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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Manifestations and types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Manifestations_and_types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Manifestations and types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Manifestations_and_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Presuppositions_and_the_misinformation_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Presuppositions_and_the_misinformation_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Presuppositions and the misinformation effect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Presuppositions_and_the_misinformation_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_lists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_lists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Word lists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_lists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Staged_naturalistic_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Staged_naturalistic_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Staged naturalistic events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Staged_naturalistic_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relational_processing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relational_processing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Relational processing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relational_processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mandela_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mandela_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Mandela effect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mandela_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fuzzy-trace_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fuzzy-trace_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Fuzzy-trace theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fuzzy-trace_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strength_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strength_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Strength hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strength_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Construction hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skeleton_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skeleton_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Skeleton theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skeleton_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_factors_for_the_formation_of_false_memories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_factors_for_the_formation_of_false_memories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Natural factors for the formation of false memories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Natural_factors_for_the_formation_of_false_memories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Natural factors for the formation of false memories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Natural_factors_for_the_formation_of_false_memories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Individual_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Individual differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trauma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trauma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Trauma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trauma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sleep_deprivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sleep_deprivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Sleep deprivation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sleep_deprivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-False_memory_syndrome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#False_memory_syndrome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>False memory syndrome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-False_memory_syndrome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychotherapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychotherapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Psychotherapy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Psychotherapy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Psychotherapy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Psychotherapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hypnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Hypnosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Effects on society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_on_society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects on society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Legal cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Children</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics_and_public_opinion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics_and_public_opinion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Ethics and public opinion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics_and_public_opinion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Potential benefits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> 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class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">False memory</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B0%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="ذاكرة كاذبة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ذاكرة كاذبة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramneziya" title="Paramneziya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Paramneziya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsk_erindring" title="Falsk erindring – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Falsk erindring" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valem%C3%A4lestus" title="Valemälestus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Valemälestus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Παραμνησία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παραμνησία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsos_recuerdos" title="Falsos recuerdos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Falsos recuerdos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasioroitzapen" title="Sasioroitzapen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sasioroitzapen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B8%D9%87_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B0%D8%A8" title="حافظه کاذب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حافظه کاذب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faux_souvenirs" title="Faux souvenirs – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Faux souvenirs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EA%B8%B0%EC%96%B5" title="오기억 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오기억" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Պարամնեզիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պարամնեզիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingatan_semu" title="Ingatan semu – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ingatan semu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6lsk_minning" title="Fölsk minning – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fölsk minning" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memori_palsu" title="Memori palsu – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Memori palsu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herinneringsvervalsing" title="Herinneringsvervalsing – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Herinneringsvervalsing" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%99%9A%E5%81%BD%E8%A8%98%E6%86%B6" title="虚偽記憶 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="虚偽記憶" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falskt_minne" title="Falskt minne – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Falskt minne" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsas_mem%C3%B3rias" title="Falsas memórias – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Falsas memórias" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Парамнезия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Парамнезия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="False memory" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Мандела ефекат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мандела ефекат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valemuisto" title="Valemuisto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Valemuisto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahte_an%C4%B1" title="Sahte anı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sahte anı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Парамнезія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Парамнезія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Psychological occurrence</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the novel by Dean Koontz, see <a href="/wiki/False_Memory_(novel)" title="False Memory (novel)">False Memory (novel)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, a <b>false memory</b> is a phenomenon where someone <a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">recalls</a> something that did not actually happen or recalls it differently from the way it actually happened. <a href="/wiki/Suggestibility" title="Suggestibility">Suggestibility</a>, activation of associated information, the incorporation of misinformation, and <a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">source misattribution</a> have been suggested to be several mechanisms underlying a variety of types of false memory. