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t-gap-2 md:t-gap-6"><div><a href="/engineers-directory/leonardo-da-vinci" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="t-w-[340px] t-h-[340px] t-object-cover t-rounded" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/profile/CA2b6vX33IF82iesiY7zL4za5qabDUnHDZOCSf94.png" alt="Engineer"/></a></div><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-justify-center"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-4"><a href="/engineers-directory/leonardo-da-vinci"><p class="t-w-fit t-text-[11px] t-font-semibold t-leading-4 t-tracking-[2.2px] t-uppercase t-px-[10px] t-py-[8px] t-rounded-[2px] t-bg-[--button-ie] t-text-text-invert">Engineer of the Day</p></a><a href="/engineers-directory/leonardo-da-vinci"><h2 class="t-inline-flex t-justify-center t-items-center t-text-[44px] t-text-text-primary t-font-bold t-leading-[44px]">Leonardo da Vinci</h2></a><p class="t-text-[16px] t-text-text-primary t-font-normal t-leading-4 t-tracking-[2.2px] t-uppercase">1452 - 1519</p><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><img 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points="9 18 15 12 9 6"></polyline></svg></a></div></div></div></div></div><div class="t-w-full md:t-w-[30%]"><div class="t-w-full t-flex t-justify-center t-items-center t-p-[24px] t-border t-border-stroke-primary t-rounded-[6px]"><p>Loading...</p></div></div></div><div class="t-w-full t-flex t-justify-center t-my-2 sm:t-my-4"></div><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-4 lg:t-flex-row lg:t-gap-6 t-relative"><div class="t-w-full t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-4 lg:t-w-2/3"><div class="t-w-full t-mb-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-[20px]"><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div><p class="overline-x-small">By Profession</p><div class="t-overflow-x-auto t-whitespace-nowrap t-scroll-smooth"><div class="t-flex t-gap-2 t-overflow-x-auto t-scrollbar-hide"><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">cognitive scientist</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Computer Scientist</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Inventor</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Chemist</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Electrical Engineer</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Mathematician</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Physicist</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">astronomer</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Engineer</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Aircraft Engineer</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Computer Programmer</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Astrophysicist</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Civil Engineer</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Entrepreneur</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Software Engineer</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Astronaut</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">flight engineer</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Architect</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Theoretical Physicist</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Mechanical Engineer</button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]">Automotive Engineer</button></div></div><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col md:t-flex-row t-gap-4 md:t-gap-6"><div class="t-relative t-w-full md:t-w-[208px]"><a href="/engineers-directory/marvin-lee-minsky-biography" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="t-w-[375px] t-h-[375px] md:t-h-[194px] md:t-w-[194px] t-rounded t-object-cover" src="https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/275x305-IE-Bio-Profile-Marvin-Minsky.png" alt="Marvin Lee Minsky"/></a></div><div class="t-w-full md:t-w-[511px] t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-wrap t-gap-2"><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=6320"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">cognitive scientist</div></a><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=62"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Computer Scientist</div></a><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=83"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Inventor</div></a></div><a href="/engineers-directory/marvin-lee-minsky-biography" class="t-w-max"><h2 class="t-inline-flex t-justify-center t-items-center t-text-text-primary t-text-[18px] t-font-bold t-leading-normal">Marvin Lee Minsky</h2></a><div class="t-text-text-secondary t-text-[13px] t-font-normal t-leading-[18px]">Marvin Lee Minsky, born on August 9, 1927, in New York City, forever changed computer science by co-founding the field of artificial intelligence (AI). Through his work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),...</div><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-rounded-full t-object-cover" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/oIjzvJhVYZg6KlMcwc328meYtke8emmxLqYaEWUc.png" alt="United States"/><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">United States</p></div><div data-orientation="vertical" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-full t-w-[1px] !t-h-[15px]"></div><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">1927-2016</p></div></div></div><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div></div><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col md:t-flex-row t-gap-4 md:t-gap-6"><div class="t-relative t-w-full md:t-w-[208px]"><a href="/engineers-directory/stephanie-kwolek-chemistbiography" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="t-w-[375px] t-h-[375px] md:t-h-[194px] md:t-w-[194px] t-rounded t-object-cover" src="https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/275x305-IE-Bio-Profile-John-Backus-1.png" alt="Stephanie Kwolek"/></a></div><div class="t-w-full md:t-w-[511px] t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-wrap t-gap-2"><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=72"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Chemist</div></a><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=83"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Inventor</div></a></div><a href="/engineers-directory/stephanie-kwolek-chemistbiography" class="t-w-max"><h2 class="t-inline-flex t-justify-center t-items-center t-text-text-primary t-text-[18px] t-font-bold t-leading-normal">Stephanie Kwolek</h2></a><div class="t-text-text-secondary t-text-[13px] t-font-normal t-leading-[18px]"> Journey from childhood naturalist to chemist Stephanie Louise Kwolek, born on July 31, 1923, in the industrious town of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, emerged as a celebrated Polish-American chemist whose groundbreaking in...</div><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-rounded-full t-object-cover" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/oIjzvJhVYZg6KlMcwc328meYtke8emmxLqYaEWUc.png" alt="United States"/><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">United States</p></div><div data-orientation="vertical" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-full t-w-[1px] !t-h-[15px]"></div><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">1923-2014</p></div></div></div><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div></div><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col md:t-flex-row t-gap-4 md:t-gap-6"><div class="t-relative t-w-full md:t-w-[208px]"><a href="/engineers-directory/hertha-ayrton-british-electrical-engineer" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="t-w-[375px] t-h-[375px] md:t-h-[194px] md:t-w-[194px] t-rounded t-object-cover" src="https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/275x305-IE-Bio-Profile-Helena-Ayrton.png" alt="Hertha Ayrton"/></a></div><div class="t-w-full md:t-w-[511px] t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-wrap t-gap-2"><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=69"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Electrical Engineer</div></a><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=83"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Inventor</div></a><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=74"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Mathematician</div></a><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=71"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Physicist</div></a></div><a href="/engineers-directory/hertha-ayrton-british-electrical-engineer" class="t-w-max"><h2 class="t-inline-flex t-justify-center t-items-center t-text-text-primary t-text-[18px] t-font-bold t-leading-normal">Hertha Ayrton</h2></a><div class="t-text-text-secondary t-text-[13px] t-font-normal t-leading-[18px]">Hertha Ayrton, born Phoebe Sarah Marks on April 28, 1854, in Portsea, Hampshire, England, was the third child of a Polish Jewish watchmaker, Levi Marks, and a seamstress, Alice Theresa Moss. After her father died in 1861...</div><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-rounded-full t-object-cover" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/b483OS3Y9syvIRjQaCHP2HvP527NdpeTEj7Wdb88.png" alt="United Kingdom"/><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">United Kingdom</p></div><div data-orientation="vertical" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-full t-w-[1px] !t-h-[15px]"></div><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">1854-1923</p></div></div></div><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div></div><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers" class="t-border-[var(--text-primary)] t-border-2 t-rounded-sm t-inline-flex t-items-center t-justify-center t-gap-1.5 t-px-3 t-py-1.5 t-cursor-pointer t-w-[178px] t-h-[46px]"><span class="t-text-[var(--text-primary)] t-text-sm t-font-bold">See More</span><svg width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path d="M6.66699 15.8334L12.5003 10.0001L6.66699 4.16675" stroke="var(--text-primary)" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"></path></svg></a></div></div></div><div class="t-w-full t-mb-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-[20px]"><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div><p class="overline-x-small">By Nationality</p><div class="t-overflow-x-auto t-whitespace-nowrap t-scroll-smooth"><div class="t-flex t-gap-2 t-overflow-x-auto t-scrollbar-hide"><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-2"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-object-contain" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/oIjzvJhVYZg6KlMcwc328meYtke8emmxLqYaEWUc.png" alt="United States"/>United States</div></button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-2"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-object-contain" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/b483OS3Y9syvIRjQaCHP2HvP527NdpeTEj7Wdb88.png" alt="United Kingdom"/>United Kingdom</div></button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-2"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-object-contain" src="https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Custom-Icon-Design-Round-World-Flags-Canada.512.png" alt="Canada"/>Canada</div></button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-2"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-object-contain" src="https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/637146_iraq_512x512.png" alt="Iraq"/>Iraq</div></button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-2"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-object-contain" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/oIjzvJhVYZg6KlMcwc328meYtke8emmxLqYaEWUc.png" alt="American"/>American</div></button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-2"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-object-contain" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/MFya1p4ftYqBBNWuTqmwI05IkMrwtIQhFLCBcpwB.png" alt="Germany"/>Germany</div></button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-2"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-object-contain" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/wThJid7MkgYRB6kD6i5AFQvGVFU0fQqtFJ2fJGrP.png" alt="Egypt"/>Egypt</div></button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-2"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-object-contain" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/HB17qTwJEfZYNFOEbCgZefWV51sUTygmZTLOVcPs.png" alt="India"/>India</div></button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-2"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-object-contain" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/mvzLaCmJxCG61QZbLM1h3o6iBkpr92wOJyer6hG6.png" alt="France"/>France</div></button><button class="t-shrink-0 t-px-[10px] t-py-[5px] t-flex t-items-center overline-xsmall t-bg-surface-zero t-text-text-secondary t-border-2 t-border-transparent t-rounded-[6px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-2"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-object-contain" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/iFpbYed8FhMiplPJ8CDwACGAuPFwAUlnYYu9TpAo.png" alt="Italy"/>Italy</div></button></div></div><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col md:t-flex-row t-gap-4 md:t-gap-6"><div class="t-relative t-w-full md:t-w-[208px]"><a href="/engineers-directory/marvin-lee-minsky-biography" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="t-w-[375px] t-h-[375px] md:t-h-[194px] md:t-w-[194px] t-rounded t-object-cover" src="https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/275x305-IE-Bio-Profile-Marvin-Minsky.png" alt="Marvin Lee Minsky"/></a></div><div class="t-w-full md:t-w-[511px] t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-wrap t-gap-2"><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=6320"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">cognitive scientist</div></a><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=62"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Computer Scientist</div></a><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=83"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Inventor</div></a></div><a href="/engineers-directory/marvin-lee-minsky-biography" class="t-w-max"><h2 class="t-inline-flex t-justify-center t-items-center t-text-text-primary t-text-[18px] t-font-bold t-leading-normal">Marvin Lee Minsky</h2></a><div class="t-text-text-secondary t-text-[13px] t-font-normal t-leading-[18px]">Marvin Lee Minsky, born on August 9, 1927, in New York City, forever changed computer science by co-founding the field of artificial intelligence (AI). Through his work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),...</div><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-rounded-full t-object-cover" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/oIjzvJhVYZg6KlMcwc328meYtke8emmxLqYaEWUc.png" alt="United States"/><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">United States</p></div><div data-orientation="vertical" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-full t-w-[1px] !t-h-[15px]"></div><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">1927-2016</p></div></div></div><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div></div><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col md:t-flex-row t-gap-4 md:t-gap-6"><div class="t-relative t-w-full md:t-w-[208px]"><a href="/engineers-directory/john-mccarthy-father-of-ai" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="t-w-[375px] t-h-[375px] md:t-h-[194px] md:t-w-[194px] t-rounded t-object-cover" src="https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/275x305-IE-Bio-Profile-John-Mccarthy.png" alt="John McCarthy"/></a></div><div class="t-w-full md:t-w-[511px] t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-wrap t-gap-2"><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=62"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Computer Scientist</div></a></div><a href="/engineers-directory/john-mccarthy-father-of-ai" class="t-w-max"><h2 class="t-inline-flex t-justify-center t-items-center t-text-text-primary t-text-[18px] t-font-bold t-leading-normal">John McCarthy</h2></a><div class="t-text-text-secondary t-text-[13px] t-font-normal t-leading-[18px]">John McCarthy was an American computer scientist widely regarded as one of the principal founders of artificial intelligence (AI). Born on September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, he showed an early aptitude for math...</div><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-rounded-full t-object-cover" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/oIjzvJhVYZg6KlMcwc328meYtke8emmxLqYaEWUc.png" alt="United States"/><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">United States</p></div><div data-orientation="vertical" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-full t-w-[1px] !t-h-[15px]"></div><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">1927-2011</p></div></div></div><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div></div><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col md:t-flex-row t-gap-4 md:t-gap-6"><div class="t-relative t-w-full md:t-w-[208px]"><a href="/engineers-directory/stephanie-kwolek-chemistbiography" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="t-w-[375px] t-h-[375px] md:t-h-[194px] md:t-w-[194px] t-rounded t-object-cover" src="https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/275x305-IE-Bio-Profile-John-Backus-1.png" alt="Stephanie Kwolek"/></a></div><div class="t-w-full md:t-w-[511px] t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-wrap t-gap-2"><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=72"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Chemist</div></a><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=83"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Inventor</div></a></div><a href="/engineers-directory/stephanie-kwolek-chemistbiography" class="t-w-max"><h2 class="t-inline-flex t-justify-center t-items-center t-text-text-primary t-text-[18px] t-font-bold t-leading-normal">Stephanie Kwolek</h2></a><div class="t-text-text-secondary t-text-[13px] t-font-normal t-leading-[18px]"> Journey from childhood naturalist to chemist Stephanie Louise Kwolek, born on July 31, 1923, in the industrious town of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, emerged as a celebrated Polish-American chemist whose groundbreaking in...</div><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-rounded-full t-object-cover" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/oIjzvJhVYZg6KlMcwc328meYtke8emmxLqYaEWUc.png" alt="United States"/><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">United States</p></div><div data-orientation="vertical" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-full t-w-[1px] !t-h-[15px]"></div><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">1923-2014</p></div></div></div><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div></div><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers" class="t-border-[var(--text-primary)] t-border-2 t-rounded-sm t-inline-flex t-items-center t-justify-center t-gap-1.5 t-px-3 t-py-1.5 t-cursor-pointer t-w-[178px] t-h-[46px]"><span class="t-text-[var(--text-primary)] t-text-sm t-font-bold">See More</span><svg width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path d="M6.66699 15.8334L12.5003 10.0001L6.66699 4.16675" stroke="var(--text-primary)" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"></path></svg></a></div></div></div><div class="t-w-full t-mb-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-[20px]"><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div><p class="overline-x-small">Born This Month</p><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col md:t-flex-row t-gap-4 md:t-gap-6"><div class="t-relative t-w-full md:t-w-[208px]"><a href="/engineers-directory/ilya-sutskever" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="t-w-[375px] t-h-[375px] md:t-h-[194px] md:t-w-[194px] t-rounded t-object-cover" src="https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ilya-sutskever.png" alt="Ilya Sutskever"/></a></div><div class="t-w-full md:t-w-[511px] t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-wrap t-gap-2"><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=62"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Computer Scientist</div></a></div><a href="/engineers-directory/ilya-sutskever" class="t-w-max"><h2 class="t-inline-flex t-justify-center t-items-center t-text-text-primary t-text-[18px] t-font-bold t-leading-normal">Ilya Sutskever</h2></a><div class="t-text-text-secondary t-text-[13px] t-font-normal t-leading-[18px]"> Ilya Sutskever, born on December 8, 1986, in Gorky, Russian SFSR (now Nizhny Novgorod, Russia), is a prominent Israeli-Canadian computer scientist known for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI...</div><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-rounded-full t-object-cover" src="https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Custom-Icon-Design-Round-World-Flags-Canada.512.png" alt="Canada"/><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">Canada</p></div><div data-orientation="vertical" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-full t-w-[1px] !t-h-[15px]"></div><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">1986-N/A</p></div></div></div><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div></div><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col md:t-flex-row t-gap-4 md:t-gap-6"><div class="t-relative t-w-full md:t-w-[208px]"><a href="/engineers-directory/helen-murray-free" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="t-w-[375px] t-h-[375px] md:t-h-[194px] md:t-w-[194px] t-rounded t-object-cover" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/profile/bSdo5uw6VFRgWBMKP4BRJWaWEuKxwMzExv2A2PK2.png" alt="Helen Murray Free"/></a></div><div class="t-w-full md:t-w-[511px] t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-wrap t-gap-2"><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=72"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Chemist</div></a></div><a href="/engineers-directory/helen-murray-free" class="t-w-max"><h2 class="t-inline-flex t-justify-center t-items-center t-text-text-primary t-text-[18px] t-font-bold t-leading-normal">Helen Murray Free</h2></a><div class="t-text-text-secondary t-text-[13px] t-font-normal t-leading-[18px]">American chemist and educator Helen Murray Free&#8217;s tale is one of groundbreaking contributions, especially in the realm of in vitro self-testing systems for diabetes and various diseases, during her tenure at Miles ...</div><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-rounded-full t-object-cover" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/oIjzvJhVYZg6KlMcwc328meYtke8emmxLqYaEWUc.png" alt="United States"/><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">United States</p></div><div data-orientation="vertical" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-full t-w-[1px] !t-h-[15px]"></div><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">1923-2021</p></div></div></div><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div></div><div class="t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-5"><div class="t-flex t-flex-col md:t-flex-row t-gap-4 md:t-gap-6"><div class="t-relative t-w-full md:t-w-[208px]"><a href="/engineers-directory/thomas-newcomen" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="t-w-[375px] t-h-[375px] md:t-h-[194px] md:t-w-[194px] t-rounded t-object-cover" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/profile/xXOnCETy1wQEBk2cgLoNk52J6OJjm8nfZJGRMJll.png" alt="Thomas Newcomen"/></a></div><div class="t-w-full md:t-w-[511px] t-flex t-flex-col t-gap-3"><div class="t-flex t-flex-wrap t-gap-2"><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers?profession_id=59"><div class="t-inline-flex t-items-center t-rounded-[2px] t-border t-border-button-secondary-light t-cursor-pointer dark:t-border-button-secondary-dark t-px-4 t-py-2 t-text-[13px] t-transition-colors focus:t-outline-none focus:t-ring-2 focus:t-ring-ring focus:t-ring-offset-2 t-border-transparent dark:t-border-none !t-bg-[var(--tag-item-background)] t-text-text-primary overline-xsmall t-px-2 t-py-1 hover:t-bg-primary/80">Entrepreneur</div></a></div><a href="/engineers-directory/thomas-newcomen" class="t-w-max"><h2 class="t-inline-flex t-justify-center t-items-center t-text-text-primary t-text-[18px] t-font-bold t-leading-normal">Thomas Newcomen</h2></a><div class="t-text-text-secondary t-text-[13px] t-font-normal t-leading-[18px]">A man of many talents and trades, Thomas Newcomen came to fame late in life when he invented the world’s first atmospheric engine in 1712, at age 48. Throughout his life, he also saw time as an iron manufacturer and Bapt...</div><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><div class="t-flex t-items-center t-gap-[10px]"><img class="t-w-[22px] t-h-[22px] t-rounded-full t-object-cover" src="https://images.interestingengineering.com/engineers/nationality/b483OS3Y9syvIRjQaCHP2HvP527NdpeTEj7Wdb88.png" alt="United Kingdom"/><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">United Kingdom</p></div><div data-orientation="vertical" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-full t-w-[1px] !t-h-[15px]"></div><p class="overline-xsmall t-text-text-third">1664-1729</p></div></div></div><div data-orientation="horizontal" role="none" class="t-shrink-0 t-bg-stroke-primary t-h-[1px] t-w-full"></div></div><a href="/engineers-directory/all-engineers" class="t-border-[var(--text-primary)] t-border-2 t-rounded-sm t-inline-flex t-items-center t-justify-center t-gap-1.5 t-px-3 t-py-1.5 t-cursor-pointer t-w-[178px] t-h-[46px]"><span 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It is hard to imagine one more accomplished in so many areas than \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/the-inventions-of-leonardo-da-vinci-genius-inspired-by-nature\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLeonardo di ser Piero da Vinci\u003c/a\u003e, who was born in April 1452. He is famous for his work as an engineer, scientist, sculptor, architect, painter, theorist, and draftsman, and is widely considered the progenitor of the High Renaissance period of art. He painted both The Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, both of which can lay claim as being the most famous paintings in the world for centuries after they were completed. At the age of 14, he became an apprentice for Andrea del Verrocchio, a famous sculptor who had himself studied at the feet of the great Donatello. In the workshop, he wasn’t just exposed to brushes, paint, and clay, but also to chemistry, metal and woodworking, mechanics, and drafting, subjects that would allow him to show the world sights that it had never seen before.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePerhaps the most vexing part of Leonardo’s genius as an \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/mit-proves-da-vincis-longest-bridge-design-of-500-years-ago-would-have-worked\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eengineer and an inventor\u003c/a\u003e is that his creations rarely left the page, and if they did, they never made it past the experimental phase. Leonardo did not see much of a difference between science and art, believing both to be equal creations of his mind and just as beautiful to see come to life on paper. Throughout his lifetime, he wrote more than 13,000 pages of notes compiling his inventions, his observations, his creations, and drawings of things that didn’t yet exist. He was the first to propose the idea of a gated canal with a sluice gate, which would allow the city of Florence to have access to the sea. While it was not built in Leonardo’s time, the bridge eventually became the inspiration for the Panama Canal. Other ideas that he envisioned but never created included bending wooden beams into arches on bridges, using a flywheel and a crank to develop a steam engine, and even early designs of a mechanical man, or for lack of a better word, a robot that emulated the joints and muscles of the human body.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis plans came to fruition largely for the good of his city, coming in the form of city engineering and military might. He worked in the count of Ludovico Sforza, who ruled over the city of Milan and was attempting to keep people as safe as possible in public after an outbreak of the plague. Da Vinci designed extra-wide streets in new townships throughout the regions so people had more space to go about their business. He spent an additional 17 years working in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-of-the-most-advanced-military-robots-in-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emilitary engineering\u003c/a\u003e, designing weapons and defenses for the rules of his city as there were frequent battles and changes in leadership.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"20:T2f41,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMarvin Lee Minsky, born on August 9, 1927, in New York City, forever changed computer science by co-founding the field of artificial intelligence (AI). Through his work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Minsky helped guide AI research from its early stages of neural networks to advanced theories on how the human mind might be computationally emulated. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAlong the way, he invented devices that influenced both microscopy and robotics, published influential books on perception and cognition, and shaped the imaginations of countless scientists, engineers, and thinkers. His 1969 Turing Award recognized him as one of the most formidable forces in early AI, affirming his role as an innovator and thought leader.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMarvin Minsky was born into a Jewish family in New York City. His father, Henry, was an eye surgeon, and his mother, Fannie (Reiser) Minsky, was an active Zionist. Encouraged toward intellectual pursuits from a young age, Minsky developed a fascination with the sciences and mathematics during his time at the Ethical Culture Fieldston School, the Bronx High School of Science, and Phillips Academy in Andover.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter serving briefly in the U.S. Navy from 1944 to 1945, Minsky enrolled at Harvard University, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts in mathematics in 1950. He then went on to Princeton University, completing his Ph.D. in mathematics in 1954. His dissertation, titled \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTheory of Neural-Analog Reinforcement Systems and Its Application to the Brain-Model Problem\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e, marked his first major foray into what would eventually become artificial intelligence research.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDuring his graduate studies, Minsky was a Junior Fellow of the Harvard Society of Fellows (1954–1957). This prestigious appointment allowed him the freedom to explore emerging fields in computation and cognition. By the time he completed his formal education, Minsky had already begun forming radical ideas about machine intelligence that set him apart from many of his contemporaries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePath to AI and the MIT years\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1958, Minsky joined MIT’s faculty, working initially with the staff at MIT Lincoln Laboratory. Within a year, he partnered with John McCarthy—another pioneer of AI—to form what would later become the MIT \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/get-inspired-by-these-computer-engineers-success-stories\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eComputer Science\u003c/a\u003e and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL). This collaboration laid a critical foundation for AI research, not just at MIT but globally.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky believed that the human mind could be understood in computational terms. He pushed to replicate facets of intelligence—such as learning, pattern recognition, and problem-solving—within machines. His approach was interdisciplinary, blending mathematics, psychology, and engineering. Colleagues and students often described him as a fearless thinker who was unafraid to tackle foundational questions about how knowledge is represented and processed.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eKey contributions and invention\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNeural Networks and Warly AI Machines: In 1951, Minsky built SNARC, which is considered one of the earliest \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/neuromorphic-computing-neural-networks-hardware\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eneurocomputers\u003c/a\u003e, and incorporated a neural network-based learning machine. Around the same time, he developed frameworks for understanding how simple, randomly wired neural networks might adapt over time.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eConfocal microscope: In 1957, Minsky patented a device that served as a precursor to the confocal laser scanning microscope. It used a focused beam of light and a pinhole filter to eliminate out-of-focus light, improving the clarity of images under a microscope. Although the technology was ahead of its time and not initially commercialized, it paved the way for modern confocal microscopy, which is widely used in biology and materials science.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHead-mounted display: \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1963, Minsky is credited with inventing one of the earliest head-mounted graphical displays. While such devices were primitive by modern standards, they hinted at the potential for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/what-is-virtual-reality-heres-everything-you-need-to-know\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003evirtual reality\u003c/a\u003e, augmented reality, and immersive computing environments.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons and the AI Winter: \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky co-authored \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1969) with Seymour Papert, scrutinizing the capabilities and limitations of neural networks of the time. Many have argued that the book’s critical view of perceptrons inadvertently slowed neural network research in subsequent decades, contributing to the so-called “AI winter.” However, the insights in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e remain historically significant and provide a basis for more rigorous analysis of machine learning models.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLogo Turtle: Alongside Papert, Minsky helped develop the earliest “turtles” used in the Logo \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/top-10-programming-languages-for-engineers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eprogramming language\u003c/a\u003e, teaching children concepts of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/how-fault-geometry-predict-earthquake\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003egeometry \u003c/a\u003eand computation. These small robots could draw on the floor or screen, providing a hands-on learning approach that laid the groundwork for modern educational robotics.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eKnowledge Representation: Minsky’s seminal paper, “A Framework for Representing Knowledge,” introduced the concept of frames, which served as a structure for how machines could hold and interpret knowledge about the world. This work laid the foundation for later semantic network and expert systems developments.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eSociety of Mind and The \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/model-computer-understand-human-emotions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eEmotion\u003c/a\u003e Machine: Minsky’s broad conceptual framework to explain cognition culminated in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Society of Mind\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1986). He proposed that intelligence could emerge from many small, unintelligent “agents” working in coordination. In \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Emotion Machine\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (2006), he continued exploring how emotional states and higher cognitive functions might integrate within an AI system, challenging simplistic ideas about how feelings and thoughts might be coded.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePersonal life and influence on culture\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky married pediatrician Gloria Rudisch in 1952, and the couple had three children. Beyond his professional life, Minsky was an accomplished improvisational pianist, reflecting the creativity that also fueled his AI research. He was famously curious about every aspect of knowledge, from physics to music, and often encouraged broad thinking among his graduate students.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePop culture references to Minsky abound. He served as an adviser on Stanley Kubrick’s \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e2001: A \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/2001-a-space-odysseys-creator-arthur-c-clarke-and-his-visionary-works\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eSpace Odyssey\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e, shaping the portrayal of HAL 9000. Arthur C. Clarke’s novel version of \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e explicitly references Minsky’s breakthroughs as laying the groundwork for advanced artificial intelligence. His “useless machine,” designed to switch itself off immediately after being switched on, has appeared in television shows and remains a whimsical staple in electronics demos, illustrating philosophical ideas about automation and purpose.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eControversies and later years\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky’s strong opinions sometimes placed him at odds with other AI researchers. His critique of neural networks spurred decades of debate, although the field eventually rebounded with improved computing power and new algorithms. Late in his career, Minsky explored questions regarding superintelligent AI. He saw the potential dangers if machines rapidly surpassed human intelligence but considered it likely that rigorous testing would occur before unleashing any irreversible \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/artificial-general-intelligence-understanding-future-ai\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAI systems\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite occasional controversies, Minsky continued his work at MIT until his death. He remained steadfast in his belief that a thorough computational understanding of the mind could lead to machines replicating or surpassing human capabilities. Minsky was recognized not only for his theoretical work but for forming entire research agendas that taught future generations how to think about cognition, creativity, and reason in computational terms.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLegacy and recognition\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky received the 1969 Turing Award, the highest honor in computer science, for his contributions to AI. Among his other accolades were the Japan Prize (1990), the Benjamin Franklin Medal (2001), the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (2013), and membership in prestigious organizations like the U.S. National Academy of Engineering. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2006, he was inducted as a Fellow of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/15-most-significant-milestones-in-the-history-of-the-computer\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eComputer History\u003c/a\u003e Museum for his role in co-founding AI and advancing neural networks, robotics, and theories of cognition.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond official honors, Minsky’s legacy lies in the countless students, researchers, and technologists who took up his vision. His graduate students, like Manuel Blum, Seymour Papert, and Patrick Winston, established significant branches of modern AI research. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis theories on the structure of knowledge, intelligence, and emotion remain vital in current explorations of machine learning, cognitive science, and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/entertainment/top-humanoid-robots-list\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003erobotics\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky died on January 24, 2016, at the age of 88 due to a cerebral hemorrhage. Although no longer alive, his influence persists across AI, robotics, educational technology, and philosophical debates about the nature of the mind. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis works, both technical and popular, continue to inspire new ways to understand intelligence, and while bridging mathematics, psychology, and engineering, Marvin Minsky laid the intellectual bedrock on which much of modern AI is built.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"21:T1a42,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-journey-from-childhood-naturalist-to-chemist\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eJourney from childhood naturalist to chemist\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStephanie Louise Kwolek, born on July 31, 1923, in the industrious town of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, emerged as a celebrated Polish-American chemist whose groundbreaking invention of Kevlar has left an indelible mark on material science and protective apparel.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer childhood was filled with extensive nature explorations alongside her father, an enthusiastic naturalist, who ignited her interest in science from a very young age. These early experiences cultivated a keen sense of observation and inquiry. Tragically, her father\u0026#8217;s death when Stephanie was just ten years old deepened her resolve to understand the natural world, honoring his memory through her academic pursuits.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRaised in a household that valued precision and skill, Stephanie was influenced by her mother, a professional seamstress, who promoted virtues such as precision and attention to detail, which would later define Kwolek\u0026#8217;s scientific career. Despite her mother’s suggestions to pursue fashion, recognizing her daughter’s perfectionism as both a gift and a challenge, Stephanie was drawn instead to the empirical and methodical world of science.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer education culminated in a Bachelor of Science in chemistry from Carnegie Mellon University\u0026#8217;s Margaret Morrison Carnegie College in 1946. Her initial career aspirations leaned towards medicine, driven by a desire to help others. However, fate soon steered the talented chemist down a different path.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-career-and-the-discovery-of-kevlar\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCareer and the discovery of Kevlar\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKwolek\u0026#8217;s professional life began when she accepted a position at DuPont\u0026#8217;s Buffalo, New York, facility shortly after graduation. This role was initially viewed as a temporary measure to finance her medical school ambitions. Yet, the challenges and complexities of polymer chemistry captivated her, marking a consequential turning point in her career.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder the mentorship of William Hale Charch, Kwolek\u0026#8217;s fascination with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/scientists-created-a-synthetic-muscle-fiber-thats-stronger-than-kevlar\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esynthetic fibers\u003c/a\u003e deepened, and she soon decided to dedicate her life to chemistry rather than pursuing medicine. It was at DuPont where Stephanie Kwolek\u0026#8217;s pioneering work would eventually lead to the development of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/architect-designs-kevlar-bulletproof-scarf-head-covering\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eKevlar\u003c/a\u003e in the mid-1960s, setting the stage for a revolution in materials technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStephanie Kwolek’s most significant breakthrough came in the mid-1960s at DuPont amidst a dedicated search for a new high-performance fiber that could be used to reinforce car tires, aiming to create a material that was lighter yet stronger than steel. The breakthrough occurred when Kwolek developed an unusual polymer solution, which, unlike typical viscous solutions, appeared as a cloudy, low-viscosity fluid. This anomaly intrigued Kwolek, who explored its properties further despite its unconventional appearance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe decision to spin the polymer solution into fiber using a spinneret was a gamble as it was feared the unusual solution might clog the machinery. However, the resulting fibers were astonishingly strong. It is about five times stronger than steel on an equal-weight basis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntroduced commercially in 1971 under the name Kevlar, this \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/new-ultralight-material-is-tougher-than-steel-and-kevlar\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003einnovative material\u003c/a\u003e had exceptional strength and resistance to heat, making it an ideal component in various applications ranging from bulletproof vests to aerospace engineering. Kevlar transformed protective apparel and found widespread use in sporting equipment, building materials, and even lightweight vehicles, enhancing safety and functionality across multiple industries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-later-life-and-legacy-nbsp\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eLater life and legacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeyond her revolutionary work with Kevlar, Stephanie Kwolek was a mentor and an advocate for women in the sciences. Her career at DuPont spanned over 40 years, during which she filed 28 patents and was a leading figure in polymer research. After retiring in 1986, Kwolek continued to consult for DuPont and engaged actively with the broader scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe served on national science boards, including the National Research Council and the National Academy of Sciences, contributing her vast knowledge and experience to advancing the field of polymer chemistry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKwolek’s contributions to science and industry were recognized with numerous awards, including the National Medal of Technology, the IRI Achievement Award, and the Perkin Medal. She was also inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame and was the only woman to receive DuPont\u0026#8217;s prestigious Lavoisier Medal for outstanding technical achievement at the time of her recognition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer legacy continues to influence the fields of materials science and engineering, inspiring new generations of scientists, particularly \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/greatest-women-in-stem\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ewomen\u003c/a\u003e, to pursue careers in STEM. Stephanie Kwolek passed away on June 18, 2014, at the age of 90. Her profound impact on the world is reflected not only in the widespread use of Kevlar but also in her role as a pioneer for women in science. Her work continues to save lives and protect individuals globally, a testament to her dedication to innovation and her remarkable career.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"22:T1432,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHertha Ayrton, born Phoebe Sarah Marks on April 28, 1854, in Portsea, Hampshire, England, was the third child of a Polish Jewish watchmaker, Levi Marks, and a seamstress, Alice Theresa Moss. After her father died in 1861, the family struggled financially, and nine-year-old Sarah assumed responsibility for helping to care for her siblings. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShe later moved to northwest London to live with her aunts, who ran a school. They introduced her to science and mathematics, in which she showed remarkable aptitude. By her teenage years, she earned money as a governess but remained determined to pursue higher education. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe writer George Eliot supported her application to Girton College, Cambridge, where she studied mathematics under the mentorship of physicist Richard Glazebrook. Although Cambridge did not grant full degrees to women at the time, Ayrton passed the Mathematical Tripos in 1880 and later obtained a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of London in 1881.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eReturning to London, Ayrton taught and performed embroidery work to make ends meet while developing her mathematical and inventive skills. In 1884, she received her first patent for a line divider, an instrument capable of dividing a line into equal segments or scaling figures, useful for artists, architects, and engineers. With backing from supporters like Louisa Goldsmid and Barbara Bodichon, she financed additional patents and began cultivating her reputation as an inventor.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton deepened her knowledge of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/here-are-9-of-the-most-important-electrical-inventions-ever\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectricity\u003c/a\u003e by attending evening classes at Finsbury Technical College, taught by Professor William Edward Ayrton. They married in 1885, and she assisted him with physics experiments while initiating her research on electric arcs. By the late 19th century, electric arc lighting was widespread for public illumination, but flickering and hissing in the arc posed major technical challenges. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton published influential articles in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Electrician\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e explaining how oxygen interacting with carbon rods caused these unwanted effects. In 1899, she became the first woman to read her paper before the Institution of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/7-sparking-marvels-of-electrical-engineering-that-made-our-current-lives-possible\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eElectrical Engineers\u003c/a\u003e (IEE). She was subsequently elected the first female member of the IEE.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAlthough Ayrton’s groundbreaking findings on electric arcs garnered her acclaim, barriers persisted. In 1902, she was nominated for Fellowship of the Royal Society but was turned down because married women were not eligible. Nevertheless, in 1904, she was permitted to read her paper “The Origin and Growth of Ripple Marks” at the Royal Society. Two years later, she received the Hughes Medal for her research on electric arcs and sand ripples, making her the first woman to earn that distinction.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDuring \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/5-inventions-of-ww1-and-the-engineers-behind-them\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWorld War I\u003c/a\u003e, Ayrton invented a hand-operated fan to disperse poisonous gases in the trenches. Initially ignored, the device eventually gained official recognition, and more than 100,000 “Ayrton Fans” were issued to British troops.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1885, Ayrton married William Edward Ayrton, a widower and notable physicist, who supported her scientific endeavors. The couple had one daughter, Barbara Bodichon Ayrton, born in 1886, who later became a member of Parliament. Ayrton was also actively involved in the suffrage movement, using her resources to support prominent campaigners like Christabel Pankhurst.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHertha Ayrton continued her research and advocacy for women in science until her death on August 26, 1923. She passed away in North Lancing, Sussex, at the age of 69 from blood poisoning, reportedly caused by an insect bite.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton’s most prestigious accolade was the Hughes Medal from the Royal Society in 1906, honoring her pioneering experiments on the electric arc and ripple marks. Though she faced institutional barriers, this award placed her among the era’s top researchers in electricity and magnetism. Her numerous patents, 26 in total, touched on mathematical tools, arc lamps, electrodes, and airflow devices. Ayrton’s achievements remain influential, underscoring the value of scientific rigor, perseverance, and advocacy for women’s rightful place in the scientific community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"23:T121d,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia of Alexandria, born around 350 to 370 AD, was an eminent Neoplatonist philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer who resided in Alexandria, Egypt, then a vibrant cultural capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer father, Theon of Alexandria, himself a prominent scholar and the last known member of the Mouseion, was instrumental in her upbringing, fostering an environment enriched with intellectual pursuits. He is most celebrated for his definitive edition of Euclid\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;Elements,\u0026#8221; which remained the principal resource for teaching geometry for centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia\u0026#8217;s education under her father\u0026#8217;s guidance was comprehensive, enabling her to contribute significantly to the fields of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/space\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eastronomy\u003c/a\u003e and mathematics. She emerged as a leading figure in the Neoplatonist school in Alexandria, where she taught philosophy and astronomy. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer instruction was so renowned that students traveled from across the Mediterranean to learn from her. She authored detailed commentaries on Diophantus’s “Arithmetica” and Apollonius\u0026#8217;s treatise on conic sections, though much of her written work has unfortunately been lost to history. Furthermore, she is credited with editing part of Ptolemy’s “Almagest,” specifically Book III, enhancing the text with her mathematical expertise.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond academia, Hypatia invented devices such as the plane astrolabe and hydrometer, though she did not originate these technologies, she significantly improved upon the designs and their instructional utility in her teachings. Her public lectures often included demonstrations of these devices, illustrating complex astronomical and physical concepts to broader audiences.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia’s \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/greatest-women-in-stem\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eintellectual\u003c/a\u003e prowess granted her significant moral and political influence in Alexandria. She became an advisor to Orestes, the Roman prefect, navigating the tumultuous political scenarios that were often marked by sectarian conflict between Christians and non-Christians. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis involvement, however, also led to her undoing. In the year 415 AD, during a period of intense political rivalry between Orestes and Cyril, the Christian bishop of Alexandria, Hypatia was falsely accused of exacerbating religious tensions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer death was brutal and marked by profound injustice. Seized by a mob of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/christian-basilica-in-aquileia-found\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eChristian\u003c/a\u003e zealots, she was murdered in a manner that shocked the city and the wider empire. This act was not just a personal tragedy but symbolized a seismic shift in the cultural and religious environment of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/hero-of-alexandria\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAlexandria \u003c/a\u003efrom a realm of pluralistic inquiry towards a more dogmatically Christian environment.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn the aftermath of her murder, Hypatia became enshrined as a symbol of intellectual integrity and the pursuit of truth. During the Enlightenment, she was glorified as a martyr of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-why-engineers-should-learn-philosophy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ephilosophy\u003c/a\u003e, representing opposition to the suppression of scientific thought by religious orthodoxy. In modern times, she is seen as a precursor to feminist movements, advocating for the role of women in academia and society.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer legacy has been both celebrated and mythologized, influencing a wide range of literary and artistic endeavors. From the 19th-century novels that romanticized her life to the 2009 film \u0026#8220;Agora,\u0026#8221; which portrayed her as a martyr of science against the backdrop of religious fanaticism, Hypatia remains a figure of enduring fascination and inspiration. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThrough her story, Hypatia continues to embody the timeless struggle for knowledge and the freedom to inquire, crucial principles that resonate across centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"24:T1228,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShuji Nakamura, born on May 22, 1954, in Ehime, Japan, is a Japanese-American \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/7-sparking-marvels-of-electrical-engineering-that-made-our-current-lives-possible\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectronic engineer\u003c/a\u003e and a pioneering inventor recognized for developing the blue light-emitting diode (LED). This innovation is fundamental to the energy-efficient lighting systems that are prevalent today. Nakamura’s career is distinguished by his \u003c/span\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/nobel-laureate-rapid-fire-lasers-nuclear-fusion-reactor\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eprofound contributions\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e to semiconductor technology and his role as a professor of materials science at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNakamura completed his education at the University of Tokushima, obtaining his Bachelor of Engineering in 1977 and a Master of Engineering in electronic engineering by 1979. Shortly after, he joined Nichia Corporation in Tokushima, where he embarked on a project to define his career. At Nichia, Nakamura overcame significant technical challenges to create the first high-brightness gallium nitride (GaN) LED in 1993. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis LED emits a bright \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/light-color-circadian-rhythm-sleep\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eblue light\u003c/a\u003e, producing white light when combined with a yellow phosphor coating. This method became the basis for commercially viable white LED lighting.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis breakthrough came when previous attempts by others, including significant efforts by J.I. Pankove and his team at RCA in the 1960s, had failed to yield marketable results primarily due to the challenges in achieving strong p-type GaN. Nakamura drew upon the foundational work of Professor Isamu Akasaki\u0026#8217;s group and innovated a new thermal annealing method to enhance the production process, making it suitable for mass production.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite facing initial resistance within Nichia, including being directed to halt his research, Nakamura persisted independently and succeeded in developing a commercially viable blue LED. This LED was significantly brighter than earlier versions and marked a major leap forward in lighting technology. The success of this invention significantly boosted Nichia’s financials, with the company’s revenue increasing from about 20 billion yen in 1993 to 80 billion yen by 2001, with blue LED products making up a substantial portion of sales.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1994, Nakamura was awarded a Doctor of Engineering degree from the University of Tokushima. Five years later, in 1999, he left Nichia to join UCSB as a professor, continuing his research and innovation in the field of LED technology. His later work expanded beyond blue LEDs to include green LEDs and blue laser diodes, integral to modern optical storage solutions like Blu-ray Discs and HD DVDs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNakamura\u0026#8217;s career was also full of legal battles over compensation for his inventions. In 2001, he initiated a lawsuit against Nichia, claiming that the compensation he received for his patents was insufficient. Although the court initially awarded him a significant sum, the final settlement in 2005 was considerably less, though still the largest payment to a Japanese employee for an invention at the time.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond his technical and legal challenges, Nakamura has continued innovating in the lighting technology field. In 2008, he co-founded Soraa, a company specializing in advanced lighting based on pure gallium nitride substrates. More recently, in 2022, he co-founded Blue Laser Fusion, focusing on commercial fusion technology.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNakamura has received numerous accolades throughout his illustrious career, including the 2014 \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/3-scientists-win-nobel-physics-prize-for-discovery-of-gravitational-waves\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNobel Prize in Physics\u003c/a\u003e, shared with Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano, for inventing efficient blue LEDs. His work has transformed lighting technology and significantly contributed to energy conservation and sustainability, making him a pivotal figure in the scientific and global community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"25:Tb3f,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA remarkable woman in a time when men dominated society in England, Sarah Guppy was a revered inventor and the first woman to gain a patent for her design of a bridge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe patented the idea for a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/9-masterpieces-bridges-built-worldwide\" target=\"_self\"\u003echain bridge\u003c/a\u003e in 1811, although it was never put into use during her lifetime. She was not the type of person to brag about her accomplishments, but saw invention as a way to help the public and those in her community. She was married to Samuel Guppy at age 25 in 1795, but was focused on her inventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first was a method for making safe pilling on bridges, which she was awarded a patent for in 1811 as well. Fellow innovator Thomas Telford asked for her permission to use the patent for his suspension bridges and she gave it to him free of charge. Her first husband was a machinist so she was able to invent across a number of fields, have prototypes built, and get plenty of support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Guppys had 10 patents in the first half of the 19th century, including one that helped remove barnacles from the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/ie-originals/ie-explainer/season-4/ep-9-this-design-is-why-ships-dont-tip-over\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ehulls of ships\u003c/a\u003e. The invention was such a hit that the Guppys got a contract to provide it to the government worth 40,000 pounds, outrageous money for the early 1800s. Sarah also patented a bed with exercise equipment built into it, a candlestick that allowed candles to burn longer, a tea / coffee urn that would cook eggs in the resulting steam, and lots of improvements in the caulking of seagoing vessels.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll of these patents were taken out in the family name because despite her obvious \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eaptitude for engineering\u003c/a\u003e, as a woman at the time , Sarah could not take out patents in her own name. Her work in advancements for bridges was largely ignored, or improved upon by men who then got all the credit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the lack of recognition, she continued to innovate for the good of society, founding a charity school for girls, writing a children’s book, and using her sphere of influence to present on several worthy issues, including welfare of disenfranchised groups, animal welfare, public health, education, and more.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe and her husband divorced in 1830 after 35 years of marriage and six children. She remarried in 1837 to a man named Richard Eyre Coote, evoking much scandal as he was 39 and she was 67. Unfortunately, her life went downhill from there as her new husband spent much of her amassed wealth on horses and gambling. She eventually left him and lived on her own, passing away at age 81 in 1852 with only 200 pounds left of her once vast fortune.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"26:T1c6a,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eWilliam B. Abrams was an African American inventor best known for his contribution to agricultural technology through the development of the Hame Attachment, for which he was granted U.S. Patent No. 450,550 on April 14, 1891. His innovation addressed a critical issue in horse-drawn transportation and farming, ensuring a more efficient and durable attachment system for hames, the curved pieces of wood or metal used in horse harnesses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the significant impact of his invention, Abrams remains a largely obscure figure in historical records. Like many African American inventors of the 19th century, his contributions were often overlooked, and little is documented about his personal life. However, his patent shows his ingenuity and ability to solve practical problems that affected farmers and workers in the late 19th century.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly life and background\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe available historical records provide little information about Abrams\u0026#8217; early life, including his date of birth, family background, and education. Given that he was an African American man living in the United States during the 19th century, it is likely that he faced significant societal obstacles, including limited access to formal education and economic opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring this period, African Americans, particularly those in the Southern states, faced systemic discrimination due to the lingering effects of slavery, which had only been abolished in 1865 with the 13th Amendment. Even after emancipation, many African Americans were denied equal opportunities in education and professional advancement. Despite these barriers, some managed to rise above the limitations imposed upon them, demonstrating remarkable resilience and ingenuity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is possible that Abrams worked in an agricultural or industrial setting, where he gained firsthand knowledge of the challenges faced by farmers and transporters. His invention suggests that he had a deep understanding of harness systems and the mechanical forces involved in horse-drawn equipment, which would have required practical experience and problem-solving skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eThe hame attachment\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the 19th century, horses and mules were essential for farming, transportation, and industry. To maximize their efficiency, proper harnessing was crucial. The hames, which formed the rigid structure of horse collars, were vital in distributing the load and ensuring that the pulling force was applied evenly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore Abrams\u0026#8217; invention, hame attachments were often unreliable and prone to breaking under stress. The existing methods of securing hames to harnesses were inefficient, requiring frequent repairs and adjustments. This inefficiency led to productivity losses in farming and transportation, as workers had to stop and fix their harness systems regularly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAbrams’ innovative solution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecognizing the need for a more durable and effective method, Abrams designed an improved hame attachment that provided greater security and stability. His invention aimed to create a fastening mechanism that was:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStronger and more durable – reducing the likelihood of failure under heavy use.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEasier to adjust and repair – making it more practical for farmers and workers.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCost-effective – ensuring that it could be widely adopted without significant financial burden.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy improving the way hames were secured, Abrams’ invention enhanced the efficiency of horse-drawn equipment, making it a valuable contribution to agricultural and transportation technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePatent recognition\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn April 14, 1891, Abrams received U.S. Patent No. 450,550 for his hame attachment. The patent description outlined how his invention provided a more stable and reliable means of securing hames to harnesses. The approval of this patent demonstrated that his design was both novel and useful, key requirements for obtaining intellectual property rights in the United States.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-140607 size-full\" src=\"https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/hame-patent.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"619\" height=\"1024\" srcset=\"https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/hame-patent.png 619w, https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/hame-patent.png?resize=181,300 181w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 619px) 100vw, 619px\" /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReceiving a patent was a significant achievement, especially for an African American inventor in the 19th century. At a time when racial discrimination was rampant, it was difficult for Black inventors to secure patents, gain financial backing, or receive widespread recognition for their contributions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eThe historical context of African American inventors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbrams was part of a broader movement of African American inventors who made significant contributions despite facing immense challenges. In the post-Civil War era, African Americans were often denied access to capital, business opportunities, and formal education, making it difficult to bring their ideas to fruition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite these obstacles, several Black inventors managed to secure patents and change industries. Some notable figures include:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/granville-woods\"\u003eGranville T. Woods\u003c/a\u003e (1856–1910): Known as the \u0026#8220;Black Edison,\u0026#8221; he invented numerous devices related to electrical engineering and railway systems.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/elijah-mccoy\"\u003eElijah McCoy\u003c/a\u003e (1844–1929): Best known for his lubrication system for steam engines, which revolutionized industrial efficiency.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/lewis-howard-latimer\"\u003eLewis Howard Latimer\u003c/a\u003e (1848–1928): Played a crucial role in improving carbon filament technology in light bulbs, working alongside Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGarrett Morgan (1877–1963): Invented the traffic signal and a safety hood that was an early prototype for gas masks.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbrams\u0026#8217; patent places him within this legacy of African American inventors who overcame racial barriers to contribute meaningfully to society. While he may not be as widely recognized as others, his work embodies the ingenuity that defined this era.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eThe lasting impact of the hame attachment\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough horse-drawn equipment has largely been replaced by motorized vehicles and machinery, Abrams\u0026#8217; invention played a role in improving efficiency during a crucial period in agricultural history. His design contributed to the broader efforts to make farming and transportation more reliable, reducing labor costs and increasing productivity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile no direct records indicate whether Abrams profited financially from his invention, his success in securing a patent suggests that he was committed to innovation and improving the tools available to workers of his time.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"27:T21b4,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWilliam B. Abrams was an African American inventor best known for his contribution to agricultural technology through the development of the Hame Attachment, for which he was granted U.S. Patent No. 450,550 on April 14, 1891. His innovation addressed a critical issue in horse-drawn transportation and farming, ensuring a more efficient and durable attachment system for hames, the curved pieces of wood or metal used in horse harnesses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the significant impact of his invention, Abrams remains a largely obscure figure in historical records. Like many African American inventors of the 19th century, his contributions were often overlooked, and little is documented about his personal life. However, his patent shows his ingenuity and ability to solve practical problems that affected farmers and workers in the late 19th century.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-background\"\u003eEarly life and background\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe available historical records provide little information about Abrams' early life, including his date of birth, family background, and education. Given that he was an African American man living in the United States during the 19th century, it is likely that he faced significant societal obstacles, including limited access to formal education and economic opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring this period, African Americans, particularly those in the Southern states, faced systemic discrimination due to the lingering effects of slavery, which had only been abolished in 1865 with the 13th Amendment. Even after emancipation, many African Americans were denied equal opportunities in education and professional advancement. Despite these barriers, some managed to rise above the limitations imposed upon them, demonstrating remarkable resilience and ingenuity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is possible that Abrams worked in an agricultural or industrial setting, where he gained firsthand knowledge of the challenges faced by farmers and transporters. His invention suggests that he had a deep understanding of harness systems and the mechanical forces involved in horse-drawn equipment, which would have required practical experience and problem-solving skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-the-hame-attachment\"\u003eThe hame attachment\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the 19th century, horses and mules were essential for farming, transportation, and industry. To maximize their efficiency, proper harnessing was crucial. The hames, which formed the rigid structure of horse collars, were vital in distributing the load and ensuring that the pulling force was applied evenly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore Abrams' invention, hame attachments were often unreliable and prone to breaking under stress. The existing methods of securing hames to harnesses were inefficient, requiring frequent repairs and adjustments. This inefficiency led to productivity losses in farming and transportation, as workers had to stop and fix their harness systems regularly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-abrams-innovative-solution\"\u003eAbrams’ innovative solution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecognizing the need for a more durable and effective method, Abrams designed an improved hame attachment that provided greater security and stability. His invention aimed to create a fastening mechanism that was:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list --\u003e\n\u003cul class=\"wp-block-list\"\u003e\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStronger and more durable – reducing the likelihood of failure under heavy use.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEasier to adjust and repair – making it more practical for farmers and workers.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCost-effective – ensuring that it could be widely adopted without significant financial burden.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy improving the way hames were secured, Abrams’ invention enhanced the efficiency of horse-drawn equipment, making it a valuable contribution to agricultural and transportation technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-patent-recognition\"\u003ePatent recognition\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn April 14, 1891, Abrams received U.S. Patent No. 450,550 for his hame attachment. The patent description outlined how his invention provided a more stable and reliable means of securing hames to harnesses. The approval of this patent demonstrated that his design was both novel and useful, key requirements for obtaining intellectual property rights in the United States.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:image {\"id\":140607} --\u003e\n\u003cfigure class=\"wp-block-image\"\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://cms.interestingengineering.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/hame-patent.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-140607\"/\u003e\u003c/figure\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:image --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReceiving a patent was a significant achievement, especially for an African American inventor in the 19th century. At a time when racial discrimination was rampant, it was difficult for Black inventors to secure patents, gain financial backing, or receive widespread recognition for their contributions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-the-historical-context-of-african-american-inventors\"\u003eThe historical context of African American inventors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbrams was part of a broader movement of African American inventors who made significant contributions despite facing immense challenges. In the post-Civil War era, African Americans were often denied access to capital, business opportunities, and formal education, making it difficult to bring their ideas to fruition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite these obstacles, several Black inventors managed to secure patents and change industries. Some notable figures include:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list --\u003e\n\u003cul class=\"wp-block-list\"\u003e\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/granville-woods\"\u003eGranville T. Woods\u003c/a\u003e (1856–1910): Known as the \"Black Edison,\" he invented numerous devices related to electrical engineering and railway systems.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/elijah-mccoy\"\u003eElijah McCoy\u003c/a\u003e (1844–1929): Best known for his lubrication system for steam engines, which revolutionized industrial efficiency.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/lewis-howard-latimer\"\u003eLewis Howard Latimer\u003c/a\u003e (1848–1928): Played a crucial role in improving carbon filament technology in light bulbs, working alongside Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGarrett Morgan (1877–1963): Invented the traffic signal and a safety hood that was an early prototype for gas masks.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbrams' patent places him within this legacy of African American inventors who overcame racial barriers to contribute meaningfully to society. While he may not be as widely recognized as others, his work embodies the ingenuity that defined this era.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-the-lasting-impact-of-the-hame-attachment\"\u003eThe lasting impact of the hame attachment\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough horse-drawn equipment has largely been replaced by motorized vehicles and machinery, Abrams' invention played a role in improving efficiency during a crucial period in agricultural history. His design contributed to the broader efforts to make farming and transportation more reliable, reducing labor costs and increasing productivity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile no direct records indicate whether Abrams profited financially from his invention, his success in securing a patent suggests that he was committed to innovation and improving the tools available to workers of his time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"28:T121d,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia of Alexandria, born around 350 to 370 AD, was an eminent Neoplatonist philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer who resided in Alexandria, Egypt, then a vibrant cultural capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer father, Theon of Alexandria, himself a prominent scholar and the last known member of the Mouseion, was instrumental in her upbringing, fostering an environment enriched with intellectual pursuits. He is most celebrated for his definitive edition of Euclid\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;Elements,\u0026#8221; which remained the principal resource for teaching geometry for centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia\u0026#8217;s education under her father\u0026#8217;s guidance was comprehensive, enabling her to contribute significantly to the fields of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/space\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eastronomy\u003c/a\u003e and mathematics. She emerged as a leading figure in the Neoplatonist school in Alexandria, where she taught philosophy and astronomy. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer instruction was so renowned that students traveled from across the Mediterranean to learn from her. She authored detailed commentaries on Diophantus’s “Arithmetica” and Apollonius\u0026#8217;s treatise on conic sections, though much of her written work has unfortunately been lost to history. Furthermore, she is credited with editing part of Ptolemy’s “Almagest,” specifically Book III, enhancing the text with her mathematical expertise.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond academia, Hypatia invented devices such as the plane astrolabe and hydrometer, though she did not originate these technologies, she significantly improved upon the designs and their instructional utility in her teachings. Her public lectures often included demonstrations of these devices, illustrating complex astronomical and physical concepts to broader audiences.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia’s \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/greatest-women-in-stem\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eintellectual\u003c/a\u003e prowess granted her significant moral and political influence in Alexandria. She became an advisor to Orestes, the Roman prefect, navigating the tumultuous political scenarios that were often marked by sectarian conflict between Christians and non-Christians. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis involvement, however, also led to her undoing. In the year 415 AD, during a period of intense political rivalry between Orestes and Cyril, the Christian bishop of Alexandria, Hypatia was falsely accused of exacerbating religious tensions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer death was brutal and marked by profound injustice. Seized by a mob of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/christian-basilica-in-aquileia-found\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eChristian\u003c/a\u003e zealots, she was murdered in a manner that shocked the city and the wider empire. This act was not just a personal tragedy but symbolized a seismic shift in the cultural and religious environment of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/hero-of-alexandria\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAlexandria \u003c/a\u003efrom a realm of pluralistic inquiry towards a more dogmatically Christian environment.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn the aftermath of her murder, Hypatia became enshrined as a symbol of intellectual integrity and the pursuit of truth. During the Enlightenment, she was glorified as a martyr of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-why-engineers-should-learn-philosophy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ephilosophy\u003c/a\u003e, representing opposition to the suppression of scientific thought by religious orthodoxy. In modern times, she is seen as a precursor to feminist movements, advocating for the role of women in academia and society.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer legacy has been both celebrated and mythologized, influencing a wide range of literary and artistic endeavors. From the 19th-century novels that romanticized her life to the 2009 film \u0026#8220;Agora,\u0026#8221; which portrayed her as a martyr of science against the backdrop of religious fanaticism, Hypatia remains a figure of enduring fascination and inspiration. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThrough her story, Hypatia continues to embody the timeless struggle for knowledge and the freedom to inquire, crucial principles that resonate across centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"29:T2145,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eLiang Wenfeng, born in 1985 in Zhanjiang, Guangdong Province, China, is a pioneering entrepreneur and innovator who has significantly influenced the fields of quantitative finance and artificial intelligence (AI). As the co-founder of the quantitative hedge fund High-Flyer and the founder and CEO of the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/deepseek-china-open-source-ai\"\u003e AI company DeepSeek\u003c/a\u003e, Liang has emerged as a transformative figure in China\u0026#8217;s technological landscape.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLiang Wenfeng\u0026#8217;s early life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiang\u0026#8217;s formative years were marked by a deep-rooted emphasis on education. Raised in a modest family, his father, a primary school teacher, instilled in him a passion for learning and problem-solving. From an early age, Liang demonstrated an aptitude for mathematics and engineering.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2007, Liang earned a Bachelor of Engineering degree in Electronic Information Engineering from Zhejiang University. He chose to remain at Zhejiang University to pursue a Master of Engineering degree in Information and Communication Engineering. During this time, Liang worked under the mentorship of Professor Xiang Zhiyu and authored a thesis titled \u0026#8220;Research on Target Tracking Algorithm Based on Low-Cost PTZ Camera,\u0026#8221; a work that laid the foundation for his subsequent interest in machine learning and automation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly career and entry into quantitative finance\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile still a graduate student, Liang witnessed the global financial crisis of 2007-2008. Intrigued by the volatility of financial markets, he began collaborating with his classmates to gather data and explore how emerging technologies like machine learning could be applied to quantitative trading. This marked his initial foray into the intersection of finance and technology, a theme that would define much of his professional life.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his graduate studies in 2010, Liang relocated to Chengdu, Sichuan Province, where he experimented with the application of AI across various industries. These years were filled with trials and setbacks, but they ultimately solidified his understanding of how AI could transform traditional sectors. His first major breakthrough came in 2013 when he co-founded Hangzhou Yakebi Investment Management Co., Ltd. alongside Xu Jin, a fellow alumnus of Zhejiang University. This venture served as his formal entry into the financial industry and provided a platform for him to refine his ideas about AI-driven quantitative trading.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo years later, in 2015, Liang and his collaborators established Hangzhou Huanfang Technology Co., Ltd., now known as Zhejiang Jiuzhang Asset Management Co., Ltd. The company focused on integrating advanced algorithms into investment strategies, paving the way for a new era of efficiency in financial decision-making.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn February 2016, Liang co-founded Ningbo High-Flyer Quantitative Investment Management Partnership with two engineering classmates. High-Flyer distinguished itself by its unique approach to portfolio management, utilizing mathematics and AI algorithms to make investment decisions. By eliminating the need for traditional human portfolio managers, High-Flyer was able to achieve remarkable results, managing over 10 billion yuan in assets by 2019. Liang described the firm\u0026#8217;s mission as \u0026#8220;enhancing the efficiency and transparency of China\u0026#8217;s secondary market,\u0026#8221; a goal that resonated with investors and regulators alike.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eTransition to artificial intelligence and founding of DeepSeek\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy 2019, Liang\u0026#8217;s focus began shifting from finance to artificial intelligence. He founded High-Flyer AI, a subsidiary dedicated to the research and development of AI algorithms and foundational applications. Anticipating the growing importance of computational power in AI development, Liang began acquiring thousands of NVIDIA GPUs as early as 2021. At the time, many industry insiders dismissed this move as overly ambitious or even eccentric. However, it soon became clear that Liang\u0026#8217;s foresight was well-founded.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn May 2023, Liang announced an ambitious new initiative to develop artificial general intelligence (AGI), a milestone that many experts consider the \u0026#8220;holy grail\u0026#8221; of AI research. This vision culminated in the establishment of DeepSeek, an AI company funded primarily by High-Flyer. Venture capital firms initially hesitated to invest in the project due to uncertainties about its short-term profitability, but Liang remained steadfast in his belief that AGI represented the future of technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeepSeek adopted a unique hiring strategy, prioritizing talent and passion over conventional experience. The company often recruited recent graduates from top Chinese universities, valuing their innovative perspectives and willingness to tackle complex challenges. This approach allowed DeepSeek to assemble a diverse and dynamic team capable of pushing the boundaries of AI research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eInnovations and impact of DeepSeek\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder Liang\u0026#8217;s leadership, DeepSeek quickly established itself as a formidable player in the AI industry. In May 2024, the company released DeepSeek-V2, a cutting-edge AI model that delivered exceptional performance at a fraction of the cost of its competitors. This release triggered an AI price war in China, forcing major tech companies like ByteDance, Tencent, Baidu, and Alibaba to reduce the prices of their own AI models to remain competitive. Despite its low pricing strategy, DeepSeek maintained profitability, setting it apart from rivals that incurred significant losses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn December 2024, DeepSeek launched its most advanced model yet, DeepSeek-V3, which featured an astonishing 671 billion parameters. Remarkably, the model was trained in approximately 55 days at a cost of under $6 million, a feat that highlighted the company\u0026#8217;s efficiency and resourcefulness. Benchmark tests revealed that DeepSeek-V3 outperformed models like Llama 3.1 and Qwen 2.5, rivaling the capabilities of GPT-4o and Claude 3.5 Sonnet. By January 2025, DeepSeek\u0026#8217;s AI Assistant, powered by the V3 model, had surpassed ChatGPT as the top free app on the iOS App Store in the United States, a milestone that underscored the company\u0026#8217;s global impact.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeepSeek\u0026#8217;s success has been hailed as a game-changer in the AI industry, challenging the dominance of American models and highlighting China\u0026#8217;s rapid advancements in technology. The company\u0026#8217;s efficient use of resources has also demonstrated the limitations of U.S. sanctions aimed at restricting China\u0026#8217;s access to advanced AI chips and other critical technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePhilosophy and vision\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiang Wenfeng\u0026#8217;s approach to AI development is guided by a philosophy of open-source collaboration. He believes that in the realm of disruptive technologies, closed-source methods serve only to delay progress temporarily. DeepSeek has committed to open-sourcing all its models, fostering a culture of shared innovation and collective problem-solving. This commitment has earned the company widespread acclaim and positioned it as a leader in the global AI community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiang has also emphasized the importance of China transitioning from being a follower to a leader in technological innovation. He argues that China\u0026#8217;s challenges in innovation stem not from a lack of capital but from a deficiency in confidence and effective talent organization. By focusing on foundational technologies rather than immediate commercial applications, DeepSeek aims to contribute meaningfully to global advancements in AI.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEngagement with government and industry recognition\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiang\u0026#8217;s contributions to technology and innovation have not gone unnoticed by the Chinese government. On January 20, 2025, he was invited to attend a symposium hosted by Premier Li Qiang in Beijing. As an industry expert, Liang provided valuable insights and suggestions on the 2024 government work report, reflecting his growing influence in shaping China\u0026#8217;s technological and economic policies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThrough his leadership at High-Flyer and DeepSeek, Liang has advanced China\u0026#8217;s position in the global AI landscape and also challenged conventional norms, advocating for open-source development and efficient resource utilization.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"2a:T14e5,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eMarian Croak has worked on advancing Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technologies and has over 200 patents \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eto her name\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e. The VoIP converts your voice into a digital signal, allowing you to \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003emake a\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e call directly from a computer or other digital device. Her efforts have furthered the capabilities of audio and video conferencing, making it a practical reality in \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethe \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003etoday’s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e world.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eBorn on May 14, 1955, \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eCroak\u0026#8217;s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e career took off in 1982 when she joined AT\u0026amp;T Bell Laboratories. She started with a position in the Human Factors research division and focused on how technology could \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ebe used\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eto\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e positively impact \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003epeople’s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e lives\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eRaised in New York City, Croak completed her undergraduate studies at Princeton University. Later, she attended \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eUniversity\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e of Southern California for her doctorate.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe has also worked on network engineering and created a text-to-donate system for charitable organizations \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewith other team members\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe system was first used\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e at large-scale after Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans in 2005.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe technology also raised $43 million in donations after the 2010 earthquake in Haiti.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eIn 2014, she joined Google, \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewhere she is\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e currently vice president of engineering and leads the Research Center for Responsible AI and Human-Centered Technology.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eCroak \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eheld the designation of\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Senior Vice President of Applications and Services Infrastructure AT\u0026amp;T in 2014. \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e managed more than 500 programs and supervised over 2,000 computer scientists \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewhile serving at AT\u0026amp;T\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eCroak, who has won \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ea number of\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e awards, including the 2013 and 2014 Edison Patent Awards, predicted the rise of the Internet and developed technologies to transform it.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAt Google, she is responsible for expanding what the Internet can do \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eacross the world\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe was formerly a VP for Site Reliability Engineering for Ads, Corporate Engineering \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eand,\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e YouTube.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCurrently, Croak is a member of the Corporate Advisory Board for the Viterbi School of Engineering at her alma mater, the University of Southern California.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe is also a former board member for \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003esuch organizations\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e as the Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e; \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eCatalyst\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e; \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethe Holocaust and Human Rights Museum (New Jersey)\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e; \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eand the National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMarian joined Google in 2014 after retiring from AT\u0026amp;T as an SVP responsible for advanced research and innovation and designing and developing one of the world\u0026#8217;s largest wireless and broadband networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eCroak is also a \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003emember of the\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Women in Technology International Hall of Fame.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eFor her patent VoIP Technology\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e, she was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ein 2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"2b:Tb08,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIn the bustling heart of Vienna, Austria, Ferdinand Piëch, a name destined for the annals of automotive history, was born to Louise and Anton Piëch. From his early days, it was clear that Piëch possessed a remarkable affinity for machines and an unyielding curiosity about their inner workings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFueled by this passion, Piëch embarked on his engineering journey at the Lyceum Alpinum Zuoz, a renowned institution that nurtured young minds. His academic pursuits eventually led him to ETH Zurich in Switzerland, where he honed his skills and graduated in 1962. Little did the world know that this unassuming young man would become a trailblazer in automotive engineering.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis journey indeed took flight when he delved into the world of Formula One racing. In a twist of fate, his master\u0026#8217;s thesis coincided with Porsche\u0026#8217;s venture into F1, resulting in the birth of an innovative 8-cylinder engine for the Porsche 804. This marked the beginning of Ferdinand\u0026#8217;s legacy in shaping high-performance automobiles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis talents found a home at Porsche in Stuttgart, where he spent eight years refining his craft. During his tenure, he played a pivotal role in crafting iconic models like the Porsche 906 and the groundbreaking Porsche 917, both of which left an indelible mark on the racetrack. Ferdinand\u0026#8217;s innovations were not limited to the race circuit; his mind sparked the inception of the Audi Quattro, a revolutionary four-wheel-drive vehicle that would dominate the World Rally Championship.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBut Ferdinand\u0026#8217;s brilliance extended beyond individual brands. His tenure at Audi ushered in an era of transformation. He influenced Audi\u0026#8217;s engineering landscape and pioneered a path into new markets, rescuing Volkswagen from the brink of bankruptcy. His strategic maneuvers and audacious acquisitions, including Lamborghini and Bugatti, reshaped the automotive landscape.In his quest for engineering marvels, Ferdinand envisioned the impossible. He dared to dream of a 16-cylinder engine for the legendary Can-Am series, a vision that later manifested in the awe-inspiring Bugatti Veyron.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePiëch\u0026#8217;s influence stretched across continents, reviving the Bentley brand and shaping the luxury automobile market. His determination and resilience were unparalleled, earning him accolades such as the Man of the Year award from Automobile Magazine in 2011.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn August 25, 2019, Piëch tragically collapsed during dinner with his wife in Aschau near Rosenheim, Oberbayern. He was immediately taken to the hospital and later pronounced dead. As the pages of automotive history turn, Piëch\u0026#8217;s legacy endures, inspiring generations of engineers and enthusiasts. In the world he helped shape, Piëch\u0026#8217;s name resonates as a beacon of excellence.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"2c:T1085,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eOne of the greatest masters of innovation in the 20th century, Sergei Korolev was the lead scientist, rocket engineer, and designer of spacecraft for the Soviet Union during the 1950s and 1960s. His work gave Russia the victory in the Space Race between the two world superpowers multiple times over in the early 1960s, including the successful launch and return of the first human being, Yuri Gagarin, into space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in what is now Ukraine in 1907, his father was an Army soldier and his mother from a wealthy family of merchants. His father moved the family to the city of Zhytomyr to become a teacher but his parents soon separated. His father died when he was 22. Korolev learned to read at a young age and was a favorite of his school teachers for his gifts in math, which also led to him being bullied by many of his peers. His mother remarried when he was nine to a German electrical engineer who moved the family to Odessa, a port on the Black Sea. Korolev went to vocational school in Odessa and built a glider, his first attempt at making a vehicle fly. He later joined the Society of Aviation and Aerial Navigation of Ukraine and the Crimea and had his first experiences riding in airplanes. By 1926, he was accepted into the Bauman Moscow State Technical University where he studied under Andrei Tupolev, a famous Russian aircraft designer. He studied aviation until 1929 and began working on designing aircraft for the Russian government soon after. In 1930, he shifted his focus to liquid-fueled \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/rocket-lab-engine-from-space\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003erocket engines\u003c/a\u003e for airplanes and earned his pilot’s license the same year. In 1933, he produced the first hybrid propellant rocket, and shortly thereafter, the first liquid-fueled rocket.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis work stalled in 1937 when Joseph Stalin took control of the Communist Party and started the Great Purge \u0026#8211; removing the influence of his predecessor, Leon Trotsky. At least 700,000 people were killed on Stalin’s orders. Koroklev was arrested in 1938 on false charges and tortured in prison. He was forced to work in a gold mine in Siberia for several months, suffering a heart attack and losing several teeth due to scurvy. He was brought back to Moscow in 1939, then relocated to a prison for scientists and engineers in 1940. His group designed two Russian bombers during World War II. He was finally released from prison in June 1944, but the charges against him were not wiped out until 1957.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was commissioned as an officer of the Red Army in 1945 and given a Badge of Honor for his work during the war. He worked with German scientists after the end of World War II on the creation of V-2 rockets for military purposes. In 1954, he first proposed using a ballistic missile to launch a satellite into space. He wrote articles for local newspapers about the possibility, which were intercepted by the US government, which announced its own intentions to do the same thing in 1955. Koroleve sent another proposal to the Russian government with attached articles from US newspapers about America’s announcement, and three days later, his program was approved.