hatcher (eds) 2002.</li> <li>Bolton, J. K. (2007) "English Economy in the Early Thirteenth Century," in Church (ed) 2007.</li> <li>Bork, Robert Odell. (ed) (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DS4oLkj3pnMC">De Re Metallica: The Uses of Metal in the Middle Ages</a>. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5048-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5048-5">978-0-7546-5048-5</a>.</li> <li>Britnell, Richard and John Hatcher (eds). (2002) Progress and Problems in Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Edward Miller. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52273-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52273-1">978-0-521-52273-1</a>.</li> <li>Britnell, Richard and Ben Dodds (eds) (2008) Agriculture and Rural Society after the Black Death: common themes and regional variations. Hatfield, UK: University of Hatfield Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-79-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-79-2">978-1-902806-79-2</a>.</li> <li>Brown, R. Allen. (ed) (1989) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=myeNSmCynIAC">Anglo-Norman Studies XI: Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1988</a>. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-526-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-526-5">978-0-85115-526-5</a>.</li> <li>Brown, Alfred L. (1989) The Governance of Late Medieval England, 1272–1461. Stanford: Stanford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1730-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1730-4">978-0-8047-1730-4</a>.</li> <li>Burton, Janet E. (1994) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=erXXZpUV3GsC">Monastic and Religious Orders in Britain, 1000–1300</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37797-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37797-3">978-0-521-37797-3</a>.</li> <li>Cantor, Leonard (ed). (1982) The English Medieval Landscape. London: Croom Helm. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-0707-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-0707-7">978-0-7099-0707-7</a>.</li> <li>Cantor, Leonard. (1982a) "Introduction: the English Medieval Landscape," in Cantor (ed) 1982.</li> <li>Cantor, Leonard. (1982b) "Forests, Chases, Parks and Warrens," in Cantor (ed) 1982.</li> <li>Carpenter, David. (2004) The Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284. London: Penguin Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-014824-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-014824-4">978-0-14-014824-4</a>.</li> <li>Church, S. D. (ed) (2007) King John: New Interpretations. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-947-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-947-8">978-0-85115-947-8</a>.</li> <li>Cooper, Alan. (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NOkyjcjx5SgC">Bridges, Law and Power in Medieval England, 700–1400</a>. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-275-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-275-1">978-1-84383-275-1</a>.</li> <li>Coss, Peter. (2002) "From Feudalism to Bastard Feudalism," in Fryde, Monnet and Oexle (eds) (2002)</li> <li>Coss, Peter and S.D. Lloyd (eds). (1988) Thirteenth Century England II: Proceedings of the Newcastle upon Tyne Conference 1987. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-513-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-513-5">978-0-85115-513-5</a>.</li> <li>Crouch, David. (2005) The Birth of Nobility: Constructing Aristocracy in England and France : 900–1300. Harlow, UK: Pearson. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-36981-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-36981-8">978-0-582-36981-8</a>.</li> <li>Danziger, Danny and John Gillingham. (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LsLSJrAdLa0C">1215: The Year of Magna Carta</a>. London: Coronet Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-5778-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-5778-7">978-0-7432-5778-7</a>.</li> <li>Dobbin, Frank. (ed) (2004) The Sociology of the Economy. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87154-284-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87154-284-7">978-0-87154-284-7</a>.</li> <li>Douglas, David Charles. (1962) William the Conqueror: the Norman Impact upon England. Berkeley: University of California Press.</li> <li>Dyer, Christopher. (2000) Everyday life in medieval England. London: Hambledon. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-201-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-201-6">978-1-85285-201-6</a>.</li> <li>Dyer, Christopher. (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=82zXFn-EDisC">Making a Living in the Middle Ages: The People of Britain, 850 – 1520</a>. London: Yale University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10191-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10191-1">978-0-300-10191-1</a>.</li> <li>Fletcher, Anthony and Diarmaid MacCulloch. (2008) Tudor Rebellions. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-7432-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-7432-8">978-1-4058-7432-8</a>.</li> <li>Forey, Alan. (1992) The Military Orders from the Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries. London: Macmillan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-46235-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-46235-1">0-333-46235-1</a>.</li> <li>Fryde, E. B. and Natalie Fryde. (1991) "Peasant Rebellion and Peasant Discontents," in Miller (ed) 1991.</li> <li>Fryde, Natalie, Pierre Monnet and Oto Oexle. (eds) (2002) Die Gegenwart des Feudalismus. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-525-35391-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-525-35391-2">978-3-525-35391-2</a>.</li> <li>Geddes, Jane. (2001) "Iron," in Blair and Ramsay (eds) 2001.</li> <li>Gerrard, Christopher. (2003) Medieval Archaeology: Understanding Traditions and Contemporary Approaches. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23463-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23463-4">978-0-415-23463-4</a>.</li> <li>Given-Wilson, Chris (ed). (1996) An Illustrated History of Late Medieval England. Manchester: Manchester University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4152-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4152-5">978-0-7190-4152-5</a>.</li> <li>Hamilton, J. S. (ed) (2006) Fourteenth Century England, Volume 4. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-220-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-220-1">978-1-84383-220-1</a>.</li> <li>Harriss, G. L. (1975) King, Parliament and Public Finance in Medieval England to 1369. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-822435-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-822435-4">0-19-822435-4</a></li> <li>Hatcher, John. (1996) "Plague, Population and the English Economy," in Anderson (ed) 1996.</li> <li>Hatcher, John. (2002) "The great slump of the mid-fifteenth century," in Britnell and Hatcher (eds) 2002.</li> <li>Harding, Alan. (1997) England in the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31612-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31612-5">978-0-521-31612-5</a>.</li> <li>Hicks, Michael (ed.) (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EbsIqntJ9IAC">The Fifteenth Century 2: Revolution and Consumption in Late Medieval England</a>. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-832-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-832-7">978-0-85115-832-7</a>.