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_work">Early work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The false memory phenomenon was initially investigated by psychological pioneers <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Janet" title="Pierre Janet">Pierre Janet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gleaves_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gleaves-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Freud was fascinated with memory and all the ways it could be understood, used, and manipulated. Some claim that his studies have been quite influential in contemporary memory research, including the research into the field of false memory.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Janet" title="Pierre Janet">Pierre Janet</a> was a French <a href="/wiki/Neurologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurologist">neurologist</a> also credited with great contributions into memory research. Janet contributed to false memory through his ideas on dissociation and memory retrieval through hypnosis.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1974, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a> and John Palmer conducted a study<sup id="cite_ref-Loftus1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loftus1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to investigate the effects of language on the development of false memory. The experiment involved two separate studies. </p><p>In the first study, 45 participants were randomly assigned to watch different videos of a car accident, in which separate videos had shown collisions at 20 mph (32 km/h), 30 mph (48 km/h) and 40 mph (64 km/h). Afterwards, participants filled out a survey. The survey asked the question, "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" The question always asked the same thing, except the verb used to describe the collision varied. Rather than <i>smashed</i>, other verbs used included <i>bumped</i>, <i>collided</i>, <i>hit</i>, or <i>contacted</i>. Participants estimated collisions of all speeds to average between 35 mph (56 km/h) to just below 40 mph (64 km/h). If actual speed was the main factor in estimate, it could be assumed that participants would have lower estimates for lower speed collisions. Instead, the word being used to describe the collision seemed to better predict the estimate in speed rather than the speed itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Loftus1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loftus1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second experiment also showed participants videos of a car accident, but the phrasing of the follow-up questionnaire was critical in participant responses. 150 participants were randomly assigned to three conditions. Those in the first condition were asked the same question as the first study using the verb <i>smashed</i>. The second group was asked the same question as the first study, replacing <i>smashed</i> with <i>hit</i>. The final group was not asked about the speed of the crashed cars. The researchers then asked the participants if they had seen any broken glass, knowing that there was no broken glass in the video. The responses to this question had shown that the difference between whether broken glass was recalled or not heavily depended on the verb used. A larger sum of participants in the "smashed" group declared that there was broken glass. </p><p>In this study, the first point brought up in discussion is that the words used to phrase a question can heavily influence the response given.<sup id="cite_ref-Loftus1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loftus1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second, the study indicates that the phrasing of a question can give expectations to previously ignored details, and therefore, a misconstruction of our <a href="/wiki/Memory_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory recall">memory recall</a>. This indication supports false memory as an existing phenomenon. </p><p>Replications in different contexts (such as hockey games instead of car crashes) have shown that different scenarios require different framing effects to produce differing memories.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manifestations_and_types">Manifestations and types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Manifestations and types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Presuppositions_and_the_misinformation_effect">Presuppositions and the misinformation effect</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Presuppositions and the misinformation effect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">presupposition</a> is an implication through chosen language. If a person is asked, "What shade of blue was the wallet?", the questioner is, in translation, saying, "The wallet was blue. What shade was it?" The question's phrasing provides the respondent with a supposed "fact". This presupposition creates one of two separate effects: true effect and false effect. </p> <ul><li>In <b>true effect</b>, the implication was accurate: the wallet really was blue. That makes the respondent's recall stronger, more readily available, and easier to extrapolate from. A respondent is more likely to remember a wallet as blue if the prompt said that it was blue than if the prompt did not say so.</li> <li>In <b>false effect</b>, the implication was actually false: the wallet was not blue even though the question asked what shade of blue it was. This convinces the respondent of its truth (i.e., that the wallet <i>was</i> blue), which affects their memory. It can also alter responses to later questions to keep them consistent with the false implication.</li></ul> <p>Regardless of the effect being true or false, the respondent is attempting to conform to the supplied information, because they assume it to be true.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Loftus's meta-analysis on language manipulation studies suggested the <a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">misinformation effect</a> taking hold on the recall process and products of the human memory. Even the smallest adjustment in a question, such as the article preceding the supposed memory, could alter the responses. For example, having asked someone if they had seen "the" stop sign, rather than "a" stop sign, provided the respondent with a presupposition that there was a stop sign in the scene. This presupposition increased the number of people responding that they had indeed seen the stop sign.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The strength of verbs used in conversation or questioning also has a similar effect on the memory; for example – the words "met", "bumped", "collided", "crashed", or "smashed" would all cause people to remember a car accident at different levels of intensity. The words "bumped", "hit", "grabbed", "smacked", or "groped" would all paint a different picture of a person in the memory of an observer of sexual harassment if questioned about it later. The stronger the word, the more intense the recreation of the experience in the memory is. This in turn could trigger further false memories to better fit the memory created (change how a person looks or how fast a vehicle was moving before a collision).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_lists">Word lists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Word lists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One can trigger false memories by presenting subjects a continuous list of words. When subjects were presented with a second version of the list and asked if the words had appeared on the previous list, they found that the subjects did not recognize the list correctly. When the words on the two lists were semantically related to each other (e.g. sleep/bed), it was more likely that the subjects did not remember the first list correctly and created false memories (Anisfeld & Knapp, 1963).