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe designed and oversaw the launch of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/sputnik-moment-global-order\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eSputnik 1\u003c/a\u003e, which launched into space in October 1957 \u0026#8211; the first artificial satellite of Earth. Korolev pushed forward to send a satellite to the moon, but his early attempts failed, with two missing the target, and the other three crashing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1960, another Koroelv designed spacecraft successfully launched and returned a pair of dogs into space. With those tests accomplished, on April 12, 1961, Koroleve was capsule coordinator as Yuri Gagarin launched into orbit, the first man in space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1960, Korlev suffered either his first or second heart attack. He had a kidney disorder caused by his time in terrible living conditions in Soviet prison camps. He died in the hospital in 1966 at the age of 59. No one in the country knew his name until after he had died, a policy started by Stalin during his rise to power.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"2d:T16a3,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eLewis Howard Latimer (1848–1928) was an African American inventor, engineer, and patent draftsman who made vital contributions to electrical engineering and telecommunications. His work in improving carbon filament technology for light bulbs played a crucial role in the widespread adoption of electric lighting. Latimer also worked closely with renowned inventors such as \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/alexander-graham-bell\"\u003eAlexander Graham Bell\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/thomas-edison\"\u003eThomas Edison\u003c/a\u003e, playing a key role in some of the most groundbreaking technological advancements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eLewis Howard Latimer was born on \u003c/span\u003eSeptember 4, 1848, in Chelsea, Massachusetts. His parents, George and Rebecca Latimer\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, were formerly enslaved individuals who had escaped to freedom. In a landmark case, George Latimer successfully won his freedom with the support of abolitionists in Massachusetts.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eGrowing up in a free Black family in the North, Lewis Latimer faced many challenges but demonstrated a natural aptitude for learning. With limited formal education, he taught himself \u003c/span\u003emechanical drawing and drafting\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, skills that would later define his career.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of 16, Latimer enlisted in the US Navy during the American Civil War, serving on the USS Massasoit. After the war, he returned home and sought employment, eventually securing a job at a patent law firm\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, where he honed his drafting skills.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly work as a patent draftsman\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eLatimer\u0026#8217;s career began at \u003c/span\u003eCrosby \u0026amp; Gould, a patent law firm in Boston. Starting as an office assistant, he quickly taught himself technical drawing and became an expert mechanical draftsman\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e. His exceptional skills allowed him to draft patent applications for inventors, enabling their ideas to become legally recognized innovations.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eHis proficiency in drafting attracted the attention of \u003c/span\u003eAlexander Graham Bell, who hired Latimer to help prepare the blueprints for the telephone. Latimer played a crucial role in finalizing Bell’s patent application for the telephone in 1876\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, submitted just hours before a competing claim.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eIn the 1880s, Latimer shifted his focus to electrical engineering, working with leading figures in the emerging \u003c/span\u003eelectric light industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eImproving the light bulb\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough Thomas Edison is credited with inventing the incandescent light bulb, early versions had significant drawbacks, particularly in filament durability. In 1881, Latimer began working with Hiram Maxim at the US Electric Lighting Company. While there, he developed a method for producing carbon filaments\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, significantly improving the efficiency and lifespan of electric light bulbs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eIn \u003c/span\u003e1882, Latimer was granted U.S. Patent No. 252,386 for the Process of Manufacturing Carbons, which revolutionized electric lighting by making bulbs longer-lasting and more commercially viable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCollaboration with Thomas Edison\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eLatimer’s expertise in electric lighting led to his recruitment by the \u003c/span\u003eEdison Electric Light Company (which later became General Electric). He became Edison\u0026#8217;s chief patent expert, responsible for overseeing and defending Edison’s patents against legal challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis book, \u0026#8220;Incandescent Electric Lighting: A Practical Description of the Edison System\u0026#8221; (1890), became one of the first technical guides on electric lighting. Latimer also played a crucial role in installing electric lighting systems in major cities, including New York, Philadelphia, and London.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLater career and advocacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eBeyond his technical contributions, Latimer was a strong advocate for \u003c/span\u003ediversity in engineering. He was one of the few Black engineers of his time and used his position to promote STEM education for African Americans.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eHe was also a founding member of the \u003c/span\u003eEdison Pioneers\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, an elite group of engineers dedicated to advancing electrical technology.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eLewis Howard Latimer’s impact on engineering and invention remains profound. His contributions to \u003c/span\u003etelecommunications and electric lighting\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e paved the way for technological advancements that continue to shape the modern world.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eToday, his legacy is honored through:\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eThe Lewis Latimer House Museum\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e in Queens, New York, preserving his life’s work.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eThe National Inventors Hall of Fame\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, where he was inducted for his contributions to electrical engineering.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eNumerous STEM education programs inspired by his life.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLatimer died on December 11, 1928, at the age of 80.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"2e:T17e8,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLewis Howard Latimer (1848–1928) was an African American inventor, engineer, and patent draftsman who made vital contributions to electrical engineering and telecommunications. His work in improving carbon filament technology for light bulbs played a crucial role in the widespread adoption of electric lighting. Latimer also worked closely with renowned inventors such as \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/alexander-graham-bell\"\u003eAlexander Graham Bell\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/thomas-edison\"\u003eThomas Edison\u003c/a\u003e, playing a key role in some of the most groundbreaking technological advancements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLewis Howard Latimer was born on September 4, 1848, in Chelsea, Massachusetts. His parents, George and Rebecca Latimer, were formerly enslaved individuals who had escaped to freedom. In a landmark case, George Latimer successfully won his freedom with the support of abolitionists in Massachusetts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGrowing up in a free Black family in the North, Lewis Latimer faced many challenges but demonstrated a natural aptitude for learning. With limited formal education, he taught himself mechanical drawing and drafting, skills that would later define his career.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of 16, Latimer enlisted in the US Navy during the American Civil War, serving on the USS Massasoit. After the war, he returned home and sought employment, eventually securing a job at a patent law firm, where he honed his drafting skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-work-as-a-patent-draftsman\"\u003eEarly work as a patent draftsman\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLatimer's career began at Crosby \u0026amp; Gould, a patent law firm in Boston. Starting as an office assistant, he quickly taught himself technical drawing and became an expert mechanical draftsman. His exceptional skills allowed him to draft patent applications for inventors, enabling their ideas to become legally recognized innovations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis proficiency in drafting attracted the attention of Alexander Graham Bell, who hired Latimer to help prepare the blueprints for the telephone. Latimer played a crucial role in finalizing Bell’s patent application for the telephone in 1876, submitted just hours before a competing claim.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the 1880s, Latimer shifted his focus to electrical engineering, working with leading figures in the emerging electric light industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-improving-the-light-bulb\"\u003eImproving the light bulb\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough Thomas Edison is credited with inventing the incandescent light bulb, early versions had significant drawbacks, particularly in filament durability. In 1881, Latimer began working with Hiram Maxim at the US Electric Lighting Company. While there, he developed a method for producing carbon filaments, significantly improving the efficiency and lifespan of electric light bulbs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1882, Latimer was granted U.S. Patent No. 252,386 for the Process of Manufacturing Carbons, which revolutionized electric lighting by making bulbs longer-lasting and more commercially viable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-collaboration-with-thomas-edison\"\u003eCollaboration with Thomas Edison\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLatimer’s expertise in electric lighting led to his recruitment by the Edison Electric Light Company (which later became General Electric). He became Edison's chief patent expert, responsible for overseeing and defending Edison’s patents against legal challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis book, \"Incandescent Electric Lighting: A Practical Description of the Edison System\" (1890), became one of the first technical guides on electric lighting. Latimer also played a crucial role in installing electric lighting systems in major cities, including New York, Philadelphia, and London.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-later-career-and-advocacy\"\u003eLater career and advocacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeyond his technical contributions, Latimer was a strong advocate for diversity in engineering. He was one of the few Black engineers of his time and used his position to promote STEM education for African Americans.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was also a founding member of the Edison Pioneers, an elite group of engineers dedicated to advancing electrical technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLewis Howard Latimer’s impact on engineering and invention remains profound. His contributions to telecommunications and electric lighting paved the way for technological advancements that continue to shape the modern world.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eToday, his legacy is honored through:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list --\u003e\n\u003cul class=\"wp-block-list\"\u003e\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Lewis Latimer House Museum in Queens, New York, preserving his life’s work.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe National Inventors Hall of Fame, where he was inducted for his contributions to electrical engineering.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNumerous STEM education programs inspired by his life.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLatimer died on December 11, 1928, at the age of 80.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"2f:T1432,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHertha Ayrton, born Phoebe Sarah Marks on April 28, 1854, in Portsea, Hampshire, England, was the third child of a Polish Jewish watchmaker, Levi Marks, and a seamstress, Alice Theresa Moss. After her father died in 1861, the family struggled financially, and nine-year-old Sarah assumed responsibility for helping to care for her siblings. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShe later moved to northwest London to live with her aunts, who ran a school. They introduced her to science and mathematics, in which she showed remarkable aptitude. By her teenage years, she earned money as a governess but remained determined to pursue higher education. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe writer George Eliot supported her application to Girton College, Cambridge, where she studied mathematics under the mentorship of physicist Richard Glazebrook. Although Cambridge did not grant full degrees to women at the time, Ayrton passed the Mathematical Tripos in 1880 and later obtained a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of London in 1881.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eReturning to London, Ayrton taught and performed embroidery work to make ends meet while developing her mathematical and inventive skills. In 1884, she received her first patent for a line divider, an instrument capable of dividing a line into equal segments or scaling figures, useful for artists, architects, and engineers. With backing from supporters like Louisa Goldsmid and Barbara Bodichon, she financed additional patents and began cultivating her reputation as an inventor.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton deepened her knowledge of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/here-are-9-of-the-most-important-electrical-inventions-ever\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectricity\u003c/a\u003e by attending evening classes at Finsbury Technical College, taught by Professor William Edward Ayrton. They married in 1885, and she assisted him with physics experiments while initiating her research on electric arcs. By the late 19th century, electric arc lighting was widespread for public illumination, but flickering and hissing in the arc posed major technical challenges. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton published influential articles in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Electrician\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e explaining how oxygen interacting with carbon rods caused these unwanted effects. In 1899, she became the first woman to read her paper before the Institution of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/7-sparking-marvels-of-electrical-engineering-that-made-our-current-lives-possible\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eElectrical Engineers\u003c/a\u003e (IEE). She was subsequently elected the first female member of the IEE.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAlthough Ayrton’s groundbreaking findings on electric arcs garnered her acclaim, barriers persisted. In 1902, she was nominated for Fellowship of the Royal Society but was turned down because married women were not eligible. Nevertheless, in 1904, she was permitted to read her paper “The Origin and Growth of Ripple Marks” at the Royal Society. Two years later, she received the Hughes Medal for her research on electric arcs and sand ripples, making her the first woman to earn that distinction.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDuring \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/5-inventions-of-ww1-and-the-engineers-behind-them\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWorld War I\u003c/a\u003e, Ayrton invented a hand-operated fan to disperse poisonous gases in the trenches. Initially ignored, the device eventually gained official recognition, and more than 100,000 “Ayrton Fans” were issued to British troops.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1885, Ayrton married William Edward Ayrton, a widower and notable physicist, who supported her scientific endeavors. The couple had one daughter, Barbara Bodichon Ayrton, born in 1886, who later became a member of Parliament. Ayrton was also actively involved in the suffrage movement, using her resources to support prominent campaigners like Christabel Pankhurst.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHertha Ayrton continued her research and advocacy for women in science until her death on August 26, 1923. She passed away in North Lancing, Sussex, at the age of 69 from blood poisoning, reportedly caused by an insect bite.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton’s most prestigious accolade was the Hughes Medal from the Royal Society in 1906, honoring her pioneering experiments on the electric arc and ripple marks. Though she faced institutional barriers, this award placed her among the era’s top researchers in electricity and magnetism. Her numerous patents, 26 in total, touched on mathematical tools, arc lamps, electrodes, and airflow devices. Ayrton’s achievements remain influential, underscoring the value of scientific rigor, perseverance, and advocacy for women’s rightful place in the scientific community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"30:T1228,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShuji Nakamura, born on May 22, 1954, in Ehime, Japan, is a Japanese-American \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/7-sparking-marvels-of-electrical-engineering-that-made-our-current-lives-possible\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectronic engineer\u003c/a\u003e and a pioneering inventor recognized for developing the blue light-emitting diode (LED). This innovation is fundamental to the energy-efficient lighting systems that are prevalent today. Nakamura’s career is distinguished by his \u003c/span\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/nobel-laureate-rapid-fire-lasers-nuclear-fusion-reactor\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eprofound contributions\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e to semiconductor technology and his role as a professor of materials science at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNakamura completed his education at the University of Tokushima, obtaining his Bachelor of Engineering in 1977 and a Master of Engineering in electronic engineering by 1979. Shortly after, he joined Nichia Corporation in Tokushima, where he embarked on a project to define his career. At Nichia, Nakamura overcame significant technical challenges to create the first high-brightness gallium nitride (GaN) LED in 1993. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis LED emits a bright \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/light-color-circadian-rhythm-sleep\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eblue light\u003c/a\u003e, producing white light when combined with a yellow phosphor coating. This method became the basis for commercially viable white LED lighting.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis breakthrough came when previous attempts by others, including significant efforts by J.I. Pankove and his team at RCA in the 1960s, had failed to yield marketable results primarily due to the challenges in achieving strong p-type GaN. Nakamura drew upon the foundational work of Professor Isamu Akasaki\u0026#8217;s group and innovated a new thermal annealing method to enhance the production process, making it suitable for mass production.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite facing initial resistance within Nichia, including being directed to halt his research, Nakamura persisted independently and succeeded in developing a commercially viable blue LED. This LED was significantly brighter than earlier versions and marked a major leap forward in lighting technology. The success of this invention significantly boosted Nichia’s financials, with the company’s revenue increasing from about 20 billion yen in 1993 to 80 billion yen by 2001, with blue LED products making up a substantial portion of sales.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1994, Nakamura was awarded a Doctor of Engineering degree from the University of Tokushima. Five years later, in 1999, he left Nichia to join UCSB as a professor, continuing his research and innovation in the field of LED technology. His later work expanded beyond blue LEDs to include green LEDs and blue laser diodes, integral to modern optical storage solutions like Blu-ray Discs and HD DVDs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNakamura\u0026#8217;s career was also full of legal battles over compensation for his inventions. In 2001, he initiated a lawsuit against Nichia, claiming that the compensation he received for his patents was insufficient. Although the court initially awarded him a significant sum, the final settlement in 2005 was considerably less, though still the largest payment to a Japanese employee for an invention at the time.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond his technical and legal challenges, Nakamura has continued innovating in the lighting technology field. In 2008, he co-founded Soraa, a company specializing in advanced lighting based on pure gallium nitride substrates. More recently, in 2022, he co-founded Blue Laser Fusion, focusing on commercial fusion technology.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNakamura has received numerous accolades throughout his illustrious career, including the 2014 \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/3-scientists-win-nobel-physics-prize-for-discovery-of-gravitational-waves\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNobel Prize in Physics\u003c/a\u003e, shared with Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano, for inventing efficient blue LEDs. His work has transformed lighting technology and significantly contributed to energy conservation and sustainability, making him a pivotal figure in the scientific and global community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"31:T10b8,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAndrew Yan-Tak Ng, born in 1976 in the United Kingdom to parents who immigrated from Hong Kong, is an electrical engineer and computer scientist renowned for his pioneering work in deep learning, machine perception, computer vision, and natural language processing. Ng has significantly shaped AI research and application on a global scale.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNg’s academic journey began at Carnegie Mellon University, where he completed his undergraduate studies with a triple major in computer science, statistics, and economics. During this time, he also engaged in groundbreaking research at AT\u0026amp;T Bell Labs, focusing on reinforcement learning and feature selection between 1996 and 1998. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis quest for knowledge took him to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he earned a master’s degree in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/12-electrical-engineering-projects-that-will-impress-your-teachers\"\u003eElectrical Engineering\u003c/a\u003e and Computer Science in 1998. At MIT, he developed the first publicly available, automatically indexed web search engine for research papers, a precursor to systems like CiteSeerX.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2002, Ng completed his Ph.D. in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/get-inspired-by-these-computer-engineers-success-stories\"\u003eComputer Science\u003c/a\u003e at the University of California, Berkeley, diving deeper into the capabilities of AI. He joined Stanford University as an associate professor and was later appointed the Director of the Stanford AI Lab (SAIL). At Stanford, Ng also initiated the Stanford Engineering Everywhere (SEE) program, which made several courses available online for free.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHe co-founded Google Brain and led the project that developed large-scale artificial neural networks using Google’s distributed computing. His work at Google laid the foundation for many modern AI applications. In 2011, Ng’s interest in online education led him to cofound Coursera with Daphne Koller, providing millions worldwide access to free online courses from top institutions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2014, Ng took on the role of Chief Scientist at Baidu, where he led the company’s AI Group, focusing on deep learning, big data, and artificial intelligence. Baidu advanced the field of AI significantly, particularly in the Chinese market, under his leadership. However, in 2017, he resigned from Baidu and quickly moved on to establish DeepLearning.A, and offered a series of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/what-is-deep-learning-and-why-is-it-more-relevant-than-ever\"\u003edeep learning\u003c/a\u003e courses aimed at democratizing AI education.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eFollowing his departure from Baidu, Ng launched the AI Fund in 2018, a $175 million investment initiative to fund AI startups. He also founded Landing AI, which focuses on bringing AI-powered SaaS products to various industries and making AI technologies easily accessible to all kinds of businesses. On April 11, 2024, Amazon added Ng to its board of directors.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNg was named in MIT Technology Review’s TR35 list of 35 top innovators under 35 in 2008 and won the IJCAI Computers and Thought Award in 2009. Time Magazine recognized him as one of the 100 Most Influential People in 2013 and again in the AI 100 Most Influential People in 2023. His contributions to AI were also honored with an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Statistical Society in 2024.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond his professional achievements, Ng is known for his contributions to the community and public understanding of AI. He served on the board of directors for drive.ai, which uses AI for self-driving cars and was acquired by Apple in 2019. Ng is also the board chair for Woebot Labs, which employs data science to deliver cognitive behavioral therapy through a chatbot. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAndrew Ng resides in Los Altos Hills, California, with his wife, Carol E. Reiley, and their two children. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"32:T15bd,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLisa Tzwu-Fang Su, born in November 1969 in Tainan, Taiwan, is a prominent American business executive, computer scientist, and electrical engineer. As President, CEO, and Chair of Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), Su has a big role in positioning AMD as a leader in the semiconductor industry. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer family moved from Taiwan to the United States when she was three, and her early exposure to math and science significantly shaped her future career. Su\u0026#8217;s education was rigorous, and she earned three degrees from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), culminating in a Ph.D. in electrical engineering.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLisa Su\u0026#8217;s early career laid the foundation for her future successes in the tech industry. Beginning in 1994, she joined Texas Instruments, enhancing semiconductor process technologies. Shortly thereafter, in 1995, Su moved to IBM, where she played a vital role in pioneering copper interconnect technology and setting new standards of chip performance. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2000, Su became the technical assistant to IBM\u0026#8217;s CEO, later founding the Emerging Products division to innovate in areas like biochips and energy-efficient semiconductors. Her leadership in this division contributed to developing the Cell microprocessor, known for powering the Sony PlayStation 3. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2007, Su transitioned to Freescale Semiconductor as CTO, steering the company’s research and development in networking and multimedia. Her strategic guidance was immensely valuable in Freescale\u0026#8217;s restructuring, culminating in its 2011 IPO preparation. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLisa Su joined Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) in 2012 as Senior Vice President and General Manager, quickly advancing to Chief Operating Officer. By October 2014, she was appointed President and CEO, where she focused on improving operations and spearheading technological investments. Su emphasized diversifying AMD\u0026#8217;s portfolio beyond PCs, notably integrating AMD chips into gaming consoles like Xbox One and PS4.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eUnder Su\u0026#8217;s leadership, AMD\u0026#8217;s market value skyrocketed from approximately $3 billion to over $200 billion, surpassing Intel for the first time. She expanded the company into new markets, including data centers and immersive technology platforms. This strategic move significantly increased AMD\u0026#8217;s non-PC revenue from 10% in 2012 to around 40% by 2015.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2016, Su led AMD\u0026#8217;s development of FinFET-based chips, enhancing AMD\u0026#8217;s product offerings across CPUs, GPUs, and semi-custom chip designs. The introduction of the Ryzen processors in 2017 further raised AMD\u0026#8217;s reputation, with Ryzen Threadripper processors becoming particularly well-regarded for their high performance at competitive prices.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBy 2019, Su\u0026#8217;s effective leadership earned her recognition as the top CEO in the Associated Press’s annual survey of CEO compensation, with a package valued at $58.5 million. In 2022, she was named Chair of AMD following the successful acquisition of Xilinx for $49 billion, marking a significant expansion of AMD’s technology capabilities. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eSu\u0026#8217;s contributions to technology and management have not gone unnoticed. She was named EE Times\u0026#8217; Executive of the Year in 2014 and appeared on Fortune’s list of the World\u0026#8217;s Greatest Leaders in 2017. Her work made her the first woman to receive the IEEE Robert Noyce Medal in 2021. She was also named a Fellow of the Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) in 2024, acknowledging her influence in the tech industry.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAn influential voice in the semiconductor domain, Su serves on the board of the U.S. Semiconductor Industry Association and is a fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Her insights are also valued nationally as a U.S. President\u0026#8217;s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology member.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eSu’s achievements have led to several other recognitions, including being named to Forbes\u0026#8217; Lists as #26 Power Women and #27 America\u0026#8217;s Self-Made Women in 2024. She was also included in Time’s 2024 list of the \u0026#8220;100 Most Influential People in AI\u0026#8221; and recognized by the Financial Times among the 25 most influential women of 2024. MIT\u0026#8217;s alma mater honored her contributions to technology by dedicating a new building for nanotechnology research in her name in 2022.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eResiding in Austin, Texas, with her husband, Daniel Lin, Lisa Su is notably connected to technological innovation not just through her career but also her family, as she is first cousins, once removed, with Nvidia’s co-founder and CEO, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/jensen-huang#:~:text=He%20graduated%20from%20Oregon%20State,as%20a%20designer%20of%20microprocessors.\"\u003eJensen Huang\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHolding a net worth exceeding $1 billion in 2024, Lisa Su’s career achievements solidify her position as a dominant force and an influential woman in global technology and semiconductor development.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"33:Tca5,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eOne of the most impressive American engineers and entrepreneurs of the 19th and 20th centuries, George Westinghouse Jr. was destined for greatness from an early age, receiving his first patent at the tender age of 19 in 1865. He was a frequent competitor of Thomas Edison when it came to electrical power distribution, and worked with Nicolas Tesla for a time. Among his most impressive inventions included the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/video/a-team-of-mechanics-built-a-how-to-air-brake-for-a-lada\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eairbrake\u003c/a\u003e for trains, different forms of electrical power distribution, and shock absorbers for the first wave of automobiles. In all, he received 33 patents for his inventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in New York, his father was a machine shop owner who was a first-generation American immigrant. Westinghouse was a builder from his youngest days, but also a loyal patriot who enlisted with the state National Guard at the outbreak of the American Civil War. He ultimately served in both the Army and the Navy before war’s end, but found college boring and dropped out to focus on his inventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first of them was a rotary steam engine which he patented when he was 19 years old. In those early days, he also patented the Westinghouse Farm Engine, a steam engine that could be transported on wheels from farm to farm. He also dabbled in railroad logistics with devices that could guide trains from one track to the next or help derailed trains back on the track.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter being an eyewitness to a trainwreck where both engineers saw each other but couldn’t stop due to the limited impact of their brakes, Westinghouse invented a braking system that used compressed air in 1869 when he was just 22 years old. It was patented in 1873. The brake relied on an air reservoir and a control valve on each piece of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/china-now-using-ai-to-manage-worlds-largest-high-speed-railway-system\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etrain\u003c/a\u003e that used a reduction in air pressure to apply the brakes. This system included a built-in fail safe. If there was a loss of pressure along the train line, the brakes would be triggered.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1884, Westinghouse began pursuing a direct current (DC) lighting system to challenge that of Thomas Edison. He also took interest in the European style of alternating current (AC). Starting in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, he formed the Westinghouse Electric \u0026amp; Manufacturing Company. Rather grimly, Westinghouse powered the first death by electric chair in American history. Other projects included a hydroelectric AC plant in Colorado that powered the Gold King Mine several miles away. Later in life, he focused on steam \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-most-powerful-turbine-produces-power\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eturbines\u003c/a\u003e for ships. When automobiles became the range at the start of the 1900s, Westinghouse went back to the drawing board and used compressed air to develop shock absorbers to take a lot of the wear and tear of automobile suspensions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe passed away in 1914 and is buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Washington D.C.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"34:T2f41,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMarvin Lee Minsky, born on August 9, 1927, in New York City, forever changed computer science by co-founding the field of artificial intelligence (AI). Through his work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Minsky helped guide AI research from its early stages of neural networks to advanced theories on how the human mind might be computationally emulated. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAlong the way, he invented devices that influenced both microscopy and robotics, published influential books on perception and cognition, and shaped the imaginations of countless scientists, engineers, and thinkers. His 1969 Turing Award recognized him as one of the most formidable forces in early AI, affirming his role as an innovator and thought leader.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMarvin Minsky was born into a Jewish family in New York City. His father, Henry, was an eye surgeon, and his mother, Fannie (Reiser) Minsky, was an active Zionist. Encouraged toward intellectual pursuits from a young age, Minsky developed a fascination with the sciences and mathematics during his time at the Ethical Culture Fieldston School, the Bronx High School of Science, and Phillips Academy in Andover.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter serving briefly in the U.S. Navy from 1944 to 1945, Minsky enrolled at Harvard University, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts in mathematics in 1950. He then went on to Princeton University, completing his Ph.D. in mathematics in 1954. His dissertation, titled \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTheory of Neural-Analog Reinforcement Systems and Its Application to the Brain-Model Problem\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e, marked his first major foray into what would eventually become artificial intelligence research.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDuring his graduate studies, Minsky was a Junior Fellow of the Harvard Society of Fellows (1954–1957). This prestigious appointment allowed him the freedom to explore emerging fields in computation and cognition. By the time he completed his formal education, Minsky had already begun forming radical ideas about machine intelligence that set him apart from many of his contemporaries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePath to AI and the MIT years\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1958, Minsky joined MIT’s faculty, working initially with the staff at MIT Lincoln Laboratory. Within a year, he partnered with John McCarthy—another pioneer of AI—to form what would later become the MIT \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/get-inspired-by-these-computer-engineers-success-stories\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eComputer Science\u003c/a\u003e and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL). This collaboration laid a critical foundation for AI research, not just at MIT but globally.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky believed that the human mind could be understood in computational terms. He pushed to replicate facets of intelligence—such as learning, pattern recognition, and problem-solving—within machines. His approach was interdisciplinary, blending mathematics, psychology, and engineering. Colleagues and students often described him as a fearless thinker who was unafraid to tackle foundational questions about how knowledge is represented and processed.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eKey contributions and invention\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNeural Networks and Warly AI Machines: In 1951, Minsky built SNARC, which is considered one of the earliest \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/neuromorphic-computing-neural-networks-hardware\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eneurocomputers\u003c/a\u003e, and incorporated a neural network-based learning machine. Around the same time, he developed frameworks for understanding how simple, randomly wired neural networks might adapt over time.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eConfocal microscope: In 1957, Minsky patented a device that served as a precursor to the confocal laser scanning microscope. It used a focused beam of light and a pinhole filter to eliminate out-of-focus light, improving the clarity of images under a microscope. Although the technology was ahead of its time and not initially commercialized, it paved the way for modern confocal microscopy, which is widely used in biology and materials science.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHead-mounted display: \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1963, Minsky is credited with inventing one of the earliest head-mounted graphical displays. While such devices were primitive by modern standards, they hinted at the potential for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/what-is-virtual-reality-heres-everything-you-need-to-know\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003evirtual reality\u003c/a\u003e, augmented reality, and immersive computing environments.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons and the AI Winter: \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky co-authored \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1969) with Seymour Papert, scrutinizing the capabilities and limitations of neural networks of the time. Many have argued that the book’s critical view of perceptrons inadvertently slowed neural network research in subsequent decades, contributing to the so-called “AI winter.” However, the insights in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e remain historically significant and provide a basis for more rigorous analysis of machine learning models.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLogo Turtle: Alongside Papert, Minsky helped develop the earliest “turtles” used in the Logo \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/top-10-programming-languages-for-engineers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eprogramming language\u003c/a\u003e, teaching children concepts of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/how-fault-geometry-predict-earthquake\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003egeometry \u003c/a\u003eand computation. These small robots could draw on the floor or screen, providing a hands-on learning approach that laid the groundwork for modern educational robotics.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eKnowledge Representation: Minsky’s seminal paper, “A Framework for Representing Knowledge,” introduced the concept of frames, which served as a structure for how machines could hold and interpret knowledge about the world. This work laid the foundation for later semantic network and expert systems developments.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eSociety of Mind and The \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/model-computer-understand-human-emotions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eEmotion\u003c/a\u003e Machine: Minsky’s broad conceptual framework to explain cognition culminated in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Society of Mind\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1986). He proposed that intelligence could emerge from many small, unintelligent “agents” working in coordination. In \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Emotion Machine\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (2006), he continued exploring how emotional states and higher cognitive functions might integrate within an AI system, challenging simplistic ideas about how feelings and thoughts might be coded.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePersonal life and influence on culture\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky married pediatrician Gloria Rudisch in 1952, and the couple had three children. Beyond his professional life, Minsky was an accomplished improvisational pianist, reflecting the creativity that also fueled his AI research. He was famously curious about every aspect of knowledge, from physics to music, and often encouraged broad thinking among his graduate students.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePop culture references to Minsky abound. He served as an adviser on Stanley Kubrick’s \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e2001: A \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/2001-a-space-odysseys-creator-arthur-c-clarke-and-his-visionary-works\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eSpace Odyssey\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e, shaping the portrayal of HAL 9000. Arthur C. Clarke’s novel version of \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e explicitly references Minsky’s breakthroughs as laying the groundwork for advanced artificial intelligence. His “useless machine,” designed to switch itself off immediately after being switched on, has appeared in television shows and remains a whimsical staple in electronics demos, illustrating philosophical ideas about automation and purpose.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eControversies and later years\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky’s strong opinions sometimes placed him at odds with other AI researchers. His critique of neural networks spurred decades of debate, although the field eventually rebounded with improved computing power and new algorithms. Late in his career, Minsky explored questions regarding superintelligent AI. He saw the potential dangers if machines rapidly surpassed human intelligence but considered it likely that rigorous testing would occur before unleashing any irreversible \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/artificial-general-intelligence-understanding-future-ai\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAI systems\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite occasional controversies, Minsky continued his work at MIT until his death. He remained steadfast in his belief that a thorough computational understanding of the mind could lead to machines replicating or surpassing human capabilities. Minsky was recognized not only for his theoretical work but for forming entire research agendas that taught future generations how to think about cognition, creativity, and reason in computational terms.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLegacy and recognition\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky received the 1969 Turing Award, the highest honor in computer science, for his contributions to AI. Among his other accolades were the Japan Prize (1990), the Benjamin Franklin Medal (2001), the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (2013), and membership in prestigious organizations like the U.S. National Academy of Engineering. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2006, he was inducted as a Fellow of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/15-most-significant-milestones-in-the-history-of-the-computer\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eComputer History\u003c/a\u003e Museum for his role in co-founding AI and advancing neural networks, robotics, and theories of cognition.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond official honors, Minsky’s legacy lies in the countless students, researchers, and technologists who took up his vision. His graduate students, like Manuel Blum, Seymour Papert, and Patrick Winston, established significant branches of modern AI research. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis theories on the structure of knowledge, intelligence, and emotion remain vital in current explorations of machine learning, cognitive science, and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/entertainment/top-humanoid-robots-list\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003erobotics\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky died on January 24, 2016, at the age of 88 due to a cerebral hemorrhage. Although no longer alive, his influence persists across AI, robotics, educational technology, and philosophical debates about the nature of the mind. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis works, both technical and popular, continue to inspire new ways to understand intelligence, and while bridging mathematics, psychology, and engineering, Marvin Minsky laid the intellectual bedrock on which much of modern AI is built.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"35:T13fa,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eJohn McCarthy was an American computer scientist widely regarded as one of the principal founders of artificial intelligence (AI). Born on September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, he showed an early aptitude for mathematics. His parents, an Irish immigrant father and a Lithuanian Jewish mother, were active in the Communist Party during the Great Depression, and they encouraged his intellectual curiosity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcCarthy’s mathematical abilities became clear in his youth. He self-studied college-level math books used at the nearby California Institute of Technology (Caltech). After graduating from Belmont High School two years early, he was admitted to Caltech in 1944.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe briefly faced suspension for not attending physical education courses, served in the U.S. Army, and was eventually readmitted, earning a Bachelor of Science in mathematics in 1948. One particularly significant event during his time at Caltech was attending a lecture by \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/john-von-neumann\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eJohn von Neumann\u003c/a\u003e, which helped shape McCarthy’s future direction in computer science.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eContinuing his education, McCarthy pursued graduate studies at Princeton University, receiving his PhD in mathematics in 1951. His dissertation focused on the field of partial differential equations under the supervision of mathematician Donald C. Spencer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEarly academic appointments took him from Princeton to Stanford and Dartmouth. While at Dartmouth College in 1955, he became involved in the foundational stages of a new field—artificial intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcCarthy, alongside Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude Shannon, drafted a proposal for a summer research project held at Dartmouth in 1956. This gathering is recognized as the starting point of AI as a distinct academic discipline.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe very term “artificial intelligence” was coined for that conference, setting the conceptual stage for decades of research in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/what-exactly-is-machine-learning\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emachine learning\u003c/a\u003e, symbolic reasoning, and other AI subfields.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter Dartmouth, McCarthy spent time at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). There, he continued to develop his ideas in AI and advanced computer programming languages. He introduced the concept of the “advice taker” in 1958, foreshadowing later breakthroughs in logical reasoning systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThat same year, McCarthy’s work on symbolic manipulation led to the invention of Lisp (List Processing), one of the oldest high-level programming languages still in use today—especially in AI research. Lisp’s functional style, recursive nature, and garbage collection features significantly influenced subsequent programming language design.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcCarthy’s contributions were not limited to AI programming languages. He helped shape ALGOL 60 through his involvement with committees that refined the language’s standard. By the late 1950s, he had invented automatic memory management, commonly known as garbage collection, to handle dynamically allocated data in Lisp. This innovation later became a staple in many modern languages.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1962, McCarthy returned to Stanford University as a full professor, establishing the Stanford AI Laboratory (SAIL), which emerged as a major center of AI research. He was a pioneer in time-sharing systems, an idea that eventually led to the modern concept of cloud computing. By enabling multiple users to access a computer simultaneously, McCarthy and his colleagues helped revolutionize how people interact with computing resources.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, McCarthy explored logic-based approaches to AI, focusing on non-monotonic reasoning (circumscription) and formalizing common sense. His 1978–1986 work on circumscription offered a method to handle incomplete information, a central challenge in creating robust AI systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcCarthy received numerous accolades, including the 1971 \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/3-artificial-intelligence-pioneers-awarded-2018-turing-award\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eTuring Award\u003c/a\u003e for his major contributions to AI. He was also awarded the National Medal of Science, the Kyoto Prize, the Benjamin Franklin Medal, and other honors. Beyond academic achievements, McCarthy was known for his direct style and his emphasis on rigorous thinking. He remained at Stanford until his retirement in 2000, continuing to write and engage in computer science discussions well after his formal retirement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn October 24, 2011, McCarthy passed away at his home in Stanford, California. By that point, he had guided the progress of AI for over half a century—shaping programming paradigms, championing the idea of computers sharing resources, and formulating fundamental questions about machine reasoning and common sense. His influence endures in nearly every domain of computing where AI and programming language theory are at play.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"36:T2490,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever, born on December 8, 1986, in Gorky, Russian SFSR (now Nizhny Novgorod, Russia), is a prominent Israeli-Canadian computer scientist known for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning. His work has been instrumental in advancing machine learning techniques that underpin many modern AI applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-early-life-and-education\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of five, Sutskever\u0026#8217;s family moved to Jerusalem, where he continued his early education. In 2002, he transferred to the University of Toronto, earning a Bachelor of Science in Mathematics. He remained at the University of Toronto for his graduate studies, obtaining both his Master\u0026#8217;s and Ph.D. in Computer Science under the supervision of\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, a leading figure in neural networks research. His doctoral research focused on training recurrent neural networks, contributing to advancements in sequence modeling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-career-and-machine-learning-research\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCareer and machine learning research\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D. in 2013, Sutskever briefly worked as a postdoctoral researcher with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/andrew-ng-engineer-biography\"\u003e Andrew Ng\u0026#8217;s\u003c/a\u003e group at Stanford University. He then joined the Google Brain team as a research scientist, where he collaborated with Oriol Vinyals and Quoc V. Le to develop the sequence-to-sequence learning algorithm, a foundational technique for tasks like machine translation. He also contributed to the development of TensorFlow, an open-source machine learning framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2015, Sutskever co-founded OpenAI, an AI research organization, with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/samaltman-openaiceo-biography\"\u003e Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e,\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/elon-musk\"\u003e Elon Musk\u003c/a\u003e, and others. As Chief Scientist, he led research efforts that resulted in significant advancements, including the development of the GPT series of language models, which have had a profound impact on natural language processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-development-of-alexnet\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eDevelopment of AlexNet\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever is perhaps best known for his role in developing AlexNet, a deep convolutional neural network that achieved groundbreaking results in the 2012 ImageNet competition. This work, conducted with Alex Krizhevsky and\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, demonstrated the potential of deep learning in computer vision and spurred widespread interest in neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet was a groundbreaking deep convolutional neural network (CNN) that transformed the landscape of computer vision when it was introduced. Its performance in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) of that year was revolutionary, as it dramatically reduced the top-5 error rate compared to previous methods. This impressive achievement not only demonstrated the power of deep learning but also catalyzed a widespread shift toward using deep neural networks for a variety of visual recognition tasks in both academia and industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet’s pioneering design and training strategies laid the groundwork for subsequent advances in deep learning architectures. Its innovative use of convolutional layers, ReLU activations, dropout, and GPU acceleration set new benchmarks in performance and efficiency. Although newer models like VGG, ResNet, and EfficientNet have built upon and refined these ideas, the core principles established by AlexNet remain fundamental to the design of modern CNNs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has also encompassed areas such as generative models, reinforcement learning, and unsupervised learning, contributing to a broader understanding of how machines can learn from data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-co-founding-openai-and-developing-chatgpt\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCo-founding OpenAI and developing ChatGPT\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever was a pivotal figure at OpenAI, serving as one of its co-founders and its Chief Scientist. His technical contributions to the development of models like ChatGPT were rooted in his work on deep neural networks and sequence modeling. Early in his career, Sutskever co-authored influential papers on sequence-to-sequence learning—most notably the 2014 paper \u0026#8220;Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks\u0026#8221;—which demonstrated that recurrent neural networks (RNNs), particularly those enhanced with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) units, could effectively model and generate sequential data. This work laid the conceptual and practical groundwork for later advancements in natural language processing, even though modern language models like ChatGPT have transitioned to transformer-based architectures. The insights gained from managing long-range dependencies and learning effective representations in sequential data have had lasting impacts on how large-scale language models are conceptualized and trained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever was instrumental in shaping the research agenda that underpinned the development of the GPT series. His technical vision helped pivot the research focus towards scaling models with transformer architectures—a framework that leverages self-attention mechanisms to process entire input sequences simultaneously, rather than sequentially as in traditional RNNs. This shift enabled the training of models on vast corpora of data, dramatically improving the quality and coherence of generated text. Under his guidance, OpenAI explored and refined techniques for large-scale optimization that are critical for handling the enormous computational loads associated with training models like ChatGPT.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis early work in sequence modeling and later leadership in guiding large-scale transformer research collectively enabled OpenAI to push the boundaries of what is possible in natural language processing, culminating in sophisticated models like ChatGPT that can generate coherent, contextually rich language responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-internal-struggles-at-openai\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eInternal struggles at OpenAI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, Sutskever was involved in a significant leadership change at OpenAI, participating in the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/sam-altman-let-go-from-openai-due-to-confidence-issues\"\u003e board\u0026#8217;s decision to remove CEO Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e. The move led to internal turmoil, and Sutskever later expressed regret over his role in the decision. Following these events, he\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-co-founder-ilya-sutskever-resigns\"\u003e stepped down from the OpenAI board\u003c/a\u003e and eventually departed the organization in May 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn June 2024, Sutskever announced the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-ilya-sutskever-ssi\"\u003e founding of Safe Superintelligence Inc.\u003c/a\u003e (SSI), an AI company focused on developing advanced AI systems with an emphasis on safety. The startup, co-founded with Daniel Gross and Daniel Levy, aims to create AI that surpasses human capabilities while ensuring safety and ethical considerations. In September 2024, SSI secured $1 billion in funding from prominent venture capital firms, underscoring the confidence in Sutskever\u0026#8217;s vision for safe AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-awards-and-honors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Sutskever has received several accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2015, he was named in MIT Technology Review\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;35 Innovators Under 35.\u0026#8221; In 2022, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, one of the highest honors in the scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever\u0026#8217;s work has been pivotal in advancing deep learning and AI research. His contributions have influenced the direction of AI development and the highlighted the importance of safety and ethical considerations in creating advanced AI systems.\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"37:T243c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever, born on December 8, 1986, in Gorky, Russian SFSR (now Nizhny Novgorod, Russia), is a prominent Israeli-Canadian computer scientist known for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning. His work has been instrumental in advancing machine learning techniques that underpin many modern AI applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of five, Sutskever's family moved to Jerusalem, where he continued his early education. In 2002, he transferred to the University of Toronto, earning a Bachelor of Science in Mathematics. He remained at the University of Toronto for his graduate studies, obtaining both his Master's and Ph.D. in Computer Science under the supervision of\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, a leading figure in neural networks research. His doctoral research focused on training recurrent neural networks, contributing to advancements in sequence modeling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-career-and-machine-learning-research\"\u003eCareer and machine learning research\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D. in 2013, Sutskever briefly worked as a postdoctoral researcher with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/andrew-ng-engineer-biography\"\u003e Andrew Ng's\u003c/a\u003e group at Stanford University. He then joined the Google Brain team as a research scientist, where he collaborated with Oriol Vinyals and Quoc V. Le to develop the sequence-to-sequence learning algorithm, a foundational technique for tasks like machine translation. He also contributed to the development of TensorFlow, an open-source machine learning framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2015, Sutskever co-founded OpenAI, an AI research organization, with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/samaltman-openaiceo-biography\"\u003e Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e,\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/elon-musk\"\u003e Elon Musk\u003c/a\u003e, and others. As Chief Scientist, he led research efforts that resulted in significant advancements, including the development of the GPT series of language models, which have had a profound impact on natural language processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-development-of-alexnet\"\u003eDevelopment of AlexNet\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever is perhaps best known for his role in developing AlexNet, a deep convolutional neural network that achieved groundbreaking results in the 2012 ImageNet competition. This work, conducted with Alex Krizhevsky and\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, demonstrated the potential of deep learning in computer vision and spurred widespread interest in neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet was a groundbreaking deep convolutional neural network (CNN) that transformed the landscape of computer vision when it was introduced. Its performance in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) of that year was revolutionary, as it dramatically reduced the top-5 error rate compared to previous methods. This impressive achievement not only demonstrated the power of deep learning but also catalyzed a widespread shift toward using deep neural networks for a variety of visual recognition tasks in both academia and industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet’s pioneering design and training strategies laid the groundwork for subsequent advances in deep learning architectures. Its innovative use of convolutional layers, ReLU activations, dropout, and GPU acceleration set new benchmarks in performance and efficiency. Although newer models like VGG, ResNet, and EfficientNet have built upon and refined these ideas, the core principles established by AlexNet remain fundamental to the design of modern CNNs.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has also encompassed areas such as generative models, reinforcement learning, and unsupervised learning, contributing to a broader understanding of how machines can learn from data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-co-founding-openai-and-developing-chatgpt\"\u003eCo-founding OpenAI and developing ChatGPT\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever was a pivotal figure at OpenAI, serving as one of its co-founders and its Chief Scientist. His technical contributions to the development of models like ChatGPT were rooted in his work on deep neural networks and sequence modeling. Early in his career, Sutskever co-authored influential papers on sequence-to-sequence learning—most notably the 2014 paper \"Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks\"—which demonstrated that recurrent neural networks (RNNs), particularly those enhanced with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) units, could effectively model and generate sequential data. This work laid the conceptual and practical groundwork for later advancements in natural language processing, even though modern language models like ChatGPT have transitioned to transformer-based architectures. The insights gained from managing long-range dependencies and learning effective representations in sequential data have had lasting impacts on how large-scale language models are conceptualized and trained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever was instrumental in shaping the research agenda that underpinned the development of the GPT series. His technical vision helped pivot the research focus towards scaling models with transformer architectures—a framework that leverages self-attention mechanisms to process entire input sequences simultaneously, rather than sequentially as in traditional RNNs. This shift enabled the training of models on vast corpora of data, dramatically improving the quality and coherence of generated text. Under his guidance, OpenAI explored and refined techniques for large-scale optimization that are critical for handling the enormous computational loads associated with training models like ChatGPT.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis early work in sequence modeling and later leadership in guiding large-scale transformer research collectively enabled OpenAI to push the boundaries of what is possible in natural language processing, culminating in sophisticated models like ChatGPT that can generate coherent, contextually rich language responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-internal-struggles-at-openai\"\u003eInternal struggles at OpenAI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, Sutskever was involved in a significant leadership change at OpenAI, participating in the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/sam-altman-let-go-from-openai-due-to-confidence-issues\"\u003e board's decision to remove CEO Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e. The move led to internal turmoil, and Sutskever later expressed regret over his role in the decision. Following these events, he\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-co-founder-ilya-sutskever-resigns\"\u003e stepped down from the OpenAI board\u003c/a\u003e and eventually departed the organization in May 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-founding-of-safe-superintelligence\"\u003eFounding of Safe Superintelligence \u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn June 2024, Sutskever announced the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-ilya-sutskever-ssi\"\u003e founding of Safe Superintelligence Inc.\u003c/a\u003e (SSI), an AI company focused on developing advanced AI systems with an emphasis on safety. The startup, co-founded with Daniel Gross and Daniel Levy, aims to create AI that surpasses human capabilities while ensuring safety and ethical considerations. In September 2024, SSI secured $1 billion in funding from prominent venture capital firms, underscoring the confidence in Sutskever's vision for safe AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-awards-and-honors\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Sutskever has received several accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2015, he was named in MIT Technology Review's \"35 Innovators Under 35.\" In 2022, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, one of the highest honors in the scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever's work has been pivotal in advancing deep learning and AI research. His contributions have influenced the direction of AI development and the highlighted the importance of safety and ethical considerations in creating advanced AI systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c/p\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"38:T1533,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYoshua Bengio, born on March 5, 1964, in Paris, France, is a Canadian computer scientist renowned for his pioneering work in artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning and artificial neural networks. His contributions have significantly advanced the field, earning him numerous accolades and establishing him as a leading figure in AI research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-early-life-and-education\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBengio was born to Moroccan Jewish parents who had emigrated to France. In pursuit of a more inclusive society, the family relocated to Montreal, Canada, when he was twelve years old. He pursued his higher education at McGill University, obtaining a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering, followed by a Master\u0026#8217;s and Ph.D. in Computer Science. His doctoral research focused on artificial neural networks and their application to sequence recognition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-academic-career\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAcademic career\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D., Bengio undertook postdoctoral research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and AT\u0026amp;T Bell Labs. In 1993, he joined the Université de Montréal as a faculty member, where he has been a professor in the Department of Computer Science and Operations Research. He also serves as the founder and scientific director of the Montreal Institute for Learning Algorithms (MILA), which has become a leading center for AI research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-contributions-to-deep-learning\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eContributions to deep learning\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBengio\u0026#8217;s research has been instrumental in advancing deep learning, a subset of machine learning that models high-level abstractions in data. His work on neural machine translation, generative adversarial networks, attention models, and word embeddings has been foundational in the development of modern AI applications. He is also known for his contributions to denoising autoencoders, language models, and generative flow networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-industry-engagement\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eIndustry engagement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2016, Bengio co-founded Element AI, a Montreal-based AI incubator aimed at transforming AI research into practical business solutions. The company was acquired by ServiceNow in 2020, with Bengio continuing as an advisor. He also serves as a scientific advisor for organizations such as Recursion Pharmaceuticals and Valence Discovery, contributing his expertise to the application of AI in various industries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-awards-and-honors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Bengio has received numerous accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2017, he was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. The following year, he was awarded the A.M. Turing Award, often referred to as the \u0026#8220;Nobel Prize of Computing,\u0026#8221; alongside \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003eGeoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yann-lecun\"\u003eYann LeCun\u003c/a\u003e for their work on deep learning. In 2020, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 2022, he received the Princess of Asturias Award in Scientific Research. In 2023, he was appointed a Knight of the Legion of Honour, France\u0026#8217;s highest order of merit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-views-on-ai-and-advocacy\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eViews on AI and advocacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, Bengio has been vocal about the ethical implications and potential risks associated with advanced AI systems. In March 2023, he signed an open letter calling for a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/pause-ai-more-powerful-than-gpt-4\"\u003epause in the development of AI systems\u003c/a\u003e more powerful than GPT-4, expressing concerns about the societal impacts and the need for better regulation. He has advocated for increased government involvement in tracking and auditing AI products to ensure their safe and ethical deployment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-recent-initiatives\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eRecent initiatives\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak announced that Bengio would lead an international scientific report on the safety of advanced AI. An interim version of the report was presented at the AI Seoul Summit in May 2024, addressing issues such as potential cyber attacks and loss of control scenarios. The full report was published in January 2025 as the International AI Safety Report, providing comprehensive guidelines for the safe development and deployment of AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"39:T14b2,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYoshua Bengio, born on March 5, 1964, in Paris, France, is a Canadian computer scientist renowned for his pioneering work in artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning and artificial neural networks. His contributions have significantly advanced the field, earning him numerous accolades and establishing him as a leading figure in AI research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBengio was born to Moroccan Jewish parents who had emigrated to France. In pursuit of a more inclusive society, the family relocated to Montreal, Canada, when he was twelve years old. He pursued his higher education at McGill University, obtaining a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering, followed by a Master's and Ph.D. in Computer Science. His doctoral research focused on artificial neural networks and their application to sequence recognition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-academic-career\"\u003eAcademic career\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D., Bengio undertook postdoctoral research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and AT\u0026amp;T Bell Labs. In 1993, he joined the Université de Montréal as a faculty member, where he has been a professor in the Department of Computer Science and Operations Research. He also serves as the founder and scientific director of the Montreal Institute for Learning Algorithms (MILA), which has become a leading center for AI research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-contributions-to-deep-learning\"\u003eContributions to deep learning\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBengio's research has been instrumental in advancing deep learning, a subset of machine learning that models high-level abstractions in data. His work on neural machine translation, generative adversarial networks, attention models, and word embeddings has been foundational in the development of modern AI applications. He is also known for his contributions to denoising autoencoders, language models, and generative flow networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-industry-engagement\"\u003eIndustry engagement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2016, Bengio co-founded Element AI, a Montreal-based AI incubator aimed at transforming AI research into practical business solutions. The company was acquired by ServiceNow in 2020, with Bengio continuing as an advisor. He also serves as a scientific advisor for organizations such as Recursion Pharmaceuticals and Valence Discovery, contributing his expertise to the application of AI in various industries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-awards-and-honors\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Bengio has received numerous accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2017, he was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. The following year, he was awarded the A.M. Turing Award, often referred to as the \"Nobel Prize of Computing,\" alongside \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003eGeoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yann-lecun\"\u003eYann LeCun\u003c/a\u003e for their work on deep learning. In 2020, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 2022, he received the Princess of Asturias Award in Scientific Research. In 2023, he was appointed a Knight of the Legion of Honour, France's highest order of merit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-views-on-ai-and-advocacy\"\u003eViews on AI and advocacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, Bengio has been vocal about the ethical implications and potential risks associated with advanced AI systems. In March 2023, he signed an open letter calling for a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/pause-ai-more-powerful-than-gpt-4\"\u003epause in the development of AI systems\u003c/a\u003e more powerful than GPT-4, expressing concerns about the societal impacts and the need for better regulation. He has advocated for increased government involvement in tracking and auditing AI products to ensure their safe and ethical deployment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-recent-initiatives\"\u003eRecent initiatives\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak announced that Bengio would lead an international scientific report on the safety of advanced AI. An interim version of the report was presented at the AI Seoul Summit in May 2024, addressing issues such as potential cyber attacks and loss of control scenarios. The full report was published in January 2025 as the International AI Safety Report, providing comprehensive guidelines for the safe development and deployment of AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"3a:T1676,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFei-Fei Li, born in 1976 in Beijing, China, is a prominent Chinese-American computer scientist renowned for her significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in computer vision and machine learning. Her pioneering work has been instrumental in advancing AI technologies and promoting a human-centered approach to AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-early-life-and-education\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi spent her early years in Chengdu, China, before immigrating to the United States at the age of 15. Adjusting to a new culture and language, she demonstrated exceptional academic abilities, leading her to pursue higher education in the sciences. She earned a Bachelor of Arts in Physics with High Honors from Princeton University in 1999. Following her undergraduate studies, Li obtained her Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in 2005.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing her doctorate, Li embarked on an academic career that included positions as an assistant professor at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and Princeton University. In 2009, she joined Stanford University, where she became an associate professor and later served as the Director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL) from 2013 to 2018. During her tenure at Stanford, Li co-founded the Human-Centered AI Institute, emphasizing the importance of aligning AI development with human values and societal needs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2017, Li took a sabbatical from Stanford to join Google Cloud as Vice President and Chief Scientist of AI/ML, where she focused on democratizing AI technology and developing tools like AutoML to make machine learning more accessible. After her tenure at Google, she returned to Stanford and continued her research and advocacy for ethical AI practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-contributions-to-ai-and-computer-vision\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eContributions to AI and computer vision\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of Li\u0026#8217;s most notable contributions is the creation of ImageNet, a large-scale dataset designed to advance object recognition research. Launched in 2009, ImageNet provided millions of labeled images across thousands of categories, serving as a critical resource for training and evaluating machine learning models. The annual ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge became a benchmark for assessing advancements in computer vision and deep learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi\u0026#8217;s research interests encompass AI, machine learning, deep learning, computer vision, robotic learning, and ambient intelligence for healthcare delivery. She has published over 400 scientific articles in top-tier journals and conferences, contributing significantly to the advancement of AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-awards-and-honors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout her career, Li has received numerous accolades recognizing her contributions to science and technology. These include the Microsoft Research New Faculty Fellowship (2006), the NSF CAREER Award (2009), and being named a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in 2018 for her work in building large knowledge bases for machine learning and visual understanding. In 2020, she was elected as a member of both the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Medicine, acknowledging her interdisciplinary impact.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-recent-endeavors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eRecent endeavors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2023, Li published a memoir titled \u0026#8220;The Worlds I See: Curiosity, Exploration, and Discovery at the Dawn of AI,\u0026#8221; offering insights into her personal journey and the evolution of artificial intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, Li co-founded World Labs, an AI company focusing on spatial intelligence and generative AI. The startup aims to develop AI systems capable of understanding and interacting with the three-dimensional physical world, with applications spanning robotics, autonomous vehicles, and augmented reality. World Labs quickly garnered significant investment, reflecting the growing interest in advanced AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-advocacy-and-human-centered-ai\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAdvocacy and human-centered AI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi is a strong advocate for ethical AI development and has worked with policymakers to ensure that AI technologies progress in a manner that benefits society. She has testified before U.S. Senate and Congressional committees, served as a special advisor to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, and was a member of the National Artificial Intelligence Research Resource Task Force for the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer focus on human-centered AI emphasizes the importance of developing technologies that are ethical, transparent, and aligned with human values, ensuring that the benefits of AI are widely shared across society.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"3b:T170c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFei-Fei Li, born in 1976 in Beijing, China, is a prominent Chinese-American computer scientist renowned for her significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in computer vision and machine learning. Her pioneering work has been instrumental in advancing AI technologies and promoting a human-centered approach to AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi spent her early years in Chengdu, China, before immigrating to the United States at the age of 15. Adjusting to a new culture and language, she demonstrated exceptional academic abilities, leading her to pursue higher education in the sciences. She earned a Bachelor of Arts in Physics with High Honors from Princeton University in 1999. Following her undergraduate studies, Li obtained her Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in 2005.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-academic-and-professional-career\"\u003eAcademic and professional career\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing her doctorate, Li embarked on an academic career that included positions as an assistant professor at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and Princeton University. In 2009, she joined Stanford University, where she became an associate professor and later served as the Director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL) from 2013 to 2018. During her tenure at Stanford, Li co-founded the Human-Centered AI Institute, emphasizing the importance of aligning AI development with human values and societal needs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2017, Li took a sabbatical from Stanford to join Google Cloud as Vice President and Chief Scientist of AI/ML, where she focused on democratizing AI technology and developing tools like AutoML to make machine learning more accessible. After her tenure at Google, she returned to Stanford and continued her research and advocacy for ethical AI practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-contributions-to-ai-and-computer-vision\"\u003eContributions to AI and computer vision\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of Li's most notable contributions is the creation of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/find-out-how-artificial-intelligence-perceives-you-through-imagenet-roulette\"\u003eImageNet\u003c/a\u003e, a large-scale dataset designed to advance object recognition research. Launched in 2009, ImageNet provided millions of labeled images across thousands of categories, serving as a critical resource for training and evaluating machine learning models. The annual ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge became a benchmark for assessing advancements in computer vision and deep learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi's research interests encompass AI, machine learning, deep learning, computer vision, robotic learning, and ambient intelligence for healthcare delivery. She has published over 400 scientific articles in top-tier journals and conferences, contributing significantly to the advancement of AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-awards-and-honors\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout her career, Li has received numerous accolades recognizing her contributions to science and technology. These include the Microsoft Research New Faculty Fellowship (2006), the NSF CAREER Award (2009), and being named a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in 2018 for her work in building large knowledge bases for machine learning and visual understanding. In 2020, she was elected as a member of both the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Medicine, acknowledging her interdisciplinary impact.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-recent-endeavors\"\u003eRecent endeavors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2023, Li published a memoir titled \"The Worlds I See: Curiosity, Exploration, and Discovery at the Dawn of AI,\" offering insights into her personal journey and the evolution of artificial intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, Li co-founded World Labs, an AI company focusing on spatial intelligence and generative AI. The startup aims to develop AI systems capable of understanding and interacting with the three-dimensional physical world, with applications spanning robotics, autonomous vehicles, and augmented reality. World Labs quickly garnered significant investment, reflecting the growing interest in advanced AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-advocacy-and-human-centered-ai\"\u003eAdvocacy and human-centered AI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi is a strong advocate for ethical AI development and has worked with policymakers to ensure that AI technologies progress in a manner that benefits society. She has testified before U.S. Senate and Congressional committees, served as a special advisor to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, and was a member of the National Artificial Intelligence Research Resource Task Force for the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer focus on human-centered AI emphasizes the importance of developing technologies that are ethical, transparent, and aligned with human values, ensuring that the benefits of AI are widely shared across society.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"3c:T16bf,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYann LeCun, born on July 8, 1960, in Soisy-sous-Montmorency, France, is a pioneering computer scientist renowned for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and computer vision. His work, particularly in the development of convolutional neural networks (CNNs), has been instrumental in advancing deep learning technologies that underpin many modern AI applications. As of 2025, LeCun serves as the Vice President and Chief AI Scientist at Meta (formerly Facebook) and holds a professorship at New York University (NYU).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-early-life-and-education\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun\u0026#8217;s interest in science and engineering was evident from a young age, influenced by his father\u0026#8217;s profession as an engineer. He pursued his passion for technology by obtaining an engineering diploma from ESIEE Paris in 1983. He furthered his education with a Ph.D. in computer science from Université Pierre et Marie Curie (now Sorbonne University) in 1987, during which he proposed an early form of the back-propagation learning algorithm for neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-career-milestones\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCareer milestones\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1988, LeCun joined the Adaptive Systems Research Department at AT\u0026amp;T Bell Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey. During his tenure, he developed several innovative machine learning methods, including convolutional neural networks (CNNs), which are biologically inspired models of image recognition. His work on CNNs led to significant advancements in optical character recognition and computer vision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1996, LeCun became the head of the Image Processing Research Department at AT\u0026amp;T Labs-Research, focusing on projects such as the DjVu image compression technology. This technology has been widely used for distributing scanned documents, notably by the Internet Archive.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun transitioned to academia in 2003, joining NYU as a professor. He was the founding director of the NYU Center for Data Science and has been affiliated with the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences. His research at NYU has encompassed energy-based models for supervised and unsupervised learning, feature learning for object recognition in computer vision, and mobile robotics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn December 2013, LeCun took on the role of Director of AI Research at Facebook, now Meta, where he has been instrumental in advancing the company\u0026#8217;s AI initiatives. He continues to balance his responsibilities at Meta with his academic pursuits at NYU.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-contributions-to-deep-learning\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eContributions to deep learning\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun\u0026#8217;s work on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) has been foundational in the field of deep learning. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, he proposed architectures for building neural networks that enabled computers to recognize images. By 1994, while at AT\u0026amp;T Bell Labs, he developed a CNN capable of identifying handwritten characters, leading to applications such as bank check recognition systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has significantly influenced the development of modern AI systems, including applications in image and speech recognition, natural language processing, and autonomous vehicles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-awards-and-honors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun\u0026#8217;s contributions to AI have been widely recognized. In 2018, he, along with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yoshua-bengio\"\u003eYoshua Bengio\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003eGeoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, received the Turing Award for their work on deep learning. The trio is often referred to as the \u0026#8220;Godfathers of AI\u0026#8221; and \u0026#8220;Godfathers of Deep Learning.\u0026#8221;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2023, LeCun was honored with the Legion of Honour, France\u0026#8217;s highest order of merit, acknowledging his significant impact on science and technology. The following year, in 2024, he received the VinFuture Prize for his groundbreaking work in AI. In 2025, he was awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering, further cementing his legacy as a leading figure in the field.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-current-perspectives-and-future-vision\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCurrent perspectives and future vision\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun continues to be a prominent voice in the AI community. He has emphasized the limitations of current AI systems, noting that while they can communicate in ways similar to humans, they still lack a deep understanding of the physical world. He predicts that the next revolution in AI will occur within the next three to five years, focusing on developing systems that can comprehend and predict the behavior of the physical world. LeCun believes that achieving human-level intelligence in AI is still a distant goal, with current efforts aimed at creating systems with intelligence comparable to that of animals like cats or rats.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"3d:T161a,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYann LeCun, born on July 8, 1960, in Soisy-sous-Montmorency, France, is a pioneering computer scientist renowned for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and computer vision. His work, particularly in the development of convolutional neural networks (CNNs), has been instrumental in advancing deep learning technologies that underpin many modern AI applications. As of 2025, LeCun serves as the Vice President and Chief AI Scientist at Meta (formerly Facebook) and holds a professorship at New York University (NYU).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun's interest in science and engineering was evident from a young age, influenced by his father's profession as an engineer. He pursued his passion for technology by obtaining an engineering diploma from ESIEE Paris in 1983. He furthered his education with a Ph.D. in computer science from Université Pierre et Marie Curie (now Sorbonne University) in 1987, during which he proposed an early form of the back-propagation learning algorithm for neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-career-milestones\"\u003eCareer milestones\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1988, LeCun joined the Adaptive Systems Research Department at AT\u0026amp;T Bell Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey. During his tenure, he developed several innovative machine learning methods, including convolutional neural networks (CNNs), which are biologically inspired models of image recognition. His work on CNNs led to significant advancements in optical character recognition and computer vision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1996, LeCun became the head of the Image Processing Research Department at AT\u0026amp;T Labs-Research, focusing on projects such as the DjVu image compression technology. This technology has been widely used for distributing scanned documents, notably by the Internet Archive.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun transitioned to academia in 2003, joining NYU as a professor. He was the founding director of the NYU Center for Data Science and has been affiliated with the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences. His research at NYU has encompassed energy-based models for supervised and unsupervised learning, feature learning for object recognition in computer vision, and mobile robotics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn December 2013, LeCun took on the role of Director of AI Research at Facebook, now Meta, where he has been instrumental in advancing the company's AI initiatives. He continues to balance his responsibilities at Meta with his academic pursuits at NYU.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-contributions-to-deep-learning\"\u003eContributions to deep learning\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun's work on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) has been foundational in the field of deep learning. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, he proposed architectures for building neural networks that enabled computers to recognize images. By 1994, while at AT\u0026amp;T Bell Labs, he developed a CNN capable of identifying handwritten characters, leading to applications such as bank check recognition systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has significantly influenced the development of modern AI systems, including applications in image and speech recognition, natural language processing, and autonomous vehicles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-awards-and-honors\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun's contributions to AI have been widely recognized. In 2018, he, along with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yoshua-bengio\"\u003eYoshua Bengio\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003eGeoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, received the Turing Award for their work on deep learning. The trio is often referred to as the \"Godfathers of AI\" and \"Godfathers of Deep Learning.\"\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2023, LeCun was honored with the Legion of Honour, France's highest order of merit, acknowledging his significant impact on science and technology. The following year, in 2024, he received the VinFuture Prize for his groundbreaking work in AI. In 2025, he was awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering, further cementing his legacy as a leading figure in the field.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-current-perspectives-and-future-vision\"\u003eCurrent perspectives and future vision\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun continues to be a prominent voice in the AI community. He has emphasized the limitations of current AI systems, noting that while they can communicate in ways similar to humans, they still lack a deep understanding of the physical world. He predicts that the next revolution in AI will occur within the next three to five years, focusing on developing systems that can comprehend and predict the behavior of the physical world. LeCun believes that achieving human-level intelligence in AI is still a distant goal, with current efforts aimed at creating systems with intelligence comparable to that of animals like cats or rats.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"3e:T1432,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHertha Ayrton, born Phoebe Sarah Marks on April 28, 1854, in Portsea, Hampshire, England, was the third child of a Polish Jewish watchmaker, Levi Marks, and a seamstress, Alice Theresa Moss. After her father died in 1861, the family struggled financially, and nine-year-old Sarah assumed responsibility for helping to care for her siblings. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShe later moved to northwest London to live with her aunts, who ran a school. They introduced her to science and mathematics, in which she showed remarkable aptitude. By her teenage years, she earned money as a governess but remained determined to pursue higher education. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe writer George Eliot supported her application to Girton College, Cambridge, where she studied mathematics under the mentorship of physicist Richard Glazebrook. Although Cambridge did not grant full degrees to women at the time, Ayrton passed the Mathematical Tripos in 1880 and later obtained a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of London in 1881.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eReturning to London, Ayrton taught and performed embroidery work to make ends meet while developing her mathematical and inventive skills. In 1884, she received her first patent for a line divider, an instrument capable of dividing a line into equal segments or scaling figures, useful for artists, architects, and engineers. With backing from supporters like Louisa Goldsmid and Barbara Bodichon, she financed additional patents and began cultivating her reputation as an inventor.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton deepened her knowledge of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/here-are-9-of-the-most-important-electrical-inventions-ever\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectricity\u003c/a\u003e by attending evening classes at Finsbury Technical College, taught by Professor William Edward Ayrton. They married in 1885, and she assisted him with physics experiments while initiating her research on electric arcs. By the late 19th century, electric arc lighting was widespread for public illumination, but flickering and hissing in the arc posed major technical challenges. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton published influential articles in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Electrician\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e explaining how oxygen interacting with carbon rods caused these unwanted effects. In 1899, she became the first woman to read her paper before the Institution of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/7-sparking-marvels-of-electrical-engineering-that-made-our-current-lives-possible\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eElectrical Engineers\u003c/a\u003e (IEE). She was subsequently elected the first female member of the IEE.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAlthough Ayrton’s groundbreaking findings on electric arcs garnered her acclaim, barriers persisted. In 1902, she was nominated for Fellowship of the Royal Society but was turned down because married women were not eligible. Nevertheless, in 1904, she was permitted to read her paper “The Origin and Growth of Ripple Marks” at the Royal Society. Two years later, she received the Hughes Medal for her research on electric arcs and sand ripples, making her the first woman to earn that distinction.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDuring \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/5-inventions-of-ww1-and-the-engineers-behind-them\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWorld War I\u003c/a\u003e, Ayrton invented a hand-operated fan to disperse poisonous gases in the trenches. Initially ignored, the device eventually gained official recognition, and more than 100,000 “Ayrton Fans” were issued to British troops.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1885, Ayrton married William Edward Ayrton, a widower and notable physicist, who supported her scientific endeavors. The couple had one daughter, Barbara Bodichon Ayrton, born in 1886, who later became a member of Parliament. Ayrton was also actively involved in the suffrage movement, using her resources to support prominent campaigners like Christabel Pankhurst.