</li> <li>Hillaby, Joe. (2003) "Jewish Colonisation in the Twelfth Century," in Skinner (ed) 2003.</li> <li>Hinton, David. (2002) Archaeology, Economy and Society: England from the Fifth to the Fifteenth Century. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-03984-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-03984-7">978-0-203-03984-7</a>.</li> <li>Hodgett, Gerald. (2006) A Social and Economic History of Medieval Europe. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37707-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37707-2">978-0-415-37707-2</a>.</li> <li>Homer, Ronald F. (2010) "Tin, Lead and Pewter," in Blair and Ramsay (eds) 2001.</li> <li>Huscroft, Richard. (2005) Ruling England, 1042–1217. Harlow, UK: Pearson. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-84882-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-84882-5">978-0-582-84882-5</a>.</li> <li>Jones, Dan. (2010) Summer of Blood: The Peasants' Revolt of 1381. London: Harper. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-721393-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-721393-1">978-0-00-721393-1</a>.</li> <li>Jordan, William Chester. (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0aDsjjZrYCwC">The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century</a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05891-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05891-7">978-0-691-05891-7</a>.</li> <li>Keen, Laurence. (1989) "Coastal Salt Production in Norman England," in Brown R. (ed) 1989.</li> <li>Kermode, Jenny. (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T7Jl6LgZSVUC">Medieval Merchants: York, Beverley and Hull in the Later Middle Ages</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52274-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52274-8">978-0-521-52274-8</a>.</li> <li>Kowalski, Maryanne. (2007) "Warfare, Shipping, and Crown Patronage: The Economic Impact of the Hundred Years War on the English Port Towns," in Armstrong, Elbl and Elbl (eds) 2007.</li> <li>Langdon, John, Grenville Astill and Janken Myrdal. (1997) "Introduction," in Astill and Langdon (eds) 1997.</li> <li>Lawler, John and Gail Gates Lawler. (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1cMVrL9fwkoC">A Short Historical Introduction to the Law of Real Property</a>. Washington DC: Beard Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58798-032-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58798-032-9">978-1-58798-032-9</a>.</li> <li>Lee, John. (2001) "The Trade of Fifteenth Century Cambridge and its Region," in Hicks (ed) 2001.</li> <li>Martinon-Torres, Marcos and Thilo Rehren (eds). (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-If7bslmrPwC">Archaeology, History and Science: Integrating Approaches to Ancient Materials</a>. Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59874-350-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59874-350-0">978-1-59874-350-0</a>.</li> <li>McFarlane, Kenneth Bruce. (1981) England in the Fifteenth Century: Collected Essays. London: Hambledon Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-907628-01-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-907628-01-9">978-0-907628-01-9</a>.</li> <li>Miller, Edward. (ed) (1991) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qQ93gEFS9PcC">The Agrarian History of England and Wales, Volume III: 1348–1500</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20074-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20074-5">978-0-521-20074-5</a>.</li> <li>Myers, A. R. (1971) England in the Late Middle Ages. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-020234-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-020234-X">0-14-020234-X</a>.</li> <li>Nightingale, Pamela. (2002) "The growth of London in the medieval English economy," in Britnell and Hatcher (eds) 2002.</li> <li>Palliser, D. M. (ed) (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=326joXdwiCYC">The Cambridge Urban History of Britain: 600 – 1540, Volume 1.</a> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44461-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44461-3">978-0-521-44461-3</a>.</li> <li>Pilkinton, Mark Cartwright. (1997) Bristol. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-4221-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-4221-7">978-0-8020-4221-7</a>.</li> <li>Postan, M. M. (1942) "Some Social Consequences of the Hundred Years War," in Economic History Review, XII (1942).</li> <li>Postan, M. M. (1972) The Medieval Economy and Society. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-020896-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-020896-8">0-14-020896-8</a>.</li> <li>Pounds, Norman John Greville. (2005) The Medieval City. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32498-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32498-7">978-0-313-32498-7</a>.</li> <li>Raban, Sandra. (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j092uACcxaAC">England Under Edward I and Edward II, 1259–1327</a>. Oxford: Blackwell. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22320-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22320-7">978-0-631-22320-7</a>.</li> <li>Rahman, M. M. (2005) Encyclopaedia of Historiography. New Delhi: Anmol. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-261-2305-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-261-2305-6">978-81-261-2305-6</a>.</li> <li>Ramsay, Nigel. (2001) "Introduction," in Blair and Ramsay (eds) 2001.</li> <li>Reyerson, Kathryn L. (1999) "Commerce and communications," in Abulafia (ed) 1999.</li> <li>Richardson, Amanda. "Royal Landscapes," in Hamilton (ed) 2006.</li> <li>Skinner, Patricia (ed). (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GKXbD-RiQ2oC">The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives</a>. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-931-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-931-7">978-0-85115-931-7</a>.</li> <li>Stacey, Robert C. (2003) "The English Jews under Henry III," in Skinner (ed) 2003.</li> <li>Stenton, Doris Mary. (1976) English Society in the Early Middle Ages (1066–1307). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-020252-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-020252-8">0-14-020252-8</a>.</li> <li>Sutton, Anne. F. (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iqfOAhjwJwcC">The Mercery of London: Trade, Goods and People, 1130–1578</a>. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5331-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5331-8">978-0-7546-5331-8</a>.</li> <li>Swanson, Robert N. "A universal levy: tithes and economy agency," in Dodd and Britnell (eds) 2008.</li> <li>Swedberg, Richard. (2004) "On Legal Institutions and Their Role in the Economy," in Dobbin (ed) 2004.</li> <li>Tait, James. (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KxcNAQAAIAAJ">The Medieval English Borough: Studies on its Origins and Constitutional History</a>. Manchester: Manchester University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-0339-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-0339-4">978-0-7190-0339-4</a>.</li> <li>Wood, Diana. (2002) Medieval Economic Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45893-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45893-1">978-0-521-45893-1</a>.</li> <li>Woolgar, Christopher. (1995) "Diet and Consumption in Gentry and Noble Households: A Case Study from around the Wash," in Archer and Walker (eds) 1995.