<sup id="cite_ref-Lampinen_181–224_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lampinen_181–224-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1998, Kathleen McDermott and Henry Roediger III conducted a similar experiment. Their goal was to intentionally trigger false memories through word lists. They presented subjects with lists to study, all containing a large number of words that were semantically related to another word that was not found on the list. For example, if the word that they were trying to trigger was "river", the list would contain words such as flow, current, water, stream, bend, etc. They would then take the lists away and ask the subjects to recall the words on the lists. Almost every time, the false memory was triggered, and the subjects would end up recalling the target word as part of the list when it was never there. McDermott and Roediger even went as far as informing the subjects of the purpose and details of the experiment, and still the subjects would recall the non-listed target word as part of the word list they had studied.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Staged_naturalistic_events">Staged naturalistic events</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Staged naturalistic events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Subjects were invited into an office and were told to wait there. After this, they had to recall the inventory of the visited office. Subjects recognized objects consistent with the "office schema", although they did not appear in the office. (Brewer & Treyens, 1981)<sup id="cite_ref-Lampinen_181–224_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lampinen_181–224-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In another study, subjects were presented with a situation where they witnessed a staged robbery. Half of the subjects witnessed the robbery live, while the other half watched a video of the robbery as it took place. After the event, they were sat down and asked to recall what had happened during the robbery. The results surprisingly showed that those who watched the video of the robbery actually recalled more information more accurately than those who were live on the scene. Still, false memory presented itself in ways such as subjects seeing things that would fit in a crime scene that were not there, or not recalling things that did not fit the crime scene. This happened with both parties, displaying the idea of staged naturalistic events.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relational_processing">Relational processing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Relational processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Memory retrieval has been associated with the brain's relational processing. In associating two events (in reference to false memory, say tying a testimony to a prior event), there are verbatim and gist representations. Verbatim matches to the individual occurrences (e.g., I do not like dogs because when I was five a <a href="/wiki/Chihuahua_(dog)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chihuahua (dog)">chihuahua</a> bit me) and gist matches to general inferences (e.g., I do not like dogs because they are mean). Keeping in line with the <a href="/wiki/Fuzzy-trace_theory" title="Fuzzy-trace theory">fuzzy-trace theory</a>, which suggests false memories are stored in gist representations (which retrieves both true and false recall), Storbeck & Clore (2005) wanted to see how change in mood affected the retrieval of false memories. After using the measure of a word association tool called the <a href="/wiki/Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a> (DRM), the subjects' moods were manipulated. Moods were either oriented towards being more positive, more negative, or were left untouched. Findings suggested that a more negative mood made critical details, stored in gist representation, more accessible.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mandela_effect">Mandela effect</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mandela effect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Mandela Effect" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Mandela_Effect_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Mandela Effect (disambiguation)">Mandela Effect (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p>Specific false memories can sometimes be shared by a large group of people. This phenomenon was dubbed the "Mandela effect" by <a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">paranormal</a> researcher Fiona Broome, who reported having vivid and detailed memories of news coverage of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South African</a> anti-apartheid leader <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> dying in prison in the 1980s, despite Mandela actually <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Nelson_Mandela" title="Death and state funeral of Nelson Mandela">dying in 2013</a>, decades after his release and after serving as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. Broome reported that hundreds of other people had written about having the same memory of Mandela's death,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some while he was still alive, and she speculated that the phenomenon could be evidence of <a href="/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretation" title="Many-worlds interpretation">parallel realities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orologio_strage_bologna.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Orologio_strage_bologna.jpeg/220px-Orologio_strage_bologna.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Orologio_strage_bologna.jpeg/330px-Orologio_strage_bologna.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Orologio_strage_bologna.jpeg/440px-Orologio_strage_bologna.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a> station clock in Italy, subject of a collective false memory</figcaption></figure> <p>One well-documented example of shared false memories comes from a 2010 study that examined people familiar with the clock at <a href="/wiki/Bologna_Centrale_railway_station" title="Bologna Centrale railway station">Bologna Centrale railway station</a>, which was damaged in a <a href="/wiki/Bologna_massacre" title="Bologna massacre">bombing</a> in August 1980. In the study, 92% of respondents falsely remembered the clock had remained stopped since the bombing, when, in fact, the clock was repaired shortly after the attack. Years later, the clock was again stopped and set to the time of the explosion, in observance and commemoration of the bombing.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other examples include memories of the respective title component of the <i><a href="/wiki/Berenstain_Bears" title="Berenstain Bears">Berenstain Bears</a></i> children's books being spelled "Berenstein",<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the logo of clothing brand <a href="/wiki/Fruit_of_the_Loom" title="Fruit of the Loom">Fruit of the Loom</a> featuring a <a href="/wiki/Cornucopia" title="Cornucopia">cornucopia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Darth_Vader" title="Darth Vader">Darth Vader</a> telling <a href="/wiki/Luke_Skywalker" title="Luke Skywalker">Luke Skywalker</a>, "Luke, I am your father" in the climax of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Empire_Strikes_Back" title="The Empire Strikes Back">The Empire Strikes Back</a></i> (he actually says, "No, <i>I</i> am your father" in response to Skywalker's assertion that Vader killed his father),<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mr._Monopoly" title="Mr. Monopoly">Mr. Monopoly</a> wearing a <a href="/wiki/Monocle" title="Monocle">monocle</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the existence of a 1990s movie titled <i><a href="/wiki/Shazaam" class="mw-redirect" title="Shazaam">Shazaam</a></i> starring comedian <a href="/wiki/Sinbad_(comedian)" title="Sinbad (comedian)">Sinbad</a> as a genie<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (which <a href="/wiki/Snopes" title="Snopes">Snopes</a> suggests could be a <a href="/wiki/Confabulation" title="Confabulation">confabulation</a> of real memories, possibly including Sinbad wearing a genie-like costume during a TV marathon of <a href="/wiki/Sinbad_the_Sailor" title="Sinbad the Sailor">Sinbad the Sailor</a> movies in 1994,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 1996 film <i><a href="/wiki/Kazaam" title="Kazaam">Kazaam</a></i> featuring a genie played by basketball star <a href="/wiki/Shaquille_O%27Neal" title="Shaquille O'Neal">Shaquille O'Neal</a>, and the 1960s animated genie-themed series <i><a href="/wiki/Shazzan" title="Shazzan">Shazzan</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, false memories of Mandela's death could be explained as the subject conflating him with <a href="/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a>, another prominent South African anti-apartheid activist, who died in prison in 1977.