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHertha Ayrton continued her research and advocacy for women in science until her death on August 26, 1923. She passed away in North Lancing, Sussex, at the age of 69 from blood poisoning, reportedly caused by an insect bite.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton’s most prestigious accolade was the Hughes Medal from the Royal Society in 1906, honoring her pioneering experiments on the electric arc and ripple marks. Though she faced institutional barriers, this award placed her among the era’s top researchers in electricity and magnetism. Her numerous patents, 26 in total, touched on mathematical tools, arc lamps, electrodes, and airflow devices. Ayrton’s achievements remain influential, underscoring the value of scientific rigor, perseverance, and advocacy for women’s rightful place in the scientific community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"3f:T121d,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia of Alexandria, born around 350 to 370 AD, was an eminent Neoplatonist philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer who resided in Alexandria, Egypt, then a vibrant cultural capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer father, Theon of Alexandria, himself a prominent scholar and the last known member of the Mouseion, was instrumental in her upbringing, fostering an environment enriched with intellectual pursuits. He is most celebrated for his definitive edition of Euclid\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;Elements,\u0026#8221; which remained the principal resource for teaching geometry for centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia\u0026#8217;s education under her father\u0026#8217;s guidance was comprehensive, enabling her to contribute significantly to the fields of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/space\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eastronomy\u003c/a\u003e and mathematics. She emerged as a leading figure in the Neoplatonist school in Alexandria, where she taught philosophy and astronomy. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer instruction was so renowned that students traveled from across the Mediterranean to learn from her. She authored detailed commentaries on Diophantus’s “Arithmetica” and Apollonius\u0026#8217;s treatise on conic sections, though much of her written work has unfortunately been lost to history. Furthermore, she is credited with editing part of Ptolemy’s “Almagest,” specifically Book III, enhancing the text with her mathematical expertise.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond academia, Hypatia invented devices such as the plane astrolabe and hydrometer, though she did not originate these technologies, she significantly improved upon the designs and their instructional utility in her teachings. Her public lectures often included demonstrations of these devices, illustrating complex astronomical and physical concepts to broader audiences.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia’s \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/greatest-women-in-stem\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eintellectual\u003c/a\u003e prowess granted her significant moral and political influence in Alexandria. She became an advisor to Orestes, the Roman prefect, navigating the tumultuous political scenarios that were often marked by sectarian conflict between Christians and non-Christians. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis involvement, however, also led to her undoing. In the year 415 AD, during a period of intense political rivalry between Orestes and Cyril, the Christian bishop of Alexandria, Hypatia was falsely accused of exacerbating religious tensions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer death was brutal and marked by profound injustice. Seized by a mob of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/christian-basilica-in-aquileia-found\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eChristian\u003c/a\u003e zealots, she was murdered in a manner that shocked the city and the wider empire. This act was not just a personal tragedy but symbolized a seismic shift in the cultural and religious environment of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/hero-of-alexandria\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAlexandria \u003c/a\u003efrom a realm of pluralistic inquiry towards a more dogmatically Christian environment.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn the aftermath of her murder, Hypatia became enshrined as a symbol of intellectual integrity and the pursuit of truth. During the Enlightenment, she was glorified as a martyr of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-why-engineers-should-learn-philosophy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ephilosophy\u003c/a\u003e, representing opposition to the suppression of scientific thought by religious orthodoxy. In modern times, she is seen as a precursor to feminist movements, advocating for the role of women in academia and society.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer legacy has been both celebrated and mythologized, influencing a wide range of literary and artistic endeavors. From the 19th-century novels that romanticized her life to the 2009 film \u0026#8220;Agora,\u0026#8221; which portrayed her as a martyr of science against the backdrop of religious fanaticism, Hypatia remains a figure of enduring fascination and inspiration. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThrough her story, Hypatia continues to embody the timeless struggle for knowledge and the freedom to inquire, crucial principles that resonate across centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"40:Te0e,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eAnnie Easley, an American computer scientist and accomplished mathematician, played a pivotal role in NASA\u0026#8217;s rocket systems and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/energy/solar-cells-efficiency-record\"\u003eenergy technologies\u003c/a\u003e during her 34-year career. In the expansive city of Birmingham, Alabama, on April 23rd, 1933, Easley entered the world with a destined trajectory toward greatness. Raised by her mother and an elder brother who instilled a genuine ambition, Easley initially aspired towards a career in nursing. However, the erratic nature of fate, coupled with her evolving interests, directed her onto an alternative path. The epoch preceding the Civil Rights Movement presented formidable challenges for African Americans, curtailing their educational and vocational prospects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUndeterred, Annie adeptly navigated the turbulent waters of segregation and discrimination. Holy Family High School witnessed her academic prowess, culminating in her emergence as the valedictorian. Her inclination towards nursing transformed her fascination with pharmaceuticals during high school. An unforeseen twist materialized in 1950 when she enrolled at Xavier University in New Orleans, immersing herself in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/health/fda-sale-overdose-reversal-drug-narcan\"\u003epharmacy\u003c/a\u003e. A brief marriage and subsequent relocation to Cleveland marked a pivotal juncture, with the local university\u0026#8217;s cessation of its pharmacy program altering Easley\u0026#8217;s trajectory towards an unforeseen destiny.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEasley happened to chance upon an article chronicling the experiences of twin sisters serving as \u0026#8220;human computers\u0026#8221; at the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory in Cleveland, a precursor to the NASA Glenn Research Center. This laboratory sought minds proficient in mathematics, leading Easley, in pursuit of employment, to the threshold of an extraordinary career. Urgently immersing herself in this unfamiliar domain, she initiated a 34-year odyssey that would indelibly shape the course of space exploration. Commencing her journey in 1955 as a \u0026#8220;human computer,\u0026#8221; Easley engaged in intricate computations and simulations for the Plum Brook Reactor Facility. In an environment where diversity was sparse, she stood as one of only four African-American employees, facing challenges with a resilience that would ultimately define her legacy. As technology advanced, Easley seamlessly transitioned, evolving into a proficient computer programmer. Her proficiency in languages such as Fortran and SOAP contributed significantly to NASA\u0026#8217;s programs, encompassing research on alternative power technology and the Centaur upper-stage \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/us-company-reveals-largest-capsule-ever-built-for-human-space-travel\"\u003erocket\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEasley\u0026#8217;s impact extended beyond the technical sphere. In the 1970s, she embraced a dual commitment, pursuing a mathematics degree at Cleveland State while actively participating in outreach efforts at NASA. Her role extended to tutoring students and advocating STEM careers for women and minorities, a testament to her dedication to education and equality. Retiring in 1989 did not stop her. Her continued involvement in the Speaker\u0026#8217;s Bureau and the Business \u0026amp; Professional Women\u0026#8217;s Association left an enduring legacy characterized by determination, kindness, and generosity. Easley\u0026#8217;s narrative transcends the boundaries of space exploration, portraying a woman who defied expectations and shattered barriers.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"41:Td0c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIn the heart of Lahore, British India, in the year 1910, a child was born who would one day unravel the mysteries of the universe.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSubrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, later known as Chandra, grew up to become a legendary figure in the realm of theoretical physics. Chandra\u0026#8217;s insatiable curiosity and passion for knowledge led him from the bustling streets of Lahore to the academic corridors of Madras (present-day Chennai), India.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere, at Presidency College, he delved deep into the mysteries of physics, earning his bachelor\u0026#8217;s degree. But his thirst for understanding could not be quenched within the confines of India. So, he set his sights on the esteemed University of Cambridge, where he pursued his PhD, immersing himself in the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/axion-particle-could-reveal-first-second-of-the-universe\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecomplexities of the universe\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUpon completing his education, Chandra ventured across the oceans to the United States, where he embarked on a remarkable journey at the University of Chicago. His brilliance shone brightly as he made groundbreaking contributions to astrophysics. Alongside his colleague William A. Fowler, he was honored with the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for their profound theoretical studies on the structure and evolution of stars.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChandra\u0026#8217;s legacy was defined by his pioneering work on stellar evolution, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/astronomers-observe-white-dwarf-star-transforming-into-massive-celestial-diamond\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ewhite dwarfs\u003c/a\u003e , stellar dynamics, radiative transfer, and quantum theory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of his most significant achievements was the establishment of the Chandrasekhar limit, a crucial concept defining the maximum mass a white dwarf star can bear before its cataclysmic fate. Yet, Chandra\u0026#8217;s path was not without challenges. A fierce scientific dispute with Arthur Eddington tested his resolve. Undeterred, he stood firm, and his groundbreaking theory was eventually validated and embraced by the scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the midst of World War II, Chandra applied his intellect to the field of ballistics research, contributing to wartime efforts. His expertise in various domains, from \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/solar-wind-sun-space-weather\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esolar wind\u003c/a\u003e to gravitational waves, marked him as an unparalleled scientific mind. Throughout his life, Chandra held steadfast to his rigorous approach to research, emphasizing systematization in his scientific pursuits. His influence extended far beyond his discoveries, touching the lives of numerous students and collaborators who were inspired by his dedication. In 1995, at the University of Chicago Hospital, Chandrasekhar\u0026#8217;s brilliant mind was dimmed by a sudden heart attack, marking the end of an era in the world of astrophysics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRemarkably, he had already survived a heart attack two decades earlier, a testament to his resilience and determination. Chandrasekhar may have left this world, but his legacy endured—a legacy of groundbreaking research and contributions that illuminated the darkest corners of the universe, leaving an indelible mark on the world of astrophysics.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"42:T1064,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIn the bustling city of Tehran, a young girl named Maryam Mirzakhani was born on May 12, 1977. From an early age, her love for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/worlds-hardest-math-problems\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003enumbers and patterns\u003c/a\u003e set her apart. Growing up in a society where opportunities for women in advanced education were limited, Maryam\u0026#8217;s brilliance refused to be contained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer journey began at Tehran Farzanegan School, an institution associated with the National Organization for Development of Exceptional Talents. Here, her mathematical prowess emerged like a radiant beacon. Despite the societal challenges that often discouraged girls from \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/who-exactly-invented-math\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003epursuing mathematics\u003c/a\u003e , Maryam\u0026#8217;s determination knew no bounds. Her exceptional abilities earned her recognition, not just locally but on the international stage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn mathematics competitions, Maryam\u0026#8217;s name became synonymous with excellence. She not only excelled in the Iranian National Olympiad but went on to clinch the gold medal in both her junior and senior years. This remarkable achievement not only underscored her mathematical brilliance but also exempted her from the grueling national college entrance exam.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer talent knew no borders; she represented Iran in the prestigious International Mathematical Olympiad. In 1994, she etched her name, becoming the first Iranian woman to win a gold medal in Hong Kong. The following year, in Toronto, she achieved the unthinkable—a perfect score, winning not one but two gold medals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs Maryam\u0026#8217;s academic journey progressed, she continued to leave an indelible mark. At Sharif University of Technology, she earned her Bachelor of Science degree in mathematics in 1999, earning recognition from esteemed institutions like the American Mathematical Society for her work on the theorem of Schur. Fueled by an insatiable curiosity, she ventured to the United States, landing at the hallowed halls of Harvard University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder the mentorship of the renowned mathematician Curtis T. McMullen, Maryam\u0026#8217;s brilliance found new avenues to explore. She delved deep into the complex world of moduli spaces of Riemann surfaces, unraveling mysteries that had baffled mathematicians for generations. Her doctoral thesis focused on solving intricate problems related to simple closed geodesics on hyperbolic Riemann surfaces, weaving together the realms of dynamics and geometry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the hallowed corridors of Harvard, Maryam\u0026#8217;s innovative spirit thrived, leading to groundbreaking volume formulas and proofs that illuminated the intricacies of these mathematical structures. Maryam\u0026#8217;s exceptional contributions did not go unnoticed. In 2014, the world recognized her genius. She was bestowed with the Fields Medal, the highest honor in mathematics. This momentous occasion was historic, marking Maryam as the first woman to receive this prestigious award. Her work, a fusion of dynamics and geometry, delved into the behavior of billiards on an expansive array of tables. Her insights revealed the profound dynamics underlying the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/creat-music-art-using-brainwaves\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003egeometry fabric\u003c/a\u003e , leaving an indelible imprint on the field.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYet, amidst her soaring achievements, tragedy struck. Maryam was diagnosed with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/health/her2-breast-cancer-vaccine\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ebreast cancer\u003c/a\u003e in 2013. Undeterred, she faced this formidable adversary with unwavering courage and resilience. She continued her work, her passion for mathematics undiminished, inspiring her peers and admirers with determination.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn July 14, 2017, at the age of 40, Maryam Mirzakhani\u0026#8217;s journey came to a premature end. The world mourned the loss of a brilliant mind, a trailblazer who defied conventions and illuminated the path for future mathematicians. Her legacy reminds the world that passion, determination, and intellect know no gender.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"43:Ta20,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThe man with the unlikely name, Hero of Alexandria was a Greek engineer and mathematician who lived in the first century. In \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/heron-the-industrial-engineer-long-before-the-industrial-age\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eexperiments\u003c/a\u003e that were literally centuries ahead of his time, Hero of Alexandria built the first device powered by steam as well as the first use of wind as a power source for something besides a sailing vessel on the water. He taught at the legendary Library of Alexandria in his native home of Egypt and is considered one of the foremost brilliant minds of the distant past when it came to experimenting and innovating. Also known as Heron of Alexandria, his dates of birth and death are unknown. Many of his original works were lost, some in the great fire of Alexandria. Those that did survive include lecture notes on mechanics, pneumatics, physics, and mathematics. He was an early innovator in automated devices, which are often included in basic elements of teaching cybernetics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of his most famous inventions was known as a Hero’s engine, or an aeolipile It was a steam turbine that did not have blades, but rather a spinning container that turned due to torque provided by steam jets on its sides. It was so named for the Greek god of wind and air, Aeolus, along with the Latin word “pila” meaning ball.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA second invention was Heron’s foundation, a hydraulics machine that doubled as a children’s toy. This model is used in present-day physics classrooms to show how pneumatics and hydraulics work. It used pressure to make water burst out of the top. It was made popular for modern audiences in the \u003cem\u003eBBC\u003c/em\u003e show “\u003cem\u003eHow Britain Worked\u003c/em\u003e.” Hero of Alexandria’s influence is also found in mathematics with Heron’s formula and Heron’s method. The former gives the area of a triangle in terms of the three lengths of its sides. He wrote it in his first-century work, Metrica. He also published a formula for computing the square roots of numbers. He also published works on pneumatics, automation, and how to measure lengths, including a discussion of an odometer, and how to build mechanical machines of war. He also built the world’s first vending machine, which allowed people to insert a coin and get holy water from a valve. The coin landed on a pan attached to a lever, which opened the valve for the water to flow as the coin’s weight was on it, then stopped the valve when the coin fell off.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHero of Alexandria died around the year 70.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"44:T1140,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eEmily Warren Roebling was an instrumental figure in the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, stepping into a pivotal role after her husband, Washington Roebling, became incapacitated due to caisson disease. Born in Cold Spring, New York, Emily was one of twelve children in a family where education was highly valued, particularly by her older brother, Gouverneur K. Warren.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1864, Emily met Washington Roebling, the son of John A. Roebling, who was the original designer of the Brooklyn Bridge. The couple married in January 1865 and soon traveled to Europe to study caisson technology, which would later be crucial for the bridge’s construction. They returned to the United States with Emily, giving birth to their only child, John A. Roebling II, in 1867.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTragedy struck the Roebling family when John A. Roebling died in 1869, leaving Washington as the chief engineer of the Brooklyn Bridge. However, Washington soon suffered from decompression sickness, which rendered him bedridden. During this critical period, Emily rose to the challenge, taking over many chief engineer duties. She became the project\u0026#8217;s manager, learning \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/concepts-mechanical-engineers-need-to-understand\"\u003eengineering principles\u003c/a\u003e and dealing directly with contractors, politicians, and workers. Her understanding of complex engineering concepts and ability to communicate these to the project team were central to continuing the bridge construction.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eEmily\u0026#8217;s role was not just administrative. She learned about the strength of materials, stress analysis, cable construction, and the calculation of catenary curves, all of which were critical to overseeing the bridge’s construction. By the early 1880s, she was recognized as a key figure in the project, so much so that there were rumors she had become the de facto chief engineer.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Brooklyn Bridge was completed in 1883, and Emily was the first to cross it by carriage, carrying a rooster as a sign of victory. At the bridge’s opening ceremony, she was honored for her unwavering dedication and competence in what was then a strictly male-dominated field. Her contributions were later recognized in a speech by Abram Stevens Hewitt, who cited her as a monumental example of a woman\u0026#8217;s capability in higher education and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/the-20-greatest-engineers-of-all-time\"\u003eengineering\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eFollowing completing the Brooklyn Bridge, Emily dedicated herself to numerous social causes and women’s rights. She was involved with several organizations, including the Daughters of the American Revolution and the George Washington Memorial Association. Her advocacy extended to education, where she pursued and received a law certificate from New York University. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn her later years, Emily continued to engage in social and educational issues. She traveled extensively, was presented to Queen Victoria, and attended the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II. In one of her most notable essays, \u0026#8220;A Wife\u0026#8217;s Disabilities,\u0026#8221; which she published under her husband’s initials, she argued vigorously for women’s rights and legal reforms.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn May 2024, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, her husband and son\u0026#8217;s alma mater, honored Roebling with a posthumous honorary doctorate as part of its bicentennial commencement, recognizing her enduring impact. The degree was accepted in character by Liz Wisan, with a speech generated by feeding quotes from Roebling into \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/openais-gpt-4-how-is-it-different-its-predecessor\"\u003eGPT-4\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer enduring legacy, especially her crucial role in constructing the Brooklyn Bridge, is a testament to her resilience and capability and a beacon of inspiration for women everywhere to overcome barriers and achieve greatness in engineering. Today, she is remembered for her technical contributions and role in breaking gender barriers in engineering and science. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"45:Tcf3,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1806, Isambard Kingdom Brunel is a legend of British transportation, building one of the first major railroad routes. His work on the Great Western Railway (GWR) revolutionized travel for both industry and passengers in the UK, connecting London and the port city of Bristol beginning in 1838. His father, the well-known engineer Marc Isambard Brunel, was determined to have his son be his protege and was educated in France before becoming an engineer on his father’s current project, the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/photo-story/londons-super-sewer\" target=\"blank\"\u003eThames Tunnel\u003c/a\u003e, which stretched under the River Thames to connect Wapping to Rotherhithe between 1825-1843. His progress was delayed somewhat when he suffered a bad injury when a tunnel partially collapsed and flooded. To keep himself busy during his period of recuperation, the younger Brunel entered a designed contest, and his creation won and was used years later to construct a bridge over the Avon Gorge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e He started to pick up steam as an engineer in his own right, not just as his father’s son, as he designed many shipping docks across England in Plymouth, Milford Haven, Brentford, and Bristol. At the tender age of 27, he was named the chief engineer on the Great Western Railway. He championed a wider gauge track for the railway, believing it would help trains gain more speed in wide-open spaces. Brunel left no stone unturned in his railway project. He oversaw the entire design, including the layout of the track, the bridges, the tunnels, and even the lamp posts that populated the railway stations along the way. He was famous for getting off the platform and rolling up his shirt sleeves to dig alongside the workers on his crews.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the most impressive features of the GWR was the Box Tunnel, which passed through Box Hill between the towns of Chippenham and Bath. When it opened in 1841, it was the longest railway tunnel in the world, at 1.83 miles. During World War II, the British Army stored munitions there, out of sight of German war planes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis success far surpassed life on the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/radical-railways-15-technologies-that-could-drive-the-future-of-trains\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003erailway\u003c/a\u003e, however. He was an early champion of the use of compressed air to drop pier foundations underwater. While the railway was being built, he turned his engineer’s eye to the water and was the engineer of three British ships that were, in succession, the largest in the world. The Great Western was the first paddle-wheel steam ship to successfully take passengers across the Atlantic Ocean from \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/45-of-the-greatest-british-inventions-of-all-time\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eEngland\u003c/a\u003e to the US. The Great Britain was finished in 1843 as the first ship of size to use a screw propeller. The Great Eastern followed 15 years later and revolutionized both engineering and telecommunications as it did what several ships before it could not; laying a telegraph cable from the US to the UK.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJust a year after the Great Eastern launched, Brunel passed away at the age of 53. A memorial window was installed in his honor in Westminster Abbey in 1868.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"46:Td33,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThe Metro Man of India, Elattuvalapil Sreedharan achieved great things later in life when he transformed the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/11-of-the-wackiest-vehicle-and-transportation-ideas-ever-devised\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etransportation\u003c/a\u003e system of India. When you live in a country of 1.408 billion (as of 2023) that is about to surpass China as the largest in the world, someone who understands the finer points of mass transit is a very good person to have.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSreedharan was born in 1932 when India was still held by the British government. He went to public school and then on to Victoria College in Palghat, adding a degree in Civil Engineering from what is now known as Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University. Despite all of his education, his immediate impulse was to go into the teaching field, where he served as a lecturer in Civil Engineering. In 1953, he joined the Indian Railway Service of Engineers after passing the service exam.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn immense natural disaster accelerated Sreedharan’s path to success. At the end of 1964, a large cyclone destroyed parts of the Pamban Bridge connecting Rameshwaram to the mainland. Sreedharan was put in charge of repairing the bridge in six months, but that deadline was cut in half early in the process. Using innovative techniques and a balanced application of manpower, Sreedharan had the bridge restored to full working order in just 46 days -barely half the time he had been allotted. He was granted the Railway Minister’s Award for his accomplishment and it got his name being noticed. Six years later while serving as the Deputy Chief Engineer, he was put in charge of the Kolkata Metro, a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/radical-railways-15-technologies-that-could-drive-the-future-of-trains\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003erapid transit system\u003c/a\u003e in West Bengal India \u0026#8211; the first of its kind in the country. The project had roots dating back to 1920 but didn’t begin construction until the 1970s. Sreedharan’s lan called for three lines, with a tentative opening date of 1991. The first stone was laid by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1972, with work starting officially the next year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSreedharan next worked at the Cochin Shipyard in 1979 during a period where it was doing little business. In 1989, he spearheaded the Konkan Railway, which had 93 tunnels and traveled 760 kilometers across more than 150 \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/9-masterpieces-bridges-built-worldwide\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ebridges\u003c/a\u003e. It was hailed as one of the most difficult construction projects in world history and was finished in 1998. He then moved to become managing director for the proposed Delhi Metro. His design and execution were so impressive that he was awarded the Knight of the Legion of Honour by the government of France and the Padma Vibhushan award by the government of India. He announced his retirement in 2005, but the Delhi Metro kept him working until the second phase was finished in 2011.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2021 would see Sreedharan have a brief stint in politics when the metro man joined India\u0026#8217;s Bharatiya Janata Party. Sreedharan contested in the 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election unsuccessfully and would announce his retirement from active politics later in the year.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"47:Td81,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eWhen your father is hailed as the “Father of Railway”, it’s a pretty steep legacy to live up to. But that’s what English civil engineer Robert Stephenson did, surpassing his father’s legendary achievements to be hailed in many circles as the 19th century’s most renowned engineer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1803, he was soon the apple of his father’s eye, as his only sibling, a sister, died in infancy, and his mother was struck down by \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/9-examples-of-quarantine-and-isolation-measures-throughout-history\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etuberculosis\u003c/a\u003e when he was just 3 years old. His father left him with a local woman to care for him while he sought work in another part of the country, but they were soon reunited when George Stephenson returned home after his own father was blinded in a mining accident. Following in his father’s footsteps by taking an extreme interest in the railway system, by 1850 he had been involved in the design and/or construction of more than a third of all of England’s railway system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy the time he retired, Stephenson had worked for 60 different companies on more than 160 projects in such far-flung locations as France, Egypt, Belgium, and Norway. In hindsight, many of the great achievements that his father George was credited for appear to have been more of a joint effort. HIs father saw him receiving a private education, followed by an apprenticeship at the Killingworth Colliery. It was clear from those early days that he had inherited his father’s creativity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eToiling for low wages in his early years meant that Robert could not afford to buy a mining compass, so he made one himself instead. He was constantly brought on to work on his father’s railway projects, and the two formed a company together to build locomotives in 1823. The company’s original factory still stands today, known as the Robert Stephenson Centre.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter assisting his father on railway projects through Liverpool, Manchester, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/1800-year-old-roman-religious-site\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLeicester\u003c/a\u003e, and Swannnington, Robert was made Chief Engineer for the London and Birmingham Railway, the first main-line of its kind to enter the capital city. Later in his career, Stephenson made the leap from railways to bridges, and won much applause for his efforts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis success here started with the road and railway bridge known as the High Level Bridge over the River Tyne, built with 5,050 tons of iron and opened by Queen Victoria herself in 1849. He followed that effort up with the Royal Border Bridge over the River Tweed, which was completed in 1850. The Britannia Bridge in Wales that traversed the Menai Strait followed later the same year, with Stephenson himself fitting the final rivet in.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIts placement gave a straight link from London to the port town of Holyhead and it was high enough to allow the largest ships in the British Navy to pass safely underneath. His crowning achievement might have been the Victoria Bridge over the St. Lawrence River in Montreal, Quebec. When it opened in 1859, it was the longest \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/gateshead-millennium-bridge-worlds-only-tilting-bridge\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ebridge\u003c/a\u003e in the world, nearly 3 km in length. All four of these bridges remain erect and in use today.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"48:Tcb1,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIf you’ve ever enjoyed the rapid transit between theme parks at Walt Disney World in Orlando, you can thank Henry Robinson Palmer, who introduced the idea of elevated railways and built the world’s second monorail, a design that has been replicated all over the world in the past 150+ years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Hackney, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-first-desktop-computers-unearthed-in-london-house-clearance\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLondon\u003c/a\u003e, UK in 1795, Palmer became an apprentice mechanical engineer and skilled draftsman when he was 16 in 1811. From there, he was employed by legendary British engineer Thomas Telford, eventually becoming his chief assistant over a seven-year period. He was a master surveyor by the time that employment ended.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1818, he created the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE), which endures to modern times, with more than 92,000 members worldwide.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1821, he successfully obtained a patent for a monorail, but his financial backers said it was too expensive of a project and wouldn’t fund it. It was an elevated single rail on a set of pillars that were placed into the ground 10 feet apart. A horse would be attached to the carriage to move it down the tracks. Another engineer, George Smart, trialed Palmer’s monorail, and it started operation in Chestnut in 1825, carrying only passengers. It was a successful operation, largely because while it was on a raised platform, the monorail was unencumbered by any obstacles on the ground or bad weather, such as snow. This became the linchpin of its use by Walt Disney and by several major cities like Miami, as well. By being off the ground, the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/rise-and-fall-of-transrapid-maglev-train\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emonorail\u003c/a\u003e would not compete with automobile traffic and could avoid traffic jams and the sort of bad weather that could make ground-level transportation a precarious endeavor. In 1826, a German named Friedrich Harkort used Palmer’s elevated railway system at his steel factory to move the product from where it was made in a fairly rural area to where it could be sold in a more bustling region.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe went back to the drawing board and traveled to other parts of the UK to see how different railways were designed. He continued to work for Telford during this time, doing field tests on how much resistance locomotives, horses, and even boats in a canal took to overcome the weight of their loads. It wasn’t the most glamorous work, but it would provide important data for his future work and that of numerous others.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1825, he took over when Telford withdrew from a Kentish Railway project. It ran out of money during his attempts to perform a costly survey to build a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/5-most-challenging-tunnel-constructions-around-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etunnel\u003c/a\u003e. He finally found success when he undertook a plan to extend the Eastern Dock of London which included building a new dock, a warehouse system, a lock, basins, and swing bridges. He finished the project in 1833. Palmer passed away at age 49 in 1844 just two years after retiring.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"49:Ta94,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eOne of the top minds that the country of Canada has ever enjoyed, this 19th century engineer and inventor gave the world its time zones, its prime meridian, the 24-hour clock, and helped connect Canada through its massive railway systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland in 1827, he became an apprentice surveyor at age 14. When he turned 18, he joined his older brother on a massive adventure, immigrating to colonial Canada through the nascent cities of Quebec City, Montreal, and Kingston. He eventually settled in Peterborough in 1847 and became a surveyor in 1849, creating the Royal Canadian Institute with several friends.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1851, he designed the country’s first postage stamp while working as a surveyor for the Grand Trunk Railway. In 1862, he presented plans for a transcontinental railway that would connect Canada from Atlantic to Pacific.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs a Canadian citizen, he also served in the country’s \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-of-the-most-advanced-military-robots-in-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emilitia\u003c/a\u003e, and rose to the rank of Captain in 1862 before retiring in 1865.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1865, he was promoted to Chief Engineer of the Northern Railway of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/canada-is-banning-internal-combustion-engines-but-what-about-the-cold\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eCanada\u003c/a\u003e. He was an early advocate of using iron for bridges instead of wood for safety reasons. In 1867, he was named engineer-in-chief of the transcontinental railway and served in that post until 1876. The plan directly led to British Columbia joining the Canadian federation. He later joined the Canadian Pacific Railway and was awarded the right to drive the last spike into the completed railway.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThat same year he missed a train due to the printed schedule listing the wrong time on the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/radical-railways-15-technologies-that-could-drive-the-future-of-trains\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etrain\u003c/a\u003e. He suggested a 24-hour clock for the whole world with a central time and every other place changing an hour later or earlier based on 15 degrees of longitude. He wrote a pair of papers on the subject that he presented in 1879, 1881, and 1884, to an ever increasing audience of significance. By 1929, every country in the world had adopted the time zones.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis final 35 years were spent as the Chancellor of Queen’s University in Ontario. He passed away in 1915 at age 88 in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. He left his home and the 95 acres surrounding it to the government of Halifax, which turned it into Sir Sandford Fleming Park.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"4a:Te0e,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eAnnie Easley, an American computer scientist and accomplished mathematician, played a pivotal role in NASA\u0026#8217;s rocket systems and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/energy/solar-cells-efficiency-record\"\u003eenergy technologies\u003c/a\u003e during her 34-year career. In the expansive city of Birmingham, Alabama, on April 23rd, 1933, Easley entered the world with a destined trajectory toward greatness. Raised by her mother and an elder brother who instilled a genuine ambition, Easley initially aspired towards a career in nursing. However, the erratic nature of fate, coupled with her evolving interests, directed her onto an alternative path. The epoch preceding the Civil Rights Movement presented formidable challenges for African Americans, curtailing their educational and vocational prospects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUndeterred, Annie adeptly navigated the turbulent waters of segregation and discrimination. Holy Family High School witnessed her academic prowess, culminating in her emergence as the valedictorian. Her inclination towards nursing transformed her fascination with pharmaceuticals during high school. An unforeseen twist materialized in 1950 when she enrolled at Xavier University in New Orleans, immersing herself in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/health/fda-sale-overdose-reversal-drug-narcan\"\u003epharmacy\u003c/a\u003e. A brief marriage and subsequent relocation to Cleveland marked a pivotal juncture, with the local university\u0026#8217;s cessation of its pharmacy program altering Easley\u0026#8217;s trajectory towards an unforeseen destiny.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEasley happened to chance upon an article chronicling the experiences of twin sisters serving as \u0026#8220;human computers\u0026#8221; at the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory in Cleveland, a precursor to the NASA Glenn Research Center. This laboratory sought minds proficient in mathematics, leading Easley, in pursuit of employment, to the threshold of an extraordinary career. Urgently immersing herself in this unfamiliar domain, she initiated a 34-year odyssey that would indelibly shape the course of space exploration. Commencing her journey in 1955 as a \u0026#8220;human computer,\u0026#8221; Easley engaged in intricate computations and simulations for the Plum Brook Reactor Facility. In an environment where diversity was sparse, she stood as one of only four African-American employees, facing challenges with a resilience that would ultimately define her legacy. As technology advanced, Easley seamlessly transitioned, evolving into a proficient computer programmer. Her proficiency in languages such as Fortran and SOAP contributed significantly to NASA\u0026#8217;s programs, encompassing research on alternative power technology and the Centaur upper-stage \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/us-company-reveals-largest-capsule-ever-built-for-human-space-travel\"\u003erocket\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEasley\u0026#8217;s impact extended beyond the technical sphere. In the 1970s, she embraced a dual commitment, pursuing a mathematics degree at Cleveland State while actively participating in outreach efforts at NASA. Her role extended to tutoring students and advocating STEM careers for women and minorities, a testament to her dedication to education and equality. Retiring in 1989 did not stop her. Her continued involvement in the Speaker\u0026#8217;s Bureau and the Business \u0026amp; Professional Women\u0026#8217;s Association left an enduring legacy characterized by determination, kindness, and generosity. Easley\u0026#8217;s narrative transcends the boundaries of space exploration, portraying a woman who defied expectations and shattered barriers.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"4b:Tc1f,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eJohn Walker started off his professional life as the villain in the story, but soon became a hero to millions of professional architects around the world for his marvelous software known as AutoCAD which allowed for computer-assisted design and drafting that greatly enhanced and sped up the process of designing blueprint for construction processes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1950, Walker made his mark on the computer world in unpleasant fashion when he wrote the ANIMAL software virus in 1974-1975. It was not malicious in nature, but it was a major time waster for owners of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/11-interesting-inventions-from-the-1950s-that-still-affect-our-lives-today\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eUNIVAC\u003c/a\u003e 1108. It would attempt to get the user to engage in a game of “what animal are you thinking of” and then copy itself into every directory the user had access to without causing any real damage. It is believed to be the first Trojan horse ever created among computer virus lore.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWalker moved on to found a company called Marinchip that was used to integrate hardware circuits from different manufacturers and translate a number of different computer languages from one to the other, making it much easier for different companies or researchers from different countries to work together.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1982, he and 12 of his fellow programmers collected $59,000 between them and founded Autodesk, a company designed to create computer applications that were designed for practical use in a number of different industries. The first to reach the market, and by far the most successful, was \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/essential-autocad-shortcuts-and-commands\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAutoCAD\u003c/a\u003e, which could be used for drafting. Walker and fellow programmer Michael Riddle rewrote a previous model called Interact, and agreed on a profit-sharing agreement for any other software modules that would be created as a result. AutoCAD was first released in 1982 and was an immediate smash sensation, employed by graphic designers, engineers, project managers, architects, city planners, and others in a variety of industries. Within four years, it was the most used CAD software in the entire world, and it is now available in 14 languages, for four different \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/what-operating-system-is-the-best-choice-for-software-engineers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eoperating systems\u003c/a\u003e, and has eight vertical spinoff projects. By mid-1986, the company had annual sales of more than $40 million, and the compilation of 13 programmers had grown to a workforce of 255 people. Walker resigned as president of the company but remained a programmer. He wrote a semi-autobiography in 1989 and resigned from the company completely in 1994, although still retaining around $45 million in stock.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe continued to work on personal projects and blog about them on his personal domain website until his death in February 2024, aged 74. He wrote a second book, The Hacker’s Diet, in 2007.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"4c:T103d,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eCertainly one of the more colorful engineers in our collection of top global minds, John McAfee’s life included brilliant strides as a software engineer, head of a landmark company, and occasional campaigns for the US presidency before ultimately ending in tragedy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Cinderford, Gloucestershire, England in 1945, McAfee was the son of a US soldier stationed on a base there and a British mother. His father committed suicide when McAfee was 15, ending years of physical abuse for him at a young age. McAfee was raised in Salem, Virginia in the US and received a bachelor’s degree in mathematics from Roanoke College in 1967. He enrolled at Northeast Louisiana State College after that, but was expelled when it was revealed he was having a romantic relationship with an undergraduate student while working as a teaching assistant. He later married the student.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUndeterred by the expulsion, McAfee got a job in New York City working for NASA’s Institute of Space Studies. He went on to do coding work on the Apollo 11 mission that successfully landed on the moon.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeemingly bored at every turn, McAfee did a lot of job hopping through the next couple of decades. He worked as a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/world-first-software-predicts-geo-disasters-to-save-lives\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esoftware designer\u003c/a\u003e for Univac, then as an OS architect for Xerox. He got into consulting in the late 1970s, first with Computer Sciences Corporation, then with Booz Allen Hamilton.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis real breakthrough in software came in 1986 while he was employed by Lockheed Martin. He found his computer infected by the Brain virus, widely considered the first computer virus of its kind designated to attack IBM computers. It worked by replacing the boot sector of a floppy disk with the virus and was created by a pair of brothers in Pakistan.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile most people were horrified by the virus’s presence on their computers, McAfee was fascinated by it. He studied it and decided the best way to keep more viruses from wreaking havoc on computer systems was to create programs designed to detect them and destroy them. He infected his home computer with the Brain virus on purpose, then wrote a program to disable it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following year, he founded McAfee Associates, the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/reviews/antivirus-software-laptop\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eworld’s first antivirus software company\u003c/a\u003e . The first software program was called VirusScan. McAfee did not seek to charge people for his products at first, he mainly founded the company to raise awareness. As the threat of viruses became more real, demand was high, and by 1990, he was earning $5 million a year. He made the company public in 1992. McAfee went from CEO to CTO (Chief Technical Officer) in 1993, then sold his remaining stake in the company the following year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs the company changed, McAfee became one of its harshest critics and when interviewed about Intel acquiring McAfee Associates and changing its name to Intel Security in 2010, said he was grateful for ‘freeing me from this terrible association with the worst software on the planet.’\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcAfee’s subsequent investments and innovations met with a waning degree of success. His personal habits drained his bank account and sullied his reputation as he was arrested 21 times in 11 different countries for crimes including securities fraud, drug trafficking, tax evasion, and possession of illegal firearms. He was alleged to have murdered a neighbor in Belize, who he suspected of poisoning four of his guard dogs in 2012. He ran for US President twice in 2016 and 2020, but by 2021 had been detained in Spain for crimes in several countries including the United States. That June, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/john-mcafee-antivirus-software-died-of-suicide\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ehe was found dead\u003c/a\u003e in his prison cell, suspected of hanging himself to death, just hours after learning that Spain was going to extradite him to the US to stand trial for various crimes.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"4d:Tf92,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThe name more synonymous with personal computers than anyone else on the planet, William Henry Gates III famously dropped out of Harvard University to start Microsoft with his childhood friend Paul Allen. Since then he has expanded his empire, introduced the world to Windows, and become one of the richest people in the world year after year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Seattle, Washington in 1955, his parents made no attempt to hide they wanted him to be a lawyer, but he much preferred technology. When he was 13, he wrote his \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/21-visionary-programmers-and-coders-who-built-the-web-we-know-today\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003efirst software program\u003c/a\u003e in eighth grade when his school pooled money together to buy a block of computer time and an ASR terminal. Gates was so into programming that he was excused from math classes, and his first program was a Tic-Tac-Toe game that allowed humans to play against the computer itself.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGates and his circle of friends, including Allen, were banned from the Computer Center Corporation when they were found to have been using backdoors in the operating system to get free time on the computer system. After the ban was lifted, Gates offered to find the bugs in the system in exchange for more time, and continued that job until 1970 when the company went out of business.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe suffered a childhood tragedy as his best friend, Kent Evans, was killed in a climbing accident when they were in high school, although it led to him and Allen becoming much closer friends. School was a breeze for Gates, who scored 1590 out of a possible 1600 on his SAT and enrolled in Harvard in 1973. While he was a pre-law major in name, he was really interested in math and computer science. After his first year, he reconnected with Allen at an internship in 1974. When a new personal computer was released, the two decided to start their own software company.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGates dropped out of Harvard and he and Allen struck a deal with the head of Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) to write software. Allen came up with the name Micro-Soft, a combination of microcomputer and software. By 1976, the name was shortened to Microsoft. Microsoft’s software was a hit, and the company went independent that same year. They partnered with IBM in 1980 thanks to a tip from Gates’ mom to the CEO of IBM.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAllen was diagnosed with Hodgkin lymphoma in 1983 and left the company, leaving Gates as president and the sole decision maker. He launched the first version of Microsoft WIndows in 1985 in competition with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/the-history-that-leads-to-windows-11\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eApple’s Macintosh GUI\u003c/a\u003e . Windows captured the imagination of the consumer market with its easy, intuitive interface. IBM still wanted its own system, which Microsoft produced, called OS/2. Windows overran IBM and started being the staple of every non-Apple personal computer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGates made the list of the world’s wealthiest people for the first time in 1987, and was at the top of the list for all but two years between 1995 and 2017.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs of the writing of this book, Gates was the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/steve-ballmer-richer-than-bill-gates\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003efourth-richest person\u003c/a\u003e alive with a net worth of $116 billion. He moved into philanthropic measures after stepping away from Microsoft’s day-to-day operations in 2008. He and his ex-wife started the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in 2000, a private charity that has donated billions of dollars. In 2010, he and Warren Buffett founded the Giving Pledge, where a collection of billionaires vowed to give away at least half of their wealth to philanthropic efforts rather than let it all pass on to relatives. As of June 2022, there are more than 236 billionaires on the list with donations in excess of $600 million.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"4e:Te37,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eNot everyone can declare themselves “benevolent dictator for life” of a company, but such was the nature of Guido van Rossum, the Dutch programmer who invented an entire programming language from scratch known the world over as \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/mits-codon-compiles-python\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ePython\u003c/a\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in The Hague, The Netherlands in 1956, he was fascinated by math and computers from an early age. When he turned 18, he won the bronze medal in the 1974 International Mathematical Olympiad, the oldest International Science Olympiad in the world designed to find the best pre-university math students in the world. Van Rossum and the competition took on six problems over two days at the competition in East Berlin and he placed third in the world. He stayed close to home for his education, graduating in 1982 from the University of Amsterdam with a double master’s degree in computer science and mathematics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter college, he went to work at Centrum Wiskunde \u0026amp; Informatica (CWI). There, he began dabbling in writing computer languages, starting with the ABC \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/metas-new-ai-model-can-generate-and-explain-codes-for-you\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eprogramming language\u003c/a\u003e and working on Unix in 1986. Even though the Internet was just starting to take shape in the late 1980s and early 1990s, he also created an early web browser that he called Grail.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1989, during a week when his office was closed for Christmas and he found himself bored, he started working on a new language, which he called Python in honor of the movie “Monty Python’s Holy Grail”.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1991, he released the first version of it, followed by Python 2.0 9 years later in 2000. It was immediately a big hit, with massive upgrades on the first. Instead of demanding users train for months in how to code simple items, python allows for aspect-oriented programming that is more intuitive than anything that had come before it. It uses simple logical statements like “if”, “for”, “while”, “try”, “class”, and “return” to execute different parameters and conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWorking for CWI opened up a lot of doors for Van Rossum, and he went on to work for the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI) as well as the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NST)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1999, he pitched the use of Python to the US Department of Defense in an attempt to get funding for it. In 2000, he jumped ship along with three coworkers from CNRI to join a tech startup called BeOpen.com. Unfortunately, his timing coincided with the Dot Com bubble burst of the same year, as too many tech companies that raised money found they had no market and no net for failure collapsed, taking all their investors’ money with them. BeOpen.com failed just a few months after Van Rossum got there, leading him to the Zope Corporation. He continued to job hop for a few more years, before landing at Google. He stayed at the Internet powerhouse from 2005-2012, and spent at least half of his time working on the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/wolverine-fixes-python-code-ai\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ePython programming language\u003c/a\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter a six-year stint at Dropbox, he left the company in 2019 to retire, only to return to active duty in 2020 to take on a project with Microsoft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough Van Rossum stepped down as the head designer of Python in 2018, it continues to have new releases, including Python 3.11 in 2022.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"4f:T2194,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eOne of the most polarizing personalities of the 21st century, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/elon-musk-the-story-of-a-maverick\"\u003eElon Musk \u003c/a\u003eis a leading figure in self-driving technology, AI, and space exploration. He is an investor and a global entrepreneur who has repeatedly held the title of the richest person on the planet. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrom Pretoria to Silicon Valley\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk was born in Pretoria, South Africa, in 1971. At 18, he became a Canadian citizen through his mother, Maye, a successful model, allowing him to study at Queen\u0026#8217;s University and avoid South Africa\u0026#8217;s compulsory military service. His father, Errol, was an electromechanical engineer.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHe later transferred to Penn University in the United States to get closer to Silicon Valley and earned concurrent degrees in physics and economics. Musk went to Stanford at age 24 to pursue a master\u0026#8217;s degree. Still, just two days into his college career, he abruptly quit school to begin his entrepreneurial journey alongside his brother, Kimbal Musk. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1995, he founded the web software company Zip2, which built the foundation for his future success. Zip2 was meant to create online city guides for newspapers, giving local businesses a presence on the nascent Internet. Culminating this venture in a $305 million sale to Compaq in 1999, Musk started working on the online payment system PayPal, which was initially known as X.com. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter disagreements with board members over strategy and management style, in 2002, he sold PayPal to eBay in a $1.5 billion deal and went on to pursue bigger ambitions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSpaceX\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk founded Space Exploration Technologies Corp, or SpaceX, in 2002, intending to make space travel more affordable and someday even colonize Mars. SpaceX achieved its first successful launch on September 28, 2008, following three failed attempts and two and a half years of relentless perseverance, during which the company nearly faced bankruptcy. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLed by Musk, SpaceX shook the aerospace industry with the Falcon 9\u0026#8217;s first successful vertical landing of a reusable orbital rocket stage on December 21, 2015. This achievement indicated a significant reduction in space travel costs in the future. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBy 2020, SpaceX became the first private company to send astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS). Over the past four years, the company has successfully launched thirteen human spaceflight missions, transporting 50 crew members safely to and from Earth\u0026#8217;s orbit. In September 2024, SpaceX announced plans to launch five uncrewed Starship missions to Mars within the next two years.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTesla\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2003, Elon Musk co-founded \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/the-short-but-fascinating-history-of-tesla\"\u003eTesla\u003c/a\u003e with the long-term strategic goal of creating affordable electric vehicles for the mass market. As the CEO of Tesla, Musk redefined the automotive industry and pushed the boundaries of artificial intelligence and renewable energy integration. Being a product architect, he provided significant technical input into designing Tesla\u0026#8217;s first car, the Roadster, which can go 0 to 60 miles per hour in 3.7 seconds with a lithium-ion battery cell. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2018, the Tesla Model 3 became the world\u0026#8217;s top-selling plug-in electric car and held that title for three years, right before the mid-size crossover SUV, Tesla Model Y, took the spot. In June 2021, the Model 3 became the first electric car to surpass 1 million in global sales. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe much anticipated 2025 Tesla Roadster 2.0, developed in partnership with SpaceX, will have rocket thrusters enabling it to sprint from 0 to 60 mph in only one second. With the capacity to manufacture over a million vehicles annually, Tesla supports its production through eight Gigafactories worldwide. While existing Gigafactories are expanding and a new one is already underway in Mexico, speculations indicate that the next site could be in India, Turkey, or the UK. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eUnder Musk\u0026#8217;s leadership, Tesla has gained an unrivaled position as the largest automotive company by market cap, which now stands at a staggering $800 billion. With more than 50,000 Superchargers, Tesla owns and operates the world\u0026#8217;s largest fast-charging network. Tesla\u0026#8217;s aggressive strategy for 2024 includes a $10 billion investment in AI, primarily focused on combined training and inference AI to advance self-driving technology and robot axis. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTesla Energy \u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla acquired SolarCity in 2016 Under Elon Musk\u0026#8217;s directive and rebranded its solar business as Tesla Energy. With the charitable vision of a greener future, Tesla Energy develops, sells, and installs sustainable energy products. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla Virtual Power Plant (VVP) in California demonstrates how residential Tesla batteries can collectively stabilize the state\u0026#8217;s energy grid. This initiative reflects Musk\u0026#8217;s strategy to leverage community resources to achieve larger ecological goals. Similarly, the SunHouse at Easton Park in Austin, Texas, emphasizes the adoption of solar power, which is being developed to become the world\u0026#8217;s most sustainable residential community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla\u0026#8217;s Powerpack Farm in South Australia is an exemplary renewable energy infrastructure. It includes approximately 129,000 units capable of storing 150 Megawatt-hours of energy. This facility alone can power 30,000 homes for an hour, showcasing Tesla\u0026#8217;s willingness to become a sustainable community development and energy management leader.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eX (Formerly Twitter)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk acquired Twitter for $44 billion in 2022 and rebranded it as X in 2024 in one of history\u0026#8217;s most dramatic tech acquisitions. Since taking charge, he implemented substantial changes, including layoffs that reduced the workforce from around 7,800 to 1,500, revised content moderation policies, and a new subscription-based verification system. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHe envisions the platform as a multi-functional digital environment, integrating social media with business and potentially banking services, a part of Musk\u0026#8217;s broader vision to innovate digital communications.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003exAI\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eEstablished in 2023, Elon Musk\u0026#8217;s newest venture, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/elon-musk-ai-xai-openai-chatgpt\"\u003exAI\u003c/a\u003e, focuses on developing AI that boosts scientific innovation and helps \u0026#8220;understand the true nature of the universe.\u0026#8221; In August 2024, xAI introduced Grok-2, building on its first AI model, Grok. By September, the xAI Colossus training cluster, equipped with 100,000 H100 Nvidia GPUs, was announced, with an anticipated expansion to 200,000 GPUs, including 50,000 H200s, set for the coming months.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eElon Musk Today\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk\u0026#8217;s net worth, as of late 2024, stands at an estimated $268.4 billion, positioning him as one of the wealthiest individuals globally. His investments in SpaceX and Tesla significantly contribute to his wealth, with SpaceX alone valued at nearly $210 billion. Analysts predict that Musk could become the world\u0026#8217;s first trillionaire by 2027, driven by the potential successes of his various high-stakes ventures. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite facing personal and professional challenges, like high-profile legal and social controversies, Musk\u0026#8217;s impact on technology remains unmatched. Musk\u0026#8217;s influence goes beyond technology and finance. His public statements and decisions can easily move stock markets and shape public policy regarding technology and space. His vision for a sustainable energy future and multi-planetary human existence continues to fuel public and scientific discourse. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"50:T1432,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHertha Ayrton, born Phoebe Sarah Marks on April 28, 1854, in Portsea, Hampshire, England, was the third child of a Polish Jewish watchmaker, Levi Marks, and a seamstress, Alice Theresa Moss. After her father died in 1861, the family struggled financially, and nine-year-old Sarah assumed responsibility for helping to care for her siblings. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShe later moved to northwest London to live with her aunts, who ran a school. They introduced her to science and mathematics, in which she showed remarkable aptitude. By her teenage years, she earned money as a governess but remained determined to pursue higher education. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe writer George Eliot supported her application to Girton College, Cambridge, where she studied mathematics under the mentorship of physicist Richard Glazebrook. Although Cambridge did not grant full degrees to women at the time, Ayrton passed the Mathematical Tripos in 1880 and later obtained a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of London in 1881.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eReturning to London, Ayrton taught and performed embroidery work to make ends meet while developing her mathematical and inventive skills. In 1884, she received her first patent for a line divider, an instrument capable of dividing a line into equal segments or scaling figures, useful for artists, architects, and engineers. With backing from supporters like Louisa Goldsmid and Barbara Bodichon, she financed additional patents and began cultivating her reputation as an inventor.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton deepened her knowledge of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/here-are-9-of-the-most-important-electrical-inventions-ever\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectricity\u003c/a\u003e by attending evening classes at Finsbury Technical College, taught by Professor William Edward Ayrton. They married in 1885, and she assisted him with physics experiments while initiating her research on electric arcs. By the late 19th century, electric arc lighting was widespread for public illumination, but flickering and hissing in the arc posed major technical challenges. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton published influential articles in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Electrician\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e explaining how oxygen interacting with carbon rods caused these unwanted effects. In 1899, she became the first woman to read her paper before the Institution of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/7-sparking-marvels-of-electrical-engineering-that-made-our-current-lives-possible\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eElectrical Engineers\u003c/a\u003e (IEE). She was subsequently elected the first female member of the IEE.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAlthough Ayrton’s groundbreaking findings on electric arcs garnered her acclaim, barriers persisted. In 1902, she was nominated for Fellowship of the Royal Society but was turned down because married women were not eligible. Nevertheless, in 1904, she was permitted to read her paper “The Origin and Growth of Ripple Marks” at the Royal Society. Two years later, she received the Hughes Medal for her research on electric arcs and sand ripples, making her the first woman to earn that distinction.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDuring \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/5-inventions-of-ww1-and-the-engineers-behind-them\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWorld War I\u003c/a\u003e, Ayrton invented a hand-operated fan to disperse poisonous gases in the trenches. Initially ignored, the device eventually gained official recognition, and more than 100,000 “Ayrton Fans” were issued to British troops.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1885, Ayrton married William Edward Ayrton, a widower and notable physicist, who supported her scientific endeavors. The couple had one daughter, Barbara Bodichon Ayrton, born in 1886, who later became a member of Parliament. Ayrton was also actively involved in the suffrage movement, using her resources to support prominent campaigners like Christabel Pankhurst.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHertha Ayrton continued her research and advocacy for women in science until her death on August 26, 1923. She passed away in North Lancing, Sussex, at the age of 69 from blood poisoning, reportedly caused by an insect bite.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton’s most prestigious accolade was the Hughes Medal from the Royal Society in 1906, honoring her pioneering experiments on the electric arc and ripple marks. Though she faced institutional barriers, this award placed her among the era’s top researchers in electricity and magnetism. Her numerous patents, 26 in total, touched on mathematical tools, arc lamps, electrodes, and airflow devices. Ayrton’s achievements remain influential, underscoring the value of scientific rigor, perseverance, and advocacy for women’s rightful place in the scientific community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"51:T14fc,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBorn on May 26, 1951, in Los Angeles, California, Sally Kristen Ride became the first American woman in space and served as a flight engineer. She grew up in a family deeply rooted in community service, with both parents active as elders in the Presbyterian Church. Her father, a World War II U.S. Army veteran, later became a political science professor at Santa Monica College, and her mother worked as a volunteer counselor, providing a foundation of service and intellectual pursuit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRide\u0026#8217;s academic journey began at home but quickly advanced as she entered public schooling in Los Angeles. She developed a passion for tennis and was coached by Alice Marble, a former world number one player, at age 10. By 12, Ride was a promising tennis player, ranked number 20 for her age group in Southern California. Her tennis prowess earned her a scholarship to the exclusive Westlake School for Girls in Los Angeles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1968, Ride graduated from high school and briefly attended Swarthmore College on a full scholarship, driven by her academic interests and tennis skills. However, missing California and seeing limited support for women\u0026#8217;s tennis at Swarthmore, she returned to her home state.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe transferred to Stanford University, where she fully embraced the sciences. At Stanford, Ride earned a Bachelor of Science in Physics and a Bachelor of Arts in English Literature in 1973. She pursued further studies at Stanford, obtaining a Master of Science in Physics in 1975 and a Ph.D. in Physics in 1978.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer dissertation focused on the interaction of X-rays with the interstellar medium, a topic foundational to her future work at NASA. Her passion for science and physical activity was a blend of mental acuity and physical endurance that would characterize her contributions to space exploration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSally Ride joined NASA in 1978 as part of Astronaut Group 8, the first class that included women. This marked the beginning of her groundbreaking career in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/beyond-sally-ride-women-of-the-worlds-space-programs\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003espace exploration\u003c/a\u003e. After rigorous training, Ride first served as CapCom (capsule communicator) for the second and third Space Shuttle flights, showcasing her expertise by working on the development of the Space Shuttle\u0026#8217;s robotic arm.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn June 1983, Ride made history by becoming the first American woman to travel to space aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger on the STS-7 mission. During this mission, she operated the robotic arm to deploy and retrieve the Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS-1), conducting experiments that contributed significantly to our understanding of space and satellite technology. Her second space flight was on the STS-41-G mission in 1984, and she was also aboard Challenger, where she continued to break new ground by spending over 343 hours in space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter leaving NASA in 1987, Ride took her expertise to the academic world, spending two years at Stanford University\u0026#8217;s Center for International Security and Arms Control. She then moved to the University of California, San Diego, where she researched nonlinear optics and Thomson scattering. Throughout her post-NASA career, Ride remained a leading figure in space science education and public outreach, contributing to the investigations of both the Challenger and Columbia space shuttle disasters and being the only person to participate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRide\u0026#8217;s legacy is marked by her spaceflight achievements and her commitment to science education, inspiring countless young people, especially girls, to pursue careers in STEM. Ride\u0026#8217;s profound impact on space exploration and science education is honored through numerous accolades and memorials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRide, the first known \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/27-most-successful-lgbt-entrepreneurs-executives-and-opinion-leaders\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLGBT\u003c/a\u003e astronaut, received the Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously in 2013, presented to her partner, Tam O’Shaughnessy. The United States Navy named a research vessel, the RV Sally Ride, in her honor, marking the first time a research fleet vessel was named after a woman scientist. Ride’s legacy extends into educational outreach, directing NASA’s GRAIL mission programs, which involved middle school students in active science learning through satellite imaging of the moon.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer commitment to education and science is memorialized in various forms, including naming elementary schools and establishing the Sally Ride Science at UC San Diego. In recognition of her contributions, Ride has been inducted into the National Women\u0026#8217;s Hall of Fame and the Astronaut Hall of Fame.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, her influence is commemorated with statues, including one at the Cradle of Aviation Museum and another at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. Notably, Ride was featured on U.S. currency in the American \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/nasa-sally-ride-first-female-astronaut-on-us-quarter\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWomen quarters series\u003c/a\u003e, becoming the first known LGBT person to appear on U.S. currency, and was honored with a Google Doodle on her 64th birthday, which was reused again on International Women’s Day.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"52:Tc28,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eLuis Walter Alvarez received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1968 for discovering resonance states in particle physics using the hydrogen bubble chamber.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn on June 13, 1911, Luis Walter Alvarez was the second child of renowned physician Walter C. Alvarez. Luis completed his early education in San Francisco.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe moved to Rochester, Minnesota, when his father became a researcher at the Mayo Clinic.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlvarez attended the University of Chicago and completed his B.Sc. in 1932, M.Sc. in 1934, and his Ph.D. in 1936.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLater he joined the Radiation Laboratory of the University of California, where he was a professor.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe worked concurrently in the fields of optics and cosmic rays. He is co-discoverer of the “East-West effect” in cosmic rays.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe also focused on \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/energy/us-doe-nuclear-power-capacity\"\u003enuclear\u003c/a\u003e physics and gave the first experimental demonstration of the existence of the phenomenon of K-electron capture by nuclei in 1937.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe is also known for his 1980 hypothesis, developed with his geologist son Walter, that an asteroid strike was responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAwarded the Collier Trophy by the National Aeronautical Association in 1946, Alvarez led the development of Ground Control Approach, an aircraft landing system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe also received the John Scott Medal and Prize in 1953 for the same work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAwarded the Medal for Merit in 1947, Alvarez was also named “California Scientist of the Year” for his \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/energy/kairos-power-non-light-water-hermes-reactor\"\u003eresearch\u003c/a\u003e work on high energy physics in 1947.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1961, he was awarded the Einstein Medal for his contribution to the physical sciences. In 1963, he was awarded the Pioneer Award of the AIEEE, in 1964 he was awarded the National Medal of Science for contributions to high energy physics, and in 1965 he received the Michelson Award.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlvarez with Cornog discovered H3 (Tritium) and He3 just before the war. Tritium is a key ingredient of thermonuclear weapons and He3 has become of importance in low temperature research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the WWII, Alvarez was responsible for three important radar systems–the microwave early warning system, the Eagle high altitude bombing system, and a blind landing system of civilian as well as military value (GCA, mentioned earlier).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe also developed the detonators at the Los Alamos Laboratory to set off the plutonium bomb. Alvarez had also flown as a scientific observer at both the Alamagordo and Hiroshima explosions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe published the first suggestion for charge exchange acceleration in 1951 and it quickly led to the development of the \u0026#8220;Tandem Van de Graaf accelerator\u0026#8221;. Since that time, he has engaged in high-energy physics, using the 6 billion electron volt Bevatron at the University of California Radiation Laboratory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe died of complications from a succession of recent operations for esophageal cancer on September 1, 1988.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"53:Tc5e,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBorn in Syracuse, Sicily in 287 BCE, Archimedes is regarded as ancient Greece’s most famous engineer, inventor, and mathematician. Despite living more than 22 centuries ago, two of his most famous inventions \u0026#8211; the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/7-amazing-inventions-from-archimedes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eArchimedes\u003c/a\u003e principle and the Archimedes screw \u0026#8211; are still well known and employed in today’s modern society. The two centuries before Archimedes was active had been full of the philosophical teachings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. As the Roman Empire began nipping at the heels of the Greeks, trained men like Archimedes began to take center stage. The son of the astronomer Phidias, he is thought to have visited Egypt as a youth, and there he invented what has forever been known as Archimedes’ screw. The device was used to remove water from a ship’s hold by inserting a circular pipe into a helix and setting it at a 45-degree angle. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lower end is placed in the water and rotation of the crew makes the water rise in the pipe and come out the other end. This simple device is still used in modern applications to pump sewage at wastewater treatment facilities. His second great work, ARchimedes’ principle, also dealt with water, specifically the law of buoyancy. The principle states that any object that becomes partially or completely submerged in a gas or a liquid at rest will have an upward, buoyant force acted upon it. The magnitude of said force is equal to the weight of the fluid being displaced by the object. This concept became vital in the building of larger ships that could survive longer, seafaring missions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eArchimedes studied alongside Conon of Samos, a mathematician stationed at Alexandria in Egypt whom he considered both a brilliant inspiration and a close friend. During his time, he developed several modern concepts of geometry, including the formulas for the area of a circle, the volume of a sphere, the area of an ellipse, the area of a spiral, and various other volume measurements. He began taking his mathematical equations and turning them into practical applications later in life, particularly in experimentations involving water. He developed proofs about the law of a lever system as well as the center of gravity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNear the end of his life, Archimedes’ knowledge and inventions were put to the test when Syracuse was invaded by the Roman Empire. Called upon to assist in the defense of the city, the senior scholar built defensive machines of war that utilized the crew pump and a complex series of pulleys to slow down the advance of enemy troops and catch them unawares in a series of traps.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough Roman centurions had orders not to harm Archimedes, who was well respected despite being on the other side of the conflict, he was killed by a Roman soldier a year after the siege of Syracuse began, dying in 212 BCE. While he was well read by his contemporaries, Archimedes did not achieve widespread acclaim until 530 AD when a compilation of many of his works was featured by Isidore of Miletus in Constantinople.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"54:Tc9b,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eJames Clerk Maxwell was a Scottish scientist who postulated the theory of electromagnetic radiation, becoming the first man to recognize that light, magnetism, and electricity were all different versions of the same phenomenon. His equations were hailed as the second great unification in physics, the sequel to that theorized by \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/isaac-newton-the-father-of-modern-science\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eIsaac Newton\u003c/a\u003e. Talent ran in his family. Among his cousins were the artist Jemima Blackburn and the civil engineer William Dyce Cay.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaxwell had a fearsome thirst for knowledge even as a young child, and devoured everything his parents put in front of him. His mother died of cancer when he was only 8. His father took him to see an exhibit on magnetic force and electric propulsion when he was 11 and it expanded his horizons, leading him to enter Edinburgh Academy. He was mocked for his rural accent and homemade clothes, but his performance at school showed he was anything but a simpleton, winning multiple school prizes swiftly. He was particularly fascinated by geometry and wrote his first scientific paper at age 14. His work was presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh by a college professor who claimed Maxwell was too young to do so himself.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaxwell entered the University of Edinburgh in 1947 at age 16. He found classes rather simple and started experimenting more with light and energy, sending two more papers to the Royal Society of Edinburgh at age 18 \u0026#8211; both were presented by his tutor. He moved on to the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/exhausted-immune-cells-in-non-cancerous-breast-tissue\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eUniversity of Cambridge\u003c/a\u003e and joined a secret society of intellectuals called the Cambridge Apostles. He won multiple awards as he graduated with a degree in mathematics and his paper, “Experiments on Colour \u0026#8221; in 1855 at long last allowed him to present to the Royal Society of Edinburgh as himself. He became a fellow at Trinity in 1855 at age 24, far younger than most, and left Cambridge to become a professor at Aberdeen the following year. Always wanting extra projects, he took on the challenge of solving the mystery of the rings of Saturn and spent two years deducing what they were made of and how they stayed in place. His theory that they were made of particles was confirmed more than 120 years later by the US spacecraft Voyager.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the 1860s, he produced the world’s first light-fast color \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/photo-story/top-photos-from-the-2023-nature-photography-contest\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ephotograph\u003c/a\u003e, created the study of dimensional analysis, and began tying together the concepts of magnetism and electric fields. In 1865, he published “A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field” that showed that magnetic fields and electric fields traveled through space as waves that moved at the speed of light. For this breakthrough, he is hailed as the father of electrical engineering. He has been regarded as the third greatest physicist of all time, trailing only Newton and Albert Einstein.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"55:Tbc3,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBeing first is always a good thing, and Wilhelm Rontgen achieved it twice. The German-born engineer was the first person to produce and detect X-rays, and subsequently the first person to ever win a Nobel Prize in Physics, which he did in 1901.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Lennep, Kingdom of Prussia in 1845, his father was a clothes manufacturer and merchant. He didn’t stay in Prussia long, as his whole family moved to The Netherlands when he was just three years old, where he was able to attend Utrecht Technical School. He was expelled, however, before graduation when a teacher claimed Rontgen had drawn an unflattering caricature of him.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite not having a high school diploma, he was able to pass the entrance test at the Federal Polytechnic Institute in Zurich, and took mechanical engineering as his major. He went on to achieve a PhD from the University of Zurich and met Professor August Kundt, who he went to work with at the newly-formed University of Strasbourg in 1874. He spent the next couple of decades in academia, eventually rising to the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/how-to-enhance-your-problem-solving-ability-in-physics\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ephysics\u003c/a\u003e chair at the University of Wurzburg in 1888, and the same position at the University of Munich in 1900.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1895, he was experimenting with vacuum tube equipment at the University of Wurzburg when an electrical discharge passed through the tubes. He tried the experiment again later that year, adding cardboard to cover the light from escaping, but noticing a fluorescent effect occurring nonetheless.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOver a long weekend, he determined that he was seeing a new type of ray, which he designed \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/health/how-do-x-rays-work\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eX-rays\u003c/a\u003e, given that in math, X stands for the unknown. Six weeks later, he successfully took the world’s first radiograph \u0026#8211; an X-ray picture \u0026#8211; of his wife’s hand. Early the next year, his discovery made the newspapers in Austria and word traveled quickly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe wrote three papers on the subject and became known as the father of diagnostic radiology, something as commonplace as the sun coming in the morning in modern times, but a miracle at the end of the 19th century \u0026#8211; using imaging to see inside someone’s body to detect injuries and illnesses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRontgen was the consummate scientist, refusing to apply for patents for his discovery, believing it should belong to everyone. When he won the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/33-interesting-facts-about-the-most-famous-engineers-inventors\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNobel Prize\u003c/a\u003e for Physics in 1901, he donated the 50,000 Swedish krona prize to the University of Wurzburg, and later rejected an offer to become a noble. Unfortunately, this humility led to him being bankrupt after the inflation caused by World War I. He passed away in 1923 at home in Munich at age 77.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"56:T103d,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eCertainly one of the more colorful engineers in our collection of top global minds, John McAfee’s life included brilliant strides as a software engineer, head of a landmark company, and occasional campaigns for the US presidency before ultimately ending in tragedy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Cinderford, Gloucestershire, England in 1945, McAfee was the son of a US soldier stationed on a base there and a British mother. His father committed suicide when McAfee was 15, ending years of physical abuse for him at a young age. McAfee was raised in Salem, Virginia in the US and received a bachelor’s degree in mathematics from Roanoke College in 1967. He enrolled at Northeast Louisiana State College after that, but was expelled when it was revealed he was having a romantic relationship with an undergraduate student while working as a teaching assistant. He later married the student.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUndeterred by the expulsion, McAfee got a job in New York City working for NASA’s Institute of Space Studies. He went on to do coding work on the Apollo 11 mission that successfully landed on the moon.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeemingly bored at every turn, McAfee did a lot of job hopping through the next couple of decades. He worked as a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/world-first-software-predicts-geo-disasters-to-save-lives\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esoftware designer\u003c/a\u003e for Univac, then as an OS architect for Xerox. He got into consulting in the late 1970s, first with Computer Sciences Corporation, then with Booz Allen Hamilton.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis real breakthrough in software came in 1986 while he was employed by Lockheed Martin. He found his computer infected by the Brain virus, widely considered the first computer virus of its kind designated to attack IBM computers. It worked by replacing the boot sector of a floppy disk with the virus and was created by a pair of brothers in Pakistan.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile most people were horrified by the virus’s presence on their computers, McAfee was fascinated by it. He studied it and decided the best way to keep more viruses from wreaking havoc on computer systems was to create programs designed to detect them and destroy them. He infected his home computer with the Brain virus on purpose, then wrote a program to disable it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following year, he founded McAfee Associates, the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/reviews/antivirus-software-laptop\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eworld’s first antivirus software company\u003c/a\u003e . The first software program was called VirusScan. McAfee did not seek to charge people for his products at first, he mainly founded the company to raise awareness. As the threat of viruses became more real, demand was high, and by 1990, he was earning $5 million a year. He made the company public in 1992. McAfee went from CEO to CTO (Chief Technical Officer) in 1993, then sold his remaining stake in the company the following year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs the company changed, McAfee became one of its harshest critics and when interviewed about Intel acquiring McAfee Associates and changing its name to Intel Security in 2010, said he was grateful for ‘freeing me from this terrible association with the worst software on the planet.’\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcAfee’s subsequent investments and innovations met with a waning degree of success. His personal habits drained his bank account and sullied his reputation as he was arrested 21 times in 11 different countries for crimes including securities fraud, drug trafficking, tax evasion, and possession of illegal firearms. He was alleged to have murdered a neighbor in Belize, who he suspected of poisoning four of his guard dogs in 2012. He ran for US President twice in 2016 and 2020, but by 2021 had been detained in Spain for crimes in several countries including the United States. That June, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/john-mcafee-antivirus-software-died-of-suicide\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ehe was found dead\u003c/a\u003e in his prison cell, suspected of hanging himself to death, just hours after learning that Spain was going to extradite him to the US to stand trial for various crimes.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"57:Tf92,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThe name more synonymous with personal computers than anyone else on the planet, William Henry Gates III famously dropped out of Harvard University to start Microsoft with his childhood friend Paul Allen. Since then he has expanded his empire, introduced the world to Windows, and become one of the richest people in the world year after year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Seattle, Washington in 1955, his parents made no attempt to hide they wanted him to be a lawyer, but he much preferred technology. When he was 13, he wrote his \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/21-visionary-programmers-and-coders-who-built-the-web-we-know-today\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003efirst software program\u003c/a\u003e in eighth grade when his school pooled money together to buy a block of computer time and an ASR terminal. Gates was so into programming that he was excused from math classes, and his first program was a Tic-Tac-Toe game that allowed humans to play against the computer itself.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGates and his circle of friends, including Allen, were banned from the Computer Center Corporation when they were found to have been using backdoors in the operating system to get free time on the computer system. After the ban was lifted, Gates offered to find the bugs in the system in exchange for more time, and continued that job until 1970 when the company went out of business.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe suffered a childhood tragedy as his best friend, Kent Evans, was killed in a climbing accident when they were in high school, although it led to him and Allen becoming much closer friends. School was a breeze for Gates, who scored 1590 out of a possible 1600 on his SAT and enrolled in Harvard in 1973. While he was a pre-law major in name, he was really interested in math and computer science. After his first year, he reconnected with Allen at an internship in 1974. When a new personal computer was released, the two decided to start their own software company.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGates dropped out of Harvard and he and Allen struck a deal with the head of Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) to write software. Allen came up with the name Micro-Soft, a combination of microcomputer and software. By 1976, the name was shortened to Microsoft. Microsoft’s software was a hit, and the company went independent that same year. They partnered with IBM in 1980 thanks to a tip from Gates’ mom to the CEO of IBM.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAllen was diagnosed with Hodgkin lymphoma in 1983 and left the company, leaving Gates as president and the sole decision maker. He launched the first version of Microsoft WIndows in 1985 in competition with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/the-history-that-leads-to-windows-11\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eApple’s Macintosh GUI\u003c/a\u003e . Windows captured the imagination of the consumer market with its easy, intuitive interface. IBM still wanted its own system, which Microsoft produced, called OS/2. Windows overran IBM and started being the staple of every non-Apple personal computer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGates made the list of the world’s wealthiest people for the first time in 1987, and was at the top of the list for all but two years between 1995 and 2017.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs of the writing of this book, Gates was the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/steve-ballmer-richer-than-bill-gates\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003efourth-richest person\u003c/a\u003e alive with a net worth of $116 billion. He moved into philanthropic measures after stepping away from Microsoft’s day-to-day operations in 2008. He and his ex-wife started the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in 2000, a private charity that has donated billions of dollars. In 2010, he and Warren Buffett founded the Giving Pledge, where a collection of billionaires vowed to give away at least half of their wealth to philanthropic efforts rather than let it all pass on to relatives. As of June 2022, there are more than 236 billionaires on the list with donations in excess of $600 million.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"58:Tbf0,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIf you’re going to brag about an accomplishment, being the creator of the World Wide Web has to be pretty far up there on the list when it comes to impressiveness. \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/how-did-tim-berners-lee-change-the-world-with-the-world-wide-web\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eSir Timothy John Berners-Lee\u003c/a\u003e , also known by his Internet shorthand names of TimBL and TBL, is the director of the World Wide Consortium. On March 12, 1989, he first proposed and later created an information management system that connected clients and servers through the Internet.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was born in 1955 in London. Both of his parents were computer scientists who worked on the Ferranti Mark 1, the first computer ever sold to the public.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was fascinated by trains as a child and went to Queen’s College in Oxford, graduating in 1976 with a degree in physics. During his time at college, he made a computer out of an old television set.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePost-graduation, he went to work for a telecommunications company called Plessey creating software for printers that would accurately render typesetting. He worked for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/lhc-created-neutrinos-detected-first-time\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eCERN\u003c/a\u003e as an independent contractor in 1980 and first conceived the idea of hypertext. He left for another job the same year, but returned to CERN as a fellow in 1984.