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bolton, J. K. (1980) "The Medieval English Economy. 1150-1500"</li> <li>Bland, A.E., P.A. Brown and R.H. Tawney, eds. English economic history: select documents (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=bSO6emWmBuAC">online</a> 733pp; covers 1086 to 1840s.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Crowns" title="Union of the Crowns">Union of the Crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_Plot" title="Gunpowder Plot">Gunpowder Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era" title="Jacobean era">Jacobean era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(England)" title="Interregnum (England)">Interregnum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protectorate" title="The Protectorate">The Protectorate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">The Restoration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Popish_Plot" title="Popish Plot">Popish Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusion_Crisis" title="Exclusion Crisis">Exclusion Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Union with Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">Overseas possessions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proprietary_colony" title="Proprietary colony">Proprietary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_protectorate" title="British protectorate">Protectorate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_England" title="Maritime history of England">Maritime history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Royal Houses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Wessex" title="House of Wessex">Wessex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kn%C3%BDtlinga" title="House of Knýtlinga">Knýtlinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Normandy" title="House of Normandy">Normandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_kings_of_England" title="Angevin kings of England">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">Plantagenet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">Tudor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau" title="House of Orange-Nassau">Orange-Nassau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England" title="Politics of England">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">Law</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witan" title="Witan">Witan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_regis" title="Curia regis">Curia regis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnum_Concilium" title="Magnum Concilium">Magnum Concilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Lords of England">House of Lords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England" title="House of Commons of England">House of Commons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Secretary" title="King's Secretary">King's Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_monarchy" title="History of the English monarchy">Monarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">Council of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_England" title="Peerage of England">Peerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_England" title="Privy Council of England">Privy Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_ministries" title="List of English ministries">Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_(England)" title="Secretary of State (England)">Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governance_of_England" title="Governance of England">Governance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Government in Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_in_medieval_England" title="Government in medieval England">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_government" title="Elizabethan government">Elizabethan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Chamber" title="Star Chamber">Star Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tory" title="Tory">Tories</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Acts of Parliament:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1225%E2%80%931267" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1225–1267">1225–1267</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1275%E2%80%931307" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1275–1307">1275–1307</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1308%E2%80%931325" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1308–1325">1308–1325</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_uncertain_date" title="Statutes of uncertain date">Temp. incert.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1327%E2%80%931376" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1327–1376">1327–1376</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1377%E2%80%931397" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1377–1397">1377–1397</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1399%E2%80%931411" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1399–1411">1399–1411</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1413%E2%80%931421" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1413–1421">1413–1421</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1422%E2%80%931460" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1422–1460">1422–1460</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1461" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1461">1461</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1463" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1463">1463</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1464" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1464">1464</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1467" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1467">1467</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1468" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1468">1468</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1472" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1472">1472</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1474" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1474">1474</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1477" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1477">1477</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1482" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1482">1482</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1483" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1483">1483</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1485" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1485">1485</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1487" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1487">1487</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1488" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1488">1488</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1491" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1491">1491</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1495" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1495">1495</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1496" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1496">1496</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1503" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1503">1503</