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Memes</a> about the Mandela effect and associated online jokes about a <a href="/wiki/Time_travel" title="Time travel">time traveler</a> altering the past and turning the current era into "a glitch" became popular in the United States in 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scientists suggest that these are examples of false memories shaped by similar cognitive factors affecting multiple people and families,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as social and cognitive reinforcement of incorrect memories<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or false news reports and misleading photographs that influence the formation of memories based on them.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fuzzy-trace_theory">Fuzzy-trace theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Fuzzy-trace theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The fuzzy-trace theory, proposed by Valerie Reyna and Charles Brainerd in the 1990's, suggests that information can be stored in two different ways: verbatim and gist.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Verbatim representations are literal, precise, and exact copies of the information. On the other hand, gist representations are fuzzy, general, and abstracted representations of the information. </p><p>The fuzzy-trace theory relates to false memory because studies have found that when information is stored as a gist representation, it is more prone to manipulation.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because information is stored in parallel pathways, not together. The term verbatim traces applies to the storing of surface features of an experience, whereas the term gist traces applies to the way in which the context and interpretation of an event are stored.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strength_hypothesis">Strength hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Strength hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The strength hypothesis states that in <a href="/wiki/Situational_strength" title="Situational strength">strong situations</a> (situations where one course of action is encouraged more than any other course of action due to the objective payoff), people are expected to demonstrate rational behavior, basing their behavior on the objective payoff.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An example of this is the collective laws of a country. Most of its citizens, no matter how daring, will conform to these laws, because the objective payoff is personal safety. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Construction_hypothesis">Construction hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Construction hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The construction hypothesis says that if a true piece of information being provided can alter a respondent's answer, then so can a false piece of information.<sup id="cite_ref-Loftus1975_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loftus1975-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Construction hypothesis has major implications for explanations on the malleability of memory. Upon asking a respondent a question that provides a presupposition, the respondent will provide a recall in accordance with the presupposition (if accepted to exist in the first place). The respondent will recall the object or detail.<sup id="cite_ref-Loftus1975_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loftus1975-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skeleton_theory">Skeleton theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Skeleton theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Loftus developed what some refer to as "the skeleton theory" after having run an experiment involving 150 subjects from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Loftus1975_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loftus1975-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Loftus noticed that when a presupposition was one of false information it could only be explained by the construction hypothesis and not the strength hypothesis. Loftus then stated that a theory needed to be created for complex visual experiences where the construction hypothesis plays a significantly more important role than situational strength. She presented a diagram as a "skeleton" of this theory, which later became referred to by some as the skeleton theory. </p><p>The skeleton theory explains the procedure of how a memory is recalled, which is split into two categories: the acquisition processes and the retrieval processes. </p><p>The acquisition processes are in three separate steps. First, upon the original encounter, the observer selects a stimulus to focus on. The information that the observer can focus on compared to all of the information occurring in the situation as a whole, is very limited. In other words, a lot is going on around us and we only pick up on a small portion. This forces the observer to begin by selecting a focal point for focus. Second, our visual perception must be translated into statements and descriptions. The statements represent a collection of concepts and objects; they are the link between the event occurrence and the recall. Third, the perceptions are subject to any "external" information being provided before or after the interpretation. This subsequent set of information can reconstruct the memory.<sup id="cite_ref-Loftus1975_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loftus1975-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The retrieval processes come in two steps. First, the memory and imagery are regenerated. This perception is subject to what foci the observer has selected, along with the information provided before or after the observation. Second, the linking is initiated by a statement response, "painting a picture" to make sense of what was observed. This retrieval process results in either an accurate memory or a false memory.<sup id="cite_ref-Loftus1975_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loftus1975-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_factors_for_the_formation_of_false_memories">Natural factors for the formation of false memories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Natural factors for the formation of false memories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Individual_differences">Individual differences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Individual differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Greater creative imagination and dissociation are known to relate to false memory formation.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Creative imagination may lead to vivid details of imagined events. High dissociation may be associated with habitual use of lax response criteria for source decisions due to frequent interruption of attention or consciousness. Social desirability and false memory have also been examined.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social desirability effects may depend on the level of perceived <a href="/wiki/Social_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Social pressure">social pressure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Individuals who feel under greater social pressure may be more likely to acquiesce. Perceived pressure from an authority figure may lower individuals' criteria for accepting a false event as true. The new individual difference factors include preexisting beliefs about memory, self-evaluation of one's own memory abilities, trauma symptoms, and <a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">attachment</a> styles. Regarding the first of these, metamemory beliefs about the malleability of memory, the nature of <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_memories" title="Traumatic memories">trauma memory</a>, and the recoverability of lost memory may influence willingness to accept vague impressions or fragmentary images as recovered memories and thus, might affect the likelihood of accepting false memory.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if someone believes that memory once encoded is permanent, and that visualization is an effective way to recover memories, the individual may endorse more liberal criteria for accepting a mental image as true memory. Also, individuals who report themselves as having better everyday memories may feel more compelled to come up with a memory when asked to do so. This may lead to more liberal criteria, making these individuals more susceptible to false memory. </p><p>There is some research that shows individual differences in false memory susceptibility are not always large (even on variables that have previously shown differences—such as creative imagination or dissociation<sup id="cite_ref-Patihis2_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patihis2-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), that there appears to be no false memory trait,<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Patihis3_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patihis3-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that even those who have highly superior memory are susceptible to false memories.