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCERN was an Internet pioneer and in 1989, began planning to take his hypertext idea and connect it to other ideas in the industry \u0026#8211; notably transmission control protocol (TCP) and domain name system (DNS). He distributed his proposal in 1990 and it was approved by his manager.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral other computer engineers were having similar ideas and they banded together to create the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee not only designed it, but he also built the first web browser for it. He published the first website on December 20, 1990, which described the product itself. On August 6, 1991, he made the first post on Usenet, the original discussion groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1994, he founded the group \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/origin-of-the-internet-who-invented-the-world-wide-web\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWorld Wide Web\u003c/a\u003e Consortium (W3C) at MIT in the United States, a collection of companies that banded together to start adopting standards on how the Internet should work. In 2009, he was hired by the UK government to work on the Power of Information Task Force that focused on how data should be used.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe went on to create the World Wide Web Foundation (WWWF) and work in favor of net neutrality and has worked on various commissions in the three decades since creating the World Wide Web to keep it as fair and balanced as possible. In 2004, he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth and inducted into the Order of Merit in 2007. In 2021, he sold the web’s original source code as a non-fungible token (NFT) at Sotheby’s auction house for $5.43 million.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"59:Te37,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eNot everyone can declare themselves “benevolent dictator for life” of a company, but such was the nature of Guido van Rossum, the Dutch programmer who invented an entire programming language from scratch known the world over as \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/mits-codon-compiles-python\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ePython\u003c/a\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in The Hague, The Netherlands in 1956, he was fascinated by math and computers from an early age. When he turned 18, he won the bronze medal in the 1974 International Mathematical Olympiad, the oldest International Science Olympiad in the world designed to find the best pre-university math students in the world. Van Rossum and the competition took on six problems over two days at the competition in East Berlin and he placed third in the world. He stayed close to home for his education, graduating in 1982 from the University of Amsterdam with a double master’s degree in computer science and mathematics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter college, he went to work at Centrum Wiskunde \u0026amp; Informatica (CWI). There, he began dabbling in writing computer languages, starting with the ABC \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/metas-new-ai-model-can-generate-and-explain-codes-for-you\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eprogramming language\u003c/a\u003e and working on Unix in 1986. Even though the Internet was just starting to take shape in the late 1980s and early 1990s, he also created an early web browser that he called Grail.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1989, during a week when his office was closed for Christmas and he found himself bored, he started working on a new language, which he called Python in honor of the movie “Monty Python’s Holy Grail”.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1991, he released the first version of it, followed by Python 2.0 9 years later in 2000. It was immediately a big hit, with massive upgrades on the first. Instead of demanding users train for months in how to code simple items, python allows for aspect-oriented programming that is more intuitive than anything that had come before it. It uses simple logical statements like “if”, “for”, “while”, “try”, “class”, and “return” to execute different parameters and conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWorking for CWI opened up a lot of doors for Van Rossum, and he went on to work for the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI) as well as the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NST)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1999, he pitched the use of Python to the US Department of Defense in an attempt to get funding for it. In 2000, he jumped ship along with three coworkers from CNRI to join a tech startup called BeOpen.com. Unfortunately, his timing coincided with the Dot Com bubble burst of the same year, as too many tech companies that raised money found they had no market and no net for failure collapsed, taking all their investors’ money with them. BeOpen.com failed just a few months after Van Rossum got there, leading him to the Zope Corporation. He continued to job hop for a few more years, before landing at Google. He stayed at the Internet powerhouse from 2005-2012, and spent at least half of his time working on the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/wolverine-fixes-python-code-ai\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ePython programming language\u003c/a\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter a six-year stint at Dropbox, he left the company in 2019 to retire, only to return to active duty in 2020 to take on a project with Microsoft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough Van Rossum stepped down as the head designer of Python in 2018, it continues to have new releases, including Python 3.11 in 2022.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"5a:T2194,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eOne of the most polarizing personalities of the 21st century, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/elon-musk-the-story-of-a-maverick\"\u003eElon Musk \u003c/a\u003eis a leading figure in self-driving technology, AI, and space exploration. He is an investor and a global entrepreneur who has repeatedly held the title of the richest person on the planet. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrom Pretoria to Silicon Valley\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk was born in Pretoria, South Africa, in 1971. At 18, he became a Canadian citizen through his mother, Maye, a successful model, allowing him to study at Queen\u0026#8217;s University and avoid South Africa\u0026#8217;s compulsory military service. His father, Errol, was an electromechanical engineer.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHe later transferred to Penn University in the United States to get closer to Silicon Valley and earned concurrent degrees in physics and economics. Musk went to Stanford at age 24 to pursue a master\u0026#8217;s degree. Still, just two days into his college career, he abruptly quit school to begin his entrepreneurial journey alongside his brother, Kimbal Musk. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1995, he founded the web software company Zip2, which built the foundation for his future success. Zip2 was meant to create online city guides for newspapers, giving local businesses a presence on the nascent Internet. Culminating this venture in a $305 million sale to Compaq in 1999, Musk started working on the online payment system PayPal, which was initially known as X.com. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter disagreements with board members over strategy and management style, in 2002, he sold PayPal to eBay in a $1.5 billion deal and went on to pursue bigger ambitions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSpaceX\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk founded Space Exploration Technologies Corp, or SpaceX, in 2002, intending to make space travel more affordable and someday even colonize Mars. SpaceX achieved its first successful launch on September 28, 2008, following three failed attempts and two and a half years of relentless perseverance, during which the company nearly faced bankruptcy. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLed by Musk, SpaceX shook the aerospace industry with the Falcon 9\u0026#8217;s first successful vertical landing of a reusable orbital rocket stage on December 21, 2015. This achievement indicated a significant reduction in space travel costs in the future. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBy 2020, SpaceX became the first private company to send astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS). Over the past four years, the company has successfully launched thirteen human spaceflight missions, transporting 50 crew members safely to and from Earth\u0026#8217;s orbit. In September 2024, SpaceX announced plans to launch five uncrewed Starship missions to Mars within the next two years.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTesla\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2003, Elon Musk co-founded \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/the-short-but-fascinating-history-of-tesla\"\u003eTesla\u003c/a\u003e with the long-term strategic goal of creating affordable electric vehicles for the mass market. As the CEO of Tesla, Musk redefined the automotive industry and pushed the boundaries of artificial intelligence and renewable energy integration. Being a product architect, he provided significant technical input into designing Tesla\u0026#8217;s first car, the Roadster, which can go 0 to 60 miles per hour in 3.7 seconds with a lithium-ion battery cell. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2018, the Tesla Model 3 became the world\u0026#8217;s top-selling plug-in electric car and held that title for three years, right before the mid-size crossover SUV, Tesla Model Y, took the spot. In June 2021, the Model 3 became the first electric car to surpass 1 million in global sales. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe much anticipated 2025 Tesla Roadster 2.0, developed in partnership with SpaceX, will have rocket thrusters enabling it to sprint from 0 to 60 mph in only one second. With the capacity to manufacture over a million vehicles annually, Tesla supports its production through eight Gigafactories worldwide. While existing Gigafactories are expanding and a new one is already underway in Mexico, speculations indicate that the next site could be in India, Turkey, or the UK. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eUnder Musk\u0026#8217;s leadership, Tesla has gained an unrivaled position as the largest automotive company by market cap, which now stands at a staggering $800 billion. With more than 50,000 Superchargers, Tesla owns and operates the world\u0026#8217;s largest fast-charging network. Tesla\u0026#8217;s aggressive strategy for 2024 includes a $10 billion investment in AI, primarily focused on combined training and inference AI to advance self-driving technology and robot axis. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTesla Energy \u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla acquired SolarCity in 2016 Under Elon Musk\u0026#8217;s directive and rebranded its solar business as Tesla Energy. With the charitable vision of a greener future, Tesla Energy develops, sells, and installs sustainable energy products. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla Virtual Power Plant (VVP) in California demonstrates how residential Tesla batteries can collectively stabilize the state\u0026#8217;s energy grid. This initiative reflects Musk\u0026#8217;s strategy to leverage community resources to achieve larger ecological goals. Similarly, the SunHouse at Easton Park in Austin, Texas, emphasizes the adoption of solar power, which is being developed to become the world\u0026#8217;s most sustainable residential community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla\u0026#8217;s Powerpack Farm in South Australia is an exemplary renewable energy infrastructure. It includes approximately 129,000 units capable of storing 150 Megawatt-hours of energy. This facility alone can power 30,000 homes for an hour, showcasing Tesla\u0026#8217;s willingness to become a sustainable community development and energy management leader.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eX (Formerly Twitter)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk acquired Twitter for $44 billion in 2022 and rebranded it as X in 2024 in one of history\u0026#8217;s most dramatic tech acquisitions. Since taking charge, he implemented substantial changes, including layoffs that reduced the workforce from around 7,800 to 1,500, revised content moderation policies, and a new subscription-based verification system. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHe envisions the platform as a multi-functional digital environment, integrating social media with business and potentially banking services, a part of Musk\u0026#8217;s broader vision to innovate digital communications.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003exAI\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eEstablished in 2023, Elon Musk\u0026#8217;s newest venture, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/elon-musk-ai-xai-openai-chatgpt\"\u003exAI\u003c/a\u003e, focuses on developing AI that boosts scientific innovation and helps \u0026#8220;understand the true nature of the universe.\u0026#8221; In August 2024, xAI introduced Grok-2, building on its first AI model, Grok. By September, the xAI Colossus training cluster, equipped with 100,000 H100 Nvidia GPUs, was announced, with an anticipated expansion to 200,000 GPUs, including 50,000 H200s, set for the coming months.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eElon Musk Today\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk\u0026#8217;s net worth, as of late 2024, stands at an estimated $268.4 billion, positioning him as one of the wealthiest individuals globally. His investments in SpaceX and Tesla significantly contribute to his wealth, with SpaceX alone valued at nearly $210 billion. Analysts predict that Musk could become the world\u0026#8217;s first trillionaire by 2027, driven by the potential successes of his various high-stakes ventures. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite facing personal and professional challenges, like high-profile legal and social controversies, Musk\u0026#8217;s impact on technology remains unmatched. Musk\u0026#8217;s influence goes beyond technology and finance. His public statements and decisions can easily move stock markets and shape public policy regarding technology and space. His vision for a sustainable energy future and multi-planetary human existence continues to fuel public and scientific discourse. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"5b:Tc9c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eLinus Torvalds didn’t build an app or a website, he invented a whole new language that brought computer programming to the masses and irrevocably changed the way that people interfaced with computers and built their own visions with the creation of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/here-is-why-linux-is-a-good-choice-of-os-for-software-developers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLinux kernel\u003c/a\u003e in 1991.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Helsinki, Finland, in 1969 to a pair of journalist parents, Torvalds has plenty of historic figures in his family, including poet Ole Torvalds, statistician Leo Tornqvist, and journalist/soldier Toivo Karanko. Torvalds had high expectations, being named after Linus Pauling, the Nobel Prize winning American chemist. He bought his first computer when he was 11 in 1981 and started experimenting with the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/basic-the-first-computer-language-for-the-masses\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eprogramming language BASIC\u003c/a\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe entered the University of Helsinki in 1988, and spent the next eight years working his way up to a master’s degree in computer science. His education was interrupted by a one-year mandatory stint in Finland’s military, where he served in the country’s navy, rising to the rank of second lieutenant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1990, he was first exposed to the book “Operating Systems: Design and Implementation” and got his first look at Unix, the computer operating system that was developed at Bell Labs in the late 1960s. In 1991 he started a personal project while in school to create a new operating system kernel that would be free to use. Torvalds wanted an independent operating system for his new personal computer. Instead he wound up creating an entirely new system kernel.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn August 25, 1991 when he was 21 years old, he announced his new system in a newsgroup (the precursor to today’s message boards called comp.os.minix. The name is a combination of his own first name and an \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/unix-building-the-most-important-os-in-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ehomage to UNIX\u003c/a\u003e . He posted on the board asking his fellow users to test it out and let him know what they liked and what they didn’t.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following year he published a new version that integrated GNU components to make it a completely functional system that was completely free. Taking off from the one user group, a LInux community sprang up swiftly. Companies began using it for their own projects. In 1996, Torvalds took a job with Silicon Valley company Transmeta, working there for seven years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe then moved to the Open Source Development Lab (OSDL), which merged with Standards Group to become The Linux Foundation. This nonprofit had the purpose of optimizing Linux for use all over the world. Torvalds is a huge believer that all software should be free and open source.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTorvalds followed up Linux with the development of Git, a version controlled software that has also become widely used. In 2011, he created the open-source free software called Subsurface which has the purpose of planning and logging scuba diving trips.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"5c:Ta46,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eEmmett Shear\u0026#8217;s journey began in the dynamic city of Seattle, Washington, where his fascination with innovation blossomed from an early age.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith an inherent curiosity, Emmett\u0026#8217;s educational path took a significant turn when he joined the Evergreen School for Gifted Children. It was there that he met Justin Kan at the age of 8, marking the start of a lifelong collaboration. Their mutual love for accelerated math classes and games like Magic: The Gathering laid the groundwork for a partnership that would define Emmett Shear\u0026#8217;s extraordinary career.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eContinuing his academic pursuits alongside Kan at Yale University, Emmett focused on computer science. This period marked the inception of a collaborative journey, and Michael Siebel added to their entrepreneurial trio.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2005, Emmett\u0026#8217;s career reached a milestone with the Y Combinator experience. Alongside Kan, he delved into the startup world, creating Kiko, a calendar application. Despite its brevity, this venture showcased their resilience, culminating in the successful sale of Kiko for $250,000 on eBay after the introduction of Google Calendar.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following year, Emmett, Kan, Michael Seibel, and Kyle Vogt embarked on a groundbreaking venture with the creation of Justin.tv. Initially featuring a 24/7 live video feed of Kan\u0026#8217;s daily life, it evolved into one of the world\u0026#8217;s largest live video platforms until its closure in 2014.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAssuming the role of CEO in 2011, Emmett navigated the platform through transformative phases. Recognizing the growing popularity of gaming content, the team decided in 2011 to launch a separate brand, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/all-of-twitchs-source-code-was-just-leaked-by-hackers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eTwitchTV\u003c/a\u003e, a move that revolutionized the live streaming space. Amazon acknowledged Twitch\u0026#8217;s potential, acquiring it for a reported $970,000,000 in 2014.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMarch 2023 marked a pivotal moment as Emmett announced his resignation as Twitch CEO, passing the baton to Daniel J. Clancy. Not one to rest, Emmett entered the realm of venture capital, becoming a part-time partner at Y Combinator in 2011, sharing his expertise with burgeoning startups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn a surprising turn in November 2023, Emmett\u0026#8217;s trajectory shifted as he was named the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/chatgpt-sam-altmans-openai-board-new-ceo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003einterim CEO of OpenAI\u003c/a\u003e, emphasizing his commitment to addressing the ethical and societal implications of artificial intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"5d:Tc1f,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eJohn Walker started off his professional life as the villain in the story, but soon became a hero to millions of professional architects around the world for his marvelous software known as AutoCAD which allowed for computer-assisted design and drafting that greatly enhanced and sped up the process of designing blueprint for construction processes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1950, Walker made his mark on the computer world in unpleasant fashion when he wrote the ANIMAL software virus in 1974-1975. It was not malicious in nature, but it was a major time waster for owners of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/11-interesting-inventions-from-the-1950s-that-still-affect-our-lives-today\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eUNIVAC\u003c/a\u003e 1108. It would attempt to get the user to engage in a game of “what animal are you thinking of” and then copy itself into every directory the user had access to without causing any real damage. It is believed to be the first Trojan horse ever created among computer virus lore.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWalker moved on to found a company called Marinchip that was used to integrate hardware circuits from different manufacturers and translate a number of different computer languages from one to the other, making it much easier for different companies or researchers from different countries to work together.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1982, he and 12 of his fellow programmers collected $59,000 between them and founded Autodesk, a company designed to create computer applications that were designed for practical use in a number of different industries. The first to reach the market, and by far the most successful, was \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/essential-autocad-shortcuts-and-commands\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAutoCAD\u003c/a\u003e, which could be used for drafting. Walker and fellow programmer Michael Riddle rewrote a previous model called Interact, and agreed on a profit-sharing agreement for any other software modules that would be created as a result. AutoCAD was first released in 1982 and was an immediate smash sensation, employed by graphic designers, engineers, project managers, architects, city planners, and others in a variety of industries. Within four years, it was the most used CAD software in the entire world, and it is now available in 14 languages, for four different \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/what-operating-system-is-the-best-choice-for-software-engineers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eoperating systems\u003c/a\u003e, and has eight vertical spinoff projects. By mid-1986, the company had annual sales of more than $40 million, and the compilation of 13 programmers had grown to a workforce of 255 people. Walker resigned as president of the company but remained a programmer. He wrote a semi-autobiography in 1989 and resigned from the company completely in 1994, although still retaining around $45 million in stock.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe continued to work on personal projects and blog about them on his personal domain website until his death in February 2024, aged 74. He wrote a second book, The Hacker’s Diet, in 2007.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"5e:Tb3e,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA man of many talents and trades, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/35-inventions-that-changed-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eThomas Newcomen\u003c/a\u003e came to fame late in life when he invented the world’s first atmospheric engine in 1712, at age 48. Throughout his life, he also saw time as an iron manufacturer and Baptist preacher.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Dartmouth, Devon, England in 1664, he came from a family of merchants. He got into the ironmonger business at an early age, but also was a lay preacher \u0026#8211; meaning he was neither educated nor classically trained as a preacher, but was an upstanding leader of his local Baptist church and taught others informally. It was his presence in the church and network of contacts that later gave him great success in selling his engine.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe engine itself resulted from Newcomen brainstorming ideas of how to help out his community. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, his part of England was dotted by coal and tin mines. The coal was used for fuel, the tin for making things, as it was a fairly malleable metal. But with geology still a very nascent subject, the mines were susceptible to flooding, from heavy rains or from hitting underground aquifers. Not only was this bad for business, but it was life-threatening as well. Thus, Newcomen and many other men of his day were looking for ways to successfully and rapidly pump water out of a flooded mine. Building on work done by Thomas Savery and Denis Papin, Newcomen used steam to draw down a piston that fired an engine designed to lift water out of a tin mine. Instead of mediocre methods of men with buckets, the atmospheric engine could do the work and repeat it as long as the steam kept being introduced. It revolutionized the safety component of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/how-the-first-and-second-industrial-revolutions-changed-our-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emining industry\u003c/a\u003e and saved countless lives in the process. Newcomen and partner John Calley built the first successful unit at Conygree Coalworks in Dudley. Over the next several years, the engine was sold through a company called “Proprietors of the Invention for Raising Water by Fire.”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOver the next two decades, Newcomen and a team of engineers began installing the engine in mines all over England, and then all over the rest of Europe, giving new life to coal, copper, lead, and tin mines. While Newcomen passed away in 1729 in London, by 1733, 125 of his engines had been installed. Other than replacing its brass cylinders with iron, the model went unchanged for three-quarters of a century. It was eventually replaced by James Watt’s steam engine beginning around 1775. In 1920, the Newcomen Society was founded in London, dedicated to celebrating the history of engineering and technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"5f:T2194,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eOne of the most polarizing personalities of the 21st century, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/elon-musk-the-story-of-a-maverick\"\u003eElon Musk \u003c/a\u003eis a leading figure in self-driving technology, AI, and space exploration. He is an investor and a global entrepreneur who has repeatedly held the title of the richest person on the planet. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrom Pretoria to Silicon Valley\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk was born in Pretoria, South Africa, in 1971. At 18, he became a Canadian citizen through his mother, Maye, a successful model, allowing him to study at Queen\u0026#8217;s University and avoid South Africa\u0026#8217;s compulsory military service. His father, Errol, was an electromechanical engineer.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHe later transferred to Penn University in the United States to get closer to Silicon Valley and earned concurrent degrees in physics and economics. Musk went to Stanford at age 24 to pursue a master\u0026#8217;s degree. Still, just two days into his college career, he abruptly quit school to begin his entrepreneurial journey alongside his brother, Kimbal Musk. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1995, he founded the web software company Zip2, which built the foundation for his future success. Zip2 was meant to create online city guides for newspapers, giving local businesses a presence on the nascent Internet. Culminating this venture in a $305 million sale to Compaq in 1999, Musk started working on the online payment system PayPal, which was initially known as X.com. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter disagreements with board members over strategy and management style, in 2002, he sold PayPal to eBay in a $1.5 billion deal and went on to pursue bigger ambitions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSpaceX\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk founded Space Exploration Technologies Corp, or SpaceX, in 2002, intending to make space travel more affordable and someday even colonize Mars. SpaceX achieved its first successful launch on September 28, 2008, following three failed attempts and two and a half years of relentless perseverance, during which the company nearly faced bankruptcy. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLed by Musk, SpaceX shook the aerospace industry with the Falcon 9\u0026#8217;s first successful vertical landing of a reusable orbital rocket stage on December 21, 2015. This achievement indicated a significant reduction in space travel costs in the future. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBy 2020, SpaceX became the first private company to send astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS). Over the past four years, the company has successfully launched thirteen human spaceflight missions, transporting 50 crew members safely to and from Earth\u0026#8217;s orbit. In September 2024, SpaceX announced plans to launch five uncrewed Starship missions to Mars within the next two years.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTesla\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2003, Elon Musk co-founded \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/the-short-but-fascinating-history-of-tesla\"\u003eTesla\u003c/a\u003e with the long-term strategic goal of creating affordable electric vehicles for the mass market. As the CEO of Tesla, Musk redefined the automotive industry and pushed the boundaries of artificial intelligence and renewable energy integration. Being a product architect, he provided significant technical input into designing Tesla\u0026#8217;s first car, the Roadster, which can go 0 to 60 miles per hour in 3.7 seconds with a lithium-ion battery cell. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2018, the Tesla Model 3 became the world\u0026#8217;s top-selling plug-in electric car and held that title for three years, right before the mid-size crossover SUV, Tesla Model Y, took the spot. In June 2021, the Model 3 became the first electric car to surpass 1 million in global sales. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe much anticipated 2025 Tesla Roadster 2.0, developed in partnership with SpaceX, will have rocket thrusters enabling it to sprint from 0 to 60 mph in only one second. With the capacity to manufacture over a million vehicles annually, Tesla supports its production through eight Gigafactories worldwide. While existing Gigafactories are expanding and a new one is already underway in Mexico, speculations indicate that the next site could be in India, Turkey, or the UK. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eUnder Musk\u0026#8217;s leadership, Tesla has gained an unrivaled position as the largest automotive company by market cap, which now stands at a staggering $800 billion. With more than 50,000 Superchargers, Tesla owns and operates the world\u0026#8217;s largest fast-charging network. Tesla\u0026#8217;s aggressive strategy for 2024 includes a $10 billion investment in AI, primarily focused on combined training and inference AI to advance self-driving technology and robot axis. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTesla Energy \u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla acquired SolarCity in 2016 Under Elon Musk\u0026#8217;s directive and rebranded its solar business as Tesla Energy. With the charitable vision of a greener future, Tesla Energy develops, sells, and installs sustainable energy products. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla Virtual Power Plant (VVP) in California demonstrates how residential Tesla batteries can collectively stabilize the state\u0026#8217;s energy grid. This initiative reflects Musk\u0026#8217;s strategy to leverage community resources to achieve larger ecological goals. Similarly, the SunHouse at Easton Park in Austin, Texas, emphasizes the adoption of solar power, which is being developed to become the world\u0026#8217;s most sustainable residential community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla\u0026#8217;s Powerpack Farm in South Australia is an exemplary renewable energy infrastructure. It includes approximately 129,000 units capable of storing 150 Megawatt-hours of energy. This facility alone can power 30,000 homes for an hour, showcasing Tesla\u0026#8217;s willingness to become a sustainable community development and energy management leader.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eX (Formerly Twitter)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk acquired Twitter for $44 billion in 2022 and rebranded it as X in 2024 in one of history\u0026#8217;s most dramatic tech acquisitions. Since taking charge, he implemented substantial changes, including layoffs that reduced the workforce from around 7,800 to 1,500, revised content moderation policies, and a new subscription-based verification system. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHe envisions the platform as a multi-functional digital environment, integrating social media with business and potentially banking services, a part of Musk\u0026#8217;s broader vision to innovate digital communications.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003exAI\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eEstablished in 2023, Elon Musk\u0026#8217;s newest venture, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/elon-musk-ai-xai-openai-chatgpt\"\u003exAI\u003c/a\u003e, focuses on developing AI that boosts scientific innovation and helps \u0026#8220;understand the true nature of the universe.\u0026#8221; In August 2024, xAI introduced Grok-2, building on its first AI model, Grok. By September, the xAI Colossus training cluster, equipped with 100,000 H100 Nvidia GPUs, was announced, with an anticipated expansion to 200,000 GPUs, including 50,000 H200s, set for the coming months.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eElon Musk Today\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk\u0026#8217;s net worth, as of late 2024, stands at an estimated $268.4 billion, positioning him as one of the wealthiest individuals globally. His investments in SpaceX and Tesla significantly contribute to his wealth, with SpaceX alone valued at nearly $210 billion. Analysts predict that Musk could become the world\u0026#8217;s first trillionaire by 2027, driven by the potential successes of his various high-stakes ventures. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite facing personal and professional challenges, like high-profile legal and social controversies, Musk\u0026#8217;s impact on technology remains unmatched. Musk\u0026#8217;s influence goes beyond technology and finance. His public statements and decisions can easily move stock markets and shape public policy regarding technology and space. His vision for a sustainable energy future and multi-planetary human existence continues to fuel public and scientific discourse. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"60:T1ce0,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWho is Sam Altman?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eOpenAI CEO Sam Altman (2019-present) is a leading figure in the AI boom. By 2024, Altman had become one of the world\u0026#8217;s most renowned entrepreneurs while also serving as chairman of the clean energy companies Oklo Inc. and Helion Energy. Altman is known for his conviction that artificial general intelligence (AGI) can do anything humans can and is often compared to tech visionaries like Steve Jobs and Bill Gates.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFormative Years \u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eOn April 22, 1985, Samuel Harris Altman was born into a Jewish family in Chicago, Illinois. His mother, Connie Gibstine, was a dermatologist, while his father, Jerry Altman, was a real estate broker. Sam Altman, the eldest of four siblings, grew up in St. Louis, Missouri. At eight, he received his first Apple Macintosh computer to learn how to code and take computer hardware apart.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis education started at John Burroughs School, a private school in Ladue, Missouri. Later, in 2003, Altman enrolled at Stanford University to study computer science. He dropped out two years later at age 19, without a bachelor\u0026#8217;s degree, to work on his first startup, Loopt, a location-based social network company he co-founded.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eSam Altman was a hit with Silicon Valley investors like Y Combinator, Sequoia Capital, and New Enterprise Associates, who invested more than $30 million into the idea. However, failing to acquire enough users in 2012, he sold Loopt to Green Dot Corporation for $43.4 million in cash.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eY Combinator (YC)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2011, Altman became a part-time partner at startup accelerator Y Combinator (YC). Three years later, Paul Graham and Jessica Livingston, the founders of YC, asked Sam Altman to succeed Graham as president, and he accepted the offer. In 2012, Altman co-founded the venture fund Hydrazine Capital alongside his brother Jack Altman, focusing on early-stage tech investments. Under Sam Altman\u0026#8217;s leadership, Y Combinator became a premier incubator, nurturing giants like Airbnb, Instacart, and Twitch.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBy 2019, Altman transitioned to chairman of Y Combinator, allowing him to concentrate on OpenAI. By that time, the company had helped nearly 1,900 companies become successful. In early 2020, Sam Altman parted ways with Y Combinator amid reports of his dismissal and self-appointment as chairman.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOpen AI\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAs Altman\u0026#8217;s influence in the startup world grew, he became involved in an even more ambitious project that would shape the future of artificial intelligence. In 2015, while still part of Y Combinator, Elon Musk and Peter Thiel co-founded OpenAI. The company aimed to develop friendly AI that benefited humanity and was backed by $1 billion from founders and tech giants like Microsoft. After four years of focusing primarily on research, OpenAI began to release its first products.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eUnder Altman\u0026#8217;s leadership, in 2022, OpenAI transitioned from a non-profit to a \u0026#8220;capped profit\u0026#8221; organization and started licensing its technologies in 2020. GPT-3, released in 2020, showcased OpenAI\u0026#8217;s capabilities in natural language processing. DALL-E followed in 2021, demonstrating its ability to generate images from text. This progress led to a massive investment from Microsoft in 2023, estimated at $13 billion.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eOpenAI launched GPT-4 in 2023, proclaiming it \u0026#8220;10 times more advanced than its predecessor, GPT-3.5.\u0026#8221; The release of GPT-4 was a landmark event, enhancing OpenAI\u0026#8217;s reputation as a leader in AI development. This innovation was followed by further enhancements in their legacy AI model and the release of alternatives like Canvas Mini and Turbo in 2024, broadening OpenAI\u0026#8217;s offerings in AI technologies.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDismissal and return as CEO of OpenAI \u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNovember 2023 brought a tumultuous time for Altman at OpenAI when the board ousted him, citing a lack of confidence in his leadership and transparency. This decision, however, met with substantial opposition from within the company. About 95 percent of OpenAI employees threatened to resign if Altman was not reinstated, highlighting the respect and admiration he commanded. This movement led to reevaluating leadership strategies and a new board featuring Bret Taylor as chair, alongside Larry Summers and Adam D\u0026#8217;Angelo, CEO of Quora.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOther Initiatives and Achievements \u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eSam Altman\u0026#8217;s contributions span beyond AI innovation. As chairman of Helion Energy and Oklo Inc., he steers efforts towards pioneering nuclear fusion and fission technologies, reflecting his commitment to sustainable energy solutions. Helion Energy is developing a fusion reactor that could offer a limitless source of clean energy. At the same time, Oklo Inc. focuses on small modular reactors that promise more flexible and safer nuclear power options.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThrough his venture fund, Hydrazine Capital, co-founded with his brother, Altman has boosted startups like Airbnb and Stripe, significantly impacting technology sectors. During the COVID-19 pandemic, he backed Project Covalence, enhancing the speed of clinical trials. His leadership facilitated Oklo Inc.\u0026#8217;s successful merger with SPAC in 2024, maintaining his role as chairman.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAltman\u0026#8217;s influence is recognized globally. In 2017, he received an honorary Doctor of Engineering degree from the University of Waterloo for his support of emerging tech companies. His awards include being named one of Time magazine\u0026#8217;s 100 most influential people in 2023 and 2024, CEO of the Year in 2023, and featured in Businessweek\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;Best Young Entrepreneurs in Technology\u0026#8221; in 2008. Forbes also listed him as the top investor under 30 in 2015, underscoring his significant impact in the venture capital sphere.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSam Altman today \u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAs of 2024, Sam Altman continues to drive significant advancements in AI as the CEO of OpenAI, a role he has embraced for over five years. Under his leadership, OpenAI has flourished, attaining a groundbreaking valuation of $157 billion, bolstered by a recent injection of $6.6 billion in new funding in October 2024.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAltman clearly articulated his vision for the future of AI in his September 2024 manifesto, \u0026#8220;The Intelligence Age.\u0026#8221; In it, he predicts the emergence of superintelligence within a few thousand days, highlighting his outlook on AI\u0026#8217;s potential to transform society.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAltman, who achieved a net worth of $1 billion in 2024, is happily married to Oliver Mulherin, an Australian software engineer. In a notable move towards philanthropy, the couple signed the Giving Pledge in May 2024, promising to donate most of their wealth to charitable causes.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"61:T147f,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eDame Zaha Mohammad Hadid was a known Iraqi-British architect\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eBorn in Baghdad, Iraq, in 1950, Hadid was\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethe first woman to receive the Pritzker Architecture Prize. She is famous for her futuristic architecture designs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHadid\u0026#8217;s father was\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewealthy industrialist from Mosul and she attended boarding schools in England and Switzerland \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ein the 1960s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe attended American University of Beirut to study mathematics. Later, she moved to London in 1972 to \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003etake part\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e at the Architectural Association (\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAA\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e) School. She received the Diploma Prize at \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAA\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e School in 1977.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe founded Zaha Hadid Architects in 1979, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/military/robot-dogs-better-sharpshooters-study\"\u003eintroducing\u003c/a\u003e audiences to a new modern architecture style.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe also started teaching at Architectural Association (\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAA\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e) School.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHadid also held numerous chairs and guest professorships at Cambridge University, Harvard Graduate School of Design, the University of Chicago, the Hochschule für \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ebildende\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Künste in Hamburg, the University of Illinois at Chicago, and Columbia University.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHer futuristic designs and lectures made her popular, bringing \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eearly\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e reputation.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHer pioneering and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/124-mile-range-in-5-mins-china-firms-launch-fastest-charging-ev-battery\"\u003evisionary \u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003earchitect\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e designs were awarded the Stirling Prize in 2010 and 2011. Stirling Prize is one of architecture’s highest accolades given by the Royal Institute of British Architects.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eUNESCO also named Hadid \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eas\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e an ‘Artist for Peace\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e’.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe Republic of France \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ehonoured\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Hadid with the ‘Commandeur de l’Ordre des Arts et des Lettres\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e’,\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e and TIME magazine included her in the ‘100 Most Influential People in the \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eWorld’\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e, naming her the world’s top thinker of 2010.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe was also made\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eby Queen Elizabeth II\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e in 2012, and in February 2016, she received the Royal Gold Medal.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer work was also the subject of critically-acclaimed exhibitions at New York’s Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in 2006, London’s Design Museum in 2007, Saint Petersburg’s State Hermitage Museum in 2015, and London’s Serpentine Galleries in 2016, according to Zaha Hadid Architects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer outstanding contribution to the architectural profession has been acknowledged by professional, academic and civic institutions around the world, including the Forbes List of the ‘World’s Most Powerful Women’ and the Japan Art Association presenting her with the ‘Praemium Imperiale’.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHer remarkable projects include Vitra Fire Station, Spittelau Viaducts Housing Project, Bergisel Ski Jump, Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati, Phaeno Science Center, Ordrupgaard Museum extension, Bridge Pavilion in Zaragoza, Spain, National Museum of Arts of the 21st Century (MAXXI Interior), Rome, Italy, Guangzhou Opera House, Guangzhou, China, Sheikh Zayed Bridge, Abu Dhabi.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe architect received the highest honours from civic, academic and professional institutions across the globe before being passed away . Her practice remains one of the world’s most inventive architectural studios—and has been for almost 40 years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of 65, she died of a heart attack on March 31, 2016, at Mount Sinai Medical Center in Miami.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"62:T94b,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eAn architect and civil engineer with few contemporaries in his time, Dinocrates of Rhodes was the technical adviser to Alexander the Great, and designed the city of Alexandria, reconstructed the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and designed Hephaestion’s funeral pyre during the end of the fourth century BC.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn on the isle of Rhodes, in the South Aegean Sea, he rose to become a technical adviser to Alexander the Great, the king of Macedon who was tutored by Aristotle and created one of the largest empires in the history of the world. His birth and death dates are not known. In 332 BC, however, he was appointed to be the director of survey and planning for the eponymous city of Alexandria, which he would build in Egypt on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The city was founded in 331 BC. It was conceived to be the greatest city in the world, and quickly grew in size and scope of importance as the years passed. He designed it using the Hippodamian grid plan where streets run at right angles to one another, making it easy for even newcomers to find their ways around and allowing key buildings to be set up as wayfinders. Among the great works inside the city were the Lighthouse of Alexandria on the coast, and the Great Library, which is thought to have contained between 40,000-400,000 scrolls at the height of its prowess.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexander had a favorite general named Hephaestion who was said to be the king’s best friend. He had been a personal bodyguard of the king’s and eventually became his second in command. He died of a fever at age 32 and determined that he was divine and worthy of such a tribute in the afterlife. Alexander commissioned Dinocrates to build a stone monument to Hephaestion that was six stories tall, completely gilded, and made of stone, which was not available in Egypt or Greece and had to be transported long miles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe also helped reconstruct the Temple of Artemis, another of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, which had been burned in 356, the same day that Alexander was born. It was located in Ephesus, which is in modern-day Turkey. The temple was rebuilt larger than it had been, 60 feet high and 450 feet in length. It only lasted another 600 years after that, with the site a mystery until the late 1860s.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDinocrates also designed several other cities and temples in Delos and Delphi.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"63:Ta2b,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eFor anyone who has ever seen a movie where a mummy is the villain, the name Imhotep carries a certain connotation. The real story is quite different for the man who is perhaps history’s oldest example of a genius among his peers and perhaps among any group of people who has ever lived.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn his time in Ancient Egypt, Imhotep rose from being a commoner to the vizier of Pharaoh Djoser. He was a mathematician, an architect, a priest, a poet, and an astrologer, while also serving as the pharaoh’s minister of state. Djoser tasked him with building his tomb, and Immhotep defied logic, reason, and anything the world had seen before by stacking multiple mastabas \u0026#8211; giant rectangular slabs of earth \u0026#8211; on top of each other to create what is now known as the Step Pyramid. Typically, just one mastaba would serve as a tomb, so stacking them one on top of the other was an incredible feat of architecture, particularly given the limitations of machinery and manpower two-and-a-half millennia ago. The pharaoh was so blown away by the accomplishment that he had Imhotep’s name inscribed on a statue of Djoser, an honor that no architect before or after was ever given. He was so talented that over time, Imhotep became so revered that he was elevated to the status of a god and worshiped by everyday people. There were shrines and temples built for him, and people would go there when they were sick or wounded, believing they would dream of Imhotep and be given a cure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is believed that Imhotep invented, or at least perfected, the art of using stone columns to support massive structures. He combined the use of stone walling, flooring, jambs, and lintels to make the Step Pyramid entirely out of stone. He used several revolutionary practices in conjunction with each other, including elevation, replacing materials, carving, filling, and digging to support much larger projects. The building has six tiers and four sides and still stands today. It originally stood 205 feet high, and had a base of 358 feet by 397 feet and was made of white limestone. When it was finished, it was the tallest manmade structure on Earth and could be seen from the city of Memphis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to records, he was the architect of multiple buildings during a 40-year period. While the chief minister of the pharaoh supposedly had magic powers, it appears that Imhotep also had significant knowledge as a healer. The circumstances of Imhotep’s death are unknown, although legends suggest he built an unknown tomb for himself somewhere at Saqqara that has neve been discovered.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"64:T9a6,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA prince of ancient Egypt, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/the-20-greatest-engineers-of-all-time\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eHemiunu\u003c/a\u003e is believed to have designed the Great Pyramid of Giza, the largest of the famous Egyptian pyramids and the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was built over the course of 27 years in the 26th century BCE and is the tomb of Khufu, a pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHemiunu was the grandson of Sneferu and a nephew of Khufu, the pharaoh he served. His own father was Prince Nefermaat and his mother’s name was Itet. Perhaps inspired by the works of Imhotep a century before, Hemiunu was a master builder whose vision far exceeded everyone else in his time. He ascended to the vizier of the pharaoh after his father and his uncle both passed away. This made him a very important member of Khufu’s court, and responsibility for all royal projects fell to him to design and implement. The Great Pyramid was built from about 2.3 million blocks, formed from 5.5 million tons of limestone, 8,000 tons of granite, and 500,000 tons of mortar. The blocks were built in a pyramid south of Giza where limestone naturally formed. White limestone used for the pyramid’s casing was mined from 6 miles away and brought by boat across the Nile River according to rolls of papyrus discovered in 2013 that had a list of construction materials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStones of granite weighing between 25 and 80 tons that became the ceiling were brought from 560 miles away in Aswan. According to ancient records, thousands of forced laborers were used to build the pyramids. Considering how many blocks were made, it is estimated that between 13,000-40,000 workers were used to build the Great Pyramid in the estimated 27 years it took to complete. It isn’t just the sheer size of the construction that has amazed experts for centuries and made Hemiunu a master of all time. There are three chambers inside the Great Pyramid.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe King’s Chamber has a giant granite sarcophagus. There are tombs for Khufu’s wives, extended family, and members of his court. Hemiunu’s own tomb is close to the pyramid and a seated statue of him was found in 1912. The Great Pyramid is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still standing. Hemiunu’s cause of death and date of death remain unknown. More than 14 million people travel to the Pyramids of Giza every year, roughly 38,000 per day.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"65:Tc93,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eAlbert Einstein is considered the most important physicist of the 20th century. Born in Germany in 1879, he would spend time in Italy and Switzerland in his youth where he trained to be a teacher of math and physics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe earned both his diploma and his Swiss citizenship in 1901, but far bigger things were coming right around the corner. He was working as a technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office when he began postulating on physics and attempting to solve inaccuracies between existing theories. He published four papers in 1905 that shook modern physics to its core and led to the development of his theory of special relativity as a universal law of nature. His theories exposed flaws in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-of-isaac-newtons-most-famous-and-revolutionary-inventions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNewtonian mechanics\u003c/a\u003e as they applied to the laws of electromagnetic fields. They also introduce the world to the formula E=MC2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe became an academic professor in Zurich in 1909, and by 1914 he was named the Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and a Professor at the University of Berlin. In 1916, he published a theory on the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/simplified-introduction-einsteins-theory-relativity\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003egeneral theory of relativity\u003c/a\u003e as well as aiding in the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics. In 1922, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEinstein became a German citizen in 1914 and might have stayed there for the rest of his life if not for the rise of the Nazi Party. He renounced his citizenship in 1933 and emigrated to the United States where he became the Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton University and gained United States’ citizenship in 1940. His most famous published works include Special Theory of Relativity, Relativity, General Theory of Relativity, Investigations of Brownian Movement, and The Evolution of Physics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEinstein retired from Princeton in 1945 but remained \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/10-ways-can-see-einsteins-theory-relativity-real-life-keyword-theory-relativity\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ewell known for his work\u003c/a\u003e in the World Government Movement \u0026#8211; an organization founded on the idea of one political authority that oversaw limits to countries’ abilities to raise military forces and create \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/the-radioactive-fallout-of-trinity-reached-as-far-as-canada\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ehigh-powered weapons\u003c/a\u003e of mass destruction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite never holding a political office in his life, he was offered the opportunity to become the President of Israel, but he declined. His interest in the country had begun in 1918, when he helped Dr. Chaim Weizmann established the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He served on the university’s first board of governors as well.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe passed away in 1955, the result of internal bleeding caused by an abdominal aortic aneurysm. He refused surgery on the rupture, and was quoted as saying, “I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.”\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"66:T1106,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e“Now I am become Death, the destroyer of the worlds.” Those words, from the Hindu scripture Bhagavad Gita, were on the mind of American theoretical physicist J. \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/who-was-j-robert-oppenheimer-a-short-history-of-the-father-of-the-atomic-bomb\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eRobert Oppenheimer\u003c/a\u003e in July 1945 when he oversaw the detonation of the first atomic bomb. His relentless pursuit of perfecting the ultimate weapon in the United States’ fight against Germany and Japan had led to this moment. In his memoirs, he said he found himself humbled by the power, although others heard the story differently, believing he was quite proud of his accomplishments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegardless of the real truth of it, he is known as the father of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/7-explosive-facts-about-atomic-bombs-and-other-nuclear-weapons\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eatomic bomb\u003c/a\u003e , the most deadly weapon ever created by man.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in New York City in 1904, he grew up in a wealthy neighborhood and went to elite schools, but even there he was well ahead of the rest of his classmates. He went through third and fourth grades in a single year, and skipped half of eighth grade as well. He developed an interest in chemistry during his senior year of high school. After taking a year off for health reasons, he enrolled in Harvard College at age 18, majoring in chemistry. Even Harvard didn’t slow him down.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy the middle of his first year, he was starting graduate-level studies in physics. He graduated Harvard summa cum laude in just three years. He went to Cambridge next, then to the University of Gottingen in Germany. He had finished his Doctorate of Philosophy by age 23 in 1927. He went on to publish more than a dozen papers in Europe about quantum mechanics and high-level theories.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe continued to gobble up experiments and education at Caltech and Harvard over the next decade, doing work in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/machine-learning-might-help-us-finally-unlock-nuclear-fusion\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003enuclear physics\u003c/a\u003e , theoretically astronomy, and quantum field theory. He wrote a paper on the likelihood of collapsing neutron stars \u0026#8211; now known as black holes. He was decidedly a-political and didn’t seem to follow the news, knowing nothing of the Stock Market crash of 1929 for months after it happened.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo months before Pearl Harbor in 1941, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized a fast-track program to develop an atomic bomb. Oppneheimer was invited to work on fast neutron calculations. Nine months later, the US Army commissioned the Manhattan Project, with Oppenheimer selected to head the secret weapons lab. He didn\u0026#8217;t have leadership credentials or a Nobel Peace Prize, but knew science better than anyone.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to those around him, ambition and obsession drove Oppenheimer, who spearheaded the creation of the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico. After first exploring a plutonium fission weapon that could be fired like a gun, Oppenheimer turned his focus to an explosive device. The first test, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/explosive-facts-about-trinity-test-worlds-first-nuclear-bomb\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eat a site called Trinity\u003c/a\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOthers said Oppenheimer was upset that the bomb could not be used on Nazi Germany. The successful test had come six weeks after Germany had surrendered. The Japanese fought on, under command from their Emperor not to surrender. Knowing a land invasion of Japan would cost untold lives and money, the US made the decision to launch Oppenheimer’s bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 a couple of weeks after giving Japan an ultimatum to surrender that was ignored. The two bombs killed between 130,000 and 225,000 people.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter the war, Oppenheimer became a proponent for international control of nuclear weapons. He was labeled a Communist by FBI director J Edgar Hoover in 1954 and stripped of his security clearance. This decision was reversed in 2022. Oppenheimer traveled the world in his remaining years, eventually being stricken by throat cancer after decades of smoking. He passed away at his home in New Jersey in 1967 at age 62.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"67:T1049,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA man of dazzling intellect, Richard Phillips Feynman was a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/the-prankster-physicist-richard-feynman\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etheoretical physicist\u003c/a\u003e who was a pioneer in quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, and particle physics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965 and developed a visual representation of how subatomic particles behave that became known as the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/researchers-use-richard-feynmans-ideas-to-develop-a-working-theory-of-everything\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eFeynman diagrams\u003c/a\u003e over time. He also assisted in the creation of the atomic bomb during World War II and was a well-known author as well.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in New York City in 1918, his parents were Jewish immigrants from Poland. He was a late talker who did not start speaking until after his third birthday.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe got interested in engineering at a young age, repairing radios in his home, which also became his first job. He showed an early aptitude for theoretical physics because he would theorize in his mind what the problem with the radio was and then attempt to apply it. In grade school, he built a burglar alarm to keep the family home safe while his parents were at work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen he was 15, he taught himself calculus, analytic geometry, advanced algebra, and trigonometry. He had written his own language of math before he started college and won the New York University Math Championship as a senior. He wanted to go to Columbia University, but was turned down because the school had a quota for how many Jewish people it could admit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstead, he wound up at MIT, switching his major from math to electrical engineering, then to physics. He published two papers during his undergraduate studies and earned his bachelor’s degree in 1939. He became the first person to record a perfect score on Princeton’s physics graduate school entrance exam. His first seminar, which covered the absorber theory, was attended by no less than John von Neumann, Wolfgang Pauli, and Albert Einstein.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFeynman earned a PhD from Princeton in 1942 with his thesis, “The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics.” He was compared to Einstein in terms of his sheer brilliance at a young age. After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, he was recruited to work for the Manhattan Project, specifically on how to produce enriched uranium.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe insisted that he bring along his wife Arline, who was in a wheelchair because of her tuberculosis. \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/manhattan-project-and-the-experiment-that-changed-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eThe Manhattan Project\u003c/a\u003e might have been Oppe nheimer’s, but Feynman was the young star of the show, jumping from one department to the next to establish solutions for a host of problems, both theoretical and practical. Arline passed away in June 1945, exactly one month before Feynman was present for the Trinity nuclear test in New Mexico.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter the war he struggled to find purpose until creating the Feynman diagrams in a paper in 1949. Physics students around the country began learning about subatomic particles from his work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe moved on to Caltech where he published work on the superfluidity of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/finding-liquid-light-at-room-temperature\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esupercooled liquid helium\u003c/a\u003e, which ultimately helped with the problem of superconductivity. He went on to master problems in quantum electrodynamics, quantum gravity, and was one of the first scientists to concoct the idea of quantum computers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1965, he won the Nobel Prize for Physics alongside three fellow physicists. In 1985, he published his autobiography, \u0026#8220;Surely You’re Joking, Mr. Feynman!” which became a best-seller. He went on to play a key role on the investigation into the tragic explosion of the American Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986, discovering that the material used in the shuttles O-rings had doomed the flight. He passed away in 1988 from cancer.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"68:T1945,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eElijah McCoy (1844–1929) was a prolific African American inventor and engineer whose contributions revolutionized industrial lubrication systems. He is best known for his automatic lubricating device, which significantly improved the efficiency and longevity of steam engines. McCoy\u0026#8217;s innovations were so highly regarded that his name became synonymous with authenticity and quality, giving rise to the phrase \u0026#8220;the real McCoy.\u0026#8221;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cp\u003eThroughout his lifetime, McCoy obtained over 57 patents, most of which focused on lubrication and mechanical improvements. His work played a crucial role in the advancement of railway transportation, manufacturing, and various industrial processes, ensuring that machinery operated more smoothly and efficiently. Despite facing racial discrimination, McCoy\u0026#8217;s brilliance and determination allowed him to leave a lasting impact on engineering and innovation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElijah McCoy was born on May 2, 1844, in Colchester, Ontario, Canada, to parents who had escaped slavery in Kentucky through the Underground Railroad. His parents, George and Mildred McCoy, settled in Canada to ensure freedom for their children and later moved to Ypsilanti, Michigan, when Elijah was a child.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom an early age, McCoy demonstrated a keen interest in mechanics and engineering. Recognizing his potential, his parents sought the best possible education for him. However, due to racial discrimination in the United States, Black students had limited access to quality education in technical fields. As a result, at age 15, McCoy traveled to Edinburgh, Scotland, where he studied mechanical engineering. He completed his apprenticeship and received certification as a mechanical engineer, an achievement that was highly unusual for African Americans during that time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eChallenges and career beginnings\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite his Scottish education and qualifications, racial discrimination in the United States prevented McCoy from securing an engineering job. Instead, upon returning to Michigan, he was hired as a fireman and oiler for the Michigan Central Railroad. His duties involved shoveling coal into the steam engine’s furnace and manually applying oil to lubricate the train’s moving parts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile working in this role, McCoy quickly realized the inefficiency of the manual lubrication process. Engineers had to stop the train frequently to apply oil to the engine and axles, causing delays and reducing efficiency. His knowledge of engineering inspired him to develop a solution that would automate the lubrication process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eThe automatic lubricator: a groundbreaking invention\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1872, McCoy received U.S. Patent No. 129,843 for his \u0026#8216;Improvement in Lubricators for Steam-Engines\u0026#8217;. This invention, often referred to as the automatic lubricating cup, allowed oil to be distributed evenly over moving engine parts while the machine was in operation. This eliminated the need for frequent stops and significantly improved the efficiency of steam-powered locomotives, ships, and factory equipment.\u003cbr /\u003e\nMcCoy’s lubrication system was rapidly adopted by railroads, steamship companies, and heavy industries worldwide. His invention not only increased productivity but also reduced wear and tear on machinery, making transportation and manufacturing more cost-effective.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u0026#8216;The Real McCoy\u0026#8217;: a mark of authenticity\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs McCoy’s lubricating devices gained popularity, many competitors attempted to create and sell inferior imitations. However, railroad companies and industrial buyers insisted on obtaining only McCoy’s authentic designs, which were known for their superior reliability and performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis demand led to the widespread use of the phrase \u0026#8220;the real McCoy\u0026#8221;—a term that signifies authenticity and high quality. While the exact origins of the phrase remain debated, many historians credit its association with McCoy’s inventions, cementing his legacy in both language and industrial history.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eExpanding his innovations\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOver the years, McCoy continued to refine and expand his inventions, securing more than 57 patents throughout his lifetime. Some of his most notable patents include:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLubricating systems for steam engines and locomotives (1872, 1883, 1898)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAutomatic oil-drip cups for heavy machinery\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLubrication improvements for naval ships and factory equipment\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRailway wheel lubricators and rubber shoe heels\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite his extensive contributions, McCoy often lacked the financial resources to manufacture and market his inventions independently. As a result, he frequently sold his patents to larger companies, which profited significantly from his designs. Although McCoy did not always receive the financial rewards he deserved, his work profoundly shaped industrial efficiency and mechanical engineering.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEntrepreneurship and later years\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1920, at the age of 76, McCoy founded the Elijah McCoy Manufacturing Company, aiming to produce and sell his own lubricating devices. This endeavor marked an important step in establishing African American entrepreneurship in the industrial sector.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, in his later years, McCoy faced financial difficulties and health issues. In 1922, he and his wife Mary were involved in a serious automobile accident, which led to long-term health complications. McCoy’s declining health affected his ability to continue working, and he spent much of his remaining years in hardship.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElijah McCoy passed away on October 10, 1929, in Detroit, Michigan, at the age of 85. Despite the challenges he faced, his contributions to engineering and industry remained invaluable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLegacy and recognition\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcCoy’s impact on industry and innovation continues to be recognized and celebrated. His legacy includes:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eInduction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame (2001): Acknowledging his significant contributions to mechanical engineering\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Elijah J. McCoy Midwest Regional U.S. Patent and Trademark Office: Established in Detroit, Michigan, in his honor\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCommemorative plaques and exhibits at museums highlighting African American inventors\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis work laid the foundation for modern automated lubrication systems, which are still widely used in engines and heavy machinery today.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"69:Tc11,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eYou know you’ve changed the world when your book is named the most important of the 20th century and you published it in 1909. Such is the legacy of Frederick Winslow Taylor, whose book, “The Principles of Scientific Management,” revolutionized the way that work was done on the factory floor and created an entirely new discipline known as \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/what-were-the-main-inventions-of-the-british-industrial-revolution\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eindustrial engineering\u003c/a\u003e. In 2001, the Fellows of the Academy of Management proclaimed that “The Principles of Scientific Management’ was the most influential management book of the 20th century.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn into a Quaker family in Philadelphia in 1856, his father was a wealthy man who had been \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/examples-how-artificial-intelligence-improving-education\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eeducated\u003c/a\u003e at Princeton, practiced law, and got rich on mortgages. His mother was just as active, banging the drum loudly on abolishing slavery in the US. By the time he was 18, Taylor had spent 1-½ years traveling through Europe and studied abroad in Germany and France for two additional years. He was to be a lawyer like his father, attending Exeter Academy in New Hampshire in preparation to attend Harvard. But instead of continuing his classroom education, Taylor went to work at Enterprise Hydraulic Works in Philadelphia as an apprentice machinist and Patternmaker. Six months later, he was selling machine tools and became a machine-shop worker full time in 1878.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe raced up the promotion ladder swiftly by way of his elite education and sharp mind, swiftly becoming a machine shop foreman, then a research director, and then chief engineer of Midvale Steel Works. A keen observer, Taylor had noticed over time that workmen weren’t trying nearly as hard as they could during their shifts and aimed to do something about it. He branded this study ‘\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/top-23-scientific-tech-2023\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003escientific management\u003c/a\u003e.’ He started taking classes in mechanical engineering by correspondence and earned a degree in it by 1883. Rather remarkably, he was also an accomplished tennis player, winning the men’s doubles title with Clarence Clark at the 1881 US National Championships, which became the US Open. With his new degree, he became involved in several large factories in Philadelphia and other parts of Pennsylvania. Looking for ways to make them more efficient, he created several patents.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHaving made significant money as an inventor and consultant, he started writing, publishing his famous book in 1909. In 1911, he presented the Principles of Scientific Management to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. He eventually began teaching at the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College, teaching in his new discipline of industrial engineering. In 1915, he caught pneumonia and passed away the day after his 59th birthday.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"6a:Tefd,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eScience isn’t always the easiest subject to get children passionate about; engineering even more so. Bill Nye, an engineer with an aeronautic patent, left his promising career with Boeing to bring the power of science to the people. For more than three decades, he’s combined science with entertainment to educate audiences of all ages \u0026#8211; mostly children \u0026#8211; on the expansive world of science and technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNye’s parents made it easy to see why a career in science was in the cards for him. His mother was a codebreaker for the US military during World War II, and his father’s tale was even more harrowing. Working as a contractor building an airfield on Wake Island in the South Pacific, he was captured by the Japanese and spent four years as a prisoner of war in a facility where he never had electricity or a clock.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe younger Nye shared his parents’ passion for science and went to a private high school on a scholarship before enrolling in Cornell University as an undergrad, then at the college’s Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering for his grad work. He rubbed shoulders with legendary astronomer and author Carl Sagan, who was teaching a class there. He graduated Cornell with a degree in mechanical engineering in 1977.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHiring a 22-year-old paid off for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/nasa-boeing-sustainable-airliner-concept\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eBoeing\u003c/a\u003e in his first years there as he invented a part for the new line of 747s called a hydraulic resonance suppressor tube, also known as a ripple dampener. Its purpose is to reduce the volume of pulses and noises made by the plane’s engines, which at full volume would likely cause a lot of paranoia onboard the flight.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs much as he was enjoying working for Boeing, Nye had discovered both a talent and a profound enjoyment for making people laugh. He had won a lookalike contest for his similarity to American comic Steve Martin and started doing impressions of him as well, eventually doing standup comedy at night after work. He started volunteering at gigs to explain science to school children and quit his Boeing job in October 1986 to focus on the entertainment business. Getting advice from Sagan at a class reunion, he decided to focus a children’s show on “pure science.”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe worked on a local sketch comedy show for several years, doing \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/scientists-are-creating-an-artificial-airglow-in-the-sky-for-four-days\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ewacky science experiments\u003c/a\u003e live, then started getting noticed by larger networks. In 1993, he developed “Bill Nye the Science Guy\u0026#8221;, which ran from 1993-1998 and is one of the most well-known children’s education programs of all time in the US, winning 19 Emmy Awards for TV excellence. He has contributed to several other projects as well, including doing voice-overs for several attractions at Walt Disney World. He has since created two series for Netflix and hosted other science-based shows for The Science Channel and The Discovery Channel.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOutside of television, he helped design a small sundial that was included in the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/curiosity-milestone-nasa-mars-rover\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNASA Mars Exploration Rover project\u003c/a\u003e . His father had been fascinated by sundials after using shadows to tell time during his internment during WWII. He has written more than a dozen books, most aimed at children, and after leaving life as an engineer, received four more patents: one for a magnifying glass for educational purposes, one for a device the helps athletes throw a ball correctly, a design patent for a digital abacus, and a patent for ballet pointe shoes.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"6b:T13c5,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eFew names in the history of the world conjure up the image of speed more potently than that of Ferdinand Porsche, an Austrian-Hungarian engineer who developed the Volkswagen Beetle, the Mercedes-Benz SS/SSK, the first hybrid vehicle, and founded Porsche AG, one of the most legendary \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/20-greatest-innovations-and-inventions-of-automobile-engineering-from-the-first-engine-to-today#:~:text=The%20first%20electric%20starter%20was,produced%20by%20Cadillac%20in%201912\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eautomobile companies\u003c/a\u003e in world history.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis contributions to the automotive world help overshadow his contributions to the Nazi war machine during World War II, but both tales of his life demand to be told.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1875 in Austria-Hungary, land that is now the Czech Republic, Porsche was passionate about technology and electricity from a very young age. He attended classes at the Imperial Polytechnical College a good 3 miles from his home and helped his father work in a mechanical shop when he was not in school.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen he was 18, he moved to Vienna to take a job with an electrical company and enrolled as a part-time student at the Vienna University of Technology. While the classes taught him some formal education, his real learning was being done at the company, where he had begun experimenting in his spare time and ultimately built an electric wheel-hub motor which could be applied to the hub of a bicycle and power it directly. He went on to race on this vehicle in 1897.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1898, he moved to work for Jakob Lohner \u0026amp; Company, which made high-end coaches for royalty through Europe. He started working with Loghner himself on the possibilities of an automobile, but wanted to push beyond the lead-acid batteries that were currently being used. In 1901, the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/porsche-thin-air-water-replace-gasoline\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid\u003c/a\u003e was unveiled, which replaced the batteries with an internal combustion engine that powered a generator that cranked electric wheel hub motors. It was the first-ever electric-petroleum powered vehicle in the history of the world. By 1906, more than 300 of them were sold, and the vehicle clocked in at a top speed of 35 miles per hour, a world record at the time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1902, his brilliant career was interrupted when Porsche was drafted into his country’s military service. He was a chauffeur at one point for Archduke Franz Ferndinand, whose assassination more than a decade later would light the blaze that started World War I. After completing his service, Porsche became a hot commodity for burgeoning automotive companies, moving to work for Austro-Daimler as its chief designer, then moving up to managing director in 1916, and earning a honorary doctorate from his old school in Vienna. Porsche was more frequently building racing cards, and successful ones at that. His vehicles won 43 out of 53 races in 1922. He moved to Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft in 1923, which then merged with Benz \u0026amp; Cie to become Mercedes-Benz in 1926.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe only worked there a few years before setting off on his own, founding a consulting firm in 1931. He struggled to find customers for any sort of vehicle due to the economic depression gripping the entire world. In 1933, his fortunes seemed to change when he was part of an auto union that was formed at the request of German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, who planned to have every German driving a car of their own. Porsche was put in charge of two projects \u0026#8211; a car for the people as well as a high-speed German automotive industry; both sponsored by the government.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe people’s car was the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/the-volkswagen-beetle-you-gotta-love-the-bug\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eVolkswagen Beetle\u003c/a\u003e , which he began work on in 1934. He joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and when Germany invaded Poland in 1939, triggering the start of World War II, Porsche was conscripted into military duty as an engineer. He designed the VK4501 “Tiger” heavy tank, but it was deemed too complicated for the average soldier to drive.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen the war ended, Porsche was initially allowed to continue work on the Beetle in France, but was later arrested as a war criminal. The French government ostensibly held him for a ransom of 1 million francs to be released, which the family eventually raised enough money to pay. Sometime later, Porsche and his sons began work on the Porsche 356, the first car with the family name. He initially struggled after World War II to find financial backing or loans from banks given his friendship with Hitler.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, he was able to sell the 356 to several dealers and was later contracted by Volkswagen for consulting work. He received a royalty for every VW sold and eventually gained his fortune several times over. In 1951, he suffered a stroke and died at the age of 75 in Stuttgart, Germany.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"6c:Tc15,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eSoichiro Honda started his humble company in a wooden shack where he made motors for bicycles. By the time he passed away at age 84 in 1991, he had established one of the most powerful companies in the world, selling automobiles and motorcycles with one of the most respected brand names on Earth attached to it \u0026#8211; Honda Motor Co. Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHonda was born in Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan, in 1906. His father was a blacksmith who fixed bicycles for a living. He helped his father in the business and used his knowledge of the workshop to make a rubber stamp of his family seal to forge his father’s signature on his report card.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHonda was not interested in school as a child, but loved watching machines at work, including the first car to visit his village and an airplane that he rode one of his father’s bicycles to see a demonstration of. When he was just 15, he left home for Tokyo where he got an apprenticeship in a garage. He worked there for six more years, then started his own auto repair company when he was 22 in 1928. He was building cars, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/20-greatest-innovations-and-inventions-of-automobile-engineering-from-the-first-engine-to-today\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003efixing cars\u003c/a\u003e , and racing cars for most of the next decade.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe sold piston rings to Toyota in the late 1930s, but during World War II, a US bomber destroyed his factory. He sold the rest of his assets to Toyota and used the money to start the Honda Technical Research Institute in 1946. That first build was a 170 square-foot shack with a staff of 12 men as his entire workforce.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1948 he began production of a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/honda-releases-its-first-ever-series-production-v8-engine\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emotorized bicycle with an engine\u003c/a\u003e he had created himself. By 1949, he was selling the first true motorcycle in Japan. Over the next 10 years, Honda motorcycles gained considerable market share and brand recognition around the world, leading to the opening of a subsidiary in the US in 1959. The company has been the largest producer of motorcycles since then, producing 400 million of them in the past six decades. It is also the world’s eighth-largest automobile manufacturer and produces more than 14 million engines per year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1963, Honda expanded to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/cruise-gm-and-honda-unite-for-japans-driverless-transport\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003efour-wheel vehicles\u003c/a\u003e with a miniature pickup truck, followed by a sports car the same year. The company’s cars over the years were lauded for their efficiency, safety, and durability. Honda stepped down as president of the company in 1973 at age 66. In 1986, it added a luxury brand under a different name \u0026#8211; Acura \u0026#8211; that was an instant success and continues to be so.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHonda died at age 84 in 1991. Later in life he continued to take on new adventures \u0026#8211; hang gliding, hot-air ballooning, racing cars, and skiing.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"6d:T11ee,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eWith a personality as racy as some of the cars he designed, John DeLorean was a flashy engineer and inventor who oversaw development of several eye-catching car models, and started his own company with his self-titled DeLorean, which has one of the most interesting places in pop culture in automotive history.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Detroit, Michigan, home of the US auto industry, in 1925, DeLorean was the son of a mill worker who had emigrated to the United States. His father had found work at a Ford Motor Company, but his lack of English skills prevented him from moving up the chain. His parents divorced when DeLorean was 17, and his father fell into addictions. DeLorean went to the notable Cass Technical high School in Detroit where he dove into its \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-best-websites-for-electrical-engineering-students\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectrical engineering\u003c/a\u003e curriculum.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe went to college at the Lawrence Institute of Technology, but his studies were interrupted by World War III. He was drafted and was in the US Army for three years. When he returned home, he had to work for the Public Lighting Commission for 18 months to help his family’s financial status before returning to Lawrence where he graduated in 1948 with a BS in Industrial Engineering.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRather than look for a job in engineering, he decided to make a lot of money first, selling life insurance to engineers using a self-made analytical system that let him rack up $850,0000 in 10 months, the equivalent of about $10.7 million in today’s money.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHaving worked some for Chrysler in college, he returned to a post-graduate educational facility in its Institute of Engineering, where DeLorean graduated in 1952 with a master’s degree in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/is-automotive-engineering-the-right-career-for-you\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAutomotive Engineering\u003c/a\u003e. While working for Chrysler’s engineering department, he took night classes to finish his MBA in 1957.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1953, he moved to the Packard Motor Company as an engineer, and impressed the bosses with an improvement to their automatic transmission. Packard was on the verge of a multi-company merger that would have sent DeLorean to Indiana when he got a job offer to come to any division he wanted at General Motors. He went to work for Pontiac as assistant to the chief engineer and was given free rein to start designing his own cars.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis first was the widely loved Pontiac GTO, a muscle car with a massive engine that rose as high as third on the domestic sales chart. In 1965 he became head of the Pontiac division at age 40, the youngest department head in company history. He added the Pontiac Firebird and Grand Prix. He frequently traveled to events and became popular in the industry, eventually promoted to head up Chevrolet.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis personal, casual style made him popular outside of the automotive industry and he bought interest in the San Diego Chargers and New York Yankees. He rose to GM vice president in 1972, but the board of directors did not want him in charge, and he left the company in 1973, briefly becoming the president of the National Alliance of Businessmen. He also started his own company, the DeLorean Motor Company, that year. The car had two things that caught the American public’s fancy. It was made of stainless steel and it had gullwing doors that hadn’t been seen on a car in 25 years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnfortunately, the production of the car did not match the innovation of its design, and there were all sorts of problems involved in it. It didn’t reach the market until 1981 and the high price was not appealing to Americans feeling an \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/career/recession-is-less-likely-so-should-you-switch-jobs-now\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eeconomic recession\u003c/a\u003e. Within a year’s time, the company was $175 million in debt. That same year, DeLorean was charged with drug trafficking in an FBi sting operation. Impressively, he defended himself in court and was found innocent, claiming entrapment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThat might have been the end of the DeLorean story in the US had it not been for the film “Back to the Future” which put one of his cars in the starring role as a time machine taken by Michael J. Fox from 1985 back to 1955. Although production had long since stopped, the car became a collector’s item because of its role in the movie and its two sequels.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeLorean passed away at age 80 of a stroke in 2005 in New Jersey.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"6e:T1a42,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-journey-from-childhood-naturalist-to-chemist\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eJourney from childhood naturalist to chemist\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStephanie Louise Kwolek, born on July 31, 1923, in the industrious town of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, emerged as a celebrated Polish-American chemist whose groundbreaking invention of Kevlar has left an indelible mark on material science and protective apparel.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer childhood was filled with extensive nature explorations alongside her father, an enthusiastic naturalist, who ignited her interest in science from a very young age. These early experiences cultivated a keen sense of observation and inquiry. Tragically, her father\u0026#8217;s death when Stephanie was just ten years old deepened her resolve to understand the natural world, honoring his memory through her academic pursuits.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRaised in a household that valued precision and skill, Stephanie was influenced by her mother, a professional seamstress, who promoted virtues such as precision and attention to detail, which would later define Kwolek\u0026#8217;s scientific career. Despite her mother’s suggestions to pursue fashion, recognizing her daughter’s perfectionism as both a gift and a challenge, Stephanie was drawn instead to the empirical and methodical world of science.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer education culminated in a Bachelor of Science in chemistry from Carnegie Mellon University\u0026#8217;s Margaret Morrison Carnegie College in 1946. Her initial career aspirations leaned towards medicine, driven by a desire to help others. However, fate soon steered the talented chemist down a different path.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-career-and-the-discovery-of-kevlar\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCareer and the discovery of Kevlar\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKwolek\u0026#8217;s professional life began when she accepted a position at DuPont\u0026#8217;s Buffalo, New York, facility shortly after graduation. This role was initially viewed as a temporary measure to finance her medical school ambitions. Yet, the challenges and complexities of polymer chemistry captivated her, marking a consequential turning point in her career.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder the mentorship of William Hale Charch, Kwolek\u0026#8217;s fascination with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/scientists-created-a-synthetic-muscle-fiber-thats-stronger-than-kevlar\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esynthetic fibers\u003c/a\u003e deepened, and she soon decided to dedicate her life to chemistry rather than pursuing medicine. It was at DuPont where Stephanie Kwolek\u0026#8217;s pioneering work would eventually lead to the development of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/architect-designs-kevlar-bulletproof-scarf-head-covering\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eKevlar\u003c/a\u003e in the mid-1960s, setting the stage for a revolution in materials technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStephanie Kwolek’s most significant breakthrough came in the mid-1960s at DuPont amidst a dedicated search for a new high-performance fiber that could be used to reinforce car tires, aiming to create a material that was lighter yet stronger than steel. The breakthrough occurred when Kwolek developed an unusual polymer solution, which, unlike typical viscous solutions, appeared as a cloudy, low-viscosity fluid. This anomaly intrigued Kwolek, who explored its properties further despite its unconventional appearance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe decision to spin the polymer solution into fiber using a spinneret was a gamble as it was feared the unusual solution might clog the machinery. However, the resulting fibers were astonishingly strong. It is about five times stronger than steel on an equal-weight basis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntroduced commercially in 1971 under the name Kevlar, this \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/new-ultralight-material-is-tougher-than-steel-and-kevlar\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003einnovative material\u003c/a\u003e had exceptional strength and resistance to heat, making it an ideal component in various applications ranging from bulletproof vests to aerospace engineering. Kevlar transformed protective apparel and found widespread use in sporting equipment, building materials, and even lightweight vehicles, enhancing safety and functionality across multiple industries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-later-life-and-legacy-nbsp\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eLater life and legacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeyond her revolutionary work with Kevlar, Stephanie Kwolek was a mentor and an advocate for women in the sciences. Her career at DuPont spanned over 40 years, during which she filed 28 patents and was a leading figure in polymer research. After retiring in 1986, Kwolek continued to consult for DuPont and engaged actively with the broader scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe served on national science boards, including the National Research Council and the National Academy of Sciences, contributing her vast knowledge and experience to advancing the field of polymer chemistry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKwolek’s contributions to science and industry were recognized with numerous awards, including the National Medal of Technology, the IRI Achievement Award, and the Perkin Medal. She was also inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame and was the only woman to receive DuPont\u0026#8217;s prestigious Lavoisier Medal for outstanding technical achievement at the time of her recognition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer legacy continues to influence the fields of materials science and engineering, inspiring new generations of scientists, particularly \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/greatest-women-in-stem\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ewomen\u003c/a\u003e, to pursue careers in STEM. Stephanie Kwolek passed away on June 18, 2014, at the age of 90. Her profound impact on the world is reflected not only in the widespread use of Kevlar but also in her role as a pioneer for women in science. Her work continues to save lives and protect individuals globally, a testament to her dedication to innovation and her remarkable career.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"6f:Tdca,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eAmerican chemist and educator Helen Murray Free\u0026#8217;s tale is one of groundbreaking contributions, especially in the realm of in vitro self-testing systems for diabetes and various diseases, during her tenure at Miles Laboratories. The heart of Helen\u0026#8217;s story lies in the revolutionary dip-and-read strips she crafted. These strips became the enchanted tools that would transform the testing process, offering not just accuracy but also a touch of magic in the form of enhanced convenience and efficiency. Doctors found a powerful ally, and patients discovered a newfound empowerment as the need for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/cern-to-supercharge-powerful-atom-smasher\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etraditional laboratories\u003c/a\u003e diminished. In Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on February 20, 1923, Helen was born to James S. Murray, a coal company salesman, and Daisy Piper Murray, who tragically succumbed to an influenza epidemic when Helen was just six.