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1509" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1509">1509</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1511" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1511">1511</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1512" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1512">1512</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1513" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1513">1513</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1514" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1514">1514</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1515" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1515">1515</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1523" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1523">1523</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1529" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1529">1529</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1530" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1530">1530</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1531" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1531">1531</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1532" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1532">1532</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1533" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1533">1533</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1534" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1534">1534</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1535" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1535">1535</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1536" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1536">1536</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1539" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1539">1539</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1540" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1540">1540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1541" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1541">1541</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1542" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1542">1542</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1543" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1543">1543</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1545" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1545">1545</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1546" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1546">1546</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1547" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1547">1547</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1548" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1548">1548</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1549" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1549">1549</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1551" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1551">1551</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1553" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1553">1553</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1554" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1554">1554</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1555" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1555">1555</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1557" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1557">1557</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1558" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1558">1558</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1562" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1562">1562</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1566" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1566">1566</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1571" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1571">1571</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1572" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1572">1572</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1575" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1575">1575</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1580" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1580">1580</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1584" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1584">1584</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1586" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1586">1586</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1588" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1588">1588</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1592" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1592">1592</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1597" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1597">1597</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1601" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1601">1601</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1603" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1603">1603</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1605" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1605">1605</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1606" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1606">1606</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1609" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1609">1609</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1620" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1620">1620</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1623" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1623">1623</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1625" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1625">1625</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1627" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1627">1627</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1640" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1640">1640</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ordinances_and_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1642%E2%80%931660" title="List of ordinances and acts of the Parliament of England, 