<sup id="cite_ref-Patihis_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patihis-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trauma">Trauma</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Trauma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A history of trauma is relevant to the issue of false memory. It has been proposed that people with a trauma history or trauma symptoms may be particularly vulnerable to memory deficits, including source-monitoring failures.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Possible associations between attachment styles and reports of false childhood memories were also of interest. Adult attachment styles have been related to memories of early childhood events, suggesting that the encoding or retrieval of such memories may activate the attachment system. It is more difficult for avoidant adults to access negative emotional experiences from childhood, whereas ambivalent adults access these kinds of experiences easily.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consistent with attachment theory, adults with avoidant attachment styles, like their child counterparts, may attempt to suppress physiological and emotional reactions to activation of the attachment system. Significant associations between parental attachment and children's <a href="/wiki/Suggestibility" title="Suggestibility">suggestibility</a> exist. These data, however, do not directly address the issue of whether adults' or their parents' attachment styles are related to false childhood memories. Such data nevertheless suggest that greater attachment avoidance may be associated with a stronger tendency to form false memories of childhood. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sleep_deprivation">Sleep deprivation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sleep deprivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sleep deprivation can also affect the possibility of falsely encoding a memory. In two experiments, participants studied DRM lists (lists of words [e.g., bed, rest, awake, tired] that are semantically associated with a non-presented word) before a night of either sleep or sleep deprivation; testing took place the following day. One study showed higher rates of false recognition in sleep-deprived participants, compared with rested participants.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sleep deprivation can increase the risk of developing false memories. Specifically, sleep deprivation increased false memories in a misinformation task when participants in a study were sleep deprived during event encoding, but did not have a significant effect when the deprivation occurred after event encoding.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="False_memory_syndrome">False memory syndrome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: False memory syndrome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a> is defined as false memory being a prevalent part of one's life in which it affects the person's mentality and day-to-day life. False memory syndrome differs from false memory in that the syndrome is heavily influential in the orientation of a person's life, while false memory can occur without this significant effect. The syndrome takes effect because the person believes the influential memory to be true.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, its research is controversial and the syndrome is not included in the <i><a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders" title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a></i>. False memory is an important part of psychological research because of the ties it has to a large number of mental disorders, such as <a href="/wiki/PTSD" class="mw-redirect" title="PTSD">PTSD</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PTSD_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTSD-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> False memory can be declared a syndrome when recall of a false or inaccurate memory takes great effect on a person's life. Such a false memory can completely alter the orientation of one's personality and lifestyle.<sup id="cite_ref-Gleaves_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gleaves-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Psychotherapy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Therapists who subscribe to the theories underlying <a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">recovered-memory therapy</a> point to a wide variety of common problems, ranging from eating disorders to sleeplessness, as evidence of <a href="/wiki/Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">repressed memories</a> of sexual abuse.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Psychotherapists tried to reveal "repressed memories" in mental therapy patients through "hypnosis, guided imagery, dream interpretation and narco-analysis". The reasoning was that if abuse could not be remembered, then it needed to be recovered by the therapist. The legal phenomena developed in the 1980s, with civil suits alleging child sexual abuse on the basis of "memories" recovered during psychotherapy. The term "repressed memory therapy" gained momentum and with it <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">social stigma</a> surrounded those accused of abuse. The "therapy" led to other psychological disorders in persons whose memories were recovered.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)"><span title="Material near this tag needs references to reliable medical sources. (September 2022)">medical citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Putative memories recovered through therapy have become more difficult to distinguish between simply being repressed or not having existed in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Therapists have used strategies such as <a href="/wiki/Hypnotherapy" title="Hypnotherapy">hypnotherapy</a>, repeated questioning, and <a href="/wiki/Bibliotherapy" title="Bibliotherapy">bibliotherapy</a>. These strategies may provoke the recovery of nonexistent events or inaccurate memories.<sup id="cite_ref-Ware_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ware-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recent report indicates that similar strategies may have produced false memories in several therapies in the century before the modern controversy on the topic which took place in the 1980s and 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Loftus, there are different possibilities to create false therapy-induced memory. One is the unintentional suggestions of therapists. For example, a therapist might tell their client that, on the basis of their symptoms, it is quite likely that they had been abused as a child. Once this "diagnosis" is made, the therapist sometimes urges the patient to pursue the recalcitrant memories. It is a problem resulting from the fact that people create their own social reality with external information.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">The "lost-in-the-mall" technique</a> is another recovery strategy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="lost in the mall is experiment not therapy technique (September 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This is essentially a repeated suggestion pattern. The person whose memory is to be "recovered" is persistently said to have gone through an experience even if it may have not happened. This strategy can cause the person to recall the event as having occurred, despite its falsehood.<sup id="cite_ref-Loftus30_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loftus30-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypnosis">Hypnosis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Hypnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Laurence and Perry conducted a study testing the ability to induce memory recall through hypnosis. Subjects were put into a hypnotic state and later woken up. Observers suggested that the subjects were woken up by a loud noise. Nearly half of the subjects being tested concluded that this was true, despite it being false. However, by therapeutically altering the subject's state, they may have been led to believe that what they were being told was true.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this, the respondent has a false recall. </p><p>A 1989 study focusing on hypnotizability and false memory separated accurate and inaccurate memories recalled. In open-ended question formation, 11.5% of subjects recalled the false event suggested by observers. In a multiple-choice format, no participants claimed the false event had happened. This result led to the conclusion that hypnotic suggestions produce shifts in focus, awareness, and attention. Despite this, subjects do not mix fantasy up with reality.