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer early years in Youngstown, Ohio, led her to become the valedictorian of the class of 1941 at Poland Seminary High School. Initially aspiring to major in English and Latin at the College of Wooster, her plans shifted dramatically after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941. With young men enlisting in the army, women were urged to pursue careers in science, prompting Helen to redirect her focus to chemistry. She earned a Bachelor of Science degree in 1944, describing the shift as the defining moment of her life. Before completing her college education, Helen ventured into her career, initially drawn to Koppers Chemical Company but eventually finding her place at Miles Laboratories as a quality control chemist. This decision was influenced by contractual obligations despite receiving an offer from the Mellon Institute. A pivotal juncture came when Helen joined the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/a-new-plant-cell-discovery-promises-human-anti-aging-potential\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ebiochemistry\u003c/a\u003e research group led by Alfred Free. Their personal and professional partnership blossomed into marriage in 1947. Their research journey began with antibiotics and transitioned to pioneering dry reagent systems. The groundbreaking Clinistix in 1956 marked their foray into diagnostic test strips, followed by innovations like Multistix, enabling multiple tests on a single strip.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHelen\u0026#8217;s career evolved with roles in the Growth and Development Department in 1969 and subsequent positions at Bayer Diagnostics post its 1978 acquisition of Miles. In 1978, she earned a Master of Arts in management from Central Michigan University. Retiring in 1982, Helen continued contributing as a consultant for Bayer Diagnostics. Post-retirement, Helen Free passionately advocated for science education, focusing on initiatives like \u0026#8220;Kids \u0026amp; Chemistry\u0026#8221; and \u0026#8220;Expanding Your Horizons,\u0026#8221; particularly empowering female and underprivileged students. The final chapter of Helen\u0026#8217;s remarkable life unfolded on May 1, 2021, as she peacefully passed away at 98 due to complications from a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/stroke-survivors-regain-grip-on-life-with-game-changing-smart-glove\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003estroke\u003c/a\u003e. The American Chemical Society designated the work of Helen and Al Free as a National Historic Chemical Landmark in 2010, and her legacy persisted with induction into the National Women\u0026#8217;s Hall of Fame in 2011.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"70:Tbc7,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eGordon Moore did so much to move society into the computer age that he had a law named after him. He also co-founded Intel Corporation, and was part of the Traitorous Eight, who helped brand Northern California as the Silicon Valley.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1929 in Pescadero, California, he was known as an introverted child until around the time he got a chemistry set for Christmas when he was 11. It brought him out of his shell in high school and into college where he spent two years at San Jose State College before transferring to Cal-Berkeley in 1948.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1950, he graduated with a bachelor’s degree in chemistry and moved on to further studies at Caltech, where he received a PhD in chemistry in 1954, along with postdoctoral research at the Applied Physics Lab at Johns Hopkins University between 1953-1956 After being recruited to join \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/transistors-moores-law\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eShockley Semiconductor Laboratory\u003c/a\u003e in 1956 by Nobel Prize winner William Shockley, Moore was one of eight young PhD grads to leave the firm after one year to found Fairchild Semiconductor.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShockley was not as well received as a boss as he had been a professor. Shockley had no idea they were leaving and losing such young, brilliant minds put him squarely in last place in the business. The eight made it their goal to produce silicon diffusion mesa transistors for digital devices and seized the market, capturing the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/china-2d-semiconductor-wafer\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esemiconductor market\u003c/a\u003e and being at the forefront of the Silicon Valley movement. In 1965, Moore was working as director of R\u0026amp;D for Fraichild when he did an interview with Electronics Magazine, which asked him what he thought would happen in the semiconductor industry over the next decade. He responded that he thought the number of components would double every year, an estimate that became known as Moore’s law.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1968, Moore and Robert Noyce left Fairchild and founded Intel Corporation. Moore served as executive vice president until 1975, then president until 1979, then chairman and CEO until 1987 when he remained just chairman. He became chairman emeritus in 1997. Intel focused solely on computers \u0026#8211; namely microprocessors, integrated circuits, and memory banks. In 2000, Moore and his wife Betty established the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation with a gift of $5 billion focused on conservation, environmentalism, and science in the San Francisco Bay area and beyond. He also served on Caltech’s board of trustees from 1983 to 2000.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2022, Intel renamed its main campus in Oregon as Gordon Moore Park. Among his many honors was the National Medal of Technology and Innovation presented to him by President George H.W. Bush in 1990. He added the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President George W. Bush in 2002. More passed away in Hawaii in 2023 at age 94.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"71:T14fc,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBorn on May 26, 1951, in Los Angeles, California, Sally Kristen Ride became the first American woman in space and served as a flight engineer. She grew up in a family deeply rooted in community service, with both parents active as elders in the Presbyterian Church. Her father, a World War II U.S. Army veteran, later became a political science professor at Santa Monica College, and her mother worked as a volunteer counselor, providing a foundation of service and intellectual pursuit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRide\u0026#8217;s academic journey began at home but quickly advanced as she entered public schooling in Los Angeles. She developed a passion for tennis and was coached by Alice Marble, a former world number one player, at age 10. By 12, Ride was a promising tennis player, ranked number 20 for her age group in Southern California. Her tennis prowess earned her a scholarship to the exclusive Westlake School for Girls in Los Angeles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1968, Ride graduated from high school and briefly attended Swarthmore College on a full scholarship, driven by her academic interests and tennis skills. However, missing California and seeing limited support for women\u0026#8217;s tennis at Swarthmore, she returned to her home state.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe transferred to Stanford University, where she fully embraced the sciences. At Stanford, Ride earned a Bachelor of Science in Physics and a Bachelor of Arts in English Literature in 1973. She pursued further studies at Stanford, obtaining a Master of Science in Physics in 1975 and a Ph.D. in Physics in 1978.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer dissertation focused on the interaction of X-rays with the interstellar medium, a topic foundational to her future work at NASA. Her passion for science and physical activity was a blend of mental acuity and physical endurance that would characterize her contributions to space exploration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSally Ride joined NASA in 1978 as part of Astronaut Group 8, the first class that included women. This marked the beginning of her groundbreaking career in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/beyond-sally-ride-women-of-the-worlds-space-programs\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003espace exploration\u003c/a\u003e. After rigorous training, Ride first served as CapCom (capsule communicator) for the second and third Space Shuttle flights, showcasing her expertise by working on the development of the Space Shuttle\u0026#8217;s robotic arm.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn June 1983, Ride made history by becoming the first American woman to travel to space aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger on the STS-7 mission. During this mission, she operated the robotic arm to deploy and retrieve the Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS-1), conducting experiments that contributed significantly to our understanding of space and satellite technology. Her second space flight was on the STS-41-G mission in 1984, and she was also aboard Challenger, where she continued to break new ground by spending over 343 hours in space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter leaving NASA in 1987, Ride took her expertise to the academic world, spending two years at Stanford University\u0026#8217;s Center for International Security and Arms Control. She then moved to the University of California, San Diego, where she researched nonlinear optics and Thomson scattering. Throughout her post-NASA career, Ride remained a leading figure in space science education and public outreach, contributing to the investigations of both the Challenger and Columbia space shuttle disasters and being the only person to participate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRide\u0026#8217;s legacy is marked by her spaceflight achievements and her commitment to science education, inspiring countless young people, especially girls, to pursue careers in STEM. Ride\u0026#8217;s profound impact on space exploration and science education is honored through numerous accolades and memorials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRide, the first known \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/27-most-successful-lgbt-entrepreneurs-executives-and-opinion-leaders\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLGBT\u003c/a\u003e astronaut, received the Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously in 2013, presented to her partner, Tam O’Shaughnessy. The United States Navy named a research vessel, the RV Sally Ride, in her honor, marking the first time a research fleet vessel was named after a woman scientist. Ride’s legacy extends into educational outreach, directing NASA’s GRAIL mission programs, which involved middle school students in active science learning through satellite imaging of the moon.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer commitment to education and science is memorialized in various forms, including naming elementary schools and establishing the Sally Ride Science at UC San Diego. In recognition of her contributions, Ride has been inducted into the National Women\u0026#8217;s Hall of Fame and the Astronaut Hall of Fame.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, her influence is commemorated with statues, including one at the Cradle of Aviation Museum and another at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. Notably, Ride was featured on U.S. currency in the American \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/nasa-sally-ride-first-female-astronaut-on-us-quarter\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWomen quarters series\u003c/a\u003e, becoming the first known LGBT person to appear on U.S. currency, and was honored with a Google Doodle on her 64th birthday, which was reused again on International Women’s Day.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"72:Tbb3,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eEllen Lauri Ochoa, born on May 10, 1958, in Los Angeles, California, to Joseph and Rosanne Ochoa, has carved an indelible mark in physics and space exploration. Her journey began with her paternal grandparents\u0026#8217; emigration from Sonora, Mexico, to Arizona and eventually to California, where her father was born.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGrowing up in La Mesa, California, Ochoa was the middle child among five siblings. She thrived academically, graduating from Grossmont High School in 1975 and earning a Bachelor of Science in Physics from San Diego State University in 1980. Her academic pursuits led her to Stanford University, where she achieved a master\u0026#8217;s degree in 1981 and a doctorate in electrical engineering in 1985.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOchoa\u0026#8217;s professional journey commenced at \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/sandia-power-generating-system-electricity-electrical-grid\"\u003eSandia National Laboratories\u003c/a\u003e and the NASA Ames Research Center, where she focused on optical systems for information processing. Her pioneering work earned her three patents, significantly advancing automated space exploration technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs the Chief of the Intelligent Systems Technology Branch at Ames, she supervised the development of sophisticated computational systems for aerospace missions. In 1990, Ochoa broke new ground when she was selected as an \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/former-nasa-astronaut-wants-humans-to-mars\"\u003eastronaut by NASA\u003c/a\u003e, becoming the first Hispanic woman to journey into space in 1993 aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring her career, she participated in four space missions, amassing nearly 1,000 hours in space. Her missions were pivotal, involving studies of the Earth\u0026#8217;s ozone layer, docking with the International Space Station (ISS), and contributing to the ISS\u0026#8217;s construction. Transitioning into leadership roles within NASA, Ochoa served as Deputy Director and later Director of the Johnson Space Center, becoming the first Hispanic and second female director in 2013. Her influence extended beyond NASA, serving as Vice Chair of the National Science Board and chairing the National Medal of Technology and Innovation committee.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOchoa\u0026#8217;s personal life is equally remarkable. Married to intellectual property attorney Coe Miles, with whom she has two sons, she is also an accomplished classical flutist. Her musical talents were showcased with the Stanford Symphony Orchestra, and she even took her flute on her first space mission.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNumerous schools and institutions across the United States bear her name, honoring her contributions to science and education. Ochoa\u0026#8217;s accolades include NASA\u0026#8217;s Distinguished Service Medal, induction into the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame, and the International Air and Space Hall of Fame. In 2024, she received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, a testament to her outstanding contributions to space exploration and science.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"73:Tee7,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA man of great accomplishments when it came to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/ad-astra-the-future-of-propulsion-technology\" target=\"_blank\"\u003erocket technology\u003c/a\u003e, he was a member of the Nazi Party in Germany during World War II who was suspected of being a traitor and arrested, then ultimately surrendered to American forces in 1945, and was almost immediately put to work for the American military, eventually becoming a key figure in the country’s development of ballistic missiles and the US Space Program.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1912 in what was then Prussia and is now Poland, Von Braun’s father was the Minister of Agriculture for the Weimar Republic while his mother had royal blood, a descendant of several kings of Scotland, England, and Denmark. His family moved to Berlin in 1915 and Von Braun’s mother gifted him a telescope, which got him obsessed with astronomy. Only when he realized that he needed to be strong at math and science to have a chance to work with rockets did Von Braun begin to apply himself to his studies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1932, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Institute of Technology in Berlin. He started his own private rocket development company, and within the year had been contacted by the German Army about working for them for purposing weather data and missile capabilities. By 1934, he had added a doctorate in aerospace engineering.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;In 1937, he applied for membership into the Nazi Party, although records indicate he was not particularly passionate about it. In his own words, he was “officially demanded to join.” By then he had begun working with rockets and was one of the top minds in the country. After World War I, Germany had signed the Treaty of Versailles forbidding them from doing weapons ‘research in a number of areas, but \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/different-rockets-spacecraft-developed-by-spacex\" target=\"_blank\"\u003erockets\u003c/a\u003e were not among the listed, giving the Germans something of a loophole.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrespondence with American physicist Robert H. Goddard allowed Von Braun to lead the Germans to build the A-4 rocket, which later took the more famous name the V-2. The V-2 was the first manmade object to fly out of the atmosphere. In 1944, Germany launched more than 3,100 V-2 rockets into Belgium, the UK, France, The Netherlands, and parts of Germany that had fallen to Allied advances. Thousands were killed and tens of thousands injured.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter being arrested, then released by the SS in 1944, Von Braun led the escape of many of his fellow engineers as the Allied troops advanced on Germany and Hitler ordered all scientists in the military to be gassed. He and several of his team members surrendered to American troops in May 1945, just six days before Germany surrendered. Von Braun was debriefed and taken to a US military base in El Paso, TX.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was considered a top “prize” among Germany scientists by the Americans. Von Braun continued working on the V-2 for the US, then began developing the Redstone rocket for use on long-range missiles. After years of doing heavily supervised work on V-2 rockets, he was transferred to Alabama and headed up the Redstone Arsenal missile program for the US Army.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was an early advocate for the US to pursue putting a man in a rocket into space, sketching out ideas for space stations and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/the-first-mission-to-mars-by-2033\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ea trip to Mars\u003c/a\u003e. His work saw him hired by NASA in 1960. He was head of NASA’s engineering program that successfully launched the Apollo series, including the Apollo 11 moon landing. He passed away at age 65 in 1977 of pancreatic cancer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"74:Tad9,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA wizard of aerospace engineering, Elbert Leander “Burt” Rutan was born in Oregon, US, in 1943 and has set world records for his airplane designs as well as making history for designing the first-ever privately funded vehicle to enter \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/jwst-finds-earliest-starlight\"\u003espace\u003c/a\u003e. In his lifetime, he has founded four different aerospace companies and is responsible for the design of 46 different aircraft in his lifetime, a feat that has him featured in Time Magazine for its 100 Most Influential People in the World list.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRutan knew what he wanted to do from the very start, designing his first model aircraft at age eight and taking his first solo flight in an airplane at age 16. After graduating from Cal Poly-San Luis Obispo with a degree in aeronautical engineering, he became a flight test project engineer at \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/ai-powered-f-16-jets\"\u003eEdwards Air Force Base\u003c/a\u003e. While at Edwards, Rutan did significant work on the LTV XC-142, the forebearer to the modern harrier, which can rotate its wings upward to function like a helicopter for quick vertical takeoffs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1974, Rutan founded his own aircraft company and began designing prototypes for amateur builders. His first, best effort, known as the Rutan VariViggen, was an unusually shaped two-seater with a 150-horsepower engine. Its first flight came in April 1972 and the company sold 600 sets of plans to consumers. Rutan strayed away from traditional design components in favor of moldless composite pieces. In 1982, he founded a second company, Scaled Composites, which made him rich as one of the most well-known prototype and aircraft design entrepreneurs in the world. Rutan ran Scaled Composites from 1982 to 2011. In 1986, Rutan became a household name when his \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/voyager-traveled-world-without-refueling\"\u003eVoyager aircraft\u003c/a\u003e flew around the entire world without refueling, flying for 9 days at an average altitude of 11,000 feet over the course of more than 26,000 miles. Rutan’s older brother Richard was one of the plane’s two pilots. Eighteen years later, his spaceplane, dubbed SpaceShipOne, reached an altitude of 100 kilometers to venture into space beyond the Earth, following with two similar flights over the next four months.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor his landmark achievements, Rutan was inducted into the International Air \u0026amp; Space Hall of Fame in 1988. His designed research aircraft include the Grizzly, the Lotus Microlight, the Ames AD-1, the ARES, the Boomerang, and the BiPod.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRutan retired in 2011 but continues to speak and give lectures around the world. In 2022, the Mojave Air and Space Port was renamed Rutan\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"75:T1085,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eOne of the greatest masters of innovation in the 20th century, Sergei Korolev was the lead scientist, rocket engineer, and designer of spacecraft for the Soviet Union during the 1950s and 1960s. His work gave Russia the victory in the Space Race between the two world superpowers multiple times over in the early 1960s, including the successful launch and return of the first human being, Yuri Gagarin, into space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in what is now Ukraine in 1907, his father was an Army soldier and his mother from a wealthy family of merchants. His father moved the family to the city of Zhytomyr to become a teacher but his parents soon separated. His father died when he was 22. Korolev learned to read at a young age and was a favorite of his school teachers for his gifts in math, which also led to him being bullied by many of his peers. His mother remarried when he was nine to a German electrical engineer who moved the family to Odessa, a port on the Black Sea. Korolev went to vocational school in Odessa and built a glider, his first attempt at making a vehicle fly. He later joined the Society of Aviation and Aerial Navigation of Ukraine and the Crimea and had his first experiences riding in airplanes. By 1926, he was accepted into the Bauman Moscow State Technical University where he studied under Andrei Tupolev, a famous Russian aircraft designer. He studied aviation until 1929 and began working on designing aircraft for the Russian government soon after. In 1930, he shifted his focus to liquid-fueled \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/rocket-lab-engine-from-space\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003erocket engines\u003c/a\u003e for airplanes and earned his pilot’s license the same year. In 1933, he produced the first hybrid propellant rocket, and shortly thereafter, the first liquid-fueled rocket.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis work stalled in 1937 when Joseph Stalin took control of the Communist Party and started the Great Purge \u0026#8211; removing the influence of his predecessor, Leon Trotsky. At least 700,000 people were killed on Stalin’s orders. Koroklev was arrested in 1938 on false charges and tortured in prison. He was forced to work in a gold mine in Siberia for several months, suffering a heart attack and losing several teeth due to scurvy. He was brought back to Moscow in 1939, then relocated to a prison for scientists and engineers in 1940. His group designed two Russian bombers during World War II. He was finally released from prison in June 1944, but the charges against him were not wiped out until 1957.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was commissioned as an officer of the Red Army in 1945 and given a Badge of Honor for his work during the war. He worked with German scientists after the end of World War II on the creation of V-2 rockets for military purposes. In 1954, he first proposed using a ballistic missile to launch a satellite into space. He wrote articles for local newspapers about the possibility, which were intercepted by the US government, which announced its own intentions to do the same thing in 1955. Koroleve sent another proposal to the Russian government with attached articles from US newspapers about America’s announcement, and three days later, his program was approved.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe designed and oversaw the launch of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/sputnik-moment-global-order\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eSputnik 1\u003c/a\u003e, which launched into space in October 1957 \u0026#8211; the first artificial satellite of Earth. Korolev pushed forward to send a satellite to the moon, but his early attempts failed, with two missing the target, and the other three crashing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1960, another Koroelv designed spacecraft successfully launched and returned a pair of dogs into space. With those tests accomplished, on April 12, 1961, Koroleve was capsule coordinator as Yuri Gagarin launched into orbit, the first man in space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1960, Korlev suffered either his first or second heart attack. He had a kidney disorder caused by his time in terrible living conditions in Soviet prison camps. He died in the hospital in 1966 at the age of 59. No one in the country knew his name until after he had died, a policy started by Stalin during his rise to power.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"76:Tdac,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eSir Frank Whittle, an officer and a scientist, is known for inventing the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/how-a-jet-engine-works\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eturbojet engine\u003c/a\u003e, a breakthrough that allowed aircraft, land vehicles, helicopters, hovercraft, and cruise missiles to travel at extraordinary speeds, changing the face of how vehicles were powered and how quickly they could move.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was born in 1907 in Coventry, England, and was interested in both engineering and flying as a young boy. Joining the Royal Air Force (RAF) was the dream of many a young man in the UK, particularly after its key role in World War I. Whittle was initially denied a spot due to his small size, but he eventually was able to convince the powers that be that he was a worthwhile candidate and went to school for technical training.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis fast-paced rise as an aircraft apprentice saw him put in line for the RAF’s officer training course and he excelled both behind the scenes and as a pilot. However, he was a daredevil behind the controls of a plane and was frequently reprimanded for unnecessary \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/how-mit-researchers-made-tailsitter-drones-fly-like-acrobats\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eaerobatics\u003c/a\u003e and flyin g lower than was required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGetting grounded frequently led to him working further on his thesis about the principle of a motorjet. He felt his original design would way down an airplane too much, so he swapped out using a piston for a turbine instead. He showed his concept engine around a base where he was working as a teacher and caught the notice of Flying Officer Pat Johnson, who had previously worked in the patent office. Johnson got it shown up the line quickly, and in 1930, Whittel was promoted to flying officer. The RAF shot down his idea for the engine after finding a miscalculation in the math.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUndaunted, he formed a company \u0026#8211; Power Jets. Ltd \u0026#8211; in 1936. By then, as the Nazis began ramping up their war effort in secret, similar engines were being built by scientists in Germany and Spain, with the Luftwaffe getting theirs into production nine months earlier than Whittle. Finally, in late 1937, the British Air Ministry was impressed enough to invest a small amount of money to find development of a flyable prototype.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThings ramped up dramatically for the RAF when Germany produced the first flyable jet aircraft in 1939, and then invaded Poland a few months later. Power Jets had produced a working prototype for the RAF in June 1939 and started producing jets, with the first taking its maiden flight in 1941.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen England and the rest of Europe woke up to the truth that Adolf Hitler was serious about world domination, Power Jets was nationalized in 1943 and its staff went from fewer than 10 to more than 1,000. On New Year’s Day, 1944, King George knighted Whittle for his contributions to the war effort. He was promoted to Air Commodore that same year, the fifth-highest designation in the service.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe retired from the RAF in 1948 and went on to work for Shell Oil in 1953 as a Mechanical Engineering Specialist, designing a self-powered drill powered by a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/the-scientific-reason-why-wind-turbines-have-3-blades\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eturbine\u003c/a\u003e. He re ceived multiple honorary degrees in his final years, and died of lung cancer at age 89 in 1996.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"77:Tb57,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBorn in Holzhausen, Germany, in 1832, Nicolaus August Otto broke new ground in propulsion when he invented a motor engine that ran on gas as opposed to steam. It was not an easy childhood for Otto. He was the youngest of six children and his father died the same year he was born. He began school at age 6, and although he didn’t finish high school, he was praised for his aptitudes in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003escience and technology\u003c/a\u003e. He worked three year s as a business apprentice for a merchandising firm, then moved to Frankfurt to work as a salesman at a farm and grocery store. This saw him travel extensively throughout Germany selling the essentials, such as sugar, tea, and rice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen he was 28 years old, Otto and his brother learned of a gas engine built by Frenchman Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir. The two brothers decided to build a version of the engine and applied for a patent for it, but were denied based on the similarities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOtto decided to go a different route and use compressed fuel to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/video/inside-an-engine\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003epower an engine\u003c/a\u003e. He sought out numerous partners over the next few years before connecting with Eugen Langen. The two formed a company, NA Otto \u0026amp; Cie, in Cologne, that history remembers as the first in the world that was 100% focused on internal combustion engines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1864, the duo created an engine that was powered by the explosion of gas in a vacuum. It took less than half of the amount of fuel that the Leonir engine used and was a hit, selling 600-700 units per year for the next decade. The size of the engine limited its usefulness, so Otto and Langen went back to the workshop and produced the “Otto cycle”, a stationary motor that ran on the motion of pistons inside a cylinder.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOtto and Langen were awarded the gold medal at the 1867 Paris World Exhibition for their efforts, and more than 50,000 \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/a-groundbreaking-engine-uses-information-as-fuel\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eunits of the engine\u003c/a\u003e were sold over the next two decades. The motor was hailed as efficient, reliable, and fairly quiet. Its design centered around four consecutive strokes of a piston that drew in and compressed a mixture of gas and air inside a cylinder, resulting in an internal explosion. In 1882, he received an honorary doctorate degree from the University of Wurzburg for his contributions to science and industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite his success, Otto kept on experimenting, creating the electric ignition in 1884. Otto was married and had seven children, including son Gustav, who went on to become a famous designer of aircraft engines and aircrafts. Gustav is considered the original owner of the company that eventually became BMW.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"78:Tb82,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eFew men have ever had as great an impact on the world as \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/7-of-henry-fords-most-impactful-inventions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eHenry Ford\u003c/a\u003e, an engineer, industrialist, and businessman who changed the way people travel, changed the way factories work, and built an empire in the motorcar industry that has lasted for more than a century.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Michigan during the US Civil War, Ford left home at the age of 16 to nearby Detroit to start working, having never gone to high school. He was fascinated by machines and how they worked. His father gave him a pocket watch as a gift when he was 12, and he took it apart and reassembled it to learn how it worked, eventually doing so for other people around town and became known as someone who could fix them.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis first job was as an apprentice machinist and he spent three years in Detroit before coming home to work on his family farm where he learned to use a Westinghouse portable steam engine. Ironically, he was later hired by that company to service their engines. Throughout his 20s, he started dabbling in building vehicles, mostly powered by steam.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen he was 29, he completed his first motor car, with a two-cylinder, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/why-do-we-still-use-horsepower#:~:text=Horsepower%20conversions\u0026amp;text=One%20horsepower%20equates%20to%20746,to%202%2C545%20British%20Thermal%20Units\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003efour-horsepower engine\u003c/a\u003e. It could travel up to 20 miles per hour and between 1895-1896, he drove it more than 1,000 miles. During that same decade, he worked for the Edison Illuminating Company of Detroit and was eventually promoted to Chief Engineer, which let him have enough money to experiment on gasoline engines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe met Edison himself in 1896, and the legendary scientist and inventor encouraged him to pursue his automobile passion. In 1899, Ford resigned from the Edison Company to form the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/michigan-first-wireless-electrified-roadway\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eDetroit Automobile Company\u003c/a\u003e, but it dissolved two years later. He went back to the drawing board and formed the Ford Motor Company in 1903 with $28,000 capital. The Model T debuted in 1908 with the steering wheel on the left hand side and the engine and transmission completely enclosed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt cost $825 in 1908 and the price fell every year as it became less expensive to make. Ford bought ads in the newspapers for his product, then bought the paper itself. He also introduced the concept of “Fordism” where he paid his workers high salaries to maximize their efforts. Workers were paid $5 per day in 1914, which was more than double what most people were earning. In 1913, he introduced moving assembly belts to his Ford plants, which dramatically increased production on a day-to-day basis.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"79:Tc11,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eHas a more talented human ever lived in the entire history of mankind? It is hard to imagine one more accomplished in so many areas than \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/the-inventions-of-leonardo-da-vinci-genius-inspired-by-nature\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLeonardo di ser Piero da Vinci\u003c/a\u003e, who was born in April 1452. He is famous for his work as an engineer, scientist, sculptor, architect, painter, theorist, and draftsman, and is widely considered the progenitor of the High Renaissance period of art. He painted both The Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, both of which can lay claim as being the most famous paintings in the world for centuries after they were completed. At the age of 14, he became an apprentice for Andrea del Verrocchio, a famous sculptor who had himself studied at the feet of the great Donatello. In the workshop, he wasn’t just exposed to brushes, paint, and clay, but also to chemistry, metal and woodworking, mechanics, and drafting, subjects that would allow him to show the world sights that it had never seen before.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePerhaps the most vexing part of Leonardo’s genius as an \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/mit-proves-da-vincis-longest-bridge-design-of-500-years-ago-would-have-worked\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eengineer and an inventor\u003c/a\u003e is that his creations rarely left the page, and if they did, they never made it past the experimental phase. Leonardo did not see much of a difference between science and art, believing both to be equal creations of his mind and just as beautiful to see come to life on paper. Throughout his lifetime, he wrote more than 13,000 pages of notes compiling his inventions, his observations, his creations, and drawings of things that didn’t yet exist. He was the first to propose the idea of a gated canal with a sluice gate, which would allow the city of Florence to have access to the sea. While it was not built in Leonardo’s time, the bridge eventually became the inspiration for the Panama Canal. Other ideas that he envisioned but never created included bending wooden beams into arches on bridges, using a flywheel and a crank to develop a steam engine, and even early designs of a mechanical man, or for lack of a better word, a robot that emulated the joints and muscles of the human body.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis plans came to fruition largely for the good of his city, coming in the form of city engineering and military might. He worked in the count of Ludovico Sforza, who ruled over the city of Milan and was attempting to keep people as safe as possible in public after an outbreak of the plague. Da Vinci designed extra-wide streets in new townships throughout the regions so people had more space to go about their business. He spent an additional 17 years working in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-of-the-most-advanced-military-robots-in-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emilitary engineering\u003c/a\u003e, designing weapons and defenses for the rules of his city as there were frequent battles and changes in leadership.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"7a:Tdd6,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIf Samuel Morse had died at age 40, exactly halfway through his life, he would have been known as one of the best painters in American history to that point, having painted the portraits of two American presidents among other seminal works. But he is included on this list for his work in the second half of his life, when he grew fascinated by the single-wire telegraph system and helped create an entirely new language to utilize it, known the world over to this day as \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/origins-of-the-morse-code-and-how-it-works\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eMorse code\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Charlestown, Massachusetts in 1791, his father was a geographer and a pastor, opening up Morse to the belief that you could excel in a lot of different subjects. Morse went to Phillips Academy, then on to Yale where he divided his interests equally among science, mathematics, and religious philosophy. He had artistic ability as a painter and he used it to support himself while toiling away, graduating from Yale in 1810 with Phi Beta Kappa honors. He set sail for England barely a year later, onboard a ship with artist Washington Allston, who saw a lot of promise in Morse and arranged for him to study under another renowned painter, Benjamin West, for three years. There, he was accepted into the Royal Academy and inspired by the art of the Renaissance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e That led him to create his masterpiece, a painting and accompanying sculpture called the Dying Hercules. He returned to the US in 1815 and dedicated his life to becoming a full-time \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/what-is-ai-generated-art\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003epainter\u003c/a\u003e, commissioned to paint President John Adams in 1816, President James Monroe in 1820, and the Marquis de Lafayette in 1825. He famously painted the House of Representatives in 1821. In 1826, he helped create the National Academy of Design and later became a professor of painting and sculpture at New York University. On a trip home from Europe in 1832 he watched Charles Thomas Jackson, another American, give a talk on the use of an electromagnet. Morse was spellbound by the implications and shifted gears, busying himself with the creation of a single-wire telegraph and submitted a patent for it. Others got their first, but they were all enamored with each other’s work. Morse got help from a friend to boost the length of the signal, and in 1838, he showed off his electric telegraph and its 2-mile range. Around the same time, he developed a series of long and short pulses to represent letters, which was the early version of the internationally well-known Morse code of modern times.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe spent the next several years trying to acquire funding, and succeeded in 1842. The US Congress that he had once painted approved a $30,000 grant for him to run a telegraph line from Washington D.C. to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/baltimore-bridge-collapse-pictures-satellite\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eBaltimore\u003c/a\u003e. It only took three weeks to build and open for business. The next year, his Magnetic Telegraph Company was building lines from New York City to Buffalo, Philadelphia, and Boston. He secured a patent for his invention in 1847, but didn’t stop there, introducing it to Puerto Rico in 1858. Morse died in New York City in 1872 at age 80. Despite giving away large swathes of money during his life to charity, his estate was worth half a million dollars at the time of his passing.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"7b:T18ef,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eValentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova, born on March 6, 1937, in Bolshoye Maslennikovo, a village on the Volga River in Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, is a distinguished Russian aeronautical engineer, member of the State Duma, and a former Soviet cosmonaut renowned as the\u003c/span\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/15-women-who-changed-the-space-exploration-game\"\u003e \u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003efirst woman\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e in space. Following her father\u0026#8217;s death in the Finnish Winter War when she was only two, Tereshkova\u0026#8217;s family moved to Yaroslavl, where her mother found employment in a cotton mill.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTereshkova\u0026#8217;s educational journey began at age eight and concluded with her graduation from the Light Industry Technical School in 1960, balancing her studies with work at a tire factory and later at a textile mill. Her interest in parachuting, which she began at age 22, became a key element of her selection as a cosmonaut.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer deep involvement in her community and early political engagement led her to join the local Komsomol (Communist Youth League) in Yaroslavl, eventually serving as its secretary and becoming a member of the Communist Party in 1962. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eValentina Tereshkova\u0026#8217;s pioneering space career began when she was selected from over 400 candidates in 1962 to join the Soviet female cosmonaut corps, influenced by her skills in skydiving which were crucial for the spacecraft\u0026#8217;s parachute landing protocol.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShe embarked on rigorous training, including isolation tests, centrifuge and thermo-chamber tests, decompression chamber testing, and piloting MiG-15UTI jet fighters. This intense preparation was part of the Soviet strategy to launch the first woman into space. Tereshkova and her cohort started their training before their male counterparts to ensure that a Soviet woman would achieve this milestone first.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eOn June 16, 1963, Tereshkova was launched into space aboard Vostok 6 at the age of 26, making her the first woman to travel in space and the youngest woman ever to do so. She orbited Earth 48 times over almost three days in space during her flight, spending more time in orbit than all American astronauts combined before that date.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTereshkova\u0026#8217;s mission required her to manually operate the spacecraft due to a potential malfunction, showcasing her training and ability to handle unexpected challenges. Her call sign for the mission was \u0026#8220;Chaika,\u0026#8221; Russian for \u0026#8220;seagull.\u0026#8221; Her spacecraft came within 5 kilometers of Vostok 5, piloted by cosmonaut Valery Bykovsky, though it remains unclear if the two were able to confirm each other\u0026#8217;s spacecraft visually.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eUpon completing her spaceflight, Tereshkova was celebrated as a hero of the Soviet Union and received numerous accolades, including the Order of Lenin. Despite the physical challenges she reported, such as severe nausea, her mission was deemed a significant success and provided valuable data on the female body\u0026#8217;s response to spaceflight.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter her historic flight, Tereshkova never returned to space. She continued her involvement in the space program as an instructor and spokesperson. She earned her doctorate in aeronautical engineering and, by 1976, had risen to colonel in the Soviet Air Forces. Although re-qualified for further space missions, she transitioned to more educational and mentoring roles within the cosmonaut community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eFollowing her retirement from the Russian Air Force in 1997, Tereshkova transitioned from her career as a cosmonaut into a prominent political role. Despite losing two elections for the national State Duma in 1995 and 2003, her perseverance paid off when she was elected to her regional parliament, the Yaroslavl Oblast Duma, in 2008. This marked the beginning of her sustained influence in Russian politics.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2011, Tereshkova was elected to the State Duma, the lower house of the Russian legislature, representing the Yaroslavl Oblast as a member of the ruling United Russia party. Her political career was characterized by her advocacy for a range of legislative amendments, including those promoting Orthodox Christianity as a foundational cultural element of Russia, a significant shift from her previously stated atheistic views during the\u003c/span\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/7-interesting-facts-about-soviet-russian-spacesuits\"\u003e \u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eSoviet era\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShe was appointed as a deputy chairperson of the Committee on the Federal Structure and Local Government, where she served until her re-election in 2016. During her tenure, she was instrumental in drafting the 2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia, famously proposing to lift the presidential term limits.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer political career has not been without controversy. In 2022, following her support for the Russian invasion of Ukraine, international sanctions were imposed on her by the United States and the European Union, resulting in frozen assets and travel bans.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer political activities were complemented by her ongoing engagement in social causes and her representation of Russia on significant international platforms. Tereshkova also remained a celebrated figure in\u003c/span\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/space\"\u003e \u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003espace exploration\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e, often speaking at events and continuing to inspire future generations of astronauts and engineers.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThroughout her life, Tereshkova received numerous awards and honors, including Hero of the Soviet Union, Order of Lenin, Joliot-Curie Gold Medal, and even the United Nations Gold Medal of Peace at some point. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"7c:Tc16,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eFew men can claim that at one point they were the most famous person on the planet. It’s easier to make that claim when you’re the first person from the planet to set foot on a heavenly body beyond the planet itself. Such is the tale of Neil Armstrong, the famous American astronaut who was the first man to walk on the surface of the moon, but also a famous aeronautical engineer and a professor of some renown. Armstrong was born in 1930 in the tiny town of Wapakoneta, Ohio, which boasted a population of just 5,378 the year of his birth. He attended Purdue University where he studied aeronautical engineering, paid for by the US Navy in exchange for his service. He was born to be a pilot, going on his first airplane ride at age 5, far earlier than most Americans of the era. After two years of college at Purdue, he moved on to two years of flight training and one year as an aviator in the Navy. In 1951, he was activated for combat in the Korean War, and within two months, was flying reconnaissance missions in the active combat zone. He flew 20 combat missions and won multiple medals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter returning to Purdue to graduate, Armstrong became an experimental research test \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/single-pilot-flights-with-ai\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003epilot\u003c/a\u003e. Several times he piloted the North American X-15, a rocket-powered aircraft that set multiple altitude records with him at the controls, reaching 207,000 feet in 1962 and reached a speed of Mach 3. He was never the top pilot, but his engineering background allowed him to understand exactly how the aircraft were designed to work. In 1962, he was chosen as one of the second group of astronauts in the newly-formed NASA. He first flew into space in 1966 onboard the Gemini 8, NASA’s most complex mission to date. Armstrong was the captain of the flight that lasted 75 hours and orbited the Earth 55 times.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1967, Armstrong learned he would be one of the first \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/return-to-earth-the-challenges-that-astronauts-face-both-in-space-and-when-they-return-home\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eastronauts\u003c/a\u003e to fly a lunar mission. He was later named commander of Apollo 11. Apollo 11 left Florida’s Kennedy Space Center on July 16, 1969. The ship touched down on the moon four days later, with Armstrong the first man out of the landing module. Armstrong famously said, “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” as he stood on the surface for the first kind. After returning to Earth, he retired from NASA and became an aerospace engineering professor at the University of Cincinnati., teaching classes in aircraft design, experimental flight mechanics, and other topics. Although he left NASA, Armstrong remained an integral part of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-chinese-space-program\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003espace program\u003c/a\u003e. He was part of the investigation team into the malfunction of Apollo 13 in 1970 and again\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"7d:Tdac,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eSir Frank Whittle, an officer and a scientist, is known for inventing the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/how-a-jet-engine-works\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eturbojet engine\u003c/a\u003e, a breakthrough that allowed aircraft, land vehicles, helicopters, hovercraft, and cruise missiles to travel at extraordinary speeds, changing the face of how vehicles were powered and how quickly they could move.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was born in 1907 in Coventry, England, and was interested in both engineering and flying as a young boy. Joining the Royal Air Force (RAF) was the dream of many a young man in the UK, particularly after its key role in World War I. Whittle was initially denied a spot due to his small size, but he eventually was able to convince the powers that be that he was a worthwhile candidate and went to school for technical training.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis fast-paced rise as an aircraft apprentice saw him put in line for the RAF’s officer training course and he excelled both behind the scenes and as a pilot. However, he was a daredevil behind the controls of a plane and was frequently reprimanded for unnecessary \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/how-mit-researchers-made-tailsitter-drones-fly-like-acrobats\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eaerobatics\u003c/a\u003e and flyin g lower than was required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGetting grounded frequently led to him working further on his thesis about the principle of a motorjet. He felt his original design would way down an airplane too much, so he swapped out using a piston for a turbine instead. He showed his concept engine around a base where he was working as a teacher and caught the notice of Flying Officer Pat Johnson, who had previously worked in the patent office. Johnson got it shown up the line quickly, and in 1930, Whittel was promoted to flying officer. The RAF shot down his idea for the engine after finding a miscalculation in the math.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUndaunted, he formed a company \u0026#8211; Power Jets. Ltd \u0026#8211; in 1936. By then, as the Nazis began ramping up their war effort in secret, similar engines were being built by scientists in Germany and Spain, with the Luftwaffe getting theirs into production nine months earlier than Whittle. Finally, in late 1937, the British Air Ministry was impressed enough to invest a small amount of money to find development of a flyable prototype.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThings ramped up dramatically for the RAF when Germany produced the first flyable jet aircraft in 1939, and then invaded Poland a few months later. Power Jets had produced a working prototype for the RAF in June 1939 and started producing jets, with the first taking its maiden flight in 1941.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen England and the rest of Europe woke up to the truth that Adolf Hitler was serious about world domination, Power Jets was nationalized in 1943 and its staff went from fewer than 10 to more than 1,000. On New Year’s Day, 1944, King George knighted Whittle for his contributions to the war effort. He was promoted to Air Commodore that same year, the fifth-highest designation in the service.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe retired from the RAF in 1948 and went on to work for Shell Oil in 1953 as a Mechanical Engineering Specialist, designing a self-powered drill powered by a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/the-scientific-reason-why-wind-turbines-have-3-blades\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eturbine\u003c/a\u003e. He re ceived multiple honorary degrees in his final years, and died of lung cancer at age 89 in 1996.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"7e:Tc16,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eFew men can claim that at one point they were the most famous person on the planet. It’s easier to make that claim when you’re the first person from the planet to set foot on a heavenly body beyond the planet itself. Such is the tale of Neil Armstrong, the famous American astronaut who was the first man to walk on the surface of the moon, but also a famous aeronautical engineer and a professor of some renown. Armstrong was born in 1930 in the tiny town of Wapakoneta, Ohio, which boasted a population of just 5,378 the year of his birth. He attended Purdue University where he studied aeronautical engineering, paid for by the US Navy in exchange for his service. He was born to be a pilot, going on his first airplane ride at age 5, far earlier than most Americans of the era. After two years of college at Purdue, he moved on to two years of flight training and one year as an aviator in the Navy. In 1951, he was activated for combat in the Korean War, and within two months, was flying reconnaissance missions in the active combat zone. He flew 20 combat missions and won multiple medals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter returning to Purdue to graduate, Armstrong became an experimental research test \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/single-pilot-flights-with-ai\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003epilot\u003c/a\u003e. Several times he piloted the North American X-15, a rocket-powered aircraft that set multiple altitude records with him at the controls, reaching 207,000 feet in 1962 and reached a speed of Mach 3. He was never the top pilot, but his engineering background allowed him to understand exactly how the aircraft were designed to work. In 1962, he was chosen as one of the second group of astronauts in the newly-formed NASA. He first flew into space in 1966 onboard the Gemini 8, NASA’s most complex mission to date. Armstrong was the captain of the flight that lasted 75 hours and orbited the Earth 55 times.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1967, Armstrong learned he would be one of the first \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/return-to-earth-the-challenges-that-astronauts-face-both-in-space-and-when-they-return-home\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eastronauts\u003c/a\u003e to fly a lunar mission. He was later named commander of Apollo 11. Apollo 11 left Florida’s Kennedy Space Center on July 16, 1969. The ship touched down on the moon four days later, with Armstrong the first man out of the landing module. Armstrong famously said, “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” as he stood on the surface for the first kind. After returning to Earth, he retired from NASA and became an aerospace engineering professor at the University of Cincinnati., teaching classes in aircraft design, experimental flight mechanics, and other topics. Although he left NASA, Armstrong remained an integral part of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-chinese-space-program\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003espace program\u003c/a\u003e. He was part of the investigation team into the malfunction of Apollo 13 in 1970 and again\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"7f:T975,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eImran Chaudhri, a designer with British-American heritage, significantly influenced Apple\u0026#8217;s design landscape during his tenure spanning from 1995 to 2017.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in London, in 1973, his noteworthy accomplishments encompass the design of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/ai-features-offered-new-apple-products\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003evarious products\u003c/a\u003e, including the Mac, iPod, iPhone, iPad, Apple TV, Apple Watch, AirPods, and HomePod. Chaudhri played a crucial role in shaping the interface of the original iPhone, introducing a touch-based design that replaced traditional buttons with intuitive gestures. His inventive spirit is evident in multiple Apple patents, particularly those related to touch screens\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChaudhri was integral to the team that introduced the grid of square app icons on the iPhone\u0026#8217;s home screen, providing a user-friendly system for organizing and rearranging functions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite his impactful contributions, his departure from Apple in 2017 was sudden and unforeseen, as he was terminated a month before his scheduled exit following the transmission of a departure email. Post-Apple, Chaudhri, in collaboration with his wife Bethany Bongiorno, established \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/humane-ai-wearable-potential-iphone-killer\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eHumane, a technology company\u003c/a\u003e headquartered in San Francisco.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHumane seeks to challenge the conventional smartphone paradigm, as evidenced by their recent innovation—a diminutive \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/ex-apple-employees-humane-ai-pin\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAI Pin\u003c/a\u003e that magnetically adheres to clothing, purporting to replace the traditional smartphone. Priced at $699, this alternative device is marketed as an all-day wearable solution. Chaudhri\u0026#8217;s choice to venture into entrepreneurship with Humane reflects his aspiration to pursue fresh ambitions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHumane, shrouded in secrecy until recently, secured $230 million in funding from prominent investors, including OpenAI CEO Sam Altman, Salesforce CEO Marc Benioff, Microsoft, and the venture arms of LG, Volvo, and Qualcomm. With a valuation of $850 million, Chaudhri\u0026#8217;s startup aims to disrupt the smartphone industry through its innovative wearable technology, posing a challenge to established players like Apple.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"80:Tbad,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eSteve Wozniak gave the world Apple, revolutionizing the computer industry first and everything that has come after it as far as digital technology goes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlongside the late \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/e-book-chronicles-steve-jobs-in-his-own-words\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eSteve Jobs\u003c/a\u003e , he co-founded Apple Computer in the 1970s, a company that is now the biggest technology brand in the world both by revenue and the largest company in the world period in terms of market capitalization. Wozniak was a big fan of the sci-fi TV show “Star Trek’ as a youth and said it inspired him to want to build his own computer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn his first year of college at Colorado University, he was expelled for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/white-house-seeks-ai-solutions-for-security-issues\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ehacking the school’s computer system.\u003c/a\u003e He returned home to the San Francisc o Bay Area and enrolled in tiny De Anza College before transferring the next year to Cal-Berkley. He built his first computer that same year, although it exploded when a classmate accidentally stepped on the power cord. That same summer he began working for Hewlett-Packard (HP) designing calculators, and there he was introduced to Jobs, who was still in high school.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThat fall, he built his first “blue box”, a device that could make long-distance phone calls at no cost. He and Jobs built and marketed them and sold 200 units for $150 apiece. In 1973, the two worked on a project for Atari together, streamlining the game. Using the money he had made with the blue boxes, Wozniak began designing his own personal computer,the Apple I, in 1975. He finished in 1976 and pitched it to HP, but he was denied on five separate occasions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn Jobs’ advice, he left HP and the two of them started the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/intel-macs-apple-homegrown-chips\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eApple Computer Company\u003c/a\u003e on April 1, 1976. The next design, the Apple II, was the first personal computer that could display color graphics on a monitor and use the BASIC programming language from scratch. It debuted in 1977, and was upgraded to include the floppy disk drive in 1978.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe machine sold well, and when Apple went public in 1980, Wozniak became a millionaire. A plane crash caused him severe injuries and amnesia and he left the company as Jobs began focusing on the Macintosh products.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWozniak preferred the Apple line so it was a good break, although the technology he worked on eventually found its way into the iPod, iPad, and iPhone products that saw Apple take over the world in terms of breakthroughs and popularity. He eventually started companies that invented the world’s first programmable remote control, offered tech training for individuals and teachers, and began addressing the problem of cleaning up space debris in orbit around the earth.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"81:Tbda,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eWhen Sundar Pichai introduces himself as the Chief Executive Officer of Alphabet Inc., most people have no idea what he is talking about. That changes when he mentions that \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/ai-advancements-at-google-i-o-event\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAlphabet is the owner\u003c/a\u003e of a little subsidiary company called Google.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India in 1972, Pinchai is the son of a stenographer and an electrical engineer. He went to public school in India and earned his first degree in metallurgical engineering from IIT Kharagpur, one of the country’s oldest colleges for engineering, established just a few years after India gained its independence in 1947.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe moved to the United States to attend Stanford University, obtaining a master’s of science degree in materials science and engineering, and adding an MBA from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania after that. He has said in interviews that the plane ticket from India to San Francisco to attend Stanford cost the equivalent of a year’s salary for his father, and that a backpack at the college cost as much as his father’s monthly wages.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe first worked in engineering and production management for Applied Materials, and later for McKinsey \u0026amp; Company before coming on board with Google in 2004.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was an immediate sensation inside the Internet behemoth, put in charge of many of Google’s software products, including the Chrome browser, the cloud storage app Google Drive, as well as modern standards including Google Maps and GMail. In 2009, he supervised a test of ChromeOS, which led to the development of the Chromebook. It was released in 2012. Google sold 1.76 million of the devices in 2013, and by 2020, was selling more than 30 million a year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was elevated to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/new-google-features-help-you-control-your-online-information\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eProduct Chief of Google\u003c/a\u003e that year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2014, Microsoft, Google’s chief rival in just about everything \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/google-chatbot-ai-coming-search\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecomputer-related\u003c/a\u003e , started courting Pichai to become its new CEO. He took his name of any consideration, citing loyalty to Google, and was rewarded barely a year later when he was promoted from Product Chief to the company’s new CEO on August 10, 2015. In 2019, Pichai was elevated again, from CEO of Google to CEO of Alphabet Inc., drawing a salary of more than $200 million per year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2018 and again in 2020, Pichai was called in front of the US Congress to testify on concerns about censorship on the Internet. In 2022, he was awarded the Padma Bhushan prize from the Indian government, the third-highest award that a civilian can receive.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePichai is married to Anjali Pichai, a former classmate at IIT Kharagpur. The couple has two children and lives in California.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"82:T107b,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eFew engineers of the software age compare to the genius of Kevin Systrom, who was passionate about computers from a young age and whose career as a very young man skyrocketed from one peak to the next as he created \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/instagram-is-working-on-an-ai-chatbot-leaked-images-reveal\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eInstagram\u003c/a\u003e, the photo-sharing social media website, and sold it within two years for a cool $1 billion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1983 in Massachusetts, Systrom’s mother is a marketing executive at Zipcar who had previously worked at Monster, and his father was a Vice President in Human Resources at TJX Companies. By the time he was at Middlesex School in Concord, Massachusetts, Systrom, he had found a passion in computers through the video game Doom 2, figuring out the game’s code and building his own levels from scratch.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter high school, Systrom headed to Stanford, where he studied management science and engineering. He was one of the top students in his class throughout his four years. After his third year, he was offered by no less than Mark Zuckerberg, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/history-of-facebook\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecreator of Facebook\u003c/a\u003e , to come work for him before even graduating. He turned down the offer to move to Florence, Italy, for a semester to study photography.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe didn’t miss a beat, however, as he returned to Stanford and was one of 12 students to be chosen for the Mayfield Fellows Program, designed to integrate students into high-tech opportunities as interns, giving them high-end training before graduating from college. Systrom’s fellowship got him an internship at Odeo in the summer of 2005. Odeo was in the business of finding RSS-sourced audio and video when Systrom worked there. A few years later, it spun off into Twitter.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHaving spurned Facebook and worked at the precursor to Twitter, Systrom continued his tour de force by taking a job at Google after graduation. Systrom’s brilliance quickly saw him working on multiple projects at Google, including Google Docs, Google Spreadsheets, Google Calendar, and Gmail. He quit after two years when he was not awarded a spot in the company’s Associate Product Manager program.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLike so many great entrepreneurs of the digital age, Systrom decided to leave the comfortable and explore the unknown. His first working prototype was called Burbn and he innovated it while on a vacation with his girlfriend. She didn’t like how she looked in photos and refused to post them online. Systrom’s idea was to create an app that used filters to enhance the quality of any photo. Within two weeks of showing the prototype, he had received $500,000 in seed funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis first model was deemed too complicated, however \u0026#8211; with gamification and ge-location features. His backers told him to simplify and he did, reducing Burbn down to a photo-sharing app that he renamed Instagram. To say it was an instant success was putting it mildly. More than 25,000 users signed up on the day of the launch, and by the end of the week, there were more than 100,000 registered users. Even more staggering, the platform hit 1 million registrations just 66 days after release.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/history-of-facebook\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eZuckerberg and Facebook\u003c/a\u003e missed on the opportunity to recruit Systrom a few years earlier, but didn’t miss again. In 2012, despite having just 13 employees, Instagram was bought by Facebook for $1 billion in cash and stock. Systrom negotiated a deal that earned him $400 million, but also allowed him to remain the leader of Instagram. He led the company for the next six years before stepping down in 2018 under unknown circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the time, Instagram was contributing $20 billion a year of revenue to Facebook. A reported clash between Systrom and Zuckerberg on the latter’s plans for Instagram appears to have been the cause. After laying low for four years, Systrom re-emerged in January 2023 with a new app called Artifact, designed to give users a personalized news feed based on AI.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"83:Td26,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eAn immigrant to the US who goes on to help build the largest company in the world. It’s a story right out of a made-for-TV movie that’s 100% true. Sergey Brin co-founded \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/google-first-step-1000-language-ai-model\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eGoogle\u003c/a\u003e with fellow engineer Larry Page and as of the writing of this book was one of the 10-wealthiest people in the world.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1973 in Moscow, Soviet Union, his father was a mathematician and his mother equally gifted. In 1977, his father returned from a conference in Poland and told the family that they needed to leave the Soviet Union and immigrate to the United States. With Communism still ruling the day, this was not a welcome move by the Russian government, and his parents were both fired from their jobs and made to wait eight months before leaving.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThey eventually lived in Vienna, and then Paris, until his father was hired to teach math at the University of Maryland. The family arrived in the US in late 1979 when Brin was six years old. He was naturally gifted in mathematics and took advanced-level classes, allowing him to graduate from the University of Maryland with an honors degree in computer science and math when he was just 19. He went on to pursue a graduate degree at Stanford University after receiving a graduate fellowship from the National Science Foundation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt new student orientation, Brin met fellow newcomer \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/larry-page\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLarry Page\u003c/a\u003e. They initially did not get along at all, but found that they had common interests and big ideas. The pair wrote a paper together called “The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine” with Brin specializing in how to develop systems to accurately mine large sets of data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSearch engines of the day were slow and inaccurate, with Yahoo, Excite, and Altavista the leaders in the industry. The pair created an algorithm they called PageRank that could analyze the backlinks of a website to see how many other links connected to that page and what pages they connected to. Page’s dorm room became their laboratory and Brin’s their office and test center. Their tests consumed so much bandwidth that Stanford’s nascent computer network began to have slowdowns because of their work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn August 1996, they launched the first version of Google onto the Stanford Web site under the name BackRub, which was Page’s initial project before the two started working together. By the two-year mark of its release, they were getting 10,000 searches per day. The two made the decision to drop out of school and start up Google in the garage of a friend, Susan Wojcicki, who wound up working for the company and marrying its director of product management, Dennis Troper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSince his mother was diagnosed with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/pinal-implant-parkinsons-patient-walk\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eParkinson’s disease\u003c/a\u003e in 2008, Brin has donated more than $1 billion to fund research. He has also invested in Space Adventures, a space tourism company.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBrin was the president of Google’s parent company Alphabet Inc. until 2019 but remains a controlling shareholder and board member.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"84:Tde1,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA two-time CEO of Google and its parent company Alphabet Inc, Page is one of the two original creators of the world’s most powerful search engine, having previously written a website called BackRub during his early years at Stanford University in the mid-1990s that brought about Google’s inception.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1973 in Lansing, Michigan, his father was a brilliant computer scientist himself, holding a PhD in the subject and being generally regarded as a pioneer in the field of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/the-three-types-of-artificial-intelligence-understanding-ai\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eartificial intelligence\u003c/a\u003e. His father was a professor at Michigan State University and his mother a computer programming instructor at the same school.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePage was immersed in computers and obsessed with reading as a child, and he also played multiple instruments and enjoyed musical composition. He claims to have been the first kid at his school to turn in an assignment written on a word processor. Page graduated from the University of Michigan in 1995 with a honors degree in computer engineering, where he built an inkjet printer out of Lego bricks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe went on to enroll in Stanford University to pursue a doctorate in computer science, where he met future Google co-creator Sergey Brin at new student orientation. Seeking a subject for a paper early on at Stanford, Page started exploring the math behind the World Wide Web and how web pages were linked together. He realized it was comparable to how academic papers were referenced in other academic papers. He and Brin combined to start a research project called BackRub in 1996, along with Scott Hassan, who wrote much of the code for the search engine. BackRub began crawling the web in March 1996 from Page’s own personal page on Stanford’s website.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first version of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/almost-everything-you-need-to-know-about-googles-history\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eGoogle\u003c/a\u003e, released onto Stanford’s site in August 1996 had indexed 75.2 million HTML URLs and downloaded 207 gigabytes of content. Needless to say, Stanford wasn’t particularly pleased with how much of its server space was being consumed by a single program. The two students registered the domain name google.com in September 1997 and incorporated the company a year later. By the end of 1998, Google had indexed 60 million pages. In 1999, Page and Brin tried to sell Google to Excite, a leading search engine of the day, for $1 million. Even after they lowered the price to $750,000, Excite CEO George Bell rejected the price. As of the time of this writing, Google was worth approximately $1.36 trillion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy June 2000, Google had indexed its 1 billionth URL.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs president of the company, Page made a lot of big changes, including refusing to let engineers be managed by non-engineers and that ‘ideas are more important than age.’ Page stepped down as CEO in 2001 and the company went public in 2004 with its IP, making Page a billionaire at age 30.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePage led the company’s acquisition of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/15-of-the-best-android-apps-for-engineers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAndroid\u003c/a\u003e for $50 million in 2005 that led to the company’s dive into the smartphone industry. Page returned as CEO in 2011. He shut down a lot of the company’s underperforming products and features over the next two years. He stepped down again in 2019.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"85:Tc5f,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eEli Whitney believed that his revolutionary cotton gin would help bring about the end to slavery in the United States. Regrettably, it actually helped keep slavery going for four decades after his death, but also helped usher in the Industrial Revolution in the United States and made cotton into one of the most important exports in the Southern United States for decades.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn to a farmer who bore his same name in Westborough, Massachusetts, in 1765, Whitney’s mother passed away when he was 11. When the Revolutionary War broke out, young Whitney went to work with his father in a workshop and wound up running a nail manufacturing operation on his own. His stepmother strongly encouraged him to seek a college education, which he did only after saving up money to attend while working as a farmer and teacher.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Yale University. He expected to study to become a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/ai-vs-lawyers-the-future-of-artificial-intelligence-and-law\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003elawyer\u003c/a\u003e but a lack of funds saw him move to the US South to become a private tutor. He was due to work in South Carolina, but the ship he sailed on also contained the widow and family of Revolutionary War hero Nathaniel Greene. The Greenes invited him to visit their plantation where he met his future business partner Phineas Miller, another New England native who had graduated Yale. With a partner and a place to work, Whitney used his education to start experimenting. In 1793, he perfected the cotton gin, which could remove the seeds from \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/video/raw-cotton-turned-into-clothes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ebales of cotton\u003c/a\u003e, something that had previously been done by hand and took forever.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe machine had hooks that pulled the cotton through a mesh that the seeds would not fit through. It could clean up to 55 pounds of cotton per day and he received a patent for it in 1794. Whitney did not originally plan to sell the gins, but rather to charge plantations a fee to clean their cotton. This did not go over well, and once other inventors were able to patent different models with slight differences, Whitney’s company went out of business in 1797.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhitney didn\u0026#8217;t make a lot of money off the invention, but it did make him famous and make cotton incredibly profitable. He followed up that endeavor by taking a contract to manufacture muskets in 1798 despite having never made a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-first-smart-gun\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003egun\u003c/a\u003e in his entire life. The US government feared a war with France and in 1801, Whitney designed his with interchangeable parts, allowing him to charge the government a higher price because he was saving them money on insurance and having to replace those parts down the line.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1817, he married Henrietta Edwards. Whitney died of prostate cancer in 1825 in New Haven, Connecticut. Yale honors him yearly with the Eli Whitney Students Program, which brings a select number of non-traditional students to the campus.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"86:T2f41,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMarvin Lee Minsky, born on August 9, 1927, in New York City, forever changed computer science by co-founding the field of artificial intelligence (AI). Through his work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Minsky helped guide AI research from its early stages of neural networks to advanced theories on how the human mind might be computationally emulated. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAlong the way, he invented devices that influenced both microscopy and robotics, published influential books on perception and cognition, and shaped the imaginations of countless scientists, engineers, and thinkers. His 1969 Turing Award recognized him as one of the most formidable forces in early AI, affirming his role as an innovator and thought leader.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMarvin Minsky was born into a Jewish family in New York City. His father, Henry, was an eye surgeon, and his mother, Fannie (Reiser) Minsky, was an active Zionist. Encouraged toward intellectual pursuits from a young age, Minsky developed a fascination with the sciences and mathematics during his time at the Ethical Culture Fieldston School, the Bronx High School of Science, and Phillips Academy in Andover.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter serving briefly in the U.S. Navy from 1944 to 1945, Minsky enrolled at Harvard University, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts in mathematics in 1950. He then went on to Princeton University, completing his Ph.D. in mathematics in 1954. His dissertation, titled \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTheory of Neural-Analog Reinforcement Systems and Its Application to the Brain-Model Problem\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e, marked his first major foray into what would eventually become artificial intelligence research.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDuring his graduate studies, Minsky was a Junior Fellow of the Harvard Society of Fellows (1954–1957). This prestigious appointment allowed him the freedom to explore emerging fields in computation and cognition. By the time he completed his formal education, Minsky had already begun forming radical ideas about machine intelligence that set him apart from many of his contemporaries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePath to AI and the MIT years\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1958, Minsky joined MIT’s faculty, working initially with the staff at MIT Lincoln Laboratory. Within a year, he partnered with John McCarthy—another pioneer of AI—to form what would later become the MIT \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/get-inspired-by-these-computer-engineers-success-stories\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eComputer Science\u003c/a\u003e and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL). This collaboration laid a critical foundation for AI research, not just at MIT but globally.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky believed that the human mind could be understood in computational terms. He pushed to replicate facets of intelligence—such as learning, pattern recognition, and problem-solving—within machines. His approach was interdisciplinary, blending mathematics, psychology, and engineering. Colleagues and students often described him as a fearless thinker who was unafraid to tackle foundational questions about how knowledge is represented and processed.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eKey contributions and invention\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNeural Networks and Warly AI Machines: In 1951, Minsky built SNARC, which is considered one of the earliest \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/neuromorphic-computing-neural-networks-hardware\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eneurocomputers\u003c/a\u003e, and incorporated a neural network-based learning machine. Around the same time, he developed frameworks for understanding how simple, randomly wired neural networks might adapt over time.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eConfocal microscope: In 1957, Minsky patented a device that served as a precursor to the confocal laser scanning microscope. It used a focused beam of light and a pinhole filter to eliminate out-of-focus light, improving the clarity of images under a microscope. Although the technology was ahead of its time and not initially commercialized, it paved the way for modern confocal microscopy, which is widely used in biology and materials science.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHead-mounted display: \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1963, Minsky is credited with inventing one of the earliest head-mounted graphical displays. While such devices were primitive by modern standards, they hinted at the potential for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/what-is-virtual-reality-heres-everything-you-need-to-know\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003evirtual reality\u003c/a\u003e, augmented reality, and immersive computing environments.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons and the AI Winter: \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky co-authored \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1969) with Seymour Papert, scrutinizing the capabilities and limitations of neural networks of the time. Many have argued that the book’s critical view of perceptrons inadvertently slowed neural network research in subsequent decades, contributing to the so-called “AI winter.” However, the insights in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e remain historically significant and provide a basis for more rigorous analysis of machine learning models.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLogo Turtle: Alongside Papert, Minsky helped develop the earliest “turtles” used in the Logo \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/top-10-programming-languages-for-engineers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eprogramming language\u003c/a\u003e, teaching children concepts of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/how-fault-geometry-predict-earthquake\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003egeometry \u003c/a\u003eand computation. These small robots could draw on the floor or screen, providing a hands-on learning approach that laid the groundwork for modern educational robotics.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eKnowledge Representation: Minsky’s seminal paper, “A Framework for Representing Knowledge,” introduced the concept of frames, which served as a structure for how machines could hold and interpret knowledge about the world. This work laid the foundation for later semantic network and expert systems developments.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eSociety of Mind and The \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/model-computer-understand-human-emotions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eEmotion\u003c/a\u003e Machine: Minsky’s broad conceptual framework to explain cognition culminated in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Society of Mind\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1986). He proposed that intelligence could emerge from many small, unintelligent “agents” working in coordination. In \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Emotion Machine\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (2006), he continued exploring how emotional states and higher cognitive functions might integrate within an AI system, challenging simplistic ideas about how feelings and thoughts might be coded.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePersonal life and influence on culture\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky married pediatrician Gloria Rudisch in 1952, and the couple had three children. Beyond his professional life, Minsky was an accomplished improvisational pianist, reflecting the creativity that also fueled his AI research. He was famously curious about every aspect of knowledge, from physics to music, and often encouraged broad thinking among his graduate students.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePop culture references to Minsky abound. He served as an adviser on Stanley Kubrick’s \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e2001: A \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/2001-a-space-odysseys-creator-arthur-c-clarke-and-his-visionary-works\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eSpace Odyssey\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e, shaping the portrayal of HAL 9000. Arthur C. Clarke’s novel version of \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e explicitly references Minsky’s breakthroughs as laying the groundwork for advanced artificial intelligence. His “useless machine,” designed to switch itself off immediately after being switched on, has appeared in television shows and remains a whimsical staple in electronics demos, illustrating philosophical ideas about automation and purpose.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eControversies and later years\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky’s strong opinions sometimes placed him at odds with other AI researchers. His critique of neural networks spurred decades of debate, although the field eventually rebounded with improved computing power and new algorithms. Late in his career, Minsky explored questions regarding superintelligent AI. He saw the potential dangers if machines rapidly surpassed human intelligence but considered it likely that rigorous testing would occur before unleashing any irreversible \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/artificial-general-intelligence-understanding-future-ai\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAI systems\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite occasional controversies, Minsky continued his work at MIT until his death. He remained steadfast in his belief that a thorough computational understanding of the mind could lead to machines replicating or surpassing human capabilities. Minsky was recognized not only for his theoretical work but for forming entire research agendas that taught future generations how to think about cognition, creativity, and reason in computational terms.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLegacy and recognition\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky received the 1969 Turing Award, the highest honor in computer science, for his contributions to AI. Among his other accolades were the Japan Prize (1990), the Benjamin Franklin Medal (2001), the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (2013), and membership in prestigious organizations like the U.S. National Academy of Engineering. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2006, he was inducted as a Fellow of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/15-most-significant-milestones-in-the-history-of-the-computer\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eComputer History\u003c/a\u003e Museum for his role in co-founding AI and advancing neural networks, robotics, and theories of cognition.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond official honors, Minsky’s legacy lies in the countless students, researchers, and technologists who took up his vision. His graduate students, like Manuel Blum, Seymour Papert, and Patrick Winston, established significant branches of modern AI research. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis theories on the structure of knowledge, intelligence, and emotion remain vital in current explorations of machine learning, cognitive science, and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/entertainment/top-humanoid-robots-list\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003erobotics\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky died on January 24, 2016, at the age of 88 due to a cerebral hemorrhage. Although no longer alive, his influence persists across AI, robotics, educational technology, and philosophical debates about the nature of the mind. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis works, both technical and popular, continue to inspire new ways to understand intelligence, and while bridging mathematics, psychology, and engineering, Marvin Minsky laid the intellectual bedrock on which much of modern AI is built.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"87:Tc11,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eHas a more talented human ever lived in the entire history of mankind? It is hard to imagine one more accomplished in so many areas than \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/the-inventions-of-leonardo-da-vinci-genius-inspired-by-nature\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLeonardo di ser Piero da Vinci\u003c/a\u003e, who was born in April 1452. He is famous for his work as an engineer, scientist, sculptor, architect, painter, theorist, and draftsman, and is widely considered the progenitor of the High Renaissance period of art. He painted both The Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, both of which can lay claim as being the most famous paintings in the world for centuries after they were completed. At the age of 14, he became an apprentice for Andrea del Verrocchio, a famous sculptor who had himself studied at the feet of the great Donatello. In the workshop, he wasn’t just exposed to brushes, paint, and clay, but also to chemistry, metal and woodworking, mechanics, and drafting, subjects that would allow him to show the world sights that it had never seen before.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePerhaps the most vexing part of Leonardo’s genius as an \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/mit-proves-da-vincis-longest-bridge-design-of-500-years-ago-would-have-worked\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eengineer and an inventor\u003c/a\u003e is that his creations rarely left the page, and if they did, they never made it past the experimental phase. Leonardo did not see much of a difference between science and art, believing both to be equal creations of his mind and just as beautiful to see come to life on paper. Throughout his lifetime, he wrote more than 13,000 pages of notes compiling his inventions, his observations, his creations, and drawings of things that didn’t yet exist. He was the first to propose the idea of a gated canal with a sluice gate, which would allow the city of Florence to have access to the sea. While it was not built in Leonardo’s time, the bridge eventually became the inspiration for the Panama Canal. Other ideas that he envisioned but never created included bending wooden beams into arches on bridges, using a flywheel and a crank to develop a steam engine, and even early designs of a mechanical man, or for lack of a better word, a robot that emulated the joints and muscles of the human body.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis plans came to fruition largely for the good of his city, coming in the form of city engineering and military might. He worked in the count of Ludovico Sforza, who ruled over the city of Milan and was attempting to keep people as safe as possible in public after an outbreak of the plague. Da Vinci designed extra-wide streets in new townships throughout the regions so people had more space to go about their business. He spent an additional 17 years working in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-of-the-most-advanced-military-robots-in-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emilitary engineering\u003c/a\u003e, designing weapons and defenses for the rules of his city as there were frequent battles and changes in leadership.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"88:T121d,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia of Alexandria, born around 350 to 370 AD, was an eminent Neoplatonist philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer who resided in Alexandria, Egypt, then a vibrant cultural capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer father, Theon of Alexandria, himself a prominent scholar and the last known member of the Mouseion, was instrumental in her upbringing, fostering an environment enriched with intellectual pursuits. He is most celebrated for his definitive edition of Euclid\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;Elements,\u0026#8221; which remained the principal resource for teaching geometry for centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia\u0026#8217;s education under her father\u0026#8217;s guidance was comprehensive, enabling her to contribute significantly to the fields of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/space\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eastronomy\u003c/a\u003e and mathematics. She emerged as a leading figure in the Neoplatonist school in Alexandria, where she taught philosophy and astronomy. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer instruction was so renowned that students traveled from across the Mediterranean to learn from her. She authored detailed commentaries on Diophantus’s “Arithmetica” and Apollonius\u0026#8217;s treatise on conic sections, though much of her written work has unfortunately been lost to history. Furthermore, she is credited with editing part of Ptolemy’s “Almagest,” specifically Book III, enhancing the text with her mathematical expertise.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond academia, Hypatia invented devices such as the plane astrolabe and hydrometer, though she did not originate these technologies, she significantly improved upon the designs and their instructional utility in her teachings. Her public lectures often included demonstrations of these devices, illustrating complex astronomical and physical concepts to broader audiences.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia’s \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/greatest-women-in-stem\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eintellectual\u003c/a\u003e prowess granted her significant moral and political influence in Alexandria. She became an advisor to Orestes, the Roman prefect, navigating the tumultuous political scenarios that were often marked by sectarian conflict between Christians and non-Christians. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis involvement, however, also led to her undoing. In the year 415 AD, during a period of intense political rivalry between Orestes and Cyril, the Christian bishop of Alexandria, Hypatia was falsely accused of exacerbating religious tensions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer death was brutal and marked by profound injustice. Seized by a mob of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/christian-basilica-in-aquileia-found\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eChristian\u003c/a\u003e zealots, she was murdered in a manner that shocked the city and the wider empire. This act was not just a personal tragedy but symbolized a seismic shift in the cultural and religious environment of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/hero-of-alexandria\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAlexandria \u003c/a\u003efrom a realm of pluralistic inquiry towards a more dogmatically Christian environment.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn the aftermath of her murder, Hypatia became enshrined as a symbol of intellectual integrity and the pursuit of truth. During the Enlightenment, she was glorified as a martyr of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-why-engineers-should-learn-philosophy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ephilosophy\u003c/a\u003e, representing opposition to the suppression of scientific thought by religious orthodoxy. In modern times, she is seen as a precursor to feminist movements, advocating for the role of women in academia and society.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer legacy has been both celebrated and mythologized, influencing a wide range of literary and artistic endeavors. From the 19th-century novels that romanticized her life to the 2009 film \u0026#8220;Agora,\u0026#8221; which portrayed her as a martyr of science against the backdrop of religious fanaticism, Hypatia remains a figure of enduring fascination and inspiration. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThrough her story, Hypatia continues to embody the timeless struggle for knowledge and the freedom to inquire, crucial principles that resonate across centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"89:Tb36,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA truly remarkable mind who rose to become a great aid to the United States Navy, Benjamin Bradley was born a slave in Maryland in 1830. His real name was Boardley, but it was spelled wrong in an 1850s publication and never corrected. As a slave born 35 years before the US Civil War freed him, it seemed extremely unlikely that he would have the opportunity to get an education, much less create something unique and original. It is believed that he learned to read and write from the children of his ‘owner’, John T. Hammond. With slavery policies somewhat more lenient in the North than the South leading up to the Civil War, Bradley worked as a teenager in a printing office where he showed impressive aptitude for mechanical abilities and for learning new things swiftly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt age 16, he used a gun barrel, steel, pewter, and a few other materials to build a small steam engine by hand. Hammond saw the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/the-20-greatest-engineers-of-all-time\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eimpressive potential\u003c/a\u003e and got him a job a t the Naval Academy in nearby Annapolis as a helper in the Department of Natural and Experimental Philosophy. He was paid for his work, but all the money went straight to Hammond who allowed Bradley to keep just $5 a month. As a helper, his main job was to help set up experiments, but the professors quickly noticed some of his talents and started letting him have more freedom to encourage his abilities. He responded by building another steam engine that he sold to a Naval student. With the money he had saved up from his job and the money he made selling the engine, he built a much bigger one, large enough to power a small boat called a sloop-of-war cutter to a speed of up to 16 knots (18 miles per hour). A cutter was a small boat carried by a larger warship that measured around 25-30 feet in length. While the sloop-of-war would have up to 18 guns on its deck, its cutters could be launched to quickly get to shore for a land attack or to board other boats to engage in hand-to-hand combat. A cutter with a powerful engine could be the deciding factor in many battles as it limited time for the enemy to prepare to be boarded or to defend a position.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs a slave, Bradley was forbidden from acquiring a patent for his design. But he sold the engine and also had money donated to him by professors at the Academy, giving him the chance to buy his own freedom for $1,000, the equivalent of $36,500 today. When the Civil War broke out, the Naval Academy moved farther north from Annapolis to Newport, Rhode Island, and Bradley was employed by the academy as a freeman. There, he continued to build steam engines for ships and by 1864 had become a professor in the Philosophical Department. He later got married and had three children, passing away at age 74 in 1904.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"8a:Tb36,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA truly remarkable mind who rose to become a great aid to the United States Navy, Benjamin Bradley was born a slave in Maryland in 1830. His real name was Boardley, but it was spelled wrong in an 1850s publication and never corrected. As a slave born 35 years before the US Civil War freed him, it seemed extremely unlikely that he would have the opportunity to get an education, much less create something unique and original. It is believed that he learned to read and write from the children of his ‘owner’, John T. Hammond. With slavery policies somewhat more lenient in the North than the South leading up to the Civil War, Bradley worked as a teenager in a printing office where he showed impressive aptitude for mechanical abilities and for learning new things swiftly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt age 16, he used a gun barrel, steel, pewter, and a few other materials to build a small steam engine by hand. Hammond saw the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/the-20-greatest-engineers-of-all-time\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eimpressive potential\u003c/a\u003e and got him a job a t the Naval Academy in nearby Annapolis as a helper in the Department of Natural and Experimental Philosophy. He was paid for his work, but all the money went straight to Hammond who allowed Bradley to keep just $5 a month. As a helper, his main job was to help set up experiments, but the professors quickly noticed some of his talents and started letting him have more freedom to encourage his abilities. He responded by building another steam engine that he sold to a Naval student. With the money he had saved up from his job and the money he made selling the engine, he built a much bigger one, large enough to power a small boat called a sloop-of-war cutter to a speed of up to 16 knots (18 miles per hour). A cutter was a small boat carried by a larger warship that measured around 25-30 feet in length. While the sloop-of-war would have up to 18 guns on its deck, its cutters could be launched to quickly get to shore for a land attack or to board other boats to engage in hand-to-hand combat. A cutter with a powerful engine could be the deciding factor in many battles as it limited time for the enemy to prepare to be boarded or to defend a position.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs a slave, Bradley was forbidden from acquiring a patent for his design. But he sold the engine and also had money donated to him by professors at the Academy, giving him the chance to buy his own freedom for $1,000, the equivalent of $36,500 today. When the Civil War broke out, the Naval Academy moved farther north from Annapolis to Newport, Rhode Island, and Bradley was employed by the academy as a freeman. There, he continued to build steam engines for ships and by 1864 had become a professor in the Philosophical Department. He later got married and had three children, passing away at age 74 in 1904.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"8b:T145a,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eSurely the most famous brothers in history, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/wright-brothers-and-their-first-powered-controlled-flight\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eOrville \u0026amp; Wilbur Wright\u003c/a\u003e were the first humans to ever take to the skies and sustain flight, leading to a total reinvention of the way man moves from place to place, the way that business works, and the way that exploration, of our world, and all the worlds above us, takes place.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot twins, as is often thought, Wilbur was born in 1867 in Millville, Indiana, and Orville born in 1871 in Dayton, Ohio. They were two of the Wright family’s seven children. Their mother was descended from the Vanderbilt family, one of the richest in US history. Their father was a bishop. They moved 12 times in their childhood before settling in Dayton.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1878, their father delivered them a toy helicopter that was a foot long, made of simple components \u0026#8211; cork, bamboo, and paper, with a rubber band to propel it. They eventually broke it, then conspired to build their own, later remarking that it was the helicopter that got them interested in flying on their own. A hockey accident kept WIlbur from attending Yale. Orville dropped out of school to start a printing business after the two brothers had built a printing press together. They printed a weekly newspaper called the Dayton Tattler for a time, owned by Paul Laurence Dunbar, an African-American friend who later became a famous writer and poet.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA few years later, the two shifted gears and opened a bicycle repair shop to capitalize on the growing bicycle craze across the country. By 1896, they had patented and built their own brand of bicycle, and it sold well enough that they started talking more and more about their passion for aircraft that dated back to childhood.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1899, Wilbur displayed a heightened level of assertiveness when corresponding with the Smithsonian Institute, seeking information about aeronautics. They were undeterred when a group of top minds testing gliders saw one of their brightest killed in an accident over Lake Michigan. The accidents in the industry convinced them that the pilot needed more control. They studied the mannerisms of birds and how they change their \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/airplane-history-from-icarus-to-the-wright-brothers-and-beyond\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eangles with their wings\u003c/a\u003e \u0026#8211; banking and leaning, not unlike a person on a bicycle. In 1899, they built a biplane kite about 5 feet across and began testing manned glides in 1900 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. They built their gliders progressively bigger, to a wingspan of 32 feet in 1902.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThat year, they made close to a thousand flights of their glider, with the longest being about 600 feet over the course of 26 seconds. In March 1903, they applied for a patent for their glider, which became the patent for the first airplane. That same year they built the Wright Flyer out of spruce. The engine was made by a mechanic named Charlie Taylor. The engine was made out of aluminum to keep it from weighing too much.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn December 17, 1903, the brothers each made two flights of more than 100 feet into a wind of 27 miles per hour. Orville took the first flight, traveling 120 feet at a speed of 6.8 miles per hour 10 feet off the ground. Wilbur’s last flight of the day was the big one as he flew 852 feet in 59 seconds with five witnesses. A powerful wind grabbed the craft as they tried to carry it home, and it never flew again. Their next model, the Wright Flyer II, flown by Wilbur, flew 2-3⁄4 miles in about 5 minutes in November of 1904.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1905, their third model stayed aloft for 38 minutes and flew 24.5 miles. Because of their secrecy in the flights, the brothers were doubted by everyone from the media to European competitors to the US government. They eventually signed deals with the US Army and a French syndicate to produce airplanes for both.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen they flew over Paris in 1908, a stunned crowd greeted them like conquering heroes and made them world famous five years after their first flight. They established the world’s first \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/ba-flight-drone-collision-risk\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eflight\u003c/a\u003e school in France in 1909. When they returned to the US, they traveled to the White House to meet President William Taft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThey incorporated the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/ie-originals/engineering-origins/season-1/ep-1-how-two-bicycle-mechanics-defied-gravity\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWright Company\u003c/a\u003e that same year and became among the richest men on the planet. Wilbur fell ill in 1912 and died of typhoid fever at age 45. Orville took over as president of the Wright Company after his brother’s death, later selling the company but serving on the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) for almost three decades. In 1944, he flew with Howard Hughes and Jack Frye on the Lockheed Constellation, which was the first civilian plane with a pressurized cabin. Orville passed away at age 76 in 1948.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"8c:Td0c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIn the heart of Lahore, British India, in the year 1910, a child was born who would one day unravel the mysteries of the universe.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSubrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, later known as Chandra, grew up to become a legendary figure in the realm of theoretical physics. Chandra\u0026#8217;s insatiable curiosity and passion for knowledge led him from the bustling streets of Lahore to the academic corridors of Madras (present-day Chennai), India.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere, at Presidency College, he delved deep into the mysteries of physics, earning his bachelor\u0026#8217;s degree. But his thirst for understanding could not be quenched within the confines of India. So, he set his sights on the esteemed University of Cambridge, where he pursued his PhD, immersing himself in the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/axion-particle-could-reveal-first-second-of-the-universe\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecomplexities of the universe\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUpon completing his education, Chandra ventured across the oceans to the United States, where he embarked on a remarkable journey at the University of Chicago. His brilliance shone brightly as he made groundbreaking contributions to astrophysics. Alongside his colleague William A. Fowler, he was honored with the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for their profound theoretical studies on the structure and evolution of stars.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChandra\u0026#8217;s legacy was defined by his pioneering work on stellar evolution, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/astronomers-observe-white-dwarf-star-transforming-into-massive-celestial-diamond\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ewhite dwarfs\u003c/a\u003e , stellar dynamics, radiative transfer, and quantum theory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of his most significant achievements was the establishment of the Chandrasekhar limit, a crucial concept defining the maximum mass a white dwarf star can bear before its cataclysmic fate. Yet, Chandra\u0026#8217;s path was not without challenges. A fierce scientific dispute with Arthur Eddington tested his resolve. Undeterred, he stood firm, and his groundbreaking theory was eventually validated and embraced by the scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the midst of World War II, Chandra applied his intellect to the field of ballistics research, contributing to wartime efforts. His expertise in various domains, from \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/solar-wind-sun-space-weather\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esolar wind\u003c/a\u003e to gravitational waves, marked him as an unparalleled scientific mind. Throughout his life, Chandra held steadfast to his rigorous approach to research, emphasizing systematization in his scientific pursuits. His influence extended far beyond his discoveries, touching the lives of numerous students and collaborators who were inspired by his dedication. In 1995, at the University of Chicago Hospital, Chandrasekhar\u0026#8217;s brilliant mind was dimmed by a sudden heart attack, marking the end of an era in the world of astrophysics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRemarkably, he had already survived a heart attack two decades earlier, a testament to his resilience and determination. Chandrasekhar may have left this world, but his legacy endured—a legacy of groundbreaking research and contributions that illuminated the darkest corners of the universe, leaving an indelible mark on the world of astrophysics.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"8d:T975,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eImran Chaudhri, a designer with British-American heritage, significantly influenced Apple\u0026#8217;s design landscape during his tenure spanning from 1995 to 2017.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in London, in 1973, his noteworthy accomplishments encompass the design of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/ai-features-offered-new-apple-products\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003evarious products\u003c/a\u003e, including the Mac, iPod, iPhone, iPad, Apple TV, Apple Watch, AirPods, and HomePod. Chaudhri played a crucial role in shaping the interface of the original iPhone, introducing a touch-based design that replaced traditional buttons with intuitive gestures. His inventive spirit is evident in multiple Apple patents, particularly those related to touch screens\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChaudhri was integral to the team that introduced the grid of square app icons on the iPhone\u0026#8217;s home screen, providing a user-friendly system for organizing and rearranging functions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite his impactful contributions, his departure from Apple in 2017 was sudden and unforeseen, as he was terminated a month before his scheduled exit following the transmission of a departure email. Post-Apple, Chaudhri, in collaboration with his wife Bethany Bongiorno, established \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/humane-ai-wearable-potential-iphone-killer\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eHumane, a technology company\u003c/a\u003e headquartered in San Francisco.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHumane seeks to challenge the conventional smartphone paradigm, as evidenced by their recent innovation—a diminutive \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/ex-apple-employees-humane-ai-pin\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAI Pin\u003c/a\u003e that magnetically adheres to clothing, purporting to replace the traditional smartphone. Priced at $699, this alternative device is marketed as an all-day wearable solution. Chaudhri\u0026#8217;s choice to venture into entrepreneurship with Humane reflects his aspiration to pursue fresh ambitions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHumane, shrouded in secrecy until recently, secured $230 million in funding from prominent investors, including OpenAI CEO Sam Altman, Salesforce CEO Marc Benioff, Microsoft, and the venture arms of LG, Volvo, and Qualcomm. With a valuation of $850 million, Chaudhri\u0026#8217;s startup aims to disrupt the smartphone industry through its innovative wearable technology, posing a challenge to established players like Apple.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"8e:T14fc,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBorn on May 26, 1951, in Los Angeles, California, Sally Kristen Ride became the first American woman in space and served as a flight engineer. She grew up in a family deeply rooted in community service, with both parents active as elders in the Presbyterian Church. Her father, a World War II U.S. Army veteran, later became a political science professor at Santa Monica College, and her mother worked as a volunteer counselor, providing a foundation of service and intellectual pursuit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRide\u0026#8217;s academic journey began at home but quickly advanced as she entered public schooling in Los Angeles. She developed a passion for tennis and was coached by Alice Marble, a former world number one player, at age 10. By 12, Ride was a promising tennis player, ranked number 20 for her age group in Southern California. Her tennis prowess earned her a scholarship to the exclusive Westlake School for Girls in Los Angeles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1968, Ride graduated from high school and briefly attended Swarthmore College on a full scholarship, driven by her academic interests and tennis skills. However, missing California and seeing limited support for women\u0026#8217;s tennis at Swarthmore, she returned to her home state.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe transferred to Stanford University, where she fully embraced the sciences. At Stanford, Ride earned a Bachelor of Science in Physics and a Bachelor of Arts in English Literature in 1973. She pursued further studies at Stanford, obtaining a Master of Science in Physics in 1975 and a Ph.D. in Physics in 1978.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer dissertation focused on the interaction of X-rays with the interstellar medium, a topic foundational to her future work at NASA. Her passion for science and physical activity was a blend of mental acuity and physical endurance that would characterize her contributions to space exploration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSally Ride joined NASA in 1978 as part of Astronaut Group 8, the first class that included women. This marked the beginning of her groundbreaking career in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/beyond-sally-ride-women-of-the-worlds-space-programs\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003espace exploration\u003c/a\u003e. After rigorous training, Ride first served as CapCom (capsule communicator) for the second and third Space Shuttle flights, showcasing her expertise by working on the development of the Space Shuttle\u0026#8217;s robotic arm.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn June 1983, Ride made history by becoming the first American woman to travel to space aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger on the STS-7 mission. During this mission, she operated the robotic arm to deploy and retrieve the Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS-1), conducting experiments that contributed significantly to our understanding of space and satellite technology. Her second space flight was on the STS-41-G mission in 1984, and she was also aboard Challenger, where she continued to break new ground by spending over 343 hours in space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter leaving NASA in 1987, Ride took her expertise to the academic world, spending two years at Stanford University\u0026#8217;s Center for International Security and Arms Control. She then moved to the University of California, San Diego, where she researched nonlinear optics and Thomson scattering. Throughout her post-NASA career, Ride remained a leading figure in space science education and public outreach, contributing to the investigations of both the Challenger and Columbia space shuttle disasters and being the only person to participate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRide\u0026#8217;s legacy is marked by her spaceflight achievements and her commitment to science education, inspiring countless young people, especially girls, to pursue careers in STEM. Ride\u0026#8217;s profound impact on space exploration and science education is honored through numerous accolades and memorials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRide, the first known \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/27-most-successful-lgbt-entrepreneurs-executives-and-opinion-leaders\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLGBT\u003c/a\u003e astronaut, received the Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously in 2013, presented to her partner, Tam O’Shaughnessy. The United States Navy named a research vessel, the RV Sally Ride, in her honor, marking the first time a research fleet vessel was named after a woman scientist. Ride’s legacy extends into educational outreach, directing NASA’s GRAIL mission programs, which involved middle school students in active science learning through satellite imaging of the moon.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer commitment to education and science is memorialized in various forms, including naming elementary schools and establishing the Sally Ride Science at UC San Diego. In recognition of her contributions, Ride has been inducted into the National Women\u0026#8217;s Hall of Fame and the Astronaut Hall of Fame.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, her influence is commemorated with statues, including one at the Cradle of Aviation Museum and another at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. Notably, Ride was featured on U.S. currency in the American \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/nasa-sally-ride-first-female-astronaut-on-us-quarter\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWomen quarters series\u003c/a\u003e, becoming the first known LGBT person to appear on U.S. currency, and was honored with a Google Doodle on her 64th birthday, which was reused again on International Women’s Day.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"8f:T1718,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLillian Moller Gilbreth, born on May 24, 1878, in Oakland, California, was a pioneer in industrial management and psychology. The eldest of nine surviving children in a builder’s supply merchant family, she excelled academically from a young age, advancing rapidly through public school grades.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite her father’s initial opposition to higher education for women, Lillian persuaded him to let her attend the University of California. After excelling in her first year, she continued her studies, balancing academic commitments with helping her family at home. 1900 she graduated and became the first woman to deliver a commencement speech at the University of California. Her speech titled \u0026#8220;Life: A Means or an End\u0026#8221; emphasized the importance of purposeful engagement in life.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eFollowing graduation, Lillian moved to New York City to pursue a Ph.D. at Columbia University, adopting the name Lillian as a mark of her professional aspirations. Her studies were briefly interrupted by a European tour in 1903, after which she married Frank Bunker Gilbreth in 1904 and settled in New York. Together, they pioneered new industrial management techniques and raised a large family of twelve children, eleven of whom reached adulthood. Lillian’s career blended groundbreaking professional achievements with a robust family life, setting a precedent for future generations of working professionals.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLillian Moller Gilbreth\u0026#8217;s career spanned over four decades, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/should-you-consider-a-career-in-engineering-psychology\"\u003emerging psychology\u003c/a\u003e with scientific management and engineering, significantly impacting industrial and organizational psychology. She pioneered introducing psychological aspects into scientific management, making her the first American engineer to synthesize both disciplines. This innovative approach was first introduced during the Dartmouth College Conference on Scientific Management 1911.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eGilbreth co-managed Gilbreth, Incorporated, an engineering and management consulting firm, with her husband, Frank. The couple co-authored numerous books and papers, although Lillian often wasn\u0026#8217;t named due to gender biases at the time. Their work extended beyond just theories, critiquing and building upon Frederick Winslow Taylor\u0026#8217;s scientific management principles, especially in addressing the human elements of workplace management.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter Frank Gilbreth died in 1924, Lillian faced challenges maintaining their business as some clients withdrew their contracts. Nonetheless, she persevered, leading their firm and advancing the field of time and motion studies. The Gilbreths used motion-picture cameras to analyze work processes, enhancing worker efficiency and reducing fatigue, a precursor to modern ergonomics.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLillian’s research extended to home economics after Frank\u0026#8217;s death; she aimed to simplify household tasks to empower women to pursue careers outside the home. Her contributions led to innovations like the foot-pedal trash can and improvements in kitchen design, including the efficient \u0026#8220;work triangle\u0026#8221; layout.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite facing discrimination, Lillian continued to consult for major corporations and shifted her focus toward public service and education in later years. She was a consultant to the Girl Scouts and government agencies, using her expertise to influence policies on unemployment relief and women in the workforce during and after the Great Depression.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAs an educator, Lillian taught at Purdue University, becoming the first female engineering professor in the United States, and continued to lecture widely, influencing generations of engineers and managers. She retired in 1948 but remained active in lecturing, shaping engineering education and management practices until later.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLillian Moller Gilbreth passed away from a stroke on January 2, 1972, in Phoenix, Arizona, at the age of ninety-three. Renowned as \u0026#8220;America\u0026#8217;s first lady of engineering,\u0026#8221; her work expertly integrated psychology with scientific management to enhance industrial efficiency and productivity.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eGilbreth\u0026#8217;s significant academic contributions include her seminal text, \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Psychology of Management\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1914), one of the first works to blend psychology with management theory. Her professional papers and memorabilia are preserved at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History and Purdue University, which are major repositories for her contributions to the field.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer legacy continues through several prestigious awards named in her honor, including the National Academy of Engineering\u0026#8217;s Lillian M. Gilbreth Lectureships and the Institute of Industrial Engineers\u0026#8217; Frank and Lillian Gilbreth Industrial Engineering Award. Her life and contributions were popularized in the book \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eCheaper by the Dozen\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e and its film adaptations, highlighting her role in developing efficient household and industrial systems.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2018, Purdue University established the Lillian Gilbreth Postdoctoral Fellowship Program to support aspiring engineers, cementing her enduring influence on the engineering and management professions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"90:T1718,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLillian Moller Gilbreth, born on May 24, 1878, in Oakland, California, was a pioneer in industrial management and psychology. The eldest of nine surviving children in a builder’s supply merchant family, she excelled academically from a young age, advancing rapidly through public school grades.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite her father’s initial opposition to higher education for women, Lillian persuaded him to let her attend the University of California. After excelling in her first year, she continued her studies, balancing academic commitments with helping her family at home. 1900 she graduated and became the first woman to deliver a commencement speech at the University of California. Her speech titled \u0026#8220;Life: A Means or an End\u0026#8221; emphasized the importance of purposeful engagement in life.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eFollowing graduation, Lillian moved to New York City to pursue a Ph.D. at Columbia University, adopting the name Lillian as a mark of her professional aspirations. Her studies were briefly interrupted by a European tour in 1903, after which she married Frank Bunker Gilbreth in 1904 and settled in New York. Together, they pioneered new industrial management techniques and raised a large family of twelve children, eleven of whom reached adulthood. Lillian’s career blended groundbreaking professional achievements with a robust family life, setting a precedent for future generations of working professionals.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLillian Moller Gilbreth\u0026#8217;s career spanned over four decades, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/should-you-consider-a-career-in-engineering-psychology\"\u003emerging psychology\u003c/a\u003e with scientific management and engineering, significantly impacting industrial and organizational psychology. She pioneered introducing psychological aspects into scientific management, making her the first American engineer to synthesize both disciplines. This innovative approach was first introduced during the Dartmouth College Conference on Scientific Management 1911.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eGilbreth co-managed Gilbreth, Incorporated, an engineering and management consulting firm, with her husband, Frank. The couple co-authored numerous books and papers, although Lillian often wasn\u0026#8217;t named due to gender biases at the time. Their work extended beyond just theories, critiquing and building upon Frederick Winslow Taylor\u0026#8217;s scientific management principles, especially in addressing the human elements of workplace management.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter Frank Gilbreth died in 1924, Lillian faced challenges maintaining their business as some clients withdrew their contracts. Nonetheless, she persevered, leading their firm and advancing the field of time and motion studies. The Gilbreths used motion-picture cameras to analyze work processes, enhancing worker efficiency and reducing fatigue, a precursor to modern ergonomics.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLillian’s research extended to home economics after Frank\u0026#8217;s death; she aimed to simplify household tasks to empower women to pursue careers outside the home. Her contributions led to innovations like the foot-pedal trash can and improvements in kitchen design, including the efficient \u0026#8220;work triangle\u0026#8221; layout.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite facing discrimination, Lillian continued to consult for major corporations and shifted her focus toward public service and education in later years. She was a consultant to the Girl Scouts and government agencies, using her expertise to influence policies on unemployment relief and women in the workforce during and after the Great Depression.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAs an educator, Lillian taught at Purdue University, becoming the first female engineering professor in the United States, and continued to lecture widely, influencing generations of engineers and managers. She retired in 1948 but remained active in lecturing, shaping engineering education and management practices until later.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLillian Moller Gilbreth passed away from a stroke on January 2, 1972, in Phoenix, Arizona, at the age of ninety-three. Renowned as \u0026#8220;America\u0026#8217;s first lady of engineering,\u0026#8221; her work expertly integrated psychology with scientific management to enhance industrial efficiency and productivity.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eGilbreth\u0026#8217;s significant academic contributions include her seminal text, \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Psychology of Management\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1914), one of the first works to blend psychology with management theory. Her professional papers and memorabilia are preserved at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History and Purdue University, which are major repositories for her contributions to the field.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer legacy continues through several prestigious awards named in her honor, including the National Academy of Engineering\u0026#8217;s Lillian M. Gilbreth Lectureships and the Institute of Industrial Engineers\u0026#8217; Frank and Lillian Gilbreth Industrial Engineering Award. Her life and contributions were popularized in the book \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eCheaper by the Dozen\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e and its film adaptations, highlighting her role in developing efficient household and industrial systems.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2018, Purdue University established the Lillian Gilbreth Postdoctoral Fellowship Program to support aspiring engineers, cementing her enduring influence on the engineering and management professions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"91:T68a,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBjarne Stroustrup, born in Aarhus, Denmark, went to local schools and graduated from Aarhus University in 1975 with a math and computer science degree. He focused on microprogramming and machine architecture, learning object-oriented programming from its creator, Kristen Nygaard.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe earned his PhD in computer science from the University of Cambridge in 1979, researching distributed computing under David Wheeler.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1979, Stroustrup joined Bell Labs in New Jersey, where he started working on C++. He led the Large-scale Programming Research department until 2002, becoming a Bell Labs Fellow in 1993 and an AT\u0026amp;T Fellow in 1996.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStroustrup is best known for creating C++ (originally called \u0026#8220;C with Classes\u0026#8221;) in 1979. He set the design criteria, defined its major features, and managed extension proposals for the C++ standards committee. C++ was released in 1985, along with his textbook, \u0026#8220;The C++ Programming Language.\u0026#8221;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStroustrup detailed his C++ design principles in his book \u0026#8220;The Design and Evolution of C++\u0026#8221; (1994) and papers for ACM\u0026#8217;s History of Programming Languages conferences. As a founding member of the C++ standards committee, he chaired the Evolution Working Group for 24 years, handling language extension proposals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom 2002 to 2014, Stroustrup was a professor at Texas A\u0026amp;M University, where he became a University Distinguished Professor in 2011. From 2014 to 2022, he worked as a technical fellow and managing director at Morgan Stanley and was a visiting professor at Columbia University. Since July 2022, he has been a full professor at Columbia University.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"92:Ta7b,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eVictor R. Ambros, born in Hanover, New Hampshire, on December 1, 1953, is a pioneering American developmental biologist and molecular geneticist, best known for discovering microRNA (miRNA), a key regulator of gene expression. As a professor at the University of Massachusetts Medical School, Ambros has made a profound impact on molecular and developmental biology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, he and Gary Ruvkun were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their groundbreaking discovery of miRNA. MiRNAs regulate protein production in cells and were once thought to be \u0026#8220;junk DNA.\u0026#8221; They are found in plants, animals, and some viruses, playing a crucial role in gene regulation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRaised in Vermont, Ambros\u0026#8217; early passion for science led him to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1971, where he famously wrote a six-word admission essay: “I want to be a scientist.” He earned his bachelor\u0026#8217;s degree in biology in 1975 and his Ph.D. in genetics in 1979. Under the guidance of 1975 Nobel Laureate David Baltimore, Ambros studied the poliovirus, which laid the foundation for his future research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs a postdoctoral fellow at MIT in H. Robert Horvitz\u0026#8217;s lab, Ambros began studying the developmental timing of the nematode \u003cem\u003eCaenorhabditis elegans\u003c/em\u003e with fellow researcher Gary Ruvkun. Together, they discovered the lin-4 gene, the first known microRNA, revealing a new mechanism of gene regulation that reshaped the understanding of biological processes and diseases.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1984, while at Harvard, Ambros further explored the lin-4 gene mutation in \u003cem\u003eC. elegans\u003c/em\u003e, uncovering that lin-4 produced a short RNA strand that regulated another gene, lin-14, by binding to its messenger RNA and blocking the production of its protein. This discovery revolutionized gene regulation research and gave birth to the field of microRNA studies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmbros continued his work at Dartmouth College and later at the University of Massachusetts Medical School, advancing the understanding of microRNAs in various cellular processes and their roles in diseases like cancer and developmental disorders.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Ambros has received numerous honors, including the 2008 Lasker Award, the 2014 Wolf Prize, and, most notably, the 2024 Nobel Prize. His contributions have inspired generations of scientists, and his mentorship has shaped over 200 researchers. Ambros’s ongoing work at UMass focuses on the intricate mechanisms of microRNAs and their potential for regulating key pathways in development and disease, showcasing the transformative power of scientific discovery in improving healthcare.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"93:T68a,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBjarne Stroustrup, born in Aarhus, Denmark, went to local schools and graduated from Aarhus University in 1975 with a math and computer science degree. He focused on microprogramming and machine architecture, learning object-oriented programming from its creator, Kristen Nygaard.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe earned his PhD in computer science from the University of Cambridge in 1979, researching distributed computing under David Wheeler.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1979, Stroustrup joined Bell Labs in New Jersey, where he started working on C++. He led the Large-scale Programming Research department until 2002, becoming a Bell Labs Fellow in 1993 and an AT\u0026amp;T Fellow in 1996.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStroustrup is best known for creating C++ (originally called \u0026#8220;C with Classes\u0026#8221;) in 1979. He set the design criteria, defined its major features, and managed extension proposals for the C++ standards committee. C++ was released in 1985, along with his textbook, \u0026#8220;The C++ Programming Language.\u0026#8221;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStroustrup detailed his C++ design principles in his book \u0026#8220;The Design and Evolution of C++\u0026#8221; (1994) and papers for ACM\u0026#8217;s History of Programming Languages conferences. As a founding member of the C++ standards committee, he chaired the Evolution Working Group for 24 years, handling language extension proposals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom 2002 to 2014, Stroustrup was a professor at Texas A\u0026amp;M University, where he became a University Distinguished Professor in 2011. From 2014 to 2022, he worked as a technical fellow and managing director at Morgan Stanley and was a visiting professor at Columbia University. Since July 2022, he has been a full professor at Columbia University.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"94:Tec2,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThe first female CEO of General Motors (GM) is a popular trailblazer in the automotive field. Born on December 24, 1961, in Michigan, Mary Teresa Barra\u0026#8217;s parents were of Finnish descent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eIn 1985, she completed her Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering from the General Motors Institute (now Kettering University).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHer father made significant contributions to \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eGM’s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Pontiac Division as he worked for almost 40 years.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eWhile earning her graduate degree, Barra also started working at Pontiac Motor Division, where she used to inspect fenders and hoods.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAfter \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ecompleting her graduation\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e, Barra was appointed \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eas\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e a Senior Engineer with Pontiac. Later, \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eshe was awarded a fellowship by GM\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e to earn a Master of Business Administration from Stanford University. She completed her \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003emasters\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e in 1990.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe became vice president of Global Manufacturing Engineering in 2008, and the next year, she was also named vice president of Global Human Resources. In 2011, she became vice president of Global Product Development and she worked to reduce the number of automobile \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/humanoid-robots-driverless-training-genima\"\u003eplatforms\u003c/a\u003e in GM.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe American businesswoman was elected Chair of the GM Board of Directors in 2016 and has served as CEO of GM since 2014.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder her leadership, the automaker envisions a world with zero crashes, to save lives; zero emissions, so future generations can inherit a healthier planet; and zero congestion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt\u0026#8217;s claimed that she is focused on creating the best customer experience and strengthening GM’s \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/worlds-fastest-microscope-captures-electron-motion\"\u003ecore\u003c/a\u003e vehicle and services business.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe is also working to deliver transformative technologies such as electrification, autonomous driving and software.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe CEO has led the charge to modernize GM, introducing new electric vehicles \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewith the goal of becoming\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e fully electric soon.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe also serves on the Board of Directors of the Walt Disney Company, the Duke University Board of Trustees and the Detroit Economic Club.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe year she became CEO of General Motors, the company issued 84 safety recalls that involved over 30 million cars. Senate had also called her to testify due to a faulty ignition switch that was claimed to be the key reason behind recalls and some deaths.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe was also featured on the cover of Time magazine\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;100 Most Influential People in the World\u0026#8221; in 2014. She also joined Donald Trump\u0026#8217;s economic panel in 2016 to provide strategic and policy advice on economic issues.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe also received the 2023 Arthur W. Page Center Awards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBarra is back on top of Fortune magazine\u0026#8217;s 100 Most Powerful Women (MPW) list for 2024. \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAmong the 55 women currently leading Fortune 500 companies, the General Motors CEO is one of only nine who have been CEO for a decade or more.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"95:Ta2c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eRenowned American biochemist and computational biologist David Baker was born on October 6, 1962, in Seattle, Washington. His father, Marshall Baker, was a physicist, and his mother, Marcia, was a geophysicist who fostered his early exposure to the sciences. Baker is acclaimed for his groundbreaking contributions to protein design and structure prediction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe holds the position of Henrietta and Aubrey Davis Endowed Professor in Biochemistry at the University of Washington and directs the Institute for Protein Design. At the institute, he merges computational science with biochemistry to address challenges in medicine, technology, and sustainability, particularly through protein design.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBaker initially pursued philosophy and social sciences at Harvard University before transitioning to biology, driven by his passion for understanding life at a molecular level. In 1984, he earned a Ph.D. in biochemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, under the guidance of Randy Schekman, focusing on protein transport in yeast. His postdoctoral work with David Agard at UCSF solidified his expertise in structural biology, laying the foundation for his future research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSince joining the University of Washington in 1993, Baker has made significant progress in computational biology, particularly through developing the Rosetta software, which models protein folding and enables the design of novel proteins. This breakthrough has not only deepened scientific understanding but also enabled practical applications in protein engineering, such as designing enzymes and mini-proteins for neutralizing pathogens, including potential COVID-19 treatments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBaker is also an entrepreneur, having co-founded 21 biotechnology companies and secured over 100 patents. His interdisciplinary expertise has earned him adjunct professorships at the University of Washington in genome sciences, bioengineering, chemical engineering, computer science, and physics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBaker’s contributions to science are immense. He has authored over 640 research papers and mentored 90 individuals who have gone on to independent faculty positions. His accolades include the 2021 Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences, the 2018 Hans Neurath Award from the Protein Society, and the 2004 Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe lives in Seattle with his wife, Hannele Ruohola-Baker, also a biochemist at the University of Washington. Together, they lead research efforts that nurture the next generation of scientists and push the boundaries of biochemical research and protein design.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"96:Tb0a,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eSarah “Tabitha” Babbitt was one of the earliest known American female inventors, although she has received little credit in her lifetime because she never filed any claims to patents for her work. Babbitt was born in 1779 in Massachusetts, just a few years before the end of the American Revolution that saw the United States form after fighting for independence from England. Her family were Shakers \u0026#8211; the shorthand for the United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing. In a dramatic change from society of the time, women were just as important as spiritual leaders, and Shakers believed in equality between the sexes in all matters. Forestry was a big industry for the shakers, who lived off the land and cut trees and sawed logs to be sold to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/monumental-robot-builders-get-funding-boost\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ebuilders\u003c/a\u003e in the bigger towns. Babbitt joined the Shaker community when she was 14 and deemed old enough to make decisions on her own. When Babbitt was 34 years old, she noticed that men using a two-man whipsaw were wasting half of their effort going back and forth. She suggested making the blade round instead of linear to augment its efficiency, and when it was created, it was attached to a machine that was powered by water, making it even more efficient because it required no human energy at all. Eventually, a larger version of the saw was made and installed in the Shaker saw mill for bigger jobs and more convenience.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA circular saw uses a rotating motion to let the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/reviews/25-essential-tools-for-engineers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etoothed blade\u003c/a\u003e cut non-stop. This allows for more smooth, straight cuts than a linear saw as the motion involves no back-and-forth motion that could result in a reduction of energy. As each tooth in the blade hits the wood, or other material, it makes a small chip. The tooth guides the chip out of the material, which keeps it from getting stuck.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBecause the Shakers were a cloistered religion, applying for a patent was something that probably wasn’t even known by Babbitt. Shaker accounts say two French men read about Babbit’s invention in a Shaker paper and went on to file the patent themselves. Her penchant for innovation did not stop there, however. She invented a process that sped up the manufacture of false teeth \u0026#8211; something very necessary in a time where the word ‘\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/ces-2023/dental-robot-make-implants-safer\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003edentist\u003c/a\u003e’ didn’t even exist. She also made an improved spinning wheel head. Historians liken Babbit to the great Benjamin Franklin, who also never patented any of the inventions he made.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"97:T107b,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eFew engineers of the software age compare to the genius of Kevin Systrom, who was passionate about computers from a young age and whose career as a very young man skyrocketed from one peak to the next as he created \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/instagram-is-working-on-an-ai-chatbot-leaked-images-reveal\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eInstagram\u003c/a\u003e, the photo-sharing social media website, and sold it within two years for a cool $1 billion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1983 in Massachusetts, Systrom’s mother is a marketing executive at Zipcar who had previously worked at Monster, and his father was a Vice President in Human Resources at TJX Companies. By the time he was at Middlesex School in Concord, Massachusetts, Systrom, he had found a passion in computers through the video game Doom 2, figuring out the game’s code and building his own levels from scratch.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter high school, Systrom headed to Stanford, where he studied management science and engineering. He was one of the top students in his class throughout his four years. After his third year, he was offered by no less than Mark Zuckerberg, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/history-of-facebook\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecreator of Facebook\u003c/a\u003e , to come work for him before even graduating. He turned down the offer to move to Florence, Italy, for a semester to study photography.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe didn’t miss a beat, however, as he returned to Stanford and was one of 12 students to be chosen for the Mayfield Fellows Program, designed to integrate students into high-tech opportunities as interns, giving them high-end training before graduating from college. Systrom’s fellowship got him an internship at Odeo in the summer of 2005. Odeo was in the business of finding RSS-sourced audio and video when Systrom worked there. A few years later, it spun off into Twitter.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHaving spurned Facebook and worked at the precursor to Twitter, Systrom continued his tour de force by taking a job at Google after graduation. Systrom’s brilliance quickly saw him working on multiple projects at Google, including Google Docs, Google Spreadsheets, Google Calendar, and Gmail. He quit after two years when he was not awarded a spot in the company’s Associate Product Manager program.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLike so many great entrepreneurs of the digital age, Systrom decided to leave the comfortable and explore the unknown. His first working prototype was called Burbn and he innovated it while on a vacation with his girlfriend. She didn’t like how she looked in photos and refused to post them online. Systrom’s idea was to create an app that used filters to enhance the quality of any photo. Within two weeks of showing the prototype, he had received $500,000 in seed funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis first model was deemed too complicated, however \u0026#8211; with gamification and ge-location features. His backers told him to simplify and he did, reducing Burbn down to a photo-sharing app that he renamed Instagram. To say it was an instant success was putting it mildly. More than 25,000 users signed up on the day of the launch, and by the end of the week, there were more than 100,000 registered users. Even more staggering, the platform hit 1 million registrations just 66 days after release.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/history-of-facebook\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eZuckerberg and Facebook\u003c/a\u003e missed on the opportunity to recruit Systrom a few years earlier, but didn’t miss again. In 2012, despite having just 13 employees, Instagram was bought by Facebook for $1 billion in cash and stock. Systrom negotiated a deal that earned him $400 million, but also allowed him to remain the leader of Instagram. He led the company for the next six years before stepping down in 2018 under unknown circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the time, Instagram was contributing $20 billion a year of revenue to Facebook. A reported clash between Systrom and Zuckerberg on the latter’s plans for Instagram appears to have been the cause. After laying low for four years, Systrom re-emerged in January 2023 with a new app called Artifact, designed to give users a personalized news feed based on AI.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"98:Td1b,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eAnd to think it all started as an online bookstore. That was the gateway into eCommerce for Jeffrey Preston Jorgensen, who founded Amazon in 1994 and has guided it to become the world’s largest eCommerce and cloud computing company. Bezos was the first person to have a net worth of more than $100 billion, and has investments all over the world thanks to the power of Amazon, still known for its incredible predictive algorithm, its same-day delivery, and self-perpetuating power of user reviews.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1964 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, his parents were both still teenagers who got divorced when Bezos was not yet two years old. His stepfather adopted Bezos when he was four years old and he went on to move from New Mexico to Texas to Florida, where he worked at a McDonald’s during high school.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was his high school class valedictorian and went to the University of Florida. He earned a bachelor of science degree in electrical engineering and computer science. He had several job offers from the likes of Bell Labs and Intel, but opted for a fintech startup called Fitel. He stayed in the financial industry, working for banks, and then a hedge fund called D.E. Shaw \u0026amp; Co. that used mathematical models to guide its clients. By the time he was 30, Bezos was a senior vice-president there.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, in 1994, he read an article about how the rate of Internet usage was growing at an outrageous 2300%. He decided to leave his job and found \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/amazon-first-to-lose-1-trillion-market-value\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAmazon\u003c/a\u003e , an online bookstore. The name was solely based on the fact that most website listings of the time were in alphabetical order, so he reasoned Amazon would be near the top.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis parents gave him $300,000 as an investment and he set about figuring out deals with book bulk sellers and freight shipping. In 1997, he took Amazon public with an IPO offering shares of stock for $18 per share. The company’s stock has returned a compound annual growth rate of 31.7% through 2023. In 1998, Bezos added the online sale of music and video to the offering, then started introducing more consumer goods in 1998.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe company had made $54 million in its IPO and he used it to buy up potential competitors. In 2002, his foresight brought about Amazon Web Services (AWS), which allowed anyone to host anything on its cloud website space, years before any other company tried the same thing. After a sluggish 2002 due to rapid spending, Bezos laid off 14% of his workforce and turned a $400 million profit in 2004.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2007, he \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/blue-origin-unlimited-solar-power\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eintroduced the world\u003c/a\u003e to the handheld rea der Amazon Kindle, and in 2013, made a deal with the CIA to use AWS worth $600 million. That same year, Amazon officially became the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/a-very-brief-history-of-amazon-the-everything-store\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003elargest online retailer\u003c/a\u003e in the world. In 2017, Bezos hired 130,000 new employees at distribution centers and began offering next-day and even same-day delivery of products. He stepped down as Amazon CEO to become Executive Chairman of the Amazon Board in 2021.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"99:Td7f,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003ehisJensen Huang is the current CEO of Nvidia Corporation, an international technology company located in the US’s Silicon Valley that specializes in graphic processing units (GPUs), application programming interfaces (APIs), and in 2023 announced plans to unleash a new supercomputer that Huang said will make building AI accessible to anyone with basic programming skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Tainan, Taiwan in 1963, he came to the US with his family when he was 9 years old. He graduated from Oregon State University in 1984 with a BS in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-best-websites-for-electrical-engineering-students\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectrical engineering\u003c/a\u003e, and added a master’s degree in electrical engineering from Stanford University in 1992.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was hired out of college by LSI Logic where he worked as a director, then at Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) as a designer of microprocessors. Frustrated by his lack of independent abilities, he left AMD and started his own company, Nvidia, in April 1993 along with two other engineers. The founding theory was that the future of computers was graphic based. The three pooled $40,000 to start the company, and they received $20 million more from capital funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHuang guided the company towards producing graphics hardware, and in 1999, won a contract to develop the hardware for the XBox game platform owned by Microsoft. Nvidia went public in 1999 and began buying up smaller tech companies in the same space over the next seven years. In 2007, it was named Company of the Year by Forbes Magazine. That same year, Huang earned $24.6 billion as CEO.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe owns 3.6% of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/nvidia-unveils-more-ai-based-products\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNvidia’s stock\u003c/a\u003e, which made his net worth some $36 billion as of 2023. He has routinely been on the cutting edge of ‘what comes next’ in the computer realm, and was named among Time Magazine\u0026#8217;s list of its 100 most influential people in 2021. In 2018, he coined a phrase that has become known as “Huang’s Law”, which states that advancements in GPUs are growing far faster than those of central processing units (CPUs). That is why his company made the decision to pursue advancements in graphic interfaces.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn May 2023, Huang introduced the DGX GH200 AI \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-fastest-supercomputer-condor-galaxy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esupercomputer\u003c/a\u003e which allows developers to build AI chatbot language models, analyze data at an incredibly high rate of speed, program complex algorithms for recommendations, and be used in the first round of sales by the likes of Microsoft, Alphabet (Google), and Meta Platforms (Facebook).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe announcement saw Nvidia soar to more than $1 trillion in valuation. In 2022, Huang announced plans to donate $200 million to his alma mater, Oregon State University, to create a supercomputer institute on its campus. He made the initial donation of $50 million that year and also donated $30 million to Stanford to build the Jen-Gsun Huang School of Engineering Center.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, Huang was elected to the National Academy of Engineering for his contribution towards high-powered graphics processing units and artificial intelligence. In the same year, Nvidia became the world\u0026#8217;s fourth most-valuable public company.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"9a:Tbad,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eSteve Wozniak gave the world Apple, revolutionizing the computer industry first and everything that has come after it as far as digital technology goes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlongside the late \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/e-book-chronicles-steve-jobs-in-his-own-words\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eSteve Jobs\u003c/a\u003e , he co-founded Apple Computer in the 1970s, a company that is now the biggest technology brand in the world both by revenue and the largest company in the world period in terms of market capitalization. Wozniak was a big fan of the sci-fi TV show “Star Trek’ as a youth and said it inspired him to want to build his own computer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn his first year of college at Colorado University, he was expelled for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/white-house-seeks-ai-solutions-for-security-issues\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ehacking the school’s computer system.\u003c/a\u003e He returned home to the San Francisc o Bay Area and enrolled in tiny De Anza College before transferring the next year to Cal-Berkley. He built his first computer that same year, although it exploded when a classmate accidentally stepped on the power cord. That same summer he began working for Hewlett-Packard (HP) designing calculators, and there he was introduced to Jobs, who was still in high school.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThat fall, he built his first “blue box”, a device that could make long-distance phone calls at no cost. He and Jobs built and marketed them and sold 200 units for $150 apiece. In 1973, the two worked on a project for Atari together, streamlining the game. Using the money he had made with the blue boxes, Wozniak began designing his own personal computer,the Apple I, in 1975. He finished in 1976 and pitched it to HP, but he was denied on five separate occasions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn Jobs’ advice, he left HP and the two of them started the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/intel-macs-apple-homegrown-chips\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eApple Computer Company\u003c/a\u003e on April 1, 1976. The next design, the Apple II, was the first personal computer that could display color graphics on a monitor and use the BASIC programming language from scratch. It debuted in 1977, and was upgraded to include the floppy disk drive in 1978.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe machine sold well, and when Apple went public in 1980, Wozniak became a millionaire. A plane crash caused him severe injuries and amnesia and he left the company as Jobs began focusing on the Macintosh products.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWozniak preferred the Apple line so it was a good break, although the technology he worked on eventually found its way into the iPod, iPad, and iPhone products that saw Apple take over the world in terms of breakthroughs and popularity. He eventually started companies that invented the world’s first programmable remote control, offered tech training for individuals and teachers, and began addressing the problem of cleaning up space debris in orbit around the earth.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"9b:Tdeb,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBorn in pre-independent India in the late 1920s, Fazlur Rahman Khan rose from humble roots to become one of the most well-respected innovators of structural engineering and architecture of the 20th century.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhan is known as the “Father of Tubular Designs’ For \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/13-skyscrapers-that-are-totally-an-engineering-wonder\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ehigh-rise buildings\u003c/a\u003e, and also was at the forefront of using computed-aided design (CAD) in his works. He designed the Sears Tower in Chicago, which was the tallest building in the world at the time of its construction in 1973. He also branched out from skyscrapers to design airport terminals, stadiums, and even a solar telescope.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhan’s father was a mathematics teacher and author of textbooks, and Khan went to the Bengal Engineering and Science University, where he studied Civil Engineering, going on to earn a degree from what is now the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe earned a Fulbright Scholarship that brought him to the University of Illinois in 1952, and he went on to earn two masters and a PhD over the next three years. In 1955, he joined a Chicago-area consulting firm, and returned to the US in 1960 after fulfilling obligations in Pakistan. He was named a partner in Skidmore, Owens, and Merrill in 1966.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhan introduced the tubular structural system inside tall buildings that would make them more affordable while turning the construction process on its head. His system used closely-spaced columns on the perimeter of the building that allowed for the interior to have relatively few columns at all. His design was first integrated into the Plaza on DeWitt building in Chicago in 1966, which stood at a height of 43 stories.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThat same year, a tubular design was used in the construction of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/engineering-nycs-iconic-structure-one-world-trade-center\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWorld Trade Center’s two towers\u003c/a\u003e in New York City. Khan kept redefining his system, upgrading it to the trussed tube system to complete the 100-story John Hancock Center in 1969.Standing 1,128 feet at its highest spot, it was the second-tallest building in the world, trailing only the Empire State Building, when it was opened.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt was the first \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/11-civil-engineering-projects-that-might-define-the-future\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emixed-use skyscraper\u003c/a\u003e in the world, with restaurants, offices and some 700 condominiums as well. The upgraded architectural plan of the Hancock Center used an X-braced exterior and tubular design were incorporated to keep the building safe even in hurricane-force winds and during an earthquake.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhan’s greatest masterpiece came four years later when he was the engineer for the Sears Tower (now the Willis Tower). When it opened in 1973, it surpassed the Empire State Building as the tallest building in the world and held that honor until 1998. Even today, it is the third-tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhan designed the Sears Tower using nine square tubes in a 3\u0026#215;3 matrix with seven of them set back at the upper floors. The building has 110 stories and is 1,451 feet tall. Khan was awarded US citizenship in 1982. Overall, he designed 13 buildings, including the Metrodome in Minnesota, the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado, and the McMath-Pierce solar telescope in Arizona.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"9c:Tbc7,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThere are computers and then there are supercomputers. Seymour Roger Cray invented the latter, ushering in the era of machines performing incredibles computations and tasks that have allowed mankind to develop in countless ways.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1925 in Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, Cray’s father was a civil engineer who encouraged him to get interested in both engineering in particular and science as a whole. He started experimenting with Morse code signals as a young man and his father let him convert the family basement into his first laboratory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter graduating from high school, Cray was drafted into World War II in 1943 as a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/how-to/spin-the-how-to-radioglobe-to-find-thousands-of-radio-stations\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eradio operator\u003c/a\u003e, seeing service in both Europe and the Pacific, where he broke Japanese naval codes. When he returned to the US, he earned a bachelor’s degree from the University of Minnesota in electrical engineering in 1949, and followed it up with a master’s in applied mathematics in 1951.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile still in school, he joined the Engineering Research Associates (ERA) in 1950, a former \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/us-navy-wirelessly-beamed-16kw\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNavy lab\u003c/a\u003e that built code breaking machines. Computer technology was on the horizon, and Cray began working on scientific computers, helping design the ERA 1103. IT debuted in 1953. However, Cray and fellow researcher William Norris thought ERA was moving too slowly, so they formed their own company, Control Data Corporation, in 1957. Cray and Norris designed the CDC 1604 in 1960, which matched the ERA 1103 but was much more affordable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCray did not like working on low-cost machines, and kept striving to build \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-fastest-supercomputer-condor-galaxy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esupercomputers\u003c/a\u003e bigger and faster without worrying about the cost. His CDC 6600 was the first commercial supercomputer and dominated the rest of the market. He built his own workshop in Chippewa Falls to get away from what he thought was interference by the company’s management. He added the 7600 and 8600 models but the management wanted more low-level, low-cost computers, so he broke away with $250,000 in startup money in 1973 to start Cray Research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe had enormous credibility in the market and put out the Cray-1 in 1976 with lots of investor money. It beat the market by a wide margin and eventually sold more than 80 units, with the first full system sold for $8.8 million to the National Center for Atmospheric Research. Again, Cray felt the burden of being in charge and left his own company to become an independent contractor. He was intensely shy and avoided any publicity if at all possible. He passed away in 1996 a couple of weeks after being involved in a bad car accident.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eImage Source: Wikimedia Commons\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"9d:Tc68,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIt’s neither a typo nor a misprint, legendary actress \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/hedy-lamarr-the-beauty-behind-the-invention-of-wi-fi-gps-bluetooth\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eHedy Lamarr\u003c/a\u003e was also an engineer, and a brilliant one at that.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe was a skilled \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/who-exactly-invented-math\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emathematician\u003c/a\u003e and loved inventing things, despite her biggest fame being on the silver screen. She was born in Austria in 1914, right as that country plunged into World War I as one of the Central Powers. By the time she hit her teenage years, she was interested in acting, had won a beauty contest, and was also fascinated by inventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer father would take her on daily walks around their city and explain to her how everything worked. Lamarr got exceptionally famous in 1933 as an actress when she appeared in the movie “Ecstasy” that was extremely racy for the day. When she was 18 she married an older man who was a military arms merchant. She eventually fled both him and Austria in 1937, eventually making it to London, then on to New York, then Hollywood in 1938.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe was a leading lady in Hollywood throughout the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, but to the surprise of many, she retained her interests in math and inventing, working on hobbies in her spare time that included a different form of a traffic light. As World War II raged, Lamarr read an article in a magazine about \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/military/heavy-lift-drone-drop-torpedo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eradio-controlled torpedoes\u003c/a\u003e and the fact that enemy vessels could jam them and send them off course.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe wound up discussing the idea of a signal that jumped frequencies and thus could keep the guidance system from being jammed with a friend of hers, a composer named George Antheil.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAntheil suggested a way of staggering the frequency using the same technology as a player piano, and introduced Lamarr to a professor of radio-electrical engineering at CalTech.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1942, Lamarr received a patent from the US government for her design. She was following in the footsteps of greats like Nikola Tesla, who had envisioned using the same technology in the 1920s. The US and the Allies didn’t have the technology in place in their fight against the Axis Powers in World War II, but by the 1960s, the Navy had adopted it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt didn’t just turn into a Naval invention, however. The principles of Lamarr’s became the foundation for the creation of Wi-Fi technology as well as CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access). A generation later, they were the same principles that generated both \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/are-you-being-tracked-by-bluetooth-beacons-while-shopping\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eBluetooth and GPS technology\u003c/a\u003e. In 1997 Lamarr and Antheil were recognized for their efforts by receiving the Electronic Frontier Foundation Pioneer Award. She passed away at age 85 in Florida in 2000. In 2014, she was posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"9e:Tdf8,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eOne of the most brilliant men of the first half of the 20th century, Alan Mathison Turing was a computer scientist, code breaker, and father of both \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/eth-zurich-drug-discovery-using-ai-pharmaceutical\"\u003eartificial intelligence\u003c/a\u003e and theoretical computation. He was born in Maida Vale, London, England in 1912. His father worked often in British India meaning his mother largely raised him.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis gifts for math were obvious from the get-go, with the headmistress of his primary school saying that there were “clever boys and hardworking boys, but Alan is a genius.”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1928, at age 16, he first read the works of Albert Einstein and was able to grasp it and identify with what Einstein was trying to say.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe attended King’s College at Cambridge, graduating with a degree of mathematics. He published his first paper, entitled, “Equivalence of left and right almost periodicity” in 1937. Throughout his graduate studies, he was doing research and writing papers that were rewriting the rules of mathematics. One of those, which suggested his universal computing machine could use an algorithm to perform any math function in the world, was called “the most influential math paper in history.”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1938, he earned his PhD from the Department of Mathematics at Princeton University. His doctoral dissertation, “Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals\u0026#8217; , introduced the theories of ordinal logic and relative computing. In September 1938, he started working part-time for the Government Code and Cypher School (GC\u0026amp;CS) in England. Thus began his most historically famous stretch of time as he worked on cracking the Enigma cipher machine being used by Nazi Germany to send military communications to its forces across Europe. He reported to work full time on September 4, 1939, the day after England declared \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/us-admits-to-using-ai\"\u003ewar\u003c/a\u003e on Germany. Turing wrote two papers on cryptanalysis that the Brits deemed so important that they didn’t declassify them until 2012.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJust a few weeks after starting at the project, Turing had built an electromechanical machine called the bombe that could break the Nazi’s codes better than any other machine. His efforts led to the Allies’ ability to crack German codes and stay a step ahead of them, pivotal in turning the tide on the European front in World War II.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter the war, Turing worked at the University of Manchester and wrote software for an early store-program computer. He also wrote an early paper on the possibility of artificial intelligence. In 1951, he pivoted to begin researching mathematical biology and published “The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis” in 1952. \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/china-uk-unis-devise-biocompatible-fluorescent-spray-detects-fingerprints-in-seconds\"\u003eDNA\u003c/a\u003e had not really been studied to that point, but his work was the forerunner to it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTuring was gay and at the time he lived in, committing “homosexual acts” was against the law. He was charged with ‘gross indecency’ in 1952, given hormones to effectively castrate him chemically, and put on probation. He lost his security clearances and he was banned from the government building where he had largely saved the Allied effort during World War II with his code breaking skills. He died in 1954 from cyanide poisoning. The official cause of his death was ruled suicide, although there are many alternate theories.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"9f:Td92,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003ePossibly the greatest American inventor of all time, Thomas Alva Edison was the best of a slew of inventors who populated the US in the second half of the 19th century and into the 20th. He holds the world record for most patents, tallying a staggering 1,093, among them, one of the first motion picture \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/scarf-camera\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecameras\u003c/a\u003e, the incandescent light bulb, and the phonograph. He was nicknamed the “Wizard of Menlo Park” and was known around the world by the time he was in his 30s. He was also an impressive marketer of both his devices and of himself when it came to public notice, a strategy that earned him the ire of many of his contemporaries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEdison was born in 1847 in Milan, Ohio, the youngest of seven children. He suffered from tremendous hearing losses from age 12 on and left school to find work in the railroad industry. He started a business selling newspapers and food to passengers on the train as they stopped along a route through Michigan, and was soon netting a $50-a-week profit, the equivalent of about $2,100 per week in today’s economy. Edison was too young to formally serve during the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/health/ether-and-chloroform-were-the-anesthetics-of-the-us-civil-war\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eUS Civil War\u003c/a\u003e, but instead traveled through the country learning about telegraphy However, his lack of hearing caused him to struggle with it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1875, with his father’s financial aid, Edison built a combination laboratory and machine shop in Menlo Park, New Jersey. This combination of layouts was credited by man as the world’s first research and development (R\u0026amp;D lab). From there, his inventions came faster and faster, starting with a carbon transmitter that greatly improved the effectiveness of telephones. Working with telephones and telegraphs led him to invent the phonograph in 1877.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis biggest move came the following year when he started researching a way to replace gaslights, a problem that scientists around the world had been battling for half a century. He founded the Edison Electric Light Company and set to work. His breakthroughs were incremental, but by 1882 he had broken through enough to move to New York City. He was in frequent competition with George Westinghouse Jr., who favored the alternate current (AC) generation of electrical power in contrast with Edison’s direct current (DC) design.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile his lightbulb business was making life comfortable, Edison kept inventing, developing the Kinetograph, a motion picture camera, and the Kinetoscope, a way of viewing what was recorded on the camera. In 1892, as AC started to take hold of the electrical power industry, Edison’s company merged with another to form General Electric, which has been in business ever since.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1912, Edison was approached by another incredible inventor, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/henry-ford\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eHenry Ford\u003c/a\u003e, and asked to help him design a battery for his Model T design. Edison worked well into his 80s and passed away in 1931 in New Jersey. There are cities, colleges, hotels, lakes, mountains, a naval destroyer, a nuclear submarine, and even an asteroid named in Edison’s honor, along with the Edison Medal, the highest award given by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"a0:Tb07,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eWhile he was born in Scotland and died in Canada, Alexander Graham Bell can stand toe-to-toe with the likes of Albert Einstein and Thomas Edison as the greatest American minds of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He is known the world over for patenting the first telephone in human history and was the co-founder of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, now known as AT\u0026amp;T, in 1885. Like so many other great inventors and engineers, Bell is most famous for something he originally did not intend to create.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1847. He had two brothers who both died of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/health/temperature-stable-tuberculosis-vaccine\"\u003etuberculosis\u003c/a\u003e. In 1865 he went to the University of Edinburgh, and when the family moved to London, he passed the entrance exam for University College in London. His family moved to Canada in 1870, and Bell left school to join them. He went on to move to the United States the following year to teach at the Boston School for Deaf Mutes and two other schools who helped people who had lost their hearing. Bell opened his own School of Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech in 1872 in Boston.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBell began trying to improve the telegraph to help everyone communicate. It had been an established form of communication for 30 years. He was joined by Thomas A. Watson, a talented electrician. By June 1875, the two men were very close to their goal of making a device that would transmit speech by electrical impulse when Bell and Watson had discovered they could transmit sound through a wire. The discovery was completely accidental. Less than a year later, the US Patent Office awarded Bell with the patent for a telephone. A few days after the patent was granted, came the fateful first call, “Mr. Watson, Come here.” When Watson came to the room and repeated what had been said, history was made.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBell knew the public would take much convincing so he took his device to the 1876 Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia and organized the Bell Telephone Company in 1877. More than a quarter of a century later, Watson and Bell were on other sides of the country for the first transcontinental phone call. In 1915, Bell, in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/law-firm-chatgpt-backfires\"\u003eNew York City\u003c/a\u003e, called Watson, In San Francisco, and said the same lines as the first call, with Watson quipping, “It will take me five days to get there now!”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnknown to most, Bell did extensive work later in life on heredity, particularly among the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/us-china-gene-therapy-restore-hearing-in-5-kids\"\u003edeaf\u003c/a\u003e, and was one of the first to link congenitally deaf parents to a higher likelihood of producing deaf children.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"a1:Tb07,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eWhile he was born in Scotland and died in Canada, Alexander Graham Bell can stand toe-to-toe with the likes of Albert Einstein and Thomas Edison as the greatest American minds of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He is known the world over for patenting the first telephone in human history and was the co-founder of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, now known as AT\u0026amp;T, in 1885. Like so many other great inventors and engineers, Bell is most famous for something he originally did not intend to create.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1847. He had two brothers who both died of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/health/temperature-stable-tuberculosis-vaccine\"\u003etuberculosis\u003c/a\u003e. In 1865 he went to the University of Edinburgh, and when the family moved to London, he passed the entrance exam for University College in London. His family moved to Canada in 1870, and Bell left school to join them. He went on to move to the United States the following year to teach at the Boston School for Deaf Mutes and two other schools who helped people who had lost their hearing. Bell opened his own School of Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech in 1872 in Boston.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBell began trying to improve the telegraph to help everyone communicate. It had been an established form of communication for 30 years. He was joined by Thomas A. Watson, a talented electrician. By June 1875, the two men were very close to their goal of making a device that would transmit speech by electrical impulse when Bell and Watson had discovered they could transmit sound through a wire. The discovery was completely accidental. Less than a year later, the US Patent Office awarded Bell with the patent for a telephone. A few days after the patent was granted, came the fateful first call, “Mr. Watson, Come here.” When Watson came to the room and repeated what had been said, history was made.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBell knew the public would take much convincing so he took his device to the 1876 Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia and organized the Bell Telephone Company in 1877. More than a quarter of a century later, Watson and Bell were on other sides of the country for the first transcontinental phone call. In 1915, Bell, in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/law-firm-chatgpt-backfires\"\u003eNew York City\u003c/a\u003e, called Watson, In San Francisco, and said the same lines as the first call, with Watson quipping, “It will take me five days to get there now!”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnknown to most, Bell did extensive work later in life on heredity, particularly among the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/us-china-gene-therapy-restore-hearing-in-5-kids\"\u003edeaf\u003c/a\u003e, and was one of the first to link congenitally deaf parents to a higher likelihood of producing deaf children.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"a2:Tca2,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eElisha Otis didn’t invent the elevator, but he did take away the one fear that pretty much everyone who has ever ridden in an \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/video/elevator\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelevator\u003c/a\u003e has: that the cable is going to snap and we’re all going to fall to our death.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt age 40 and with little experience in elevators otherwise, Otis and his sons invented the safety elevator, which used a locking mechanism to keep an elevator car from falling in the event of an emergency. It revolutionized the industry and also made possible the creation of skyscrapers, since nobody wants to climb 50 flights of stairs to go to work every morning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Halifax, Vermont, in 1811, he left home at the age of 19 and moved to Troy, New York, where he found work as a wagon driver. When he was 23, he married Susan A. Houghton. That same year, Otis nearly died from a terrible bout of pneumonia, but had earned enough money to move his wife and 3-year-old son Charlse to the Vermont Hills near the Green River where he built a gristmill \u0026#8211; hoping to attract local farmers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe endeavor failed, as did his attempt to turn it into a sawmill. His second child, Norton was born, and he started building wagons and carriages. He succeeded, but suffered personal tragedy when his wife died of illness, leaving him with an 8-year-old and a baby to raise alone. Otis remarried and moved to Albany, New York with his sons, working as a doll maker, then finding success when he invented an automated turner that allowed him to rapidly produce bedsteads; about 200 a day compared to the manual total of 50. He got a bonus from the head of his company for the invention and started his own business.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe designed inventions, including a bread-baking oven and a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/continental-puts-the-brakes-on-like-never-before-the-blueprint\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esafety brake\u003c/a\u003e for trains, but kept finding bad luck in every endeavor he took. By 1851, he was the manager of an abandoned sawmill in Yonkers, New York, and was given the task of converting it to a sawmill. He and his sons \u0026#8211; now close to manhood themselves, worked together to design a safety elevator so they could hoist loads of debris from one level of the sawmill to another.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe didn’t consider the invention very important in 1852 but as word got around of what he had, he wound up selling a few of the models. That led to an exhibition at the 1853 World’s Fair in New York City where he dramatically stood on a platform dozens of feet above the ground, had an assistant cut the cable supporting it, and dazzled audience members when the platform dropped just a few inches before his safety locks caught it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the next several years, his elevator sales doubled again and again. He went on to invent engines for elevators to easily allow them to move up or down or stop rapidly. Otis did not get to enjoy his success for long, dying of diphtheria in 1849. The Otis Elevator Company remains one of the most recognizable names in the world more than 150 years later, with elevators in the Eiffel Tower and the Empire State Building.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"a3:Tb99,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eWith a name steeped in science history and science fiction, Michael Faraday was a leading mind of his time in electrochemistry and electromagnetism despite very little real education. He’s known for his law of induction, the Faraday constant, cage, cup, effect, rotator, wheel, and his laws of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/hydrogen-from-sea-water-for-cheap\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectrolysis\u003c/a\u003e among many other contributions to science.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1791 in Newington Butts, Surrey, England, he had very little education being the third of four children. When he was 14 in 1805 he became an apprentice bookbinder and bookseller which allowed him to read as much as he wanted to, including “The Improvement of the Mind” by Isaac Watts. He also enjoyed “Conversations on Chemistry” by Jane Marcet, which got him interested in electricity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt age 20, he began attending lectures at the Royal Institution and the Royal Society and turned his notes into a 300-page book that he sent to chemist Humphry Davy who got him work at the Royal Institution as a chemical assistant in 1813. His earliest work was in chlorine, where he discovered two new compounds made of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/how-the-world-can-go-carbon-emission-free-15-projects-shaking-up-the-energy-industry\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecarbon\u003c/a\u003e and chlorine. He also invented an early form of the more famous Bunsen burner. He hit his stride when he switched focus to magnetism and electricity. He built an electromagnetic rotation device and demonstrated induction through an 1831 experiment using a liquid battery and a large coil. He became an expert on the fundamentals of electricity, using batteries and static to showcase how magnetism and electrolysis worked. In 1845, he discovered diamagnetism, the way some materials exhibit weak repulsion to a magnetic field, and also discovered the plane of polarization \u0026#8211; today known as the Faraday effect. The \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/how-does-a-faraday-cage-work\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eFaraday cage\u003c/a\u003e was a shielding effect he exhibited using static electricity. He was elected to the Royal Society in 1824, and started a series of Christmas lectures at the Royal Institution over a 33-year span, a tradition that continues today. Many fictional scientists have borne his name over the years in homage to his accomplishments, including Daniel Faraday from the American TV show “Lost”, who mastered the electromagnetism characteristics of a mysterious island.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the real world, Faraday has been featured on postage stamps, as a statue outside the Institution of Engineering and Technology in London, as street names throughout England, and as an eight-story engineering and science building at the University of Edinburgh.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFaraday passed away at age 75 in 1867 at his home in Hampton Court, England.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"a4:Tdd6,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIf Samuel Morse had died at age 40, exactly halfway through his life, he would have been known as one of the best painters in American history to that point, having painted the portraits of two American presidents among other seminal works. But he is included on this list for his work in the second half of his life, when he grew fascinated by the single-wire telegraph system and helped create an entirely new language to utilize it, known the world over to this day as \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/origins-of-the-morse-code-and-how-it-works\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eMorse code\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Charlestown, Massachusetts in 1791, his father was a geographer and a pastor, opening up Morse to the belief that you could excel in a lot of different subjects. Morse went to Phillips Academy, then on to Yale where he divided his interests equally among science, mathematics, and religious philosophy. He had artistic ability as a painter and he used it to support himself while toiling away, graduating from Yale in 1810 with Phi Beta Kappa honors. He set sail for England barely a year later, onboard a ship with artist Washington Allston, who saw a lot of promise in Morse and arranged for him to study under another renowned painter, Benjamin West, for three years. There, he was accepted into the Royal Academy and inspired by the art of the Renaissance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e That led him to create his masterpiece, a painting and accompanying sculpture called the Dying Hercules. He returned to the US in 1815 and dedicated his life to becoming a full-time \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/what-is-ai-generated-art\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003epainter\u003c/a\u003e, commissioned to paint President John Adams in 1816, President James Monroe in 1820, and the Marquis de Lafayette in 1825. He famously painted the House of Representatives in 1821. In 1826, he helped create the National Academy of Design and later became a professor of painting and sculpture at New York University. On a trip home from Europe in 1832 he watched Charles Thomas Jackson, another American, give a talk on the use of an electromagnet. Morse was spellbound by the implications and shifted gears, busying himself with the creation of a single-wire telegraph and submitted a patent for it. Others got their first, but they were all enamored with each other’s work. Morse got help from a friend to boost the length of the signal, and in 1838, he showed off his electric telegraph and its 2-mile range. Around the same time, he developed a series of long and short pulses to represent letters, which was the early version of the internationally well-known Morse code of modern times.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe spent the next several years trying to acquire funding, and succeeded in 1842. The US Congress that he had once painted approved a $30,000 grant for him to run a telegraph line from Washington D.C. to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/baltimore-bridge-collapse-pictures-satellite\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eBaltimore\u003c/a\u003e. It only took three weeks to build and open for business. The next year, his Magnetic Telegraph Company was building lines from New York City to Buffalo, Philadelphia, and Boston. He secured a patent for his invention in 1847, but didn’t stop there, introducing it to Puerto Rico in 1858. Morse died in New York City in 1872 at age 80. Despite giving away large swathes of money during his life to charity, his estate was worth half a million dollars at the time of his passing.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"a5:Tca4,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThe elder statesman of a renowned father-and-son duo of legendary British engineers, George Stephenson was born in June 1781 in Wylam, Northumberland, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/45-of-the-greatest-british-inventions-of-all-time\"\u003eEngland\u003c/a\u003e. His best works focused on the mechanical and civil engineering studies, and ultimately earned him the title of “Father of Railways.”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis father was a fireman, but was uneducated and didn’t make much of a wage, leading George to desire an education. He got it by taking lessons at night school so he could learn to read, write, and do sums. His first job was controlling the winding gear at a coal mining pit. While his early jobs weren’t glamorous, his work ethic was unparalleled.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe made extra money after getting married at age 23 by repairing clocks and shoes in his spare time. Family tragedy struck repeatedly as his wife and one of their children died, and his father was blinded during a mining accident. George moved back home and finally improved his luck when he offered to fix a malfunctioning pumping engine at High Pit, Killingworth. His repairs impressed the owners that he was given the job of enginewright for all coal mines in the city.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith so much work done in conjunction with coal mining, Stephenson began experimenting with a lamp that could burn in the gassy environment without exploding. He presented it to the Royal Society and was given a prize of £2,000. From there he moved on to formulating ideas for a conveyance to more easily move coal from one point to another, designing his first locomotive in 1814. The train would take 30 tons of coal up a hill at a top speed of 4 miles per hour. When it was deemed that his locomotives were too heavy to ride on wooden tracks, he began ushering in the era of cast iron edge rails that could bear the weight without breaking.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith his success in trains, Stephenson was naturally soon asked to start designing \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/radical-railways-15-technologies-that-could-drive-the-future-of-trains\"\u003erailways\u003c/a\u003e. His first was the Hetton colliery railway, the first in the world that was designed without animal power from the beginning. It opened in 1822 and remained active for 137 years, closing in 1959 as the oldest mineral railway in all of the United Kingdom.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe then moved onto the Stockton and Darlington Railway, which ran 25 miles and debuted the first steam locomotive passenger car, which carried local dignitaries on its maiden journey. For this endeavor, Stephenson selected a gauge that was 4 feet, 8-½ inches that ultimately became the standard gauge for railways around the world.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLater in life, Stephenson became something of a Railway whisperer, taking on inquiries and consultancies from railway prospectors around the world, a large majority of them in the United States. In 1847, he was named the first president of the Institution of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/concepts-mechanical-engineers-need-to-understand\"\u003eMechanical Engineers\u003c/a\u003e. His childhood home is a historic house museum today and a statue of Stephenson stands proud in Chesterfield.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"a6:Tc5d,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eKnown as the Colossus of Roads, Thomas Telford was the most prolific designer of highways, bridges, and canals in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He was eventually elected the first president of the Institution of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/what-a-civil-engineer-does\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eCivil Engineers\u003c/a\u003e, which he held for 14 years, and the English town of Telford is named in his honor.