1642–1660">1642–1660</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1660" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1660">1660</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1661" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1661">1661</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1662" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1662">1662</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1663" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1663">1663</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1664" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1664">1664</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1665" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1665">1665</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1666" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1666">1666</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1667" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1667">1667</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1670" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1670">1670</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1672" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1672">1672</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1675" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1675">1675</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1677" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1677">1677</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1678" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1678">1678</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1679" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1679">1679</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1680" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1680">1680</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1685" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1685">1685</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1688" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1688">1688</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1689" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1689">1689</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1690" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1690">1690</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1691" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1691">1691</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1692" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1692">1692</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1693" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1693">1693</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1694" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1694">1694</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1695" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1695">1695</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1696" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1696">1696</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1697" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1697">1697</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1698" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1698">1698</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1700" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1700">1700</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1701" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1701">1701</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1702" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1702">1702</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1703" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1703">1703</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1704" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1704">1704</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1705" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1705">1705</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1706" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1706">1706</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of England">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_military_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon military organization">Anglo-Saxon military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Army" title="English Army">English Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ship_names_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of ship names of the Royal Navy">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)" title="History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_England" title="Geography of England">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_England" title="Historic counties of England">Counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_England" title="List of islands of England">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_England" title="List of places in England">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_England" title="List of towns in England">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_England" title="List of castles in England">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_palaces#England" title="List of palaces">Palaces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_England" title="Demographics of England">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England" title="English language in England">English language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_people" title="List of English people">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_England" title="Culture of England">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_cuisine" title="English cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_folklore" title="English folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_dance" title="Morris dance">Morris dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_dance" title="Country dance">Country dance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_England" title="Architecture of England">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_architecture" title="Anglo-Saxon architecture">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Gothic_architecture" title="English Gothic architecture">English Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_architecture" title="Tudor architecture">Tudor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_architecture" title="Elizabethan architecture">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_architecture" title="Jacobean architecture">Jacobean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne_style_architecture" title="Queen Anne style architecture">Queen Anne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_architecture" title="Georgian architecture">Georgian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_England" title="National symbols of England">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_England" title="Flag of England">National flag</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_English_flags" title="List of English flags">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_heraldry" title="English heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_England" title="Coat of arms of England">Coat of arms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Arms" title="College of Arms">College of Arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_badges_of_England" title="Royal badges of England">Royal badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_supporters_of_England" title="Royal supporters of England">Royal supporters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_standards_of_England" title="Royal standards of England">Royal standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Jewels_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom">Crown Jewels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_rose" title="Tudor rose">Tudor rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">Oak tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_George" title="Saint George">St George</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_George%27s_Day_in_England" title="Saint George's Day in England">St George's Day</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> 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