<sup id="cite_ref-Gleaves_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gleaves-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_society">Effects on society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Effects on society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_cases">Legal cases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Legal cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Therapy-induced memory recovery has made frequent appearances in legal cases, particularly those regarding sexual abuse.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therapists can often aid in creating a false memory in a victim's mind, intentionally or unintentionally. They may associate a patient's behavior with the fact that they have been a victim of sexual abuse, thus helping the memory occur. They may then use memory enhancement techniques such as hypnosis dream analysis in the attempt to extract memories of sexual abuse from victims. In <i><a href="/wiki/Ramona_v._Isabella" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramona v. Isabella">Ramona v. Isabella</a></i>, two therapists wrongly prompted a recall that their patient, Holly Ramona, had been sexually abused by her father. It was suggested that the therapist, Isabella, had implanted one of the sexual abuse memories in Ramona after use of the hypnotic drug <a href="/wiki/Sodium_amytal" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium amytal">sodium amytal</a>. After a nearly unanimous decision, Isabella had been declared <a href="/wiki/Negligent" class="mw-redirect" title="Negligent">negligent</a> towards Holly Ramona. This 1994 legal issue played a massive role in shedding light on the possibility of false memories' occurrences.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In another legal case where false memories were used, they helped a man to be acquitted of his charges. Joseph Pacely had been accused of breaking into a woman's home with the intent to sexually assault her. The woman had given her description of the assailant to police shortly after the crime had happened. During the trial, memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus testified that memory is fallible and there were many emotions that played a part in the woman's description given to police. Loftus has published many studies consistent with her testimony.<sup id="cite_ref-Loftus1975_43-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loftus1975-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These studies suggest that memories can easily be changed around and sometimes eyewitness testimonies are not as reliable as many believe. </p><p>Another notable case is Maxine Berry. Berry grew up in the custody of her mother, who opposed the father having contact with her. When the father expressed his desire to attend his daughter's high school graduation, the mother enrolled Berry in therapy, ostensibly to deal with the stress of seeing her father. The therapist pressed Berry to recover memories of sex abuse by her father. Berry broke down under the pressure and had to be psychiatrically hospitalized. She underwent <a href="/wiki/Tubal_ligation" title="Tubal ligation">tubal ligation</a>, so she would not have children and repeat the cycle of abuse. With the support of her husband and primary care physician, Berry eventually realized that her memories were false and filed a suit for malpractice. The suit brought to light the mother's manipulation of mental health professionals to convince Berry that she had been sexually abused by her father. In February 1997, Berry sued her therapists<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and clinic that treated her from 1992 to 1995 and, she says, made her falsely believe she had been sexually and physically abused as a child when no such abuse ever occurred. The lawsuit, filed in February 1997 in Minnehaha Co. Circuit Court South Dakota, states that therapist Lynda O'Connor-Davis had an improper relationship with Berry, both during and after her treatment. The suit also names psychologist Vail Williams, psychiatrist Dr. William Fuller and Charter Hospital and Charter Counseling Center as defendants. Berry and her husband settled out of court.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although there have been many legal cases in which false memory appears to have been a factor, this does not ease the process of distinguishing between false memory and real recall. Sound therapeutic strategy can help this differentiation, by either avoiding known controversial strategies or to disclosing controversy to a subject.<sup id="cite_ref-Ware_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ware-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gleaves_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gleaves-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Merskey_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merskey-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Harold Merskey published a paper on the ethical issues of recovered-memory therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-Merskey_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merskey-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He suggests that if a patient had pre-existing severe issues in their life, it is likely that "deterioration" will occur to a relatively severe extent upon memory recall. This deterioration is a physical parallel to the emotional trauma being surfaced. There may be tears, writhing, or many other forms of physical disturbance. The occurrence of physical deterioration in memory recall coming from a patient with relatively minor issues prior to therapy could be an indication of the recalled memory's potential falsehood.<sup id="cite_ref-Merskey_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merskey-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Children">Children</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>False memory is often considered for trauma victims<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including those of <a href="/wiki/Childhood_sexual_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Childhood sexual abuse">childhood sexual abuse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bremner2_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bremner2-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davis_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ware_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ware-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Christianson_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christianson-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If a child experienced abuse, it is not typical for them to disclose the details of the event when confronted in an open-ended manner.<sup id="cite_ref-Ceci_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ceci-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trying to indirectly prompt a memory recall can lead to the conflict of source attribution, as a repeatedly questioned child might try to recall a memory to satisfy a question. The stress being put on the child can make recovering an accurate memory more difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-Bremner2_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bremner2-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some people hypothesize that as the child continuously attempts to remember a memory, they are building a larger file of sources that the memory could be derived from, potentially including sources other than genuine memories. Children that have never been abused but undergo similar response-eliciting techniques can disclose events that never occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Ceci_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ceci-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of children's most notable setbacks in memory recall is <a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">source misattribution</a>. Source misattribution is the flaw in deciphering between potential origins of a memory. The source could come from an actual occurring perception, or it can come from an induced and imagined event. Younger children, preschoolers in particular, find it more difficult to discriminate between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lindsay & Johnson (1987) concluded that even children approaching <a href="/wiki/Adolescence" title="Adolescence">adolescence</a> struggle with this, as well as recalling an existent memory as a witness. Children are significantly more likely to confuse a source between being invented or existent.