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Eskdale, Dumfriesshire, Scotland in 1757, his father was a shepherd who died soon after Telford was born. He lived in poverty for most of his early life, before becoming the apprentice to a stonemason when he was 14. Work he performed in this capacity is still visible on a bridge that crosses the River Esk in Langholm. In 1782, he moved to London and met a pair of architects, Sir William Chambers and Robert Adam, and assisted them in building additions to Somerset House, the Central London complex that dates back to the mid-1500s. Like a character from a Dickens’ novel, Telford was blessed by the support of a rich patron, William Pulteney, who helped him become Surveyor of Public Works in Shropshire. He grew locally famous when he inspected the roof of a local church and declared it was in immediate danger of collapsing entirely, which it did three days later. He began responsible for designing bridges as transportation became more and more important in a rapidly growing England.He designed at least 40 bridges in Shropshire including multiple ones that traversed rivers and some of the first iron bridges in the country. He became a master of building wider, lighter bridges than anyone else, and moved his expertise to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/video/this-is-how-the-panama-canal-works\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecanals\u003c/a\u003e. His crowning achievement was the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct that carries the Llangollen Canal over the River Dee in Wales. Started in 1795 and finished a decade later, it was the longest aqueduct in the country at the time and the tallest in the world. It remains not only in place, but active, to this day.It became an UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2009.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTelfords’ knowledge of how transportation systems should work allowed him to also improve communications throughout the Scottish highlands, a project that took nearly 20 years to finish. It involved new churches, used as official meeting places at the time, harbors, bridges, roads, and canals. Telford moonlighted as a consultant for the King of Sweden on similar projects during that time, and in his later years took work in London, where he earned his nickname, courtesy of Poet Laureate Robert Southey. In reward for his service, in 1823, British Parliament approved a grant to build 40 \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/energy/houses-of-worship-go-solar-us\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003echurches\u003c/a\u003e in communities that had none, with 32 of these built in his homeland of the Scottish Highlands.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTelford passed away in 1834 at home at the age of 77. He is buried in Westminster Abbey and a statue of him stands at St. Andrew\u0026#8217;s Chapel.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"a7:T2f41,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMarvin Lee Minsky, born on August 9, 1927, in New York City, forever changed computer science by co-founding the field of artificial intelligence (AI). Through his work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Minsky helped guide AI research from its early stages of neural networks to advanced theories on how the human mind might be computationally emulated. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAlong the way, he invented devices that influenced both microscopy and robotics, published influential books on perception and cognition, and shaped the imaginations of countless scientists, engineers, and thinkers. His 1969 Turing Award recognized him as one of the most formidable forces in early AI, affirming his role as an innovator and thought leader.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMarvin Minsky was born into a Jewish family in New York City. His father, Henry, was an eye surgeon, and his mother, Fannie (Reiser) Minsky, was an active Zionist. Encouraged toward intellectual pursuits from a young age, Minsky developed a fascination with the sciences and mathematics during his time at the Ethical Culture Fieldston School, the Bronx High School of Science, and Phillips Academy in Andover.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter serving briefly in the U.S. Navy from 1944 to 1945, Minsky enrolled at Harvard University, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts in mathematics in 1950. He then went on to Princeton University, completing his Ph.D. in mathematics in 1954. His dissertation, titled \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTheory of Neural-Analog Reinforcement Systems and Its Application to the Brain-Model Problem\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e, marked his first major foray into what would eventually become artificial intelligence research.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDuring his graduate studies, Minsky was a Junior Fellow of the Harvard Society of Fellows (1954–1957). This prestigious appointment allowed him the freedom to explore emerging fields in computation and cognition. By the time he completed his formal education, Minsky had already begun forming radical ideas about machine intelligence that set him apart from many of his contemporaries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePath to AI and the MIT years\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1958, Minsky joined MIT’s faculty, working initially with the staff at MIT Lincoln Laboratory. Within a year, he partnered with John McCarthy—another pioneer of AI—to form what would later become the MIT \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/get-inspired-by-these-computer-engineers-success-stories\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eComputer Science\u003c/a\u003e and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL). This collaboration laid a critical foundation for AI research, not just at MIT but globally.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky believed that the human mind could be understood in computational terms. He pushed to replicate facets of intelligence—such as learning, pattern recognition, and problem-solving—within machines. His approach was interdisciplinary, blending mathematics, psychology, and engineering. Colleagues and students often described him as a fearless thinker who was unafraid to tackle foundational questions about how knowledge is represented and processed.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eKey contributions and invention\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNeural Networks and Warly AI Machines: In 1951, Minsky built SNARC, which is considered one of the earliest \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/neuromorphic-computing-neural-networks-hardware\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eneurocomputers\u003c/a\u003e, and incorporated a neural network-based learning machine. Around the same time, he developed frameworks for understanding how simple, randomly wired neural networks might adapt over time.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eConfocal microscope: In 1957, Minsky patented a device that served as a precursor to the confocal laser scanning microscope. It used a focused beam of light and a pinhole filter to eliminate out-of-focus light, improving the clarity of images under a microscope. Although the technology was ahead of its time and not initially commercialized, it paved the way for modern confocal microscopy, which is widely used in biology and materials science.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHead-mounted display: \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1963, Minsky is credited with inventing one of the earliest head-mounted graphical displays. While such devices were primitive by modern standards, they hinted at the potential for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/what-is-virtual-reality-heres-everything-you-need-to-know\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003evirtual reality\u003c/a\u003e, augmented reality, and immersive computing environments.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons and the AI Winter: \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky co-authored \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1969) with Seymour Papert, scrutinizing the capabilities and limitations of neural networks of the time. Many have argued that the book’s critical view of perceptrons inadvertently slowed neural network research in subsequent decades, contributing to the so-called “AI winter.” However, the insights in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePerceptrons\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e remain historically significant and provide a basis for more rigorous analysis of machine learning models.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLogo Turtle: Alongside Papert, Minsky helped develop the earliest “turtles” used in the Logo \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/top-10-programming-languages-for-engineers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eprogramming language\u003c/a\u003e, teaching children concepts of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/how-fault-geometry-predict-earthquake\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003egeometry \u003c/a\u003eand computation. These small robots could draw on the floor or screen, providing a hands-on learning approach that laid the groundwork for modern educational robotics.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eKnowledge Representation: Minsky’s seminal paper, “A Framework for Representing Knowledge,” introduced the concept of frames, which served as a structure for how machines could hold and interpret knowledge about the world. This work laid the foundation for later semantic network and expert systems developments.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eSociety of Mind and The \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/model-computer-understand-human-emotions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eEmotion\u003c/a\u003e Machine: Minsky’s broad conceptual framework to explain cognition culminated in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Society of Mind\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1986). He proposed that intelligence could emerge from many small, unintelligent “agents” working in coordination. In \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Emotion Machine\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (2006), he continued exploring how emotional states and higher cognitive functions might integrate within an AI system, challenging simplistic ideas about how feelings and thoughts might be coded.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePersonal life and influence on culture\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky married pediatrician Gloria Rudisch in 1952, and the couple had three children. Beyond his professional life, Minsky was an accomplished improvisational pianist, reflecting the creativity that also fueled his AI research. He was famously curious about every aspect of knowledge, from physics to music, and often encouraged broad thinking among his graduate students.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003ePop culture references to Minsky abound. He served as an adviser on Stanley Kubrick’s \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e2001: A \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/2001-a-space-odysseys-creator-arthur-c-clarke-and-his-visionary-works\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eSpace Odyssey\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e, shaping the portrayal of HAL 9000. Arthur C. Clarke’s novel version of \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e explicitly references Minsky’s breakthroughs as laying the groundwork for advanced artificial intelligence. His “useless machine,” designed to switch itself off immediately after being switched on, has appeared in television shows and remains a whimsical staple in electronics demos, illustrating philosophical ideas about automation and purpose.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eControversies and later years\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky’s strong opinions sometimes placed him at odds with other AI researchers. His critique of neural networks spurred decades of debate, although the field eventually rebounded with improved computing power and new algorithms. Late in his career, Minsky explored questions regarding superintelligent AI. He saw the potential dangers if machines rapidly surpassed human intelligence but considered it likely that rigorous testing would occur before unleashing any irreversible \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/artificial-general-intelligence-understanding-future-ai\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAI systems\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite occasional controversies, Minsky continued his work at MIT until his death. He remained steadfast in his belief that a thorough computational understanding of the mind could lead to machines replicating or surpassing human capabilities. Minsky was recognized not only for his theoretical work but for forming entire research agendas that taught future generations how to think about cognition, creativity, and reason in computational terms.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLegacy and recognition\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky received the 1969 Turing Award, the highest honor in computer science, for his contributions to AI. Among his other accolades were the Japan Prize (1990), the Benjamin Franklin Medal (2001), the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (2013), and membership in prestigious organizations like the U.S. National Academy of Engineering. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2006, he was inducted as a Fellow of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/15-most-significant-milestones-in-the-history-of-the-computer\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eComputer History\u003c/a\u003e Museum for his role in co-founding AI and advancing neural networks, robotics, and theories of cognition.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond official honors, Minsky’s legacy lies in the countless students, researchers, and technologists who took up his vision. His graduate students, like Manuel Blum, Seymour Papert, and Patrick Winston, established significant branches of modern AI research. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis theories on the structure of knowledge, intelligence, and emotion remain vital in current explorations of machine learning, cognitive science, and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/entertainment/top-humanoid-robots-list\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003erobotics\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMinsky died on January 24, 2016, at the age of 88 due to a cerebral hemorrhage. Although no longer alive, his influence persists across AI, robotics, educational technology, and philosophical debates about the nature of the mind. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis works, both technical and popular, continue to inspire new ways to understand intelligence, and while bridging mathematics, psychology, and engineering, Marvin Minsky laid the intellectual bedrock on which much of modern AI is built.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"a8:T13fa,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eJohn McCarthy was an American computer scientist widely regarded as one of the principal founders of artificial intelligence (AI). Born on September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts, he showed an early aptitude for mathematics. His parents, an Irish immigrant father and a Lithuanian Jewish mother, were active in the Communist Party during the Great Depression, and they encouraged his intellectual curiosity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcCarthy’s mathematical abilities became clear in his youth. He self-studied college-level math books used at the nearby California Institute of Technology (Caltech). After graduating from Belmont High School two years early, he was admitted to Caltech in 1944.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe briefly faced suspension for not attending physical education courses, served in the U.S. Army, and was eventually readmitted, earning a Bachelor of Science in mathematics in 1948. One particularly significant event during his time at Caltech was attending a lecture by \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/john-von-neumann\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eJohn von Neumann\u003c/a\u003e, which helped shape McCarthy’s future direction in computer science.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eContinuing his education, McCarthy pursued graduate studies at Princeton University, receiving his PhD in mathematics in 1951. His dissertation focused on the field of partial differential equations under the supervision of mathematician Donald C. Spencer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEarly academic appointments took him from Princeton to Stanford and Dartmouth. While at Dartmouth College in 1955, he became involved in the foundational stages of a new field—artificial intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcCarthy, alongside Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude Shannon, drafted a proposal for a summer research project held at Dartmouth in 1956. This gathering is recognized as the starting point of AI as a distinct academic discipline.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe very term “artificial intelligence” was coined for that conference, setting the conceptual stage for decades of research in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/what-exactly-is-machine-learning\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emachine learning\u003c/a\u003e, symbolic reasoning, and other AI subfields.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter Dartmouth, McCarthy spent time at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). There, he continued to develop his ideas in AI and advanced computer programming languages. He introduced the concept of the “advice taker” in 1958, foreshadowing later breakthroughs in logical reasoning systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThat same year, McCarthy’s work on symbolic manipulation led to the invention of Lisp (List Processing), one of the oldest high-level programming languages still in use today—especially in AI research. Lisp’s functional style, recursive nature, and garbage collection features significantly influenced subsequent programming language design.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcCarthy’s contributions were not limited to AI programming languages. He helped shape ALGOL 60 through his involvement with committees that refined the language’s standard. By the late 1950s, he had invented automatic memory management, commonly known as garbage collection, to handle dynamically allocated data in Lisp. This innovation later became a staple in many modern languages.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1962, McCarthy returned to Stanford University as a full professor, establishing the Stanford AI Laboratory (SAIL), which emerged as a major center of AI research. He was a pioneer in time-sharing systems, an idea that eventually led to the modern concept of cloud computing. By enabling multiple users to access a computer simultaneously, McCarthy and his colleagues helped revolutionize how people interact with computing resources.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, McCarthy explored logic-based approaches to AI, focusing on non-monotonic reasoning (circumscription) and formalizing common sense. His 1978–1986 work on circumscription offered a method to handle incomplete information, a central challenge in creating robust AI systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcCarthy received numerous accolades, including the 1971 \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/3-artificial-intelligence-pioneers-awarded-2018-turing-award\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eTuring Award\u003c/a\u003e for his major contributions to AI. He was also awarded the National Medal of Science, the Kyoto Prize, the Benjamin Franklin Medal, and other honors. Beyond academic achievements, McCarthy was known for his direct style and his emphasis on rigorous thinking. He remained at Stanford until his retirement in 2000, continuing to write and engage in computer science discussions well after his formal retirement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn October 24, 2011, McCarthy passed away at his home in Stanford, California. By that point, he had guided the progress of AI for over half a century—shaping programming paradigms, championing the idea of computers sharing resources, and formulating fundamental questions about machine reasoning and common sense. His influence endures in nearly every domain of computing where AI and programming language theory are at play.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"a9:T1a42,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-journey-from-childhood-naturalist-to-chemist\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eJourney from childhood naturalist to chemist\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStephanie Louise Kwolek, born on July 31, 1923, in the industrious town of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, emerged as a celebrated Polish-American chemist whose groundbreaking invention of Kevlar has left an indelible mark on material science and protective apparel.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer childhood was filled with extensive nature explorations alongside her father, an enthusiastic naturalist, who ignited her interest in science from a very young age. These early experiences cultivated a keen sense of observation and inquiry. Tragically, her father\u0026#8217;s death when Stephanie was just ten years old deepened her resolve to understand the natural world, honoring his memory through her academic pursuits.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRaised in a household that valued precision and skill, Stephanie was influenced by her mother, a professional seamstress, who promoted virtues such as precision and attention to detail, which would later define Kwolek\u0026#8217;s scientific career. Despite her mother’s suggestions to pursue fashion, recognizing her daughter’s perfectionism as both a gift and a challenge, Stephanie was drawn instead to the empirical and methodical world of science.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer education culminated in a Bachelor of Science in chemistry from Carnegie Mellon University\u0026#8217;s Margaret Morrison Carnegie College in 1946. Her initial career aspirations leaned towards medicine, driven by a desire to help others. However, fate soon steered the talented chemist down a different path.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-career-and-the-discovery-of-kevlar\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCareer and the discovery of Kevlar\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKwolek\u0026#8217;s professional life began when she accepted a position at DuPont\u0026#8217;s Buffalo, New York, facility shortly after graduation. This role was initially viewed as a temporary measure to finance her medical school ambitions. Yet, the challenges and complexities of polymer chemistry captivated her, marking a consequential turning point in her career.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder the mentorship of William Hale Charch, Kwolek\u0026#8217;s fascination with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/scientists-created-a-synthetic-muscle-fiber-thats-stronger-than-kevlar\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esynthetic fibers\u003c/a\u003e deepened, and she soon decided to dedicate her life to chemistry rather than pursuing medicine. It was at DuPont where Stephanie Kwolek\u0026#8217;s pioneering work would eventually lead to the development of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/architect-designs-kevlar-bulletproof-scarf-head-covering\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eKevlar\u003c/a\u003e in the mid-1960s, setting the stage for a revolution in materials technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStephanie Kwolek’s most significant breakthrough came in the mid-1960s at DuPont amidst a dedicated search for a new high-performance fiber that could be used to reinforce car tires, aiming to create a material that was lighter yet stronger than steel. The breakthrough occurred when Kwolek developed an unusual polymer solution, which, unlike typical viscous solutions, appeared as a cloudy, low-viscosity fluid. This anomaly intrigued Kwolek, who explored its properties further despite its unconventional appearance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe decision to spin the polymer solution into fiber using a spinneret was a gamble as it was feared the unusual solution might clog the machinery. However, the resulting fibers were astonishingly strong. It is about five times stronger than steel on an equal-weight basis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntroduced commercially in 1971 under the name Kevlar, this \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/new-ultralight-material-is-tougher-than-steel-and-kevlar\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003einnovative material\u003c/a\u003e had exceptional strength and resistance to heat, making it an ideal component in various applications ranging from bulletproof vests to aerospace engineering. Kevlar transformed protective apparel and found widespread use in sporting equipment, building materials, and even lightweight vehicles, enhancing safety and functionality across multiple industries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-later-life-and-legacy-nbsp\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eLater life and legacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeyond her revolutionary work with Kevlar, Stephanie Kwolek was a mentor and an advocate for women in the sciences. Her career at DuPont spanned over 40 years, during which she filed 28 patents and was a leading figure in polymer research. After retiring in 1986, Kwolek continued to consult for DuPont and engaged actively with the broader scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe served on national science boards, including the National Research Council and the National Academy of Sciences, contributing her vast knowledge and experience to advancing the field of polymer chemistry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKwolek’s contributions to science and industry were recognized with numerous awards, including the National Medal of Technology, the IRI Achievement Award, and the Perkin Medal. She was also inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame and was the only woman to receive DuPont\u0026#8217;s prestigious Lavoisier Medal for outstanding technical achievement at the time of her recognition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer legacy continues to influence the fields of materials science and engineering, inspiring new generations of scientists, particularly \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/greatest-women-in-stem\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ewomen\u003c/a\u003e, to pursue careers in STEM. Stephanie Kwolek passed away on June 18, 2014, at the age of 90. Her profound impact on the world is reflected not only in the widespread use of Kevlar but also in her role as a pioneer for women in science. Her work continues to save lives and protect individuals globally, a testament to her dedication to innovation and her remarkable career.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"aa:T1676,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFei-Fei Li, born in 1976 in Beijing, China, is a prominent Chinese-American computer scientist renowned for her significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in computer vision and machine learning. Her pioneering work has been instrumental in advancing AI technologies and promoting a human-centered approach to AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-early-life-and-education\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi spent her early years in Chengdu, China, before immigrating to the United States at the age of 15. Adjusting to a new culture and language, she demonstrated exceptional academic abilities, leading her to pursue higher education in the sciences. She earned a Bachelor of Arts in Physics with High Honors from Princeton University in 1999. Following her undergraduate studies, Li obtained her Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in 2005.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing her doctorate, Li embarked on an academic career that included positions as an assistant professor at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and Princeton University. In 2009, she joined Stanford University, where she became an associate professor and later served as the Director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL) from 2013 to 2018. During her tenure at Stanford, Li co-founded the Human-Centered AI Institute, emphasizing the importance of aligning AI development with human values and societal needs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2017, Li took a sabbatical from Stanford to join Google Cloud as Vice President and Chief Scientist of AI/ML, where she focused on democratizing AI technology and developing tools like AutoML to make machine learning more accessible. After her tenure at Google, she returned to Stanford and continued her research and advocacy for ethical AI practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-contributions-to-ai-and-computer-vision\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eContributions to AI and computer vision\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of Li\u0026#8217;s most notable contributions is the creation of ImageNet, a large-scale dataset designed to advance object recognition research. Launched in 2009, ImageNet provided millions of labeled images across thousands of categories, serving as a critical resource for training and evaluating machine learning models. The annual ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge became a benchmark for assessing advancements in computer vision and deep learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi\u0026#8217;s research interests encompass AI, machine learning, deep learning, computer vision, robotic learning, and ambient intelligence for healthcare delivery. She has published over 400 scientific articles in top-tier journals and conferences, contributing significantly to the advancement of AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-awards-and-honors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout her career, Li has received numerous accolades recognizing her contributions to science and technology. These include the Microsoft Research New Faculty Fellowship (2006), the NSF CAREER Award (2009), and being named a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in 2018 for her work in building large knowledge bases for machine learning and visual understanding. In 2020, she was elected as a member of both the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Medicine, acknowledging her interdisciplinary impact.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-recent-endeavors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eRecent endeavors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2023, Li published a memoir titled \u0026#8220;The Worlds I See: Curiosity, Exploration, and Discovery at the Dawn of AI,\u0026#8221; offering insights into her personal journey and the evolution of artificial intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, Li co-founded World Labs, an AI company focusing on spatial intelligence and generative AI. The startup aims to develop AI systems capable of understanding and interacting with the three-dimensional physical world, with applications spanning robotics, autonomous vehicles, and augmented reality. World Labs quickly garnered significant investment, reflecting the growing interest in advanced AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-advocacy-and-human-centered-ai\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAdvocacy and human-centered AI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi is a strong advocate for ethical AI development and has worked with policymakers to ensure that AI technologies progress in a manner that benefits society. She has testified before U.S. Senate and Congressional committees, served as a special advisor to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, and was a member of the National Artificial Intelligence Research Resource Task Force for the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer focus on human-centered AI emphasizes the importance of developing technologies that are ethical, transparent, and aligned with human values, ensuring that the benefits of AI are widely shared across society.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ab:T170c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFei-Fei Li, born in 1976 in Beijing, China, is a prominent Chinese-American computer scientist renowned for her significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in computer vision and machine learning. Her pioneering work has been instrumental in advancing AI technologies and promoting a human-centered approach to AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi spent her early years in Chengdu, China, before immigrating to the United States at the age of 15. Adjusting to a new culture and language, she demonstrated exceptional academic abilities, leading her to pursue higher education in the sciences. She earned a Bachelor of Arts in Physics with High Honors from Princeton University in 1999. Following her undergraduate studies, Li obtained her Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in 2005.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-academic-and-professional-career\"\u003eAcademic and professional career\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing her doctorate, Li embarked on an academic career that included positions as an assistant professor at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and Princeton University. In 2009, she joined Stanford University, where she became an associate professor and later served as the Director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL) from 2013 to 2018. During her tenure at Stanford, Li co-founded the Human-Centered AI Institute, emphasizing the importance of aligning AI development with human values and societal needs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2017, Li took a sabbatical from Stanford to join Google Cloud as Vice President and Chief Scientist of AI/ML, where she focused on democratizing AI technology and developing tools like AutoML to make machine learning more accessible. After her tenure at Google, she returned to Stanford and continued her research and advocacy for ethical AI practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-contributions-to-ai-and-computer-vision\"\u003eContributions to AI and computer vision\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of Li's most notable contributions is the creation of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/find-out-how-artificial-intelligence-perceives-you-through-imagenet-roulette\"\u003eImageNet\u003c/a\u003e, a large-scale dataset designed to advance object recognition research. Launched in 2009, ImageNet provided millions of labeled images across thousands of categories, serving as a critical resource for training and evaluating machine learning models. The annual ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge became a benchmark for assessing advancements in computer vision and deep learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi's research interests encompass AI, machine learning, deep learning, computer vision, robotic learning, and ambient intelligence for healthcare delivery. She has published over 400 scientific articles in top-tier journals and conferences, contributing significantly to the advancement of AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-awards-and-honors\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout her career, Li has received numerous accolades recognizing her contributions to science and technology. These include the Microsoft Research New Faculty Fellowship (2006), the NSF CAREER Award (2009), and being named a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in 2018 for her work in building large knowledge bases for machine learning and visual understanding. In 2020, she was elected as a member of both the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Medicine, acknowledging her interdisciplinary impact.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-recent-endeavors\"\u003eRecent endeavors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2023, Li published a memoir titled \"The Worlds I See: Curiosity, Exploration, and Discovery at the Dawn of AI,\" offering insights into her personal journey and the evolution of artificial intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, Li co-founded World Labs, an AI company focusing on spatial intelligence and generative AI. The startup aims to develop AI systems capable of understanding and interacting with the three-dimensional physical world, with applications spanning robotics, autonomous vehicles, and augmented reality. World Labs quickly garnered significant investment, reflecting the growing interest in advanced AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-advocacy-and-human-centered-ai\"\u003eAdvocacy and human-centered AI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLi is a strong advocate for ethical AI development and has worked with policymakers to ensure that AI technologies progress in a manner that benefits society. She has testified before U.S. Senate and Congressional committees, served as a special advisor to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, and was a member of the National Artificial Intelligence Research Resource Task Force for the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer focus on human-centered AI emphasizes the importance of developing technologies that are ethical, transparent, and aligned with human values, ensuring that the benefits of AI are widely shared across society.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ac:T1201,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBorn on December 3, 1924, in Wilmington, Delaware, John Warner Backus was a key figure in the evolution of computer science. He is known for developing FORTRAN, the first widely used high-level programming language, and for creating the Backus-Naur Form (BNF). This notation defines the syntaxes of programming languages. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis work laid the very foundational stones for modern computing and earned him prestigious accolades such as the Turing Award and the National Medal of Science.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBackus\u0026#8217;s journey into computing began after an erratic academic start. Initially enrolled at The Hill School in Pennsylvania, he faced academic challenges and was expelled from the University of Virginia due to poor attendance. His life took a dramatic turn, and his education was interrupted when he was drafted into the U.S. Army during World War II. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter the military recognized his potential through high scores on an aptitude test, Backus was sent to study engineering at the University of Pittsburgh. He later transferred to Haverford College for a pre-medical program but ultimately left the medical field after a series of medical interventions related to a cranial bone tumor.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBackus moved to New York City after military service, where he shifted his focus to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/who-exactly-invented-math\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emathematics\u003c/a\u003e, obtaining both a bachelor’s and a master’s degree from Columbia University in 1949 and 1950, respectively. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHe joined IBM in 1950, and his first major project involved developing a program to calculate the moon\u0026#8217;s position. This task piqued his interest in simplifying programming practices, leading to the creation of Speedcoding in 1953, the first high-level language for an IBM computer.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eRecognizing the limitations and cumbersome nature of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/15-of-the-most-important-algorithms-that-helped-define-mathematics-computing-and-physics\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eearly programming\u003c/a\u003e, Backus assembled a team in 1954 to develop Fortran (Formula Translation) for the IBM 704 computer. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eFortran\u0026#8217;s success revolutionized computing by democratizing the development process, enabling scientists and engineers to program without deep knowledge of hardware specifics. This innovation significantly broadened the accessibility and practicality of computers.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBackus\u0026#8217;s influence extended beyond Fortran. He played a crucial role in the development of ALGOL 58 and ALGOL 60, which were pivotal in advancing programming languages. During this period, he developed the Backus-Naur Form (BNF). This formal notation became essential for describing the syntax of programming languages and thus integral to the development of compilers.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis contributions were profound and widely recognized. 1967 Backus was awarded the W. W. McDowell Award, followed by the National Medal of Science in 1975 for his contributions to high-level programming systems. His most distinguished honor came in 1977 when he received the Turing Award for his enduring contributions to the design and specification of programming languages.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn his later years, Backus focused on developing the function-level programming paradigm, introducing the FP \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/top-10-programming-languages-for-engineers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eprogramming language \u003c/a\u003ein his influential 1977 Turing Award lecture \u0026#8220;Can Programming Be Liberated from the von Neumann Style?\u0026#8221;. Although FP did not achieve widespread use, it encouraged further research into functional programming. Backus continued this line of inquiry by developing FL, a successor to FP, though this, too, remained largely an academic endeavor.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eJohn Backus retired in 1991 and passed away on March 17, 2007, in Ashland, Oregon. His legacy endures in the fundamental principles he established in computer science. His pioneering programming languages and his influential theoretical contributions continue to shape the world of computing.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ad:T16a3,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eLewis Howard Latimer (1848–1928) was an African American inventor, engineer, and patent draftsman who made vital contributions to electrical engineering and telecommunications. His work in improving carbon filament technology for light bulbs played a crucial role in the widespread adoption of electric lighting. Latimer also worked closely with renowned inventors such as \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/alexander-graham-bell\"\u003eAlexander Graham Bell\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/thomas-edison\"\u003eThomas Edison\u003c/a\u003e, playing a key role in some of the most groundbreaking technological advancements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eLewis Howard Latimer was born on \u003c/span\u003eSeptember 4, 1848, in Chelsea, Massachusetts. His parents, George and Rebecca Latimer\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, were formerly enslaved individuals who had escaped to freedom. In a landmark case, George Latimer successfully won his freedom with the support of abolitionists in Massachusetts.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eGrowing up in a free Black family in the North, Lewis Latimer faced many challenges but demonstrated a natural aptitude for learning. With limited formal education, he taught himself \u003c/span\u003emechanical drawing and drafting\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, skills that would later define his career.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of 16, Latimer enlisted in the US Navy during the American Civil War, serving on the USS Massasoit. After the war, he returned home and sought employment, eventually securing a job at a patent law firm\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, where he honed his drafting skills.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly work as a patent draftsman\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eLatimer\u0026#8217;s career began at \u003c/span\u003eCrosby \u0026amp; Gould, a patent law firm in Boston. Starting as an office assistant, he quickly taught himself technical drawing and became an expert mechanical draftsman\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e. His exceptional skills allowed him to draft patent applications for inventors, enabling their ideas to become legally recognized innovations.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eHis proficiency in drafting attracted the attention of \u003c/span\u003eAlexander Graham Bell, who hired Latimer to help prepare the blueprints for the telephone. Latimer played a crucial role in finalizing Bell’s patent application for the telephone in 1876\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, submitted just hours before a competing claim.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eIn the 1880s, Latimer shifted his focus to electrical engineering, working with leading figures in the emerging \u003c/span\u003eelectric light industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eImproving the light bulb\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough Thomas Edison is credited with inventing the incandescent light bulb, early versions had significant drawbacks, particularly in filament durability. In 1881, Latimer began working with Hiram Maxim at the US Electric Lighting Company. While there, he developed a method for producing carbon filaments\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, significantly improving the efficiency and lifespan of electric light bulbs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eIn \u003c/span\u003e1882, Latimer was granted U.S. Patent No. 252,386 for the Process of Manufacturing Carbons, which revolutionized electric lighting by making bulbs longer-lasting and more commercially viable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCollaboration with Thomas Edison\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eLatimer’s expertise in electric lighting led to his recruitment by the \u003c/span\u003eEdison Electric Light Company (which later became General Electric). He became Edison\u0026#8217;s chief patent expert, responsible for overseeing and defending Edison’s patents against legal challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis book, \u0026#8220;Incandescent Electric Lighting: A Practical Description of the Edison System\u0026#8221; (1890), became one of the first technical guides on electric lighting. Latimer also played a crucial role in installing electric lighting systems in major cities, including New York, Philadelphia, and London.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLater career and advocacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eBeyond his technical contributions, Latimer was a strong advocate for \u003c/span\u003ediversity in engineering. He was one of the few Black engineers of his time and used his position to promote STEM education for African Americans.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eHe was also a founding member of the \u003c/span\u003eEdison Pioneers\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, an elite group of engineers dedicated to advancing electrical technology.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eLewis Howard Latimer’s impact on engineering and invention remains profound. His contributions to \u003c/span\u003etelecommunications and electric lighting\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e paved the way for technological advancements that continue to shape the modern world.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eToday, his legacy is honored through:\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eThe Lewis Latimer House Museum\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e in Queens, New York, preserving his life’s work.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eThe National Inventors Hall of Fame\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003e, where he was inducted for his contributions to electrical engineering.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli style=\"font-weight: 400;\"\u003eNumerous STEM education programs inspired by his life.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLatimer died on December 11, 1928, at the age of 80.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ae:T17e8,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLewis Howard Latimer (1848–1928) was an African American inventor, engineer, and patent draftsman who made vital contributions to electrical engineering and telecommunications. His work in improving carbon filament technology for light bulbs played a crucial role in the widespread adoption of electric lighting. Latimer also worked closely with renowned inventors such as \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/alexander-graham-bell\"\u003eAlexander Graham Bell\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/thomas-edison\"\u003eThomas Edison\u003c/a\u003e, playing a key role in some of the most groundbreaking technological advancements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLewis Howard Latimer was born on September 4, 1848, in Chelsea, Massachusetts. His parents, George and Rebecca Latimer, were formerly enslaved individuals who had escaped to freedom. In a landmark case, George Latimer successfully won his freedom with the support of abolitionists in Massachusetts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGrowing up in a free Black family in the North, Lewis Latimer faced many challenges but demonstrated a natural aptitude for learning. With limited formal education, he taught himself mechanical drawing and drafting, skills that would later define his career.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of 16, Latimer enlisted in the US Navy during the American Civil War, serving on the USS Massasoit. After the war, he returned home and sought employment, eventually securing a job at a patent law firm, where he honed his drafting skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-work-as-a-patent-draftsman\"\u003eEarly work as a patent draftsman\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLatimer's career began at Crosby \u0026amp; Gould, a patent law firm in Boston. Starting as an office assistant, he quickly taught himself technical drawing and became an expert mechanical draftsman. His exceptional skills allowed him to draft patent applications for inventors, enabling their ideas to become legally recognized innovations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis proficiency in drafting attracted the attention of Alexander Graham Bell, who hired Latimer to help prepare the blueprints for the telephone. Latimer played a crucial role in finalizing Bell’s patent application for the telephone in 1876, submitted just hours before a competing claim.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the 1880s, Latimer shifted his focus to electrical engineering, working with leading figures in the emerging electric light industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-improving-the-light-bulb\"\u003eImproving the light bulb\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough Thomas Edison is credited with inventing the incandescent light bulb, early versions had significant drawbacks, particularly in filament durability. In 1881, Latimer began working with Hiram Maxim at the US Electric Lighting Company. While there, he developed a method for producing carbon filaments, significantly improving the efficiency and lifespan of electric light bulbs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1882, Latimer was granted U.S. Patent No. 252,386 for the Process of Manufacturing Carbons, which revolutionized electric lighting by making bulbs longer-lasting and more commercially viable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-collaboration-with-thomas-edison\"\u003eCollaboration with Thomas Edison\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLatimer’s expertise in electric lighting led to his recruitment by the Edison Electric Light Company (which later became General Electric). He became Edison's chief patent expert, responsible for overseeing and defending Edison’s patents against legal challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis book, \"Incandescent Electric Lighting: A Practical Description of the Edison System\" (1890), became one of the first technical guides on electric lighting. Latimer also played a crucial role in installing electric lighting systems in major cities, including New York, Philadelphia, and London.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-later-career-and-advocacy\"\u003eLater career and advocacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeyond his technical contributions, Latimer was a strong advocate for diversity in engineering. He was one of the few Black engineers of his time and used his position to promote STEM education for African Americans.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was also a founding member of the Edison Pioneers, an elite group of engineers dedicated to advancing electrical technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLewis Howard Latimer’s impact on engineering and invention remains profound. His contributions to telecommunications and electric lighting paved the way for technological advancements that continue to shape the modern world.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eToday, his legacy is honored through:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list --\u003e\n\u003cul class=\"wp-block-list\"\u003e\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Lewis Latimer House Museum in Queens, New York, preserving his life’s work.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe National Inventors Hall of Fame, where he was inducted for his contributions to electrical engineering.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:list-item --\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNumerous STEM education programs inspired by his life.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list-item --\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:list --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLatimer died on December 11, 1928, at the age of 80.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"af:T1432,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHertha Ayrton, born Phoebe Sarah Marks on April 28, 1854, in Portsea, Hampshire, England, was the third child of a Polish Jewish watchmaker, Levi Marks, and a seamstress, Alice Theresa Moss. After her father died in 1861, the family struggled financially, and nine-year-old Sarah assumed responsibility for helping to care for her siblings. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShe later moved to northwest London to live with her aunts, who ran a school. They introduced her to science and mathematics, in which she showed remarkable aptitude. By her teenage years, she earned money as a governess but remained determined to pursue higher education. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe writer George Eliot supported her application to Girton College, Cambridge, where she studied mathematics under the mentorship of physicist Richard Glazebrook. Although Cambridge did not grant full degrees to women at the time, Ayrton passed the Mathematical Tripos in 1880 and later obtained a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of London in 1881.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eReturning to London, Ayrton taught and performed embroidery work to make ends meet while developing her mathematical and inventive skills. In 1884, she received her first patent for a line divider, an instrument capable of dividing a line into equal segments or scaling figures, useful for artists, architects, and engineers. With backing from supporters like Louisa Goldsmid and Barbara Bodichon, she financed additional patents and began cultivating her reputation as an inventor.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton deepened her knowledge of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/here-are-9-of-the-most-important-electrical-inventions-ever\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectricity\u003c/a\u003e by attending evening classes at Finsbury Technical College, taught by Professor William Edward Ayrton. They married in 1885, and she assisted him with physics experiments while initiating her research on electric arcs. By the late 19th century, electric arc lighting was widespread for public illumination, but flickering and hissing in the arc posed major technical challenges. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton published influential articles in \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe Electrician\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e explaining how oxygen interacting with carbon rods caused these unwanted effects. In 1899, she became the first woman to read her paper before the Institution of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/7-sparking-marvels-of-electrical-engineering-that-made-our-current-lives-possible\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eElectrical Engineers\u003c/a\u003e (IEE). She was subsequently elected the first female member of the IEE.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAlthough Ayrton’s groundbreaking findings on electric arcs garnered her acclaim, barriers persisted. In 1902, she was nominated for Fellowship of the Royal Society but was turned down because married women were not eligible. Nevertheless, in 1904, she was permitted to read her paper “The Origin and Growth of Ripple Marks” at the Royal Society. Two years later, she received the Hughes Medal for her research on electric arcs and sand ripples, making her the first woman to earn that distinction.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDuring \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/5-inventions-of-ww1-and-the-engineers-behind-them\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWorld War I\u003c/a\u003e, Ayrton invented a hand-operated fan to disperse poisonous gases in the trenches. Initially ignored, the device eventually gained official recognition, and more than 100,000 “Ayrton Fans” were issued to British troops.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1885, Ayrton married William Edward Ayrton, a widower and notable physicist, who supported her scientific endeavors. The couple had one daughter, Barbara Bodichon Ayrton, born in 1886, who later became a member of Parliament. Ayrton was also actively involved in the suffrage movement, using her resources to support prominent campaigners like Christabel Pankhurst.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHertha Ayrton continued her research and advocacy for women in science until her death on August 26, 1923. She passed away in North Lancing, Sussex, at the age of 69 from blood poisoning, reportedly caused by an insect bite.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAyrton’s most prestigious accolade was the Hughes Medal from the Royal Society in 1906, honoring her pioneering experiments on the electric arc and ripple marks. Though she faced institutional barriers, this award placed her among the era’s top researchers in electricity and magnetism. Her numerous patents, 26 in total, touched on mathematical tools, arc lamps, electrodes, and airflow devices. Ayrton’s achievements remain influential, underscoring the value of scientific rigor, perseverance, and advocacy for women’s rightful place in the scientific community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"b0:T10b8,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAndrew Yan-Tak Ng, born in 1976 in the United Kingdom to parents who immigrated from Hong Kong, is an electrical engineer and computer scientist renowned for his pioneering work in deep learning, machine perception, computer vision, and natural language processing. Ng has significantly shaped AI research and application on a global scale.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNg’s academic journey began at Carnegie Mellon University, where he completed his undergraduate studies with a triple major in computer science, statistics, and economics. During this time, he also engaged in groundbreaking research at AT\u0026amp;T Bell Labs, focusing on reinforcement learning and feature selection between 1996 and 1998. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis quest for knowledge took him to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he earned a master’s degree in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/12-electrical-engineering-projects-that-will-impress-your-teachers\"\u003eElectrical Engineering\u003c/a\u003e and Computer Science in 1998. At MIT, he developed the first publicly available, automatically indexed web search engine for research papers, a precursor to systems like CiteSeerX.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2002, Ng completed his Ph.D. in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/get-inspired-by-these-computer-engineers-success-stories\"\u003eComputer Science\u003c/a\u003e at the University of California, Berkeley, diving deeper into the capabilities of AI. He joined Stanford University as an associate professor and was later appointed the Director of the Stanford AI Lab (SAIL). At Stanford, Ng also initiated the Stanford Engineering Everywhere (SEE) program, which made several courses available online for free.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHe co-founded Google Brain and led the project that developed large-scale artificial neural networks using Google’s distributed computing. His work at Google laid the foundation for many modern AI applications. In 2011, Ng’s interest in online education led him to cofound Coursera with Daphne Koller, providing millions worldwide access to free online courses from top institutions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2014, Ng took on the role of Chief Scientist at Baidu, where he led the company’s AI Group, focusing on deep learning, big data, and artificial intelligence. Baidu advanced the field of AI significantly, particularly in the Chinese market, under his leadership. However, in 2017, he resigned from Baidu and quickly moved on to establish DeepLearning.A, and offered a series of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/what-is-deep-learning-and-why-is-it-more-relevant-than-ever\"\u003edeep learning\u003c/a\u003e courses aimed at democratizing AI education.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eFollowing his departure from Baidu, Ng launched the AI Fund in 2018, a $175 million investment initiative to fund AI startups. He also founded Landing AI, which focuses on bringing AI-powered SaaS products to various industries and making AI technologies easily accessible to all kinds of businesses. On April 11, 2024, Amazon added Ng to its board of directors.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNg was named in MIT Technology Review’s TR35 list of 35 top innovators under 35 in 2008 and won the IJCAI Computers and Thought Award in 2009. Time Magazine recognized him as one of the 100 Most Influential People in 2013 and again in the AI 100 Most Influential People in 2023. His contributions to AI were also honored with an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Statistical Society in 2024.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond his professional achievements, Ng is known for his contributions to the community and public understanding of AI. He served on the board of directors for drive.ai, which uses AI for self-driving cars and was acquired by Apple in 2019. Ng is also the board chair for Woebot Labs, which employs data science to deliver cognitive behavioral therapy through a chatbot. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAndrew Ng resides in Los Altos Hills, California, with his wife, Carol E. Reiley, and their two children. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"b1:Tcfd,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eGeoffrey Everest Hinton was born in Wimbledon, London, on December 6, 1947. He is a cognitive psychologist and a pioneering computer scientist, widely known as the \u0026#8220;Godfather of AI.\u0026#8221; Hinton\u0026#8217;s father, Howard, was an entomologist, and his mother, Margaret Clark, was a teacher. His middle name comes from his great-great-granduncle, George Everest, the Surveyor General of India, after whom Mount Everest is named.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHinton has made an unparalleled impact on artificial intelligence by developing some of the most important techniques in deep learning and neural networks. His work on methods like backpropagation, deep belief networks, and generative adversarial networks has been foundational to the advancement of modern AI systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHinton\u0026#8217;s academic journey began at Clifton College in the 1960s and continued at the University of Cambridge, where he switched majors several times before earning a BA in Experimental Psychology in 1970. In 1978, he obtained a PhD in artificial intelligence from the University of Edinburgh, supervised by Christopher Longuet-Higgins. This marked the beginning of his lifelong commitment to exploring the potential of machine learning and advocating for the ethical use of AI.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOver his six-decade career, Hinton has been affiliated with several prestigious institutions, holding academic and research positions at Carnegie Mellon University, the University of California, San Diego, and, most notably, the University of Toronto. His work at Toronto has been particularly influential, including his seminal 1986 paper co-authored with David Rumelhart and Ronald J. Williams, which popularized the backpropagation algorithm crucial for training multi-layer neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis algorithm enabled researchers to train deeper and more complex networks, laying the groundwork for future advancements in deep learning. Hinton\u0026#8217;s contributions have been pivotal in realizing practical AI applications, enhancing technologies such as speech recognition and computer vision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2012, Hinton co-founded DNNresearch Inc., which was quickly acquired by Google in 2013. He served as Vice President and Engineering Fellow at Google Brain until 2023, where he applied his theories at scale, impacting millions through Google\u0026#8217;s advancements in image and speech recognition technologies. He left Google in 2023 to focus more freely on addressing the ethical concerns surrounding AI, including issues of privacy, security, and the impact of automation on employment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Hinton has been recognized with numerous awards and honors for his contributions to technology and science. In 2018, he received the Turing Award, often referred to as the \u0026#8220;Nobel Prize of Computing,\u0026#8221; alongside \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yoshua-bengio\"\u003eYoshua Bengio\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yann-lecun\"\u003eYann LeCun\u003c/a\u003e, for their collective contributions to deep learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeyond the tech domain and academia, Geoffrey Hinton is a leading voice in AI safety and ethics discussions. His work continues to inspire both caution and innovation in the AI community, emphasizing the need for a balanced approach as AI technologies evolve.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"b2:T15bc,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThe popular carpenter is known for inventing the marine chronometer, a device that\u0026#8217;s used to calculate longitude at sea. Born on March 24, 1693, John Harrison\u0026#8217;s invention transformed the navigation, boosting the safety of sea travel.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHis invention of determining \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethe longitude of a ship at sea \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eactually\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e saved many lives.\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e The clockmaker had been fascinated with watches since childhood. At the age of six, when he was suffering from smallpox, his parents gave him a watch, which is believed to be the reason for his passion for watches.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHis father was a carpenter by trade and used to repair clocks occasionally. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAt \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ean\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e early age, Harrison helped his father with his \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/energy/perovskite-cells-defect-passivation-24-13-efficiency\"\u003ework\u003c/a\u003e. As he grew older, Arrison focused on woodworking and timepieces to begin building clocks.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAt the age of 20, he built his first long-case clock \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethat was\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e called a\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e grandfather clock, in 1713.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eLater, he developed some remarkable \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/energy/wind-turbines-hvac-system-clean-energy\"\u003eprecision\u003c/a\u003e long-case clocks that achieved an accuracy of one second in a month. His clocks were considered much better than any other clocks of that time.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eIn 1714, the British Parliament offered a prize of 20,000 pounds to anyone who could successfully calculate a \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eship\u0026#8217;s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e precise longitude at sea. \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eExpert\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e in developing clocks, \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHarrison\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e decided to work on \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eit\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe money was offered after the parliament passed the Longitude Act, offering monetary benefits to anyone who could find a solution to figuring out longitude at sea.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eTo work on this area, Harrison started working in London with second Astronomer Royal and\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e a \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eCommissioner of Longitude Edmond Halley.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHowever, Halley couldn\u0026#8217;t continue working with Harrison \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eand sent\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e him to clockmaker George Graham.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eLater, he developed his first experimental marine timekeeper between 1730 and 1735 to solve longitude issues.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe watch was shown to London’s scientific community in 1735 after being tested on the River Humber. \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe watch was\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e installed at Graham’s workshop.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe clock\u0026#8217;s two interconnected swinging balances made it almost unaffected by \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethe motion of a ship, which made it seem like\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e a possible timekeeper \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eto determine\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e longitude at sea.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eConsidered one of the great milestones in clock-making history, H1 compensates for changes in temperature and, thanks to extensive anti-friction devices, runs without any lubrication.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe H1 was put on test in May 1736 aboard HM ship Centurion. The plan was to put H1 to the test in a live setting when the ship set sail for Lisbon.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe Lisbon trial\u0026#8217;s results suggested Harrison could \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ebe rewarded\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e under the British Parliament\u0026#8217;s Longitude Act, and the \u003c/span\u003eAdmiralty\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e also proposed a meeting with the Commissioners of Longitude.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAfter the meeting on June 30, 1737, the Commissioners decided on a payment of £500 and asked Harrison to develop an improved clock. However, H2 never went on trial due to a pre-discovered flaw. He started working on H3 in 1740.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe board decided to award Harrison £10,000 after he demonstrated the principles of H4. The remaining amount was to \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ebe awarded\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e when \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eit could be ensured\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e that other makers could develop similar timekeepers.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe died on March 24, 1776, at the age of 82.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"b3:T147f,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eDame Zaha Mohammad Hadid was a known Iraqi-British architect\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eBorn in Baghdad, Iraq, in 1950, Hadid was\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethe first woman to receive the Pritzker Architecture Prize. She is famous for her futuristic architecture designs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHadid\u0026#8217;s father was\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewealthy industrialist from Mosul and she attended boarding schools in England and Switzerland \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ein the 1960s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe attended American University of Beirut to study mathematics. Later, she moved to London in 1972 to \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003etake part\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e at the Architectural Association (\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAA\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e) School. She received the Diploma Prize at \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAA\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e School in 1977.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe founded Zaha Hadid Architects in 1979, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/military/robot-dogs-better-sharpshooters-study\"\u003eintroducing\u003c/a\u003e audiences to a new modern architecture style.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe also started teaching at Architectural Association (\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAA\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e) School.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHadid also held numerous chairs and guest professorships at Cambridge University, Harvard Graduate School of Design, the University of Chicago, the Hochschule für \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ebildende\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Künste in Hamburg, the University of Illinois at Chicago, and Columbia University.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHer futuristic designs and lectures made her popular, bringing \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eearly\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e reputation.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHer pioneering and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/124-mile-range-in-5-mins-china-firms-launch-fastest-charging-ev-battery\"\u003evisionary \u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003earchitect\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e designs were awarded the Stirling Prize in 2010 and 2011. Stirling Prize is one of architecture’s highest accolades given by the Royal Institute of British Architects.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eUNESCO also named Hadid \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eas\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e an ‘Artist for Peace\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e’.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe Republic of France \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ehonoured\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Hadid with the ‘Commandeur de l’Ordre des Arts et des Lettres\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e’,\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e and TIME magazine included her in the ‘100 Most Influential People in the \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eWorld’\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e, naming her the world’s top thinker of 2010.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe was also made\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eby Queen Elizabeth II\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e in 2012, and in February 2016, she received the Royal Gold Medal.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer work was also the subject of critically-acclaimed exhibitions at New York’s Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in 2006, London’s Design Museum in 2007, Saint Petersburg’s State Hermitage Museum in 2015, and London’s Serpentine Galleries in 2016, according to Zaha Hadid Architects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer outstanding contribution to the architectural profession has been acknowledged by professional, academic and civic institutions around the world, including the Forbes List of the ‘World’s Most Powerful Women’ and the Japan Art Association presenting her with the ‘Praemium Imperiale’.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHer remarkable projects include Vitra Fire Station, Spittelau Viaducts Housing Project, Bergisel Ski Jump, Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati, Phaeno Science Center, Ordrupgaard Museum extension, Bridge Pavilion in Zaragoza, Spain, National Museum of Arts of the 21st Century (MAXXI Interior), Rome, Italy, Guangzhou Opera House, Guangzhou, China, Sheikh Zayed Bridge, Abu Dhabi.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe architect received the highest honours from civic, academic and professional institutions across the globe before being passed away . Her practice remains one of the world’s most inventive architectural studios—and has been for almost 40 years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of 65, she died of a heart attack on March 31, 2016, at Mount Sinai Medical Center in Miami.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"b4:T1379,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eKnown computer scientist Sophie Wilson developed the architecture behind the Acorn Micro-Computer, which was the first computer sold by a UK-based technology company, Acorn Computers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eBorn\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e in 1957 in Leeds, England, \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eWilson is\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e daughter of schoolteacher parents.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe spent her early childhood in \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethe village of\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Burn Bridge, North Yorkshire.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe attended the University of Cambridge in 1975 to complete her graduation. In 1977, she developed an automated cow-feeder during her first summer vacation. Later, she developed Acorn System 1, an early 8-bit microcomputer for hobbyists, \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewhich was\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e produced commercially by the British company Acorn Computers beginning in 1979.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eBefore university, Sophie designed and built systems counting translucent drops of liquid and detecting spun \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003efibre\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e machinery breakdowns; in her first \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003evacation\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e she developed a cow-feeder.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe and Steve Furber developed and implemented the prototype of the BBC Microcomputer, winning Acorn the contract for the Computer Literacy Project. Sophie designed the operating system, \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eand\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e wrote code for BBC BASIC\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e,\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e and implemented BBC BASIC for a succession of processors.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe also co-designed the ARM3, ARM610 \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eand\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e ARM 700 processors and \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eARM7500FE\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e single-chip computer.\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e She created Acorn Replay multimedia software. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eSophie developed the Firepath SIMD LIW processor in 1999. Sophie and six others founded Element 14 to exploit this for ADSL. Sophie led the design of the instruction set for Firepath, wrote the Architecture Guide, and led the SoC designs. \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eBroadcom bought Element 14 at the end of 2000 and \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewent on to win the majority\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e of the Central Office DSL business.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eMember\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e of the university Microprocessor \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003esociety\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e drew on an idea called Reduced Instruction Set Computing, or RISC, which was being developed by IBM \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eat the time\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e She completely rewrote the operating instruction set for her new chip, reducing the number and complexity of instructions needed to make it work. This simplification also allowed her to reduce the number of transistors on each chip to about 25,000, dramatically slashing energy consumption. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer contributions in the field of computing have not gone unnoticed and she also has an honorary Doctor of Science from Cambridge University. For her \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/energy/nuclear-fusion-reactor-by-teenager-achieved-plasma\"\u003eservices\u003c/a\u003e to computing, she was also appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 2019.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSophie is fellow of many Societies, such as the Women’s Engineering Society and British Computer Society, and an honorary fellow of the Institution of Engineering and Technology, further highlighting her standing in the field.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1994, she reportedly underwent a gender reassignment surgery, transitioning from male to female. The famous computer scientist enjoys photography and loves doing theatre sometimes. She has also been part of a number of productions including \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/energy/us-senate-clean-energy-bill-nuclear-power-expansion\"\u003eplaying\u003c/a\u003e a cameo role in Micro Men, a BBC television drama.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe famous engineer is a Fellow of the Royal Society, a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering, a Fellow of the British Computer Society, a Fellow of the Women’s Engineering Society, and an honorary Fellow of Selwyn College, Cambridge.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"b5:T16ef,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eJoseph Weizenbaum was born in Berlin, Germany, on January 8, 1923. Coming from a Jewish family, he escaped the threats of Nazi Germany by immigrating to the United States with his family in January 1936. Weizenbaum\u0026#8217;s academic journey in America began at Wayne State University in Detroit, Michigan, where he commenced his studies in mathematics in 1941.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis education was briefly interrupted in 1942 when he served as a meteorologist in the U.S. Army Air Corps during World War II. Despite his initial interest in cryptology, his status as an \u0026#8220;enemy alien\u0026#8221; redirected his path. After the war, he returned to Wayne State, completing his B.S. in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/who-exactly-invented-math\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eMathematics\u003c/a\u003e in 1948 and his M.S. in 1950.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn the early 1950s, Weizenbaum\u0026#8217;s career took a technological turn. By 1952, while still at Wayne State, he was deeply involved in developing analog and digital computers. His move to General Electric in 1956 marked a significant phase where he contributed to the development of ERMA (Electronic Recording Machine, Accounting). This system revolutionized banking by automating check processing.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis academic and professional journey took a defining turn in 1963 when he joined the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) as an associate professor. This position, supported by his development of the SLIP (Symmetric List Processing) software, soon led to tenure and a full professorship in computer science and engineering by 1970. Weizenbaum also held positions at various prestigious institutions, including Harvard, Stanford, and the University of Bremen.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1966, Joseph Weizenbaum introduced \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/worlds-first-chatbot-eliza-revived\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eELIZA\u003c/a\u003e, a program that could simulate conversation by applying pattern-matching rules to user inputs. Named after a character from George Bernard Shaw\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;Pygmalion,\u0026#8221; ELIZA operated through a script called DOCTOR, mimicking the conversational style of an empathetic therapist. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMost people choose to call ELIZA \u0026#8216;the first \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/chatgpt-30-incredible-ways-to-use\"\u003echatbot\u003c/a\u003e ever.\u0026#8217; Weizenbaum was startled by how seriously users, including his own secretary, engaged with the program, some even requesting privacy as if they were in a real therapeutic session.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis experience led Weizenbaum to question the broader implications of artificial intelligence (AI). He observed that while technological advances like ELIZA were celebrated as milestones towards autonomous thinking machines, they also reflected a misunderstanding of AI\u0026#8217;s limitations. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis concerns deepened over the role of computers in society, critiquing them as inherently conservative tools that, despite their innovative facade, could stifle necessary societal reforms. For instance, he noted how computers facilitated the banking industry\u0026#8217;s growth by handling large transactions, paradoxically preventing essential structural changes like decentralization.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eWeizenbaum\u0026#8217;s apprehension extended to the military use of computers. He argued that the euphemistic military terminology such as \u0026#8220;defense\u0026#8221; masked the true nature of its operations. He clarified that while not a pacifist, he advocated for a more honest discourse on military actions to prevent hasty decisions towards violence.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThese philosophical inquiries culminated in his 1976 book, \u0026#8220;Computer Power and Human Reason,\u0026#8221; where Weizenbaum distinguished between \u0026#8220;deciding\u0026#8221; and \u0026#8220;choosing.\u0026#8221; He argued that while computers can decide or perform tasks based on programming, they cannot, as choosing involves judgment influenced by human values. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis distinction highlighted his stance that computers should not replace human decision-making in areas requiring moral and ethical considerations.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eJoseph Weizenbaum, a father of five, moved back to his roots in Berlin in 1996, settling near his childhood neighborhood. He passed away on March 5, 2008, from complications related to stomach cancer and was buried at the Weißensee Jewish Cemetery in Berlin, where a memorial service was held on March 18, 2008. His critical perspective on artificial intelligence was highlighted in posthumous documentaries such as \u0026#8220;Weizenbaum. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eToday, documentaries like Rebel at Work.\u0026#8221; (2007) and \u0026#8220;Plug \u0026amp; Pray\u0026#8221; (2010) explored his ethical concerns about technology. The Weizenbaum Institute for the Networked Society was named in his honor, serving as a testament to his enduring impact on the discourse surrounding digital technology and society. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAmong his notable works are \u0026#8220;How to Make a Computer Appear Intelligent,\u0026#8221; published in Datamation in 1962, and \u0026#8220;ELIZA — A Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication between Man and Machine,\u0026#8221; published in Communications of the ACM in 1966, as well as his influential book, \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eComputer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment To Calculation\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1976). \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"b6:Tb57,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBorn in Holzhausen, Germany, in 1832, Nicolaus August Otto broke new ground in propulsion when he invented a motor engine that ran on gas as opposed to steam. It was not an easy childhood for Otto. He was the youngest of six children and his father died the same year he was born. He began school at age 6, and although he didn’t finish high school, he was praised for his aptitudes in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003escience and technology\u003c/a\u003e. He worked three year s as a business apprentice for a merchandising firm, then moved to Frankfurt to work as a salesman at a farm and grocery store. This saw him travel extensively throughout Germany selling the essentials, such as sugar, tea, and rice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen he was 28 years old, Otto and his brother learned of a gas engine built by Frenchman Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir. The two brothers decided to build a version of the engine and applied for a patent for it, but were denied based on the similarities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOtto decided to go a different route and use compressed fuel to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/video/inside-an-engine\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003epower an engine\u003c/a\u003e. He sought out numerous partners over the next few years before connecting with Eugen Langen. The two formed a company, NA Otto \u0026amp; Cie, in Cologne, that history remembers as the first in the world that was 100% focused on internal combustion engines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1864, the duo created an engine that was powered by the explosion of gas in a vacuum. It took less than half of the amount of fuel that the Leonir engine used and was a hit, selling 600-700 units per year for the next decade. The size of the engine limited its usefulness, so Otto and Langen went back to the workshop and produced the “Otto cycle”, a stationary motor that ran on the motion of pistons inside a cylinder.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOtto and Langen were awarded the gold medal at the 1867 Paris World Exhibition for their efforts, and more than 50,000 \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/a-groundbreaking-engine-uses-information-as-fuel\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eunits of the engine\u003c/a\u003e were sold over the next two decades. The motor was hailed as efficient, reliable, and fairly quiet. Its design centered around four consecutive strokes of a piston that drew in and compressed a mixture of gas and air inside a cylinder, resulting in an internal explosion. In 1882, he received an honorary doctorate degree from the University of Wurzburg for his contributions to science and industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite his success, Otto kept on experimenting, creating the electric ignition in 1884. Otto was married and had seven children, including son Gustav, who went on to become a famous designer of aircraft engines and aircrafts. Gustav is considered the original owner of the company that eventually became BMW.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"b7:Tbc3,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBeing first is always a good thing, and Wilhelm Rontgen achieved it twice. The German-born engineer was the first person to produce and detect X-rays, and subsequently the first person to ever win a Nobel Prize in Physics, which he did in 1901.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Lennep, Kingdom of Prussia in 1845, his father was a clothes manufacturer and merchant. He didn’t stay in Prussia long, as his whole family moved to The Netherlands when he was just three years old, where he was able to attend Utrecht Technical School. He was expelled, however, before graduation when a teacher claimed Rontgen had drawn an unflattering caricature of him.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite not having a high school diploma, he was able to pass the entrance test at the Federal Polytechnic Institute in Zurich, and took mechanical engineering as his major. He went on to achieve a PhD from the University of Zurich and met Professor August Kundt, who he went to work with at the newly-formed University of Strasbourg in 1874. He spent the next couple of decades in academia, eventually rising to the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/how-to-enhance-your-problem-solving-ability-in-physics\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ephysics\u003c/a\u003e chair at the University of Wurzburg in 1888, and the same position at the University of Munich in 1900.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1895, he was experimenting with vacuum tube equipment at the University of Wurzburg when an electrical discharge passed through the tubes. He tried the experiment again later that year, adding cardboard to cover the light from escaping, but noticing a fluorescent effect occurring nonetheless.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOver a long weekend, he determined that he was seeing a new type of ray, which he designed \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/health/how-do-x-rays-work\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eX-rays\u003c/a\u003e, given that in math, X stands for the unknown. Six weeks later, he successfully took the world’s first radiograph \u0026#8211; an X-ray picture \u0026#8211; of his wife’s hand. Early the next year, his discovery made the newspapers in Austria and word traveled quickly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe wrote three papers on the subject and became known as the father of diagnostic radiology, something as commonplace as the sun coming in the morning in modern times, but a miracle at the end of the 19th century \u0026#8211; using imaging to see inside someone’s body to detect injuries and illnesses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRontgen was the consummate scientist, refusing to apply for patents for his discovery, believing it should belong to everyone. When he won the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/33-interesting-facts-about-the-most-famous-engineers-inventors\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNobel Prize\u003c/a\u003e for Physics in 1901, he donated the 50,000 Swedish krona prize to the University of Wurzburg, and later rejected an offer to become a noble. Unfortunately, this humility led to him being bankrupt after the inflation caused by World War I. He passed away in 1923 at home in Munich at age 77.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"b8:Td68,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThere have been a lot of claims on who invented the first automobile as we know it, but only one man can claim the title for all history: Karl Benz. The German engineer whose name is still synonymous with luxury automobiles more than 130 years after he received his first patent for one ushered in the era of the motorized transportation vehicle a good quarter of a century before American Henry Ford rolled out his first Model T.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Baden, German Confederation in 1844, his father was a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/video/the-fascinating-history-of-locomotives\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003elocomotive\u003c/a\u003e driver, who tragically died of pneumonia when Benz was just two years old. His mother saved up all her money to ensure Benz was properly educated, and he went to many scientific institutes. After a passing fancy as a locksmith, he headed towards the same career path as his father, becoming interested in being a locomotive engineer. He graduated from the Karlsruhe polytechnical school at age 19 but struggled to fit in at several different companies that suited his education. At times he designed scales, built bridges, and worked at an iron construction company in Austria. In 1871, he joined August Ritter in starting his own company, called the Iron Foundry and Mechanical Workshop in Mannheim, Germany. The company nearly went under until Benz’s fiancee, Bertha Ringer, used her dowry to buy out Ritter and save the company’s finances. Benz started focusing on developing mechanical engines and applying for patents for them.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e His first patent came on a two-stroke engine in 1880, and he added seven more as the years passed, including many familiar to car drivers today: the spark plug, the carburetor, the clutch, the gear shift, and the water radiator. He eventually fell into financial hardship again and left the company to partners in order to open a bicycle repair shop in 1883 with two partners. He started building gas engines there, and the company grew to great success, allowing Benz the opportunity to tinker with another passion, the horseless \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/ie-originals/ie-explainer/season-6/ep-16-innovation-on-wheels-the-story-of-the-first-car\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecarriage\u003c/a\u003e. The first one had wire wheels, a four-stroke engine he designed, and a pair of roller chains on the rear axle. He named the first one the Benz Patent-Moterwagen and was patented on January 29, 1886 as DRP-37435 “automobile fueled by gas.”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe started selling a refined version of it in 1888. His wife then set a world record \u0026#8211; without telling him \u0026#8211; by driving a Model 3 65 miles to visit her mother. The vehicle was a hit and Benz’s company rapidly grew, from 50 employees in 1889 to 430 a decade later. In 1895 he built the world’s first truck with an internal combustion engine, as well as the first motor bus. Hit hard by the sanctions imposed on Germany following World War I, Benz and DMG joined forces in 1924 with a 76-year agreement to become Daimler-Benz, and produce the first \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/20-greatest-innovations-and-inventions-of-automobile-engineering-from-the-first-engine-to-today\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eMercedes-Benz\u003c/a\u003e automobile in 1926. Benz was a member of the board and a vital part of the company until his death in 1929 at the age of 84.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"b9:Te79,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eProclaimed the “father of the motorcycle,” Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler was born in 1834 in Schorndorf in the Kingdom of Wurttemberg. The son of a baker, Daimler was interested in engineering from a young age and apprenticed as a gunsmith for four years, passing his trade exam, graduating, and immediately quitting the industry to become a mechanical engineer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe studied at Stuttgart’s School for Advanced Training in the Industrial Arts and began working in the factory that was part of the college. By the time he was 22, he was the foreman of a unit making locomotives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe continued his education at Stuttgart’s Polytechnic Institute, and there became convinced that there was a better way to power mechanical machines than steam. He traveled to France and then England to learn as much about machine tools and mechanical engineering as he could, then began working at a host of factories where he began designing turbines, tools, and mills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe eventually went to work for Nicholas Otto’s N.A. Otto and Cie in 1872 and sought to improve upon the latter’s four-piston engine, which caused great contention between the two. Daimler wanted to build smaller engines that could be fitted into moving vehicles, but Otto had no such interest and forbade it. Eventually, push came to shove and Daimiler was fired, although he was given a healthy compensation package for his contributions to the company.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe started building his own machine shop and lab in 1882 and began looking for a way to improve on Otto’s engine with his long-time collaborator Wilhelm Maybach. In 1883, the pair patented an engine powered by the petroleum fraction ligroin. It was small and could run up to 750 rpms. Over the next four years, that limit was increased to 900 rpms. In 1885, the engine was placed onto a heavy-duty bike, called the Reitwagen, the first vehicle in the history of the world with an internal combustion engine. \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/mercedes-maybach-eqs-680-suv\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eMaybach\u003c/a\u003e took it on a test drive of two miles, reaching a top speed of 7 miles per hour.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe same year, Maybach and Daimler invented a carburetor that could mix gas and air and use it as fuel. Daimler went on to build an automobile in 1886, unaware that Karl Benz was doing likewise just 60 miles away. Daimler’s car had a 1.1 horsepower \u0026lt;a href=\u0026#8221;https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/a-new-internal-combustion-engine-produces-nearly-zero-harmful-emissions\u0026#8221; target=\u0026#8221;_blank\u0026#8221;engine. He and Maybach continued finding new uses for their engine, including on \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/this-electric-boat-cruise-speeds-50-knot\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eboats\u003c/a\u003e, street cars, trolleys, and even in a hot-air balloon, which might have made it the world’s first airship.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAgainst his better judgment, Daimler incorporated his company in order to mass produce automobiles in 1890, naming it Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG). DMG sold its first car in 1892, but suffered heart problems that same year and left Germany to try and recover. While out of the country, he lost control of the company and failed to regain it when he returned.He ultimately reunited with Maybach and ultimately both returned to DMG for giant bonuses and new titles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA quarter of a century after \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/daimler-trucks-and-torc-robotics-begin-testing-self-driving-trucks-on-public-roads\"\u003eDaimler’s\u003c/a\u003e death in 1900, Daimler merged with Karl Benz’s car company to form Daimler-Benz-AG, later named Mercedes-Benz.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ba:Tc93,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eAlbert Einstein is considered the most important physicist of the 20th century. Born in Germany in 1879, he would spend time in Italy and Switzerland in his youth where he trained to be a teacher of math and physics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe earned both his diploma and his Swiss citizenship in 1901, but far bigger things were coming right around the corner. He was working as a technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office when he began postulating on physics and attempting to solve inaccuracies between existing theories. He published four papers in 1905 that shook modern physics to its core and led to the development of his theory of special relativity as a universal law of nature. His theories exposed flaws in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-of-isaac-newtons-most-famous-and-revolutionary-inventions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNewtonian mechanics\u003c/a\u003e as they applied to the laws of electromagnetic fields. They also introduce the world to the formula E=MC2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe became an academic professor in Zurich in 1909, and by 1914 he was named the Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and a Professor at the University of Berlin. In 1916, he published a theory on the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/simplified-introduction-einsteins-theory-relativity\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003egeneral theory of relativity\u003c/a\u003e as well as aiding in the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics. In 1922, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEinstein became a German citizen in 1914 and might have stayed there for the rest of his life if not for the rise of the Nazi Party. He renounced his citizenship in 1933 and emigrated to the United States where he became the Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton University and gained United States’ citizenship in 1940. His most famous published works include Special Theory of Relativity, Relativity, General Theory of Relativity, Investigations of Brownian Movement, and The Evolution of Physics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEinstein retired from Princeton in 1945 but remained \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/10-ways-can-see-einsteins-theory-relativity-real-life-keyword-theory-relativity\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ewell known for his work\u003c/a\u003e in the World Government Movement \u0026#8211; an organization founded on the idea of one political authority that oversaw limits to countries’ abilities to raise military forces and create \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/the-radioactive-fallout-of-trinity-reached-as-far-as-canada\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ehigh-powered weapons\u003c/a\u003e of mass destruction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite never holding a political office in his life, he was offered the opportunity to become the President of Israel, but he declined. His interest in the country had begun in 1918, when he helped Dr. Chaim Weizmann established the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He served on the university’s first board of governors as well.