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shyamalan, Lamb and Sheldrick (1995) partially re-created a study that involved attempted <a href="/wiki/Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">memory implanting</a> in children. The study comprised a series of interviews concerning a medical procedure that the children may have undergone. The data was scored so that if a child made one false affirmation during the interview, the child was classified as inaccurate. When the medical procedure was described in detail, "only 13% of the children answered 'yes' to the question 'Did you ever have this procedure?'". As to the success of implantation with false 'memories', the children "assented to the question for a variety of reasons, a false memory being only one of them. In sum, it is possible that no false memories have been created in children in <a href="/wiki/Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">implanted-memory</a> studies".<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics_and_public_opinion">Ethics and public opinion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Ethics and public opinion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2016 study surveyed the public's attitude regarding the ethics of planting false memories as an attempt to influence healthy behavior. People were most concerned with the consequences, with 37% saying it was overly manipulative, potentially harmful or traumatic. Their reasons against are that the ends do not justify the means (32%), potential for abuse (14%), lack of consent (10%), practical doubts (8%), better alternative (7%), and free will (3%). Of those who thought implanting false memories would be acceptable, 36% believed the end justified the means, with other reasons being increasing treatment options (6%), people need support (6%), no harm would be done (6%), and it's no worse than alternatives (5%).<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_benefits">Potential benefits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Potential benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several possible benefits associated with false memory arrive from <a href="/wiki/Fuzzy-trace_theory" title="Fuzzy-trace theory">fuzzy-trace theory</a> and gist memory. Valerie F. Reyna, who coined the terms as an explanation for the DRM paradigm, explains that her findings indicate that reliance on prior knowledge from gist memory can help individuals make safer, well informed choices in terms of risk taking.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other positive traits associated with false memory indicate that individuals have superior organizational processes, heightened creativity, and prime solutions for insight based problems. All of these things indicate that false memories are adaptive and functional.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> False memories tied to familiar concepts can also potentially aid in future problem solving in a related topic, especially when related to survival.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a>, an effect in which memories are incorrectly attributed to different experiences from the ones that caused them.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9j%C3%A0_vu" title="Déjà vu">Déjà vu</a>, the feeling that one has lived through the present situation before.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jamais_vu" title="Jamais vu">Jamais vu</a></i>, the feeling of unfamiliarity with recognized memories.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a>, a memory that is not recognized as such.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a>, a memory implantation technique used to demonstrate that false memories can be implanted through suggestions made to experimental subjects in which the subject is told that an older relative was present at the time.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inception" title="Inception">Inception</a></i>, a 2010 science fiction film dealing with the concept of implanting ideas in sleeping individuals.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.albany.edu/scj/documents/Goodmanetal1998AppliedCogPsych.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Cognitive+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+ethics+of+conducting+%27false+memory%27+research+with+children%3A+a+reply+to+Herrmann+and+Yoder&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E207-%3C%2Fspan%3E217&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28SICI%291099-0720%28199806%2912%3A3%3C207%3A%3AAID-ACP523%3E3.0.CO%3B2-T&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Gail+S&rft.au=Quas%2C+Jodi+D&rft.au=Redlich%2C+Allison+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.albany.edu%2Fscj%2Fdocuments%2FGoodmanetal1998AppliedCogPsych.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFalse+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNashBerkowitzRoche2016" class="citation journal cs1">Nash, Robert A.; Berkowitz, Shari R.; Roche, Simon (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5215583">"Public Attitudes on the Ethics of Deceptively Planting False Memories to Motivate Healthy Behavior"</a>. <i>Applied Cognitive Psychology</i>. <b>30</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">885–</span>897. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Facp.3274">10.1002/acp.3274</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5215583">5215583</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28111495">28111495</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Cognitive+Psychology&rft.atitle=Public+Attitudes+on+the+Ethics+of+Deceptively+Planting+False+Memories+to+Motivate+Healthy+Behavior&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E885-%3C%2Fspan%3E897&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5215583%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28111495&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Facp.3274&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft.au=Berkowitz%2C+Shari+R.&rft.au=Roche%2C+Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5215583&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFalse+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dodgson, Lindsay. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/science-of-false-memories-2017-12?r=AU&IR=T">Our brains sometimes create 'false memories' — but science suggests we could be better off this way</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200606223906/https://www.businessinsider.com/science-of-false-memories-2017-12?r=AU&IR=T">Archived</a> 6 June 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>” <i>Business Insider</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">“Future Thinking and False Memories.” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/time-travelling-apollo/201607/future-thinking-and-false-memories.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJarrett2013" class="citation news cs1">Jarrett, Christian (23 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digest.bps.org.uk/2013/09/23/false-memories-have-an-upside/">"False memories have an upside"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/British_Psychological_Society" title="British Psychological Society">British Psychological Society</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181121120338/https://digest.bps.org.uk/2013/09/23/false-memories-have-an-upside/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Psychological+Society&rft.atitle=False+memories+have+an+upside&rft.date=2013-09-23&rft.aulast=Jarrett&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigest.bps.org.uk%2F2013%2F09%2F23%2Ffalse-memories-have-an-upside%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFalse+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_memory&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bjorklund, D. F. (2014). <i>False-memory Creation in Children and Adults: Theory, Research, and Implications</i>. Psychology Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781138003224" title="Special:BookSources/9781138003224">9781138003224</a></li> <li>Conway, M. A. (1997). <i>Recovered Memories and False Memories</i>. Oxford University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrench2003" class="citation journal cs1">French, C (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130313115318/http://www.gold.ac.uk/media/2003-french-fantastic.pdf">"Fantastic Memories: The Relevance of Research into Eyewitness Testimony and False Memories for Reports of Anomalous Experiences"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Consciousness Studies</i>. <b>10</b>: <span class="nowrap">153–</span>174. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1355-8250">1355-8250</a>. Archived from the original on 13 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Consciousness+Studies&rft.atitle=Fantastic+Memories%3A+The+Relevance+of+Research+into+Eyewitness+Testimony+and+False+Memories+for+Reports+of+Anomalous+Experiences&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E174&rft.date=2003&rft.issn=1355-8250&rft.aulast=French&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gold.ac.uk%2Fmedia%2F2003-french-fantastic.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFalse+memory" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoedigerMarsh2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Roediger, Henry L.</a>; Marsh, Elizabeth J. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.3858">"False memory"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scholarpedia" title="Scholarpedia">Scholarpedia</a></i>. <b>4</b> (8): 3858. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009SchpJ...4.3858I">2009SchpJ...4.3858I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.3858">10.4249/scholarpedia.3858</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scholarpedia&rft.atitle=False+memory&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=3858&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.3858&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009SchpJ...4.3858I&rft.aulast=Roediger&rft.aufirst=Henry+L.&rft.au=Marsh%2C+Elizabeth+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4249%252Fscholarpedia.3858&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFalse+memory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchacterCurran1995" class="citation journal cs1">Schacter, D. L; Curran, T. (1995). "The Cognitive Neuroscience of False Memories". <i>Psychiatric Annals</i>. <b>25</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">727–</span>731. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3928%2F0048-5713-19951201-08">10.3928/0048-5713-19951201-08</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+Annals&rft.atitle=The+Cognitive+Neuroscience+of+False+Memories&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E727-%3C%2Fspan%3E731&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3928%2F0048-5713-19951201-08&rft.aulast=Schacter&rft.aufirst=D.+L&rft.au=Curran%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFalse+memory" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Memory" title="Template:Memory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Memory" title="Template talk:Memory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Memory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Memory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_memory430" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human memory">Human memory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_memory" title="Neuroanatomy of memory">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">Sensory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">Echoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_memory" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_memory" title="Haptic memory">Haptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_learning" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_memory" title="Visual memory">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">Short-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two" title="The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two">The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">Active recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">Autobiographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Explicit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Declarative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashbulb_memory" title="Flashbulb memory">Flashbulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal-event_memory" title="Personal-event memory">Personal-event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_retention" title="Selective retention">Selective retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forgetting" title="Forgetting">Forgetting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthypnotic_amnesia" title="Posthypnotic amnesia">post-hypnotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_amnesia" title="Post-traumatic amnesia">post-traumatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">dissociative (psychogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_amnesia" title="Selective amnesia">selective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transient_global_amnesia" title="Transient global amnesia">transient global</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_erasure" title="Memory erasure">Memory erasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">Motivated forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">Repressed memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval-induced forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_focus" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory_error" title="Memory error">Memory errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">Imagination inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">Memory biases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">False memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">Memory implantation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Methods_used_to_study_memory" title="Methods used to study memory">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_memory" title="Exceptional memory">Exceptional memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_tests_of_memory" title="Indirect tests of memory">Indirect tests of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">Collective memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_social_interactions" title="Memory and social interactions">Memory and social interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactive_memory" title="Transactive memory">Transactive memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">Art of memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Effects of alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Memory" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Effects of exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_improvement" title="Memory improvement">Memory improvement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition and memory">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_and_memory" title="Sleep and memory">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_trauma" title="Memory and trauma">Trauma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_sport" title="Memory sport">Memory sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Memory_Championships" title="World Memory Championships">World Memory Championships</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absent-mindedness" title="Absent-mindedness">Absent-mindedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">Context-dependent</a> and <a href="/wiki/State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent</a> memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_memory" title="Childhood memory">Childhood memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosomatic_memory" title="Exosomatic memory">Exosomatic memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_recall" title="Free recall">Free recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate-term_memory" title="Intermediate-term memory">Intermediate-term memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_memory" title="Involuntary memory">Involuntary memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flashback_(psychology)" title="Flashback (psychology)">flashbacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levels_of_Processing_model" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intertrial_priming" title="Intertrial priming">intertrial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">Prospective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retrospective_memory" title="Retrospective memory">retrospective</a> memory</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">The Seven Sins of Memory</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Clancy" title="Susan Clancy">Susan Clancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Izquierdo" title="Ivan Izquierdo">Ivan Izquierdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcia_K._Johnson" title="Marcia K. Johnson">Marcia K. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Loftus" title="Geoffrey Loftus">Geoffrey Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Maguire" title="Eleanor Maguire">Eleanor Maguire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Nadel" title="Lynn Nadel">Lynn Nadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Henry L. Roediger III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Shiffrin" title="Richard Shiffrin">Richard Shiffrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_P._Shimamura" title="Arthur P. Shimamura">Arthur P. Shimamura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stickgold" title="Robert Stickgold">Robert Stickgold</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Molaison" title="Henry Molaison">HM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_Cochrane" title="Kent Cochrane">KC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_N.A." title="Patient N.A.">NA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Hancock" title="Jonathan Hancock">Jonathan Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._McHugh" title="Paul R. 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