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe passed away in 1955, the result of internal bleeding caused by an abdominal aortic aneurysm. He refused surgery on the rupture, and was quoted as saying, “I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.”\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"bb:T16ef,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eJoseph Weizenbaum was born in Berlin, Germany, on January 8, 1923. Coming from a Jewish family, he escaped the threats of Nazi Germany by immigrating to the United States with his family in January 1936. Weizenbaum\u0026#8217;s academic journey in America began at Wayne State University in Detroit, Michigan, where he commenced his studies in mathematics in 1941.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis education was briefly interrupted in 1942 when he served as a meteorologist in the U.S. Army Air Corps during World War II. Despite his initial interest in cryptology, his status as an \u0026#8220;enemy alien\u0026#8221; redirected his path. After the war, he returned to Wayne State, completing his B.S. in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/who-exactly-invented-math\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eMathematics\u003c/a\u003e in 1948 and his M.S. in 1950.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn the early 1950s, Weizenbaum\u0026#8217;s career took a technological turn. By 1952, while still at Wayne State, he was deeply involved in developing analog and digital computers. His move to General Electric in 1956 marked a significant phase where he contributed to the development of ERMA (Electronic Recording Machine, Accounting). This system revolutionized banking by automating check processing.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis academic and professional journey took a defining turn in 1963 when he joined the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) as an associate professor. This position, supported by his development of the SLIP (Symmetric List Processing) software, soon led to tenure and a full professorship in computer science and engineering by 1970. Weizenbaum also held positions at various prestigious institutions, including Harvard, Stanford, and the University of Bremen.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1966, Joseph Weizenbaum introduced \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/worlds-first-chatbot-eliza-revived\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eELIZA\u003c/a\u003e, a program that could simulate conversation by applying pattern-matching rules to user inputs. Named after a character from George Bernard Shaw\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;Pygmalion,\u0026#8221; ELIZA operated through a script called DOCTOR, mimicking the conversational style of an empathetic therapist. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMost people choose to call ELIZA \u0026#8216;the first \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/chatgpt-30-incredible-ways-to-use\"\u003echatbot\u003c/a\u003e ever.\u0026#8217; Weizenbaum was startled by how seriously users, including his own secretary, engaged with the program, some even requesting privacy as if they were in a real therapeutic session.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis experience led Weizenbaum to question the broader implications of artificial intelligence (AI). He observed that while technological advances like ELIZA were celebrated as milestones towards autonomous thinking machines, they also reflected a misunderstanding of AI\u0026#8217;s limitations. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis concerns deepened over the role of computers in society, critiquing them as inherently conservative tools that, despite their innovative facade, could stifle necessary societal reforms. For instance, he noted how computers facilitated the banking industry\u0026#8217;s growth by handling large transactions, paradoxically preventing essential structural changes like decentralization.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eWeizenbaum\u0026#8217;s apprehension extended to the military use of computers. He argued that the euphemistic military terminology such as \u0026#8220;defense\u0026#8221; masked the true nature of its operations. He clarified that while not a pacifist, he advocated for a more honest discourse on military actions to prevent hasty decisions towards violence.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThese philosophical inquiries culminated in his 1976 book, \u0026#8220;Computer Power and Human Reason,\u0026#8221; where Weizenbaum distinguished between \u0026#8220;deciding\u0026#8221; and \u0026#8220;choosing.\u0026#8221; He argued that while computers can decide or perform tasks based on programming, they cannot, as choosing involves judgment influenced by human values. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis distinction highlighted his stance that computers should not replace human decision-making in areas requiring moral and ethical considerations.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eJoseph Weizenbaum, a father of five, moved back to his roots in Berlin in 1996, settling near his childhood neighborhood. He passed away on March 5, 2008, from complications related to stomach cancer and was buried at the Weißensee Jewish Cemetery in Berlin, where a memorial service was held on March 18, 2008. His critical perspective on artificial intelligence was highlighted in posthumous documentaries such as \u0026#8220;Weizenbaum. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eToday, documentaries like Rebel at Work.\u0026#8221; (2007) and \u0026#8220;Plug \u0026amp; Pray\u0026#8221; (2010) explored his ethical concerns about technology. The Weizenbaum Institute for the Networked Society was named in his honor, serving as a testament to his enduring impact on the discourse surrounding digital technology and society. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAmong his notable works are \u0026#8220;How to Make a Computer Appear Intelligent,\u0026#8221; published in Datamation in 1962, and \u0026#8220;ELIZA — A Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication between Man and Machine,\u0026#8221; published in Communications of the ACM in 1966, as well as his influential book, \u003c/span\u003e\u003ci\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eComputer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment To Calculation\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/i\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e (1976). \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"bc:Tec2,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThe first female CEO of General Motors (GM) is a popular trailblazer in the automotive field. Born on December 24, 1961, in Michigan, Mary Teresa Barra\u0026#8217;s parents were of Finnish descent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eIn 1985, she completed her Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering from the General Motors Institute (now Kettering University).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHer father made significant contributions to \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eGM’s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Pontiac Division as he worked for almost 40 years.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eWhile earning her graduate degree, Barra also started working at Pontiac Motor Division, where she used to inspect fenders and hoods.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAfter \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ecompleting her graduation\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e, Barra was appointed \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eas\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e a Senior Engineer with Pontiac. Later, \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eshe was awarded a fellowship by GM\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e to earn a Master of Business Administration from Stanford University. She completed her \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003emasters\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e in 1990.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe became vice president of Global Manufacturing Engineering in 2008, and the next year, she was also named vice president of Global Human Resources. In 2011, she became vice president of Global Product Development and she worked to reduce the number of automobile \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/humanoid-robots-driverless-training-genima\"\u003eplatforms\u003c/a\u003e in GM.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe American businesswoman was elected Chair of the GM Board of Directors in 2016 and has served as CEO of GM since 2014.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder her leadership, the automaker envisions a world with zero crashes, to save lives; zero emissions, so future generations can inherit a healthier planet; and zero congestion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt\u0026#8217;s claimed that she is focused on creating the best customer experience and strengthening GM’s \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/worlds-fastest-microscope-captures-electron-motion\"\u003ecore\u003c/a\u003e vehicle and services business.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe is also working to deliver transformative technologies such as electrification, autonomous driving and software.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe CEO has led the charge to modernize GM, introducing new electric vehicles \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewith the goal of becoming\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e fully electric soon.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe also serves on the Board of Directors of the Walt Disney Company, the Duke University Board of Trustees and the Detroit Economic Club.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe year she became CEO of General Motors, the company issued 84 safety recalls that involved over 30 million cars. Senate had also called her to testify due to a faulty ignition switch that was claimed to be the key reason behind recalls and some deaths.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe was also featured on the cover of Time magazine\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;100 Most Influential People in the World\u0026#8221; in 2014. She also joined Donald Trump\u0026#8217;s economic panel in 2016 to provide strategic and policy advice on economic issues.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe also received the 2023 Arthur W. Page Center Awards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBarra is back on top of Fortune magazine\u0026#8217;s 100 Most Powerful Women (MPW) list for 2024. \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAmong the 55 women currently leading Fortune 500 companies, the General Motors CEO is one of only nine who have been CEO for a decade or more.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"bd:T14e5,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eMarian Croak has worked on advancing Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technologies and has over 200 patents \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eto her name\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e. The VoIP converts your voice into a digital signal, allowing you to \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003emake a\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e call directly from a computer or other digital device. Her efforts have furthered the capabilities of audio and video conferencing, making it a practical reality in \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethe \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003etoday’s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e world.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eBorn on May 14, 1955, \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eCroak\u0026#8217;s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e career took off in 1982 when she joined AT\u0026amp;T Bell Laboratories. She started with a position in the Human Factors research division and focused on how technology could \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ebe used\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eto\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e positively impact \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003epeople’s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e lives\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eRaised in New York City, Croak completed her undergraduate studies at Princeton University. Later, she attended \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eUniversity\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e of Southern California for her doctorate.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe has also worked on network engineering and created a text-to-donate system for charitable organizations \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewith other team members\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe system was first used\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e at large-scale after Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans in 2005.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe technology also raised $43 million in donations after the 2010 earthquake in Haiti.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eIn 2014, she joined Google, \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewhere she is\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e currently vice president of engineering and leads the Research Center for Responsible AI and Human-Centered Technology.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eCroak \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eheld the designation of\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Senior Vice President of Applications and Services Infrastructure AT\u0026amp;T in 2014. \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e managed more than 500 programs and supervised over 2,000 computer scientists \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewhile serving at AT\u0026amp;T\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eCroak, who has won \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ea number of\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e awards, including the 2013 and 2014 Edison Patent Awards, predicted the rise of the Internet and developed technologies to transform it.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAt Google, she is responsible for expanding what the Internet can do \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eacross the world\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe was formerly a VP for Site Reliability Engineering for Ads, Corporate Engineering \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eand,\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e YouTube.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCurrently, Croak is a member of the Corporate Advisory Board for the Viterbi School of Engineering at her alma mater, the University of Southern California.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe is also a former board member for \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003esuch organizations\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e as the Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e; \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eCatalyst\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e; \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethe Holocaust and Human Rights Museum (New Jersey)\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e; \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eand the National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMarian joined Google in 2014 after retiring from AT\u0026amp;T as an SVP responsible for advanced research and innovation and designing and developing one of the world\u0026#8217;s largest wireless and broadband networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eCroak is also a \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003emember of the\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Women in Technology International Hall of Fame.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eFor her patent VoIP Technology\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e, she was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ein 2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"be:Tbb3,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eEllen Lauri Ochoa, born on May 10, 1958, in Los Angeles, California, to Joseph and Rosanne Ochoa, has carved an indelible mark in physics and space exploration. Her journey began with her paternal grandparents\u0026#8217; emigration from Sonora, Mexico, to Arizona and eventually to California, where her father was born.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGrowing up in La Mesa, California, Ochoa was the middle child among five siblings. She thrived academically, graduating from Grossmont High School in 1975 and earning a Bachelor of Science in Physics from San Diego State University in 1980. Her academic pursuits led her to Stanford University, where she achieved a master\u0026#8217;s degree in 1981 and a doctorate in electrical engineering in 1985.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOchoa\u0026#8217;s professional journey commenced at \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/sandia-power-generating-system-electricity-electrical-grid\"\u003eSandia National Laboratories\u003c/a\u003e and the NASA Ames Research Center, where she focused on optical systems for information processing. Her pioneering work earned her three patents, significantly advancing automated space exploration technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs the Chief of the Intelligent Systems Technology Branch at Ames, she supervised the development of sophisticated computational systems for aerospace missions. In 1990, Ochoa broke new ground when she was selected as an \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/former-nasa-astronaut-wants-humans-to-mars\"\u003eastronaut by NASA\u003c/a\u003e, becoming the first Hispanic woman to journey into space in 1993 aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring her career, she participated in four space missions, amassing nearly 1,000 hours in space. Her missions were pivotal, involving studies of the Earth\u0026#8217;s ozone layer, docking with the International Space Station (ISS), and contributing to the ISS\u0026#8217;s construction. Transitioning into leadership roles within NASA, Ochoa served as Deputy Director and later Director of the Johnson Space Center, becoming the first Hispanic and second female director in 2013. Her influence extended beyond NASA, serving as Vice Chair of the National Science Board and chairing the National Medal of Technology and Innovation committee.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOchoa\u0026#8217;s personal life is equally remarkable. Married to intellectual property attorney Coe Miles, with whom she has two sons, she is also an accomplished classical flutist. Her musical talents were showcased with the Stanford Symphony Orchestra, and she even took her flute on her first space mission.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNumerous schools and institutions across the United States bear her name, honoring her contributions to science and education. Ochoa\u0026#8217;s accolades include NASA\u0026#8217;s Distinguished Service Medal, induction into the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame, and the International Air and Space Hall of Fame. In 2024, she received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, a testament to her outstanding contributions to space exploration and science.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"bf:T121d,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia of Alexandria, born around 350 to 370 AD, was an eminent Neoplatonist philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer who resided in Alexandria, Egypt, then a vibrant cultural capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer father, Theon of Alexandria, himself a prominent scholar and the last known member of the Mouseion, was instrumental in her upbringing, fostering an environment enriched with intellectual pursuits. He is most celebrated for his definitive edition of Euclid\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;Elements,\u0026#8221; which remained the principal resource for teaching geometry for centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia\u0026#8217;s education under her father\u0026#8217;s guidance was comprehensive, enabling her to contribute significantly to the fields of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/space\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eastronomy\u003c/a\u003e and mathematics. She emerged as a leading figure in the Neoplatonist school in Alexandria, where she taught philosophy and astronomy. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer instruction was so renowned that students traveled from across the Mediterranean to learn from her. She authored detailed commentaries on Diophantus’s “Arithmetica” and Apollonius\u0026#8217;s treatise on conic sections, though much of her written work has unfortunately been lost to history. Furthermore, she is credited with editing part of Ptolemy’s “Almagest,” specifically Book III, enhancing the text with her mathematical expertise.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond academia, Hypatia invented devices such as the plane astrolabe and hydrometer, though she did not originate these technologies, she significantly improved upon the designs and their instructional utility in her teachings. Her public lectures often included demonstrations of these devices, illustrating complex astronomical and physical concepts to broader audiences.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHypatia’s \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/greatest-women-in-stem\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eintellectual\u003c/a\u003e prowess granted her significant moral and political influence in Alexandria. She became an advisor to Orestes, the Roman prefect, navigating the tumultuous political scenarios that were often marked by sectarian conflict between Christians and non-Christians. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis involvement, however, also led to her undoing. In the year 415 AD, during a period of intense political rivalry between Orestes and Cyril, the Christian bishop of Alexandria, Hypatia was falsely accused of exacerbating religious tensions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer death was brutal and marked by profound injustice. Seized by a mob of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/christian-basilica-in-aquileia-found\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eChristian\u003c/a\u003e zealots, she was murdered in a manner that shocked the city and the wider empire. This act was not just a personal tragedy but symbolized a seismic shift in the cultural and religious environment of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/hero-of-alexandria\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAlexandria \u003c/a\u003efrom a realm of pluralistic inquiry towards a more dogmatically Christian environment.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn the aftermath of her murder, Hypatia became enshrined as a symbol of intellectual integrity and the pursuit of truth. During the Enlightenment, she was glorified as a martyr of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-why-engineers-should-learn-philosophy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ephilosophy\u003c/a\u003e, representing opposition to the suppression of scientific thought by religious orthodoxy. In modern times, she is seen as a precursor to feminist movements, advocating for the role of women in academia and society.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer legacy has been both celebrated and mythologized, influencing a wide range of literary and artistic endeavors. From the 19th-century novels that romanticized her life to the 2009 film \u0026#8220;Agora,\u0026#8221; which portrayed her as a martyr of science against the backdrop of religious fanaticism, Hypatia remains a figure of enduring fascination and inspiration. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThrough her story, Hypatia continues to embody the timeless struggle for knowledge and the freedom to inquire, crucial principles that resonate across centuries.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"c0:Ta2b,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eFor anyone who has ever seen a movie where a mummy is the villain, the name Imhotep carries a certain connotation. The real story is quite different for the man who is perhaps history’s oldest example of a genius among his peers and perhaps among any group of people who has ever lived.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn his time in Ancient Egypt, Imhotep rose from being a commoner to the vizier of Pharaoh Djoser. He was a mathematician, an architect, a priest, a poet, and an astrologer, while also serving as the pharaoh’s minister of state. Djoser tasked him with building his tomb, and Immhotep defied logic, reason, and anything the world had seen before by stacking multiple mastabas \u0026#8211; giant rectangular slabs of earth \u0026#8211; on top of each other to create what is now known as the Step Pyramid. Typically, just one mastaba would serve as a tomb, so stacking them one on top of the other was an incredible feat of architecture, particularly given the limitations of machinery and manpower two-and-a-half millennia ago. The pharaoh was so blown away by the accomplishment that he had Imhotep’s name inscribed on a statue of Djoser, an honor that no architect before or after was ever given. He was so talented that over time, Imhotep became so revered that he was elevated to the status of a god and worshiped by everyday people. There were shrines and temples built for him, and people would go there when they were sick or wounded, believing they would dream of Imhotep and be given a cure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is believed that Imhotep invented, or at least perfected, the art of using stone columns to support massive structures. He combined the use of stone walling, flooring, jambs, and lintels to make the Step Pyramid entirely out of stone. He used several revolutionary practices in conjunction with each other, including elevation, replacing materials, carving, filling, and digging to support much larger projects. The building has six tiers and four sides and still stands today. It originally stood 205 feet high, and had a base of 358 feet by 397 feet and was made of white limestone. When it was finished, it was the tallest manmade structure on Earth and could be seen from the city of Memphis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to records, he was the architect of multiple buildings during a 40-year period. While the chief minister of the pharaoh supposedly had magic powers, it appears that Imhotep also had significant knowledge as a healer. The circumstances of Imhotep’s death are unknown, although legends suggest he built an unknown tomb for himself somewhere at Saqqara that has neve been discovered.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"c1:T9a6,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA prince of ancient Egypt, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/the-20-greatest-engineers-of-all-time\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eHemiunu\u003c/a\u003e is believed to have designed the Great Pyramid of Giza, the largest of the famous Egyptian pyramids and the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was built over the course of 27 years in the 26th century BCE and is the tomb of Khufu, a pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHemiunu was the grandson of Sneferu and a nephew of Khufu, the pharaoh he served. His own father was Prince Nefermaat and his mother’s name was Itet. Perhaps inspired by the works of Imhotep a century before, Hemiunu was a master builder whose vision far exceeded everyone else in his time. He ascended to the vizier of the pharaoh after his father and his uncle both passed away. This made him a very important member of Khufu’s court, and responsibility for all royal projects fell to him to design and implement. The Great Pyramid was built from about 2.3 million blocks, formed from 5.5 million tons of limestone, 8,000 tons of granite, and 500,000 tons of mortar. The blocks were built in a pyramid south of Giza where limestone naturally formed. White limestone used for the pyramid’s casing was mined from 6 miles away and brought by boat across the Nile River according to rolls of papyrus discovered in 2013 that had a list of construction materials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStones of granite weighing between 25 and 80 tons that became the ceiling were brought from 560 miles away in Aswan. According to ancient records, thousands of forced laborers were used to build the pyramids. Considering how many blocks were made, it is estimated that between 13,000-40,000 workers were used to build the Great Pyramid in the estimated 27 years it took to complete. It isn’t just the sheer size of the construction that has amazed experts for centuries and made Hemiunu a master of all time. There are three chambers inside the Great Pyramid.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe King’s Chamber has a giant granite sarcophagus. There are tombs for Khufu’s wives, extended family, and members of his court. Hemiunu’s own tomb is close to the pyramid and a seated statue of him was found in 1912. The Great Pyramid is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still standing. Hemiunu’s cause of death and date of death remain unknown. More than 14 million people travel to the Pyramids of Giza every year, roughly 38,000 per day.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"c2:Ta20,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThe man with the unlikely name, Hero of Alexandria was a Greek engineer and mathematician who lived in the first century. In \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/heron-the-industrial-engineer-long-before-the-industrial-age\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eexperiments\u003c/a\u003e that were literally centuries ahead of his time, Hero of Alexandria built the first device powered by steam as well as the first use of wind as a power source for something besides a sailing vessel on the water. He taught at the legendary Library of Alexandria in his native home of Egypt and is considered one of the foremost brilliant minds of the distant past when it came to experimenting and innovating. Also known as Heron of Alexandria, his dates of birth and death are unknown. Many of his original works were lost, some in the great fire of Alexandria. Those that did survive include lecture notes on mechanics, pneumatics, physics, and mathematics. He was an early innovator in automated devices, which are often included in basic elements of teaching cybernetics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of his most famous inventions was known as a Hero’s engine, or an aeolipile It was a steam turbine that did not have blades, but rather a spinning container that turned due to torque provided by steam jets on its sides. It was so named for the Greek god of wind and air, Aeolus, along with the Latin word “pila” meaning ball.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA second invention was Heron’s foundation, a hydraulics machine that doubled as a children’s toy. This model is used in present-day physics classrooms to show how pneumatics and hydraulics work. It used pressure to make water burst out of the top. It was made popular for modern audiences in the \u003cem\u003eBBC\u003c/em\u003e show “\u003cem\u003eHow Britain Worked\u003c/em\u003e.” Hero of Alexandria’s influence is also found in mathematics with Heron’s formula and Heron’s method. The former gives the area of a triangle in terms of the three lengths of its sides. He wrote it in his first-century work, Metrica. He also published a formula for computing the square roots of numbers. He also published works on pneumatics, automation, and how to measure lengths, including a discussion of an odometer, and how to build mechanical machines of war. He also built the world’s first vending machine, which allowed people to insert a coin and get holy water from a valve. The coin landed on a pan attached to a lever, which opened the valve for the water to flow as the coin’s weight was on it, then stopped the valve when the coin fell off.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHero of Alexandria died around the year 70.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"c3:Td77,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eSatya Nadella is currently CEO and Chairman of Microsoft. Born in Hyderabad, India, Nadella was named CEO in February 2014. Previously, he also held leadership roles in both enterprise and consumer businesses across the company.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe graduated from Mangalore University with a bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering in 1988. Later, he completed a master’s degree in computer science at the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee in 1990 after moving to the United States.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThen, Nadella became a member of the technology staff at Sun Microsystems before joining Microsoft in 1992. Sun Microsystems is a US-based technology company that sold computers, computer components, software, and IT services.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe quickly became \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/military/robot-dogs-better-sharpshooters-study\"\u003eknown\u003c/a\u003e as a leader who could span a breadth of technologies and businesses to transform some of the Microsoft’s biggest product offerings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe comes from a Telugu Hindu family in India. His father was an administrative officer, while his mother was a Sanskrit lecturer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe also became member of the team that worked on the development of Windows NT, a landmark operating system. The NT was \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/124-mile-range-in-5-mins-china-firms-launch-fastest-charging-ev-battery\"\u003eprimarily\u003c/a\u003e developed for business users.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNadella also received an MBA degree from the University of Chicago in 1997 while working at Microsoft. Later, he also became vice president of the Microsoft bCentral small-business service in 1999.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy 1999, he had been named vice president of the Microsoft bCentral small-business service, and two years later, he became corporate vice president of Microsoft Business Solutions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe is the third person to become CEO of Microsoft in the company’s nearly 40-year history. He had also overseen the completion of Nokia Corp\u0026#8217;s acquisition, a $7.2 billion deal. The CEO also oversaw acquisition of business-oriented social networking site LinkedIn in 2016.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMarried to Anupama Priyadarshini, Nadella was a Time 100 honoree in 2018. He was also named Financial Times Person of the Year in 2019.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder Nadella\u0026#8217;s leadership, the stock price of Microsoft has also jumped multiple fold. His leadership also ended a 14-year period of near zero growth.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn January 2024, he also received an honorary Ph.D. from the Georgia Institute of Technology. \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHe also received \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eIndia\u0026#8217;s\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethird highest\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e civilian award, the Padma Bhushan, in 2022.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHe also wrote\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e \u0026#8220;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHit Refresh: The Quest to Rediscover \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eMicrosoft\u0026#8217;s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Soul and Imagine a Better Future for Everyone\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e\u0026#8221; \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ein 2017. At the core, Hit Refresh is about us humans and the unique quality we call empathy, which will become ever more valuable in a world where the torrent of technology will disrupt the status quo like never before, according to Nadella. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"c4:Td33,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThe Metro Man of India, Elattuvalapil Sreedharan achieved great things later in life when he transformed the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/11-of-the-wackiest-vehicle-and-transportation-ideas-ever-devised\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etransportation\u003c/a\u003e system of India. When you live in a country of 1.408 billion (as of 2023) that is about to surpass China as the largest in the world, someone who understands the finer points of mass transit is a very good person to have.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSreedharan was born in 1932 when India was still held by the British government. He went to public school and then on to Victoria College in Palghat, adding a degree in Civil Engineering from what is now known as Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University. Despite all of his education, his immediate impulse was to go into the teaching field, where he served as a lecturer in Civil Engineering. In 1953, he joined the Indian Railway Service of Engineers after passing the service exam.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn immense natural disaster accelerated Sreedharan’s path to success. At the end of 1964, a large cyclone destroyed parts of the Pamban Bridge connecting Rameshwaram to the mainland. Sreedharan was put in charge of repairing the bridge in six months, but that deadline was cut in half early in the process. Using innovative techniques and a balanced application of manpower, Sreedharan had the bridge restored to full working order in just 46 days -barely half the time he had been allotted. He was granted the Railway Minister’s Award for his accomplishment and it got his name being noticed. Six years later while serving as the Deputy Chief Engineer, he was put in charge of the Kolkata Metro, a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/radical-railways-15-technologies-that-could-drive-the-future-of-trains\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003erapid transit system\u003c/a\u003e in West Bengal India \u0026#8211; the first of its kind in the country. The project had roots dating back to 1920 but didn’t begin construction until the 1970s. Sreedharan’s lan called for three lines, with a tentative opening date of 1991. The first stone was laid by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1972, with work starting officially the next year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSreedharan next worked at the Cochin Shipyard in 1979 during a period where it was doing little business. In 1989, he spearheaded the Konkan Railway, which had 93 tunnels and traveled 760 kilometers across more than 150 \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/9-masterpieces-bridges-built-worldwide\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ebridges\u003c/a\u003e. It was hailed as one of the most difficult construction projects in world history and was finished in 1998. He then moved to become managing director for the proposed Delhi Metro. His design and execution were so impressive that he was awarded the Knight of the Legion of Honour by the government of France and the Padma Vibhushan award by the government of India. He announced his retirement in 2005, but the Delhi Metro kept him working until the second phase was finished in 2011.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2021 would see Sreedharan have a brief stint in politics when the metro man joined India\u0026#8217;s Bharatiya Janata Party. Sreedharan contested in the 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election unsuccessfully and would announce his retirement from active politics later in the year.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"c5:Tbda,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eWhen Sundar Pichai introduces himself as the Chief Executive Officer of Alphabet Inc., most people have no idea what he is talking about. That changes when he mentions that \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/ai-advancements-at-google-i-o-event\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAlphabet is the owner\u003c/a\u003e of a little subsidiary company called Google.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India in 1972, Pinchai is the son of a stenographer and an electrical engineer. He went to public school in India and earned his first degree in metallurgical engineering from IIT Kharagpur, one of the country’s oldest colleges for engineering, established just a few years after India gained its independence in 1947.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe moved to the United States to attend Stanford University, obtaining a master’s of science degree in materials science and engineering, and adding an MBA from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania after that. He has said in interviews that the plane ticket from India to San Francisco to attend Stanford cost the equivalent of a year’s salary for his father, and that a backpack at the college cost as much as his father’s monthly wages.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe first worked in engineering and production management for Applied Materials, and later for McKinsey \u0026amp; Company before coming on board with Google in 2004.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was an immediate sensation inside the Internet behemoth, put in charge of many of Google’s software products, including the Chrome browser, the cloud storage app Google Drive, as well as modern standards including Google Maps and GMail. In 2009, he supervised a test of ChromeOS, which led to the development of the Chromebook. It was released in 2012. Google sold 1.76 million of the devices in 2013, and by 2020, was selling more than 30 million a year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was elevated to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/new-google-features-help-you-control-your-online-information\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eProduct Chief of Google\u003c/a\u003e that year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2014, Microsoft, Google’s chief rival in just about everything \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/google-chatbot-ai-coming-search\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecomputer-related\u003c/a\u003e , started courting Pichai to become its new CEO. He took his name of any consideration, citing loyalty to Google, and was rewarded barely a year later when he was promoted from Product Chief to the company’s new CEO on August 10, 2015. In 2019, Pichai was elevated again, from CEO of Google to CEO of Alphabet Inc., drawing a salary of more than $200 million per year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2018 and again in 2020, Pichai was called in front of the US Congress to testify on concerns about censorship on the Internet. In 2022, he was awarded the Padma Bhushan prize from the Indian government, the third-highest award that a civilian can receive.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePichai is married to Anjali Pichai, a former classmate at IIT Kharagpur. The couple has two children and lives in California.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"c6:T2490,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever, born on December 8, 1986, in Gorky, Russian SFSR (now Nizhny Novgorod, Russia), is a prominent Israeli-Canadian computer scientist known for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning. His work has been instrumental in advancing machine learning techniques that underpin many modern AI applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-early-life-and-education\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of five, Sutskever\u0026#8217;s family moved to Jerusalem, where he continued his early education. In 2002, he transferred to the University of Toronto, earning a Bachelor of Science in Mathematics. He remained at the University of Toronto for his graduate studies, obtaining both his Master\u0026#8217;s and Ph.D. in Computer Science under the supervision of\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, a leading figure in neural networks research. His doctoral research focused on training recurrent neural networks, contributing to advancements in sequence modeling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-career-and-machine-learning-research\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCareer and machine learning research\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D. in 2013, Sutskever briefly worked as a postdoctoral researcher with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/andrew-ng-engineer-biography\"\u003e Andrew Ng\u0026#8217;s\u003c/a\u003e group at Stanford University. He then joined the Google Brain team as a research scientist, where he collaborated with Oriol Vinyals and Quoc V. Le to develop the sequence-to-sequence learning algorithm, a foundational technique for tasks like machine translation. He also contributed to the development of TensorFlow, an open-source machine learning framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2015, Sutskever co-founded OpenAI, an AI research organization, with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/samaltman-openaiceo-biography\"\u003e Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e,\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/elon-musk\"\u003e Elon Musk\u003c/a\u003e, and others. As Chief Scientist, he led research efforts that resulted in significant advancements, including the development of the GPT series of language models, which have had a profound impact on natural language processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-development-of-alexnet\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eDevelopment of AlexNet\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever is perhaps best known for his role in developing AlexNet, a deep convolutional neural network that achieved groundbreaking results in the 2012 ImageNet competition. This work, conducted with Alex Krizhevsky and\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, demonstrated the potential of deep learning in computer vision and spurred widespread interest in neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet was a groundbreaking deep convolutional neural network (CNN) that transformed the landscape of computer vision when it was introduced. Its performance in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) of that year was revolutionary, as it dramatically reduced the top-5 error rate compared to previous methods. This impressive achievement not only demonstrated the power of deep learning but also catalyzed a widespread shift toward using deep neural networks for a variety of visual recognition tasks in both academia and industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet’s pioneering design and training strategies laid the groundwork for subsequent advances in deep learning architectures. Its innovative use of convolutional layers, ReLU activations, dropout, and GPU acceleration set new benchmarks in performance and efficiency. Although newer models like VGG, ResNet, and EfficientNet have built upon and refined these ideas, the core principles established by AlexNet remain fundamental to the design of modern CNNs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has also encompassed areas such as generative models, reinforcement learning, and unsupervised learning, contributing to a broader understanding of how machines can learn from data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-co-founding-openai-and-developing-chatgpt\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCo-founding OpenAI and developing ChatGPT\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever was a pivotal figure at OpenAI, serving as one of its co-founders and its Chief Scientist. His technical contributions to the development of models like ChatGPT were rooted in his work on deep neural networks and sequence modeling. Early in his career, Sutskever co-authored influential papers on sequence-to-sequence learning—most notably the 2014 paper \u0026#8220;Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks\u0026#8221;—which demonstrated that recurrent neural networks (RNNs), particularly those enhanced with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) units, could effectively model and generate sequential data. This work laid the conceptual and practical groundwork for later advancements in natural language processing, even though modern language models like ChatGPT have transitioned to transformer-based architectures. The insights gained from managing long-range dependencies and learning effective representations in sequential data have had lasting impacts on how large-scale language models are conceptualized and trained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever was instrumental in shaping the research agenda that underpinned the development of the GPT series. His technical vision helped pivot the research focus towards scaling models with transformer architectures—a framework that leverages self-attention mechanisms to process entire input sequences simultaneously, rather than sequentially as in traditional RNNs. This shift enabled the training of models on vast corpora of data, dramatically improving the quality and coherence of generated text. Under his guidance, OpenAI explored and refined techniques for large-scale optimization that are critical for handling the enormous computational loads associated with training models like ChatGPT.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis early work in sequence modeling and later leadership in guiding large-scale transformer research collectively enabled OpenAI to push the boundaries of what is possible in natural language processing, culminating in sophisticated models like ChatGPT that can generate coherent, contextually rich language responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-internal-struggles-at-openai\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eInternal struggles at OpenAI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, Sutskever was involved in a significant leadership change at OpenAI, participating in the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/sam-altman-let-go-from-openai-due-to-confidence-issues\"\u003e board\u0026#8217;s decision to remove CEO Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e. The move led to internal turmoil, and Sutskever later expressed regret over his role in the decision. Following these events, he\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-co-founder-ilya-sutskever-resigns\"\u003e stepped down from the OpenAI board\u003c/a\u003e and eventually departed the organization in May 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn June 2024, Sutskever announced the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-ilya-sutskever-ssi\"\u003e founding of Safe Superintelligence Inc.\u003c/a\u003e (SSI), an AI company focused on developing advanced AI systems with an emphasis on safety. The startup, co-founded with Daniel Gross and Daniel Levy, aims to create AI that surpasses human capabilities while ensuring safety and ethical considerations. In September 2024, SSI secured $1 billion in funding from prominent venture capital firms, underscoring the confidence in Sutskever\u0026#8217;s vision for safe AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-awards-and-honors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Sutskever has received several accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2015, he was named in MIT Technology Review\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;35 Innovators Under 35.\u0026#8221; In 2022, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, one of the highest honors in the scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever\u0026#8217;s work has been pivotal in advancing deep learning and AI research. His contributions have influenced the direction of AI development and the highlighted the importance of safety and ethical considerations in creating advanced AI systems.\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"c7:T243c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever, born on December 8, 1986, in Gorky, Russian SFSR (now Nizhny Novgorod, Russia), is a prominent Israeli-Canadian computer scientist known for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning. His work has been instrumental in advancing machine learning techniques that underpin many modern AI applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of five, Sutskever's family moved to Jerusalem, where he continued his early education. In 2002, he transferred to the University of Toronto, earning a Bachelor of Science in Mathematics. He remained at the University of Toronto for his graduate studies, obtaining both his Master's and Ph.D. in Computer Science under the supervision of\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, a leading figure in neural networks research. His doctoral research focused on training recurrent neural networks, contributing to advancements in sequence modeling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-career-and-machine-learning-research\"\u003eCareer and machine learning research\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D. in 2013, Sutskever briefly worked as a postdoctoral researcher with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/andrew-ng-engineer-biography\"\u003e Andrew Ng's\u003c/a\u003e group at Stanford University. He then joined the Google Brain team as a research scientist, where he collaborated with Oriol Vinyals and Quoc V. Le to develop the sequence-to-sequence learning algorithm, a foundational technique for tasks like machine translation. He also contributed to the development of TensorFlow, an open-source machine learning framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2015, Sutskever co-founded OpenAI, an AI research organization, with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/samaltman-openaiceo-biography\"\u003e Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e,\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/elon-musk\"\u003e Elon Musk\u003c/a\u003e, and others. As Chief Scientist, he led research efforts that resulted in significant advancements, including the development of the GPT series of language models, which have had a profound impact on natural language processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-development-of-alexnet\"\u003eDevelopment of AlexNet\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever is perhaps best known for his role in developing AlexNet, a deep convolutional neural network that achieved groundbreaking results in the 2012 ImageNet competition. This work, conducted with Alex Krizhevsky and\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, demonstrated the potential of deep learning in computer vision and spurred widespread interest in neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet was a groundbreaking deep convolutional neural network (CNN) that transformed the landscape of computer vision when it was introduced. Its performance in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) of that year was revolutionary, as it dramatically reduced the top-5 error rate compared to previous methods. This impressive achievement not only demonstrated the power of deep learning but also catalyzed a widespread shift toward using deep neural networks for a variety of visual recognition tasks in both academia and industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet’s pioneering design and training strategies laid the groundwork for subsequent advances in deep learning architectures. Its innovative use of convolutional layers, ReLU activations, dropout, and GPU acceleration set new benchmarks in performance and efficiency. Although newer models like VGG, ResNet, and EfficientNet have built upon and refined these ideas, the core principles established by AlexNet remain fundamental to the design of modern CNNs.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has also encompassed areas such as generative models, reinforcement learning, and unsupervised learning, contributing to a broader understanding of how machines can learn from data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-co-founding-openai-and-developing-chatgpt\"\u003eCo-founding OpenAI and developing ChatGPT\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever was a pivotal figure at OpenAI, serving as one of its co-founders and its Chief Scientist. His technical contributions to the development of models like ChatGPT were rooted in his work on deep neural networks and sequence modeling. Early in his career, Sutskever co-authored influential papers on sequence-to-sequence learning—most notably the 2014 paper \"Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks\"—which demonstrated that recurrent neural networks (RNNs), particularly those enhanced with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) units, could effectively model and generate sequential data. This work laid the conceptual and practical groundwork for later advancements in natural language processing, even though modern language models like ChatGPT have transitioned to transformer-based architectures. The insights gained from managing long-range dependencies and learning effective representations in sequential data have had lasting impacts on how large-scale language models are conceptualized and trained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever was instrumental in shaping the research agenda that underpinned the development of the GPT series. His technical vision helped pivot the research focus towards scaling models with transformer architectures—a framework that leverages self-attention mechanisms to process entire input sequences simultaneously, rather than sequentially as in traditional RNNs. This shift enabled the training of models on vast corpora of data, dramatically improving the quality and coherence of generated text. Under his guidance, OpenAI explored and refined techniques for large-scale optimization that are critical for handling the enormous computational loads associated with training models like ChatGPT.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis early work in sequence modeling and later leadership in guiding large-scale transformer research collectively enabled OpenAI to push the boundaries of what is possible in natural language processing, culminating in sophisticated models like ChatGPT that can generate coherent, contextually rich language responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-internal-struggles-at-openai\"\u003eInternal struggles at OpenAI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, Sutskever was involved in a significant leadership change at OpenAI, participating in the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/sam-altman-let-go-from-openai-due-to-confidence-issues\"\u003e board's decision to remove CEO Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e. The move led to internal turmoil, and Sutskever later expressed regret over his role in the decision. Following these events, he\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-co-founder-ilya-sutskever-resigns\"\u003e stepped down from the OpenAI board\u003c/a\u003e and eventually departed the organization in May 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-founding-of-safe-superintelligence\"\u003eFounding of Safe Superintelligence \u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn June 2024, Sutskever announced the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-ilya-sutskever-ssi\"\u003e founding of Safe Superintelligence Inc.\u003c/a\u003e (SSI), an AI company focused on developing advanced AI systems with an emphasis on safety. The startup, co-founded with Daniel Gross and Daniel Levy, aims to create AI that surpasses human capabilities while ensuring safety and ethical considerations. In September 2024, SSI secured $1 billion in funding from prominent venture capital firms, underscoring the confidence in Sutskever's vision for safe AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-awards-and-honors\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Sutskever has received several accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2015, he was named in MIT Technology Review's \"35 Innovators Under 35.\" In 2022, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, one of the highest honors in the scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever's work has been pivotal in advancing deep learning and AI research. His contributions have influenced the direction of AI development and the highlighted the importance of safety and ethical considerations in creating advanced AI systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c/p\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"c8:T1533,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYoshua Bengio, born on March 5, 1964, in Paris, France, is a Canadian computer scientist renowned for his pioneering work in artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning and artificial neural networks. His contributions have significantly advanced the field, earning him numerous accolades and establishing him as a leading figure in AI research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-early-life-and-education\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBengio was born to Moroccan Jewish parents who had emigrated to France. In pursuit of a more inclusive society, the family relocated to Montreal, Canada, when he was twelve years old. He pursued his higher education at McGill University, obtaining a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering, followed by a Master\u0026#8217;s and Ph.D. in Computer Science. His doctoral research focused on artificial neural networks and their application to sequence recognition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-academic-career\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAcademic career\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D., Bengio undertook postdoctoral research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and AT\u0026amp;T Bell Labs. In 1993, he joined the Université de Montréal as a faculty member, where he has been a professor in the Department of Computer Science and Operations Research. He also serves as the founder and scientific director of the Montreal Institute for Learning Algorithms (MILA), which has become a leading center for AI research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-contributions-to-deep-learning\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eContributions to deep learning\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBengio\u0026#8217;s research has been instrumental in advancing deep learning, a subset of machine learning that models high-level abstractions in data. His work on neural machine translation, generative adversarial networks, attention models, and word embeddings has been foundational in the development of modern AI applications. He is also known for his contributions to denoising autoencoders, language models, and generative flow networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-industry-engagement\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eIndustry engagement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2016, Bengio co-founded Element AI, a Montreal-based AI incubator aimed at transforming AI research into practical business solutions. The company was acquired by ServiceNow in 2020, with Bengio continuing as an advisor. He also serves as a scientific advisor for organizations such as Recursion Pharmaceuticals and Valence Discovery, contributing his expertise to the application of AI in various industries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-awards-and-honors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Bengio has received numerous accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2017, he was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. The following year, he was awarded the A.M. Turing Award, often referred to as the \u0026#8220;Nobel Prize of Computing,\u0026#8221; alongside \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003eGeoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yann-lecun\"\u003eYann LeCun\u003c/a\u003e for their work on deep learning. In 2020, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 2022, he received the Princess of Asturias Award in Scientific Research. In 2023, he was appointed a Knight of the Legion of Honour, France\u0026#8217;s highest order of merit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-views-on-ai-and-advocacy\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eViews on AI and advocacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, Bengio has been vocal about the ethical implications and potential risks associated with advanced AI systems. In March 2023, he signed an open letter calling for a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/pause-ai-more-powerful-than-gpt-4\"\u003epause in the development of AI systems\u003c/a\u003e more powerful than GPT-4, expressing concerns about the societal impacts and the need for better regulation. He has advocated for increased government involvement in tracking and auditing AI products to ensure their safe and ethical deployment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-recent-initiatives\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eRecent initiatives\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak announced that Bengio would lead an international scientific report on the safety of advanced AI. An interim version of the report was presented at the AI Seoul Summit in May 2024, addressing issues such as potential cyber attacks and loss of control scenarios. The full report was published in January 2025 as the International AI Safety Report, providing comprehensive guidelines for the safe development and deployment of AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"c9:T14b2,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYoshua Bengio, born on March 5, 1964, in Paris, France, is a Canadian computer scientist renowned for his pioneering work in artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning and artificial neural networks. His contributions have significantly advanced the field, earning him numerous accolades and establishing him as a leading figure in AI research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBengio was born to Moroccan Jewish parents who had emigrated to France. In pursuit of a more inclusive society, the family relocated to Montreal, Canada, when he was twelve years old. He pursued his higher education at McGill University, obtaining a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering, followed by a Master's and Ph.D. in Computer Science. His doctoral research focused on artificial neural networks and their application to sequence recognition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-academic-career\"\u003eAcademic career\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D., Bengio undertook postdoctoral research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and AT\u0026amp;T Bell Labs. In 1993, he joined the Université de Montréal as a faculty member, where he has been a professor in the Department of Computer Science and Operations Research. He also serves as the founder and scientific director of the Montreal Institute for Learning Algorithms (MILA), which has become a leading center for AI research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-contributions-to-deep-learning\"\u003eContributions to deep learning\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBengio's research has been instrumental in advancing deep learning, a subset of machine learning that models high-level abstractions in data. His work on neural machine translation, generative adversarial networks, attention models, and word embeddings has been foundational in the development of modern AI applications. He is also known for his contributions to denoising autoencoders, language models, and generative flow networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-industry-engagement\"\u003eIndustry engagement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2016, Bengio co-founded Element AI, a Montreal-based AI incubator aimed at transforming AI research into practical business solutions. The company was acquired by ServiceNow in 2020, with Bengio continuing as an advisor. He also serves as a scientific advisor for organizations such as Recursion Pharmaceuticals and Valence Discovery, contributing his expertise to the application of AI in various industries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-awards-and-honors\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Bengio has received numerous accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2017, he was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. The following year, he was awarded the A.M. Turing Award, often referred to as the \"Nobel Prize of Computing,\" alongside \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003eGeoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yann-lecun\"\u003eYann LeCun\u003c/a\u003e for their work on deep learning. In 2020, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 2022, he received the Princess of Asturias Award in Scientific Research. In 2023, he was appointed a Knight of the Legion of Honour, France's highest order of merit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-views-on-ai-and-advocacy\"\u003eViews on AI and advocacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, Bengio has been vocal about the ethical implications and potential risks associated with advanced AI systems. In March 2023, he signed an open letter calling for a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/pause-ai-more-powerful-than-gpt-4\"\u003epause in the development of AI systems\u003c/a\u003e more powerful than GPT-4, expressing concerns about the societal impacts and the need for better regulation. He has advocated for increased government involvement in tracking and auditing AI products to ensure their safe and ethical deployment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-recent-initiatives\"\u003eRecent initiatives\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak announced that Bengio would lead an international scientific report on the safety of advanced AI. An interim version of the report was presented at the AI Seoul Summit in May 2024, addressing issues such as potential cyber attacks and loss of control scenarios. The full report was published in January 2025 as the International AI Safety Report, providing comprehensive guidelines for the safe development and deployment of AI technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ca:Tcfd,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eGeoffrey Everest Hinton was born in Wimbledon, London, on December 6, 1947. He is a cognitive psychologist and a pioneering computer scientist, widely known as the \u0026#8220;Godfather of AI.\u0026#8221; Hinton\u0026#8217;s father, Howard, was an entomologist, and his mother, Margaret Clark, was a teacher. His middle name comes from his great-great-granduncle, George Everest, the Surveyor General of India, after whom Mount Everest is named.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHinton has made an unparalleled impact on artificial intelligence by developing some of the most important techniques in deep learning and neural networks. His work on methods like backpropagation, deep belief networks, and generative adversarial networks has been foundational to the advancement of modern AI systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHinton\u0026#8217;s academic journey began at Clifton College in the 1960s and continued at the University of Cambridge, where he switched majors several times before earning a BA in Experimental Psychology in 1970. In 1978, he obtained a PhD in artificial intelligence from the University of Edinburgh, supervised by Christopher Longuet-Higgins. This marked the beginning of his lifelong commitment to exploring the potential of machine learning and advocating for the ethical use of AI.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOver his six-decade career, Hinton has been affiliated with several prestigious institutions, holding academic and research positions at Carnegie Mellon University, the University of California, San Diego, and, most notably, the University of Toronto. His work at Toronto has been particularly influential, including his seminal 1986 paper co-authored with David Rumelhart and Ronald J. Williams, which popularized the backpropagation algorithm crucial for training multi-layer neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis algorithm enabled researchers to train deeper and more complex networks, laying the groundwork for future advancements in deep learning. Hinton\u0026#8217;s contributions have been pivotal in realizing practical AI applications, enhancing technologies such as speech recognition and computer vision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2012, Hinton co-founded DNNresearch Inc., which was quickly acquired by Google in 2013. He served as Vice President and Engineering Fellow at Google Brain until 2023, where he applied his theories at scale, impacting millions through Google\u0026#8217;s advancements in image and speech recognition technologies. He left Google in 2023 to focus more freely on addressing the ethical concerns surrounding AI, including issues of privacy, security, and the impact of automation on employment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Hinton has been recognized with numerous awards and honors for his contributions to technology and science. In 2018, he received the Turing Award, often referred to as the \u0026#8220;Nobel Prize of Computing,\u0026#8221; alongside \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yoshua-bengio\"\u003eYoshua Bengio\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yann-lecun\"\u003eYann LeCun\u003c/a\u003e, for their collective contributions to deep learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeyond the tech domain and academia, Geoffrey Hinton is a leading voice in AI safety and ethics discussions. His work continues to inspire both caution and innovation in the AI community, emphasizing the need for a balanced approach as AI technologies evolve.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"cb:T16bf,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYann LeCun, born on July 8, 1960, in Soisy-sous-Montmorency, France, is a pioneering computer scientist renowned for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and computer vision. His work, particularly in the development of convolutional neural networks (CNNs), has been instrumental in advancing deep learning technologies that underpin many modern AI applications. As of 2025, LeCun serves as the Vice President and Chief AI Scientist at Meta (formerly Facebook) and holds a professorship at New York University (NYU).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-early-life-and-education\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun\u0026#8217;s interest in science and engineering was evident from a young age, influenced by his father\u0026#8217;s profession as an engineer. He pursued his passion for technology by obtaining an engineering diploma from ESIEE Paris in 1983. He furthered his education with a Ph.D. in computer science from Université Pierre et Marie Curie (now Sorbonne University) in 1987, during which he proposed an early form of the back-propagation learning algorithm for neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-career-milestones\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCareer milestones\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1988, LeCun joined the Adaptive Systems Research Department at AT\u0026amp;T Bell Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey. During his tenure, he developed several innovative machine learning methods, including convolutional neural networks (CNNs), which are biologically inspired models of image recognition. His work on CNNs led to significant advancements in optical character recognition and computer vision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1996, LeCun became the head of the Image Processing Research Department at AT\u0026amp;T Labs-Research, focusing on projects such as the DjVu image compression technology. This technology has been widely used for distributing scanned documents, notably by the Internet Archive.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun transitioned to academia in 2003, joining NYU as a professor. He was the founding director of the NYU Center for Data Science and has been affiliated with the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences. His research at NYU has encompassed energy-based models for supervised and unsupervised learning, feature learning for object recognition in computer vision, and mobile robotics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn December 2013, LeCun took on the role of Director of AI Research at Facebook, now Meta, where he has been instrumental in advancing the company\u0026#8217;s AI initiatives. He continues to balance his responsibilities at Meta with his academic pursuits at NYU.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-contributions-to-deep-learning\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eContributions to deep learning\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun\u0026#8217;s work on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) has been foundational in the field of deep learning. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, he proposed architectures for building neural networks that enabled computers to recognize images. By 1994, while at AT\u0026amp;T Bell Labs, he developed a CNN capable of identifying handwritten characters, leading to applications such as bank check recognition systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has significantly influenced the development of modern AI systems, including applications in image and speech recognition, natural language processing, and autonomous vehicles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-awards-and-honors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun\u0026#8217;s contributions to AI have been widely recognized. In 2018, he, along with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yoshua-bengio\"\u003eYoshua Bengio\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003eGeoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, received the Turing Award for their work on deep learning. The trio is often referred to as the \u0026#8220;Godfathers of AI\u0026#8221; and \u0026#8220;Godfathers of Deep Learning.\u0026#8221;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2023, LeCun was honored with the Legion of Honour, France\u0026#8217;s highest order of merit, acknowledging his significant impact on science and technology. The following year, in 2024, he received the VinFuture Prize for his groundbreaking work in AI. In 2025, he was awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering, further cementing his legacy as a leading figure in the field.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-current-perspectives-and-future-vision\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCurrent perspectives and future vision\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun continues to be a prominent voice in the AI community. He has emphasized the limitations of current AI systems, noting that while they can communicate in ways similar to humans, they still lack a deep understanding of the physical world. He predicts that the next revolution in AI will occur within the next three to five years, focusing on developing systems that can comprehend and predict the behavior of the physical world. LeCun believes that achieving human-level intelligence in AI is still a distant goal, with current efforts aimed at creating systems with intelligence comparable to that of animals like cats or rats.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"cc:T161a,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYann LeCun, born on July 8, 1960, in Soisy-sous-Montmorency, France, is a pioneering computer scientist renowned for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and computer vision. His work, particularly in the development of convolutional neural networks (CNNs), has been instrumental in advancing deep learning technologies that underpin many modern AI applications. As of 2025, LeCun serves as the Vice President and Chief AI Scientist at Meta (formerly Facebook) and holds a professorship at New York University (NYU).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun's interest in science and engineering was evident from a young age, influenced by his father's profession as an engineer. He pursued his passion for technology by obtaining an engineering diploma from ESIEE Paris in 1983. He furthered his education with a Ph.D. in computer science from Université Pierre et Marie Curie (now Sorbonne University) in 1987, during which he proposed an early form of the back-propagation learning algorithm for neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-career-milestones\"\u003eCareer milestones\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1988, LeCun joined the Adaptive Systems Research Department at AT\u0026amp;T Bell Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey. During his tenure, he developed several innovative machine learning methods, including convolutional neural networks (CNNs), which are biologically inspired models of image recognition. His work on CNNs led to significant advancements in optical character recognition and computer vision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1996, LeCun became the head of the Image Processing Research Department at AT\u0026amp;T Labs-Research, focusing on projects such as the DjVu image compression technology. This technology has been widely used for distributing scanned documents, notably by the Internet Archive.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun transitioned to academia in 2003, joining NYU as a professor. He was the founding director of the NYU Center for Data Science and has been affiliated with the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences. His research at NYU has encompassed energy-based models for supervised and unsupervised learning, feature learning for object recognition in computer vision, and mobile robotics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn December 2013, LeCun took on the role of Director of AI Research at Facebook, now Meta, where he has been instrumental in advancing the company's AI initiatives. He continues to balance his responsibilities at Meta with his academic pursuits at NYU.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-contributions-to-deep-learning\"\u003eContributions to deep learning\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun's work on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) has been foundational in the field of deep learning. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, he proposed architectures for building neural networks that enabled computers to recognize images. By 1994, while at AT\u0026amp;T Bell Labs, he developed a CNN capable of identifying handwritten characters, leading to applications such as bank check recognition systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has significantly influenced the development of modern AI systems, including applications in image and speech recognition, natural language processing, and autonomous vehicles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-awards-and-honors\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun's contributions to AI have been widely recognized. In 2018, he, along with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/yoshua-bengio\"\u003eYoshua Bengio\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003eGeoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, received the Turing Award for their work on deep learning. The trio is often referred to as the \"Godfathers of AI\" and \"Godfathers of Deep Learning.\"\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2023, LeCun was honored with the Legion of Honour, France's highest order of merit, acknowledging his significant impact on science and technology. The following year, in 2024, he received the VinFuture Prize for his groundbreaking work in AI. In 2025, he was awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering, further cementing his legacy as a leading figure in the field.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-current-perspectives-and-future-vision\"\u003eCurrent perspectives and future vision\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeCun continues to be a prominent voice in the AI community. He has emphasized the limitations of current AI systems, noting that while they can communicate in ways similar to humans, they still lack a deep understanding of the physical world. He predicts that the next revolution in AI will occur within the next three to five years, focusing on developing systems that can comprehend and predict the behavior of the physical world. LeCun believes that achieving human-level intelligence in AI is still a distant goal, with current efforts aimed at creating systems with intelligence comparable to that of animals like cats or rats.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"cd:Te16,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIs any person’s name more synonymous with a great architectural feat than that of Gustave Eiffel? But the great French civil engineer’s legacy goes much deeper, with spectacular works in France, along with his assistance in moving the Statue of Liberty to the US, and work beyond his crafting days in the fields of aerodynamics and meteorology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEiffel was not the true family name, rather it was Bonickhausen, befitting the German immigrants who came to France to start the 19th century. The family adopted the name Eiffel from a mountain range near their German home, and Gustave was his parents’ first-born son, arriving into the world in 1832. Due to his parents’ burgeoning coal-distribution business, Eiffel did not grow up poor and was able to attend the Lycee Royal in Dijon. While largely bored at school, young Eiffel was influenced by his uncle Jean-Baptiste Mollerat, who had a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/mit-boosts-chemical-reactions-electricity\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003echemical plant\u003c/a\u003e and had invented a process for distilling vinegar. Eiffel went to college and graduated with high marks, specializing in chemistry. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe hoped to work with his uncle, but a family fight put a wrench in that, leading him to become the private secretary for a railway engineer instead. The engineer got Eiffel work designing a railway bridge, and when the engineer became managing director of a factory in Paris, he brought Eiffel on as head of the research department. He shined in that capacity, building bridges over rivers that were completed at budget and on time, enhancing his reputation. He eventually set off on his own and wound up taking a contract to oversee construction of more than 30 railroads in Egypt, which gave him a chance to visit some of the most impressive pieces of architecture in the world \u0026#8211; the Sphinx, the Pyramids, and the under-construction Suez Canal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen he returned to France, Eiffel set up his own workshops and took on two viaduct projects for the rail line between Bordeaux and Lyon, along with projects in South America and throughout Europe. In 1881, he was brought on by Auguste Barhtoldi as an engineer to help complete the Statue of Liberty. Eiffel constructed a four-legge pylon to support the weight of the statue, which was raised in Paris to ensure it would stand, then dismantled and sent to the US.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of his most celebrated works was the Garabit viaduct that was under construction from 1882-1884 before opening in 1885 at a length of 1,854 feet. It weighed 3,587 tonnes and was the highest arch bridge in the world at the time, costing more than 3.1 million francs. Eiffel’s grandest work, his eponymous \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/23-eiffel-tower-facts-youll-be-surprised-to-read\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etower\u003c/a\u003e, was built between 1887-1889 in celebration of the 1889 World’s Fair. Today, it is easily one of the most recognizable structures in the world. It stands 1,083 feet tall and to this day is the tallest structure in Paris. When it was completed, it surpassed the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/new-dna-tech-reveals-george-washingtons-kin-among-unmarked-remains\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWashington Monument\u003c/a\u003e as the tallest building in the world, and held onto that title until 1930 when the Chrysler Building moved past it. A private apartment was built for Eiffel on the top level where he entertained the likes of Thomas Edison. Eiffel passed away at his home in Paris in 1923 at the age of 91.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ce:T11b6,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eNot a lot of people have something named after rhythm. Rudolf Diesel has several \u0026#8211; fuel, engines, planes, locomotives, submarines, and more.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe thought he was inventing a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/20-greatest-innovations-and-inventions-of-automobile-engineering-from-the-first-engine-to-today\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003enew type of engine\u003c/a\u003e to help small business people, but instead it turned into the machine that has fueled mighty vehicles of industry for more than a century. While Diesel is famous now for his inventions, he was more famous in the early 20th century for the mysterious nature of his death, which has remained unsolved for more than 11 decades.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDiesel’s parents were immigrants from Bavaria. They struggled to make ends meet, leading Diesel to work from a young age in his father’s workshop to help pay the bills. He pushed a wheelbarrow around town with customers’ goods as a delivery boy. Diesel was sharp at school, particularly in math and science, winning or placing high in several school competitions. When he was 12 years old, France went to war with Prussia, and like many other German immigrants, his family had to flee, moving to London. His parents sent him on to Augsburg, back home in Germany, both to learn his native tongue and to visit the Royal County Vocational College where his uncle was a math teacher.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1873, Diesel gained entrance to the Industrial School of Augsburg, then won a scholarship to the Royal Bavarian Polytechnic of Munich, established five years earlier by King Ludwig II of Bavaria. Many of the countries’ brightest scientists were employed as educators, including Carl von Linde, who had made huge contributions in the field of refrigeration. Diesel was among the best of his class. In fact, the only thing that slowed him down was typhoid fever, which delayed his graduation by a year. When he recovered, he graduated at the top of his class and returned to his adopted home of Paris. Linde had previously moved there and the two began working together. Diesel was the director of the first-ever refrigeration and ice plant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile very successful, Diesel could not produce any patents of his own while working for Linde. He started doing work outside the field of refrigeration coinciding with moving his family \u0026#8211; he had gotten married and had three children in the previous decade \u0026#8211; to Berlin in 1890.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis early work with steam engines was evolutionary, but also precarious. Diesel nearly died twice in experiments gone wrong. He was also tinkering with an internal \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/whats-the-difference-between-jet-fuel-and-gasoline\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecombustion engine\u003c/a\u003e he had started working on during his college days. In 1892, he applied for a patent on the engine that worked on the theory of maximum thermal efficiency. He received it and published a paper on the subject the next year, only to realize he had made a mistake and had to re-apply for the patent again in 1893. The engine replaced steam \u0026#8211; which he felt wasted as much as 90% of its energy \u0026#8211; with fuel.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/7-german-inventions-that-changed-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003efirst Diesel engine\u003c/a\u003e was successfully tested in 1897. It was 10-feet tall with a flywheel at the base. Improving dramatically on the steam engine, his invention ran on 75% efficiency and began rapidly replacing its predecessor, making Diesel very wealthy in a short amount of time. By 1912, there were more than 70,000 diesel engines in the world.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1913, Diesel boarded a steamship in Belgium headed to England to open a massive plant there and meet with the British navy about putting diesel engines on their submarines. He had dinner on the ship and retired to his cabin for the night. No one ever saw him alive again.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore the trip, Diesel gave his wife a bag and told her not to open it until a week after his trip. The bag contained all of the family’s wealth in German marks. For more than a century, experts and amateur sleuths alike have speculated whether Diesel committed suicide or was murdered onboard the ship. His body was found in the water 10 days later and its belongings identified by his son. But the boat that found the body did not keep it as it was well into the state of decomposition, making an autopsy at that time in history impossible.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"cf:Tc11,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eHas a more talented human ever lived in the entire history of mankind? It is hard to imagine one more accomplished in so many areas than \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/the-inventions-of-leonardo-da-vinci-genius-inspired-by-nature\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLeonardo di ser Piero da Vinci\u003c/a\u003e, who was born in April 1452. He is famous for his work as an engineer, scientist, sculptor, architect, painter, theorist, and draftsman, and is widely considered the progenitor of the High Renaissance period of art. He painted both The Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, both of which can lay claim as being the most famous paintings in the world for centuries after they were completed. At the age of 14, he became an apprentice for Andrea del Verrocchio, a famous sculptor who had himself studied at the feet of the great Donatello. In the workshop, he wasn’t just exposed to brushes, paint, and clay, but also to chemistry, metal and woodworking, mechanics, and drafting, subjects that would allow him to show the world sights that it had never seen before.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePerhaps the most vexing part of Leonardo’s genius as an \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/mit-proves-da-vincis-longest-bridge-design-of-500-years-ago-would-have-worked\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eengineer and an inventor\u003c/a\u003e is that his creations rarely left the page, and if they did, they never made it past the experimental phase. Leonardo did not see much of a difference between science and art, believing both to be equal creations of his mind and just as beautiful to see come to life on paper. Throughout his lifetime, he wrote more than 13,000 pages of notes compiling his inventions, his observations, his creations, and drawings of things that didn’t yet exist. He was the first to propose the idea of a gated canal with a sluice gate, which would allow the city of Florence to have access to the sea. While it was not built in Leonardo’s time, the bridge eventually became the inspiration for the Panama Canal. Other ideas that he envisioned but never created included bending wooden beams into arches on bridges, using a flywheel and a crank to develop a steam engine, and even early designs of a mechanical man, or for lack of a better word, a robot that emulated the joints and muscles of the human body.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis plans came to fruition largely for the good of his city, coming in the form of city engineering and military might. He worked in the count of Ludovico Sforza, who ruled over the city of Milan and was attempting to keep people as safe as possible in public after an outbreak of the plague. Da Vinci designed extra-wide streets in new townships throughout the regions so people had more space to go about their business. He spent an additional 17 years working in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-of-the-most-advanced-military-robots-in-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emilitary engineering\u003c/a\u003e, designing weapons and defenses for the rules of his city as there were frequent battles and changes in leadership.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"d0:Tc5e,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBorn in Syracuse, Sicily in 287 BCE, Archimedes is regarded as ancient Greece’s most famous engineer, inventor, and mathematician. Despite living more than 22 centuries ago, two of his most famous inventions \u0026#8211; the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/7-amazing-inventions-from-archimedes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eArchimedes\u003c/a\u003e principle and the Archimedes screw \u0026#8211; are still well known and employed in today’s modern society. The two centuries before Archimedes was active had been full of the philosophical teachings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. As the Roman Empire began nipping at the heels of the Greeks, trained men like Archimedes began to take center stage. The son of the astronomer Phidias, he is thought to have visited Egypt as a youth, and there he invented what has forever been known as Archimedes’ screw. The device was used to remove water from a ship’s hold by inserting a circular pipe into a helix and setting it at a 45-degree angle. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lower end is placed in the water and rotation of the crew makes the water rise in the pipe and come out the other end. This simple device is still used in modern applications to pump sewage at wastewater treatment facilities. His second great work, ARchimedes’ principle, also dealt with water, specifically the law of buoyancy. The principle states that any object that becomes partially or completely submerged in a gas or a liquid at rest will have an upward, buoyant force acted upon it. The magnitude of said force is equal to the weight of the fluid being displaced by the object. This concept became vital in the building of larger ships that could survive longer, seafaring missions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eArchimedes studied alongside Conon of Samos, a mathematician stationed at Alexandria in Egypt whom he considered both a brilliant inspiration and a close friend. During his time, he developed several modern concepts of geometry, including the formulas for the area of a circle, the volume of a sphere, the area of an ellipse, the area of a spiral, and various other volume measurements. He began taking his mathematical equations and turning them into practical applications later in life, particularly in experimentations involving water. He developed proofs about the law of a lever system as well as the center of gravity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNear the end of his life, Archimedes’ knowledge and inventions were put to the test when Syracuse was invaded by the Roman Empire. Called upon to assist in the defense of the city, the senior scholar built defensive machines of war that utilized the crew pump and a complex series of pulleys to slow down the advance of enemy troops and catch them unawares in a series of traps.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough Roman centurions had orders not to harm Archimedes, who was well respected despite being on the other side of the conflict, he was killed by a Roman soldier a year after the siege of Syracuse began, dying in 212 BCE. While he was well read by his contemporaries, Archimedes did not achieve widespread acclaim until 530 AD when a compilation of many of his works was featured by Isidore of Miletus in Constantinople.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"d1:Te5c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eGuglielmo Giovanni Maria Marconi had a mouthful of a name and gave the world an earful, creating the radio \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/nasa-to-test-revolutionary-laser-comms-tech-aboard-the-iss\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ewave-based wireless\u003c/a\u003e telegraph system \u0026#8211; more colloquially known as radio technology. His invention earned him the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics alongside Karl Ferdinand Braun for “recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy.”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMarconi had a unique childhood, neither going to school nor getting a higher education. His parents hired tutors to teach him physics, math, and chemistry. The tutors traveled with the family when they left Bologna to go to warmer climates in the winter \u0026#8211; usually Florence or Tuscany. He eventually met physicist Augusto Righi, who worked at the University of Bologna, and let him use the school’s lab and library, and attend classes there as well even though he was not enrolled.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom his earliest days, he was fascinated by science, especially electricity. In the 1890s he turned his passion to the idea of wireless telegraphy, sending \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/34-industrial-revolution-inventions-that-changed-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etelegraph messages\u003c/a\u003e without using wires. He was hardly the first to envision the technology. A contemporary named Heinrich Hertz had discovered the ability to produce \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/first-time-reflection-electromagnetic-waves\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectromagnetic radiation\u003c/a\u003e in 1988. Hertz passed away in 1894 and allowed others to see some of his earlier works, including Marconi.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1894, he had built a storm alarm that picked up radio waves generated by lightning and sounded a bell. His first radio transmitter followed at the end of the year which could ring a bell across the room by pressing a button. The next summer he moved his experiments outside and had a breakthrough when he raised an antenna to a greater height, and grounded both the receiver and the transmitter. His range jumped from mere feet to two miles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe traveled to England with his mother in 1896 and received a patent for his improved transmitter, the first patent in world history concerning radio waves. He demonstrated the technology to the British government in July 1896, and the next year broadcast Morse code signals more than 3-½ miles. He sent a wireless communication over water a few months later \u0026#8211; stretching almost 10 miles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy 1900, Marconi was on to bigger things, seeking to send a signal across the Atlantic Ocean, which he did in 1902. In 1903, his ingenuity allowed US President Theodore Roosevelt to send a message to King Edward VII of England.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe became internationally known in 1912 because employees of the Marconi International Marine Communication Company were working on the RMS Carpathia of the Cunard Line the night that the RMS Titanic rammed an iceberg and sank. The Carpathia’s radio men were able to receive and decode the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/us-block-expedition-recover-titanic-radio\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eSOS from Titani\u003c/a\u003ec in just 17 minutes and race the 58 miles to its last known position to begin saving survivors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA review of the disaster ended with a court saying that every person who was saved owed their lives to Marconi and his invention. Later in life, Marconi served as a politician and worked for Italy’s military during World War I. He passed away in 1937 at age 63 in Rome.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"d2:T1228,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShuji Nakamura, born on May 22, 1954, in Ehime, Japan, is a Japanese-American \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/7-sparking-marvels-of-electrical-engineering-that-made-our-current-lives-possible\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectronic engineer\u003c/a\u003e and a pioneering inventor recognized for developing the blue light-emitting diode (LED). This innovation is fundamental to the energy-efficient lighting systems that are prevalent today. Nakamura’s career is distinguished by his \u003c/span\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/nobel-laureate-rapid-fire-lasers-nuclear-fusion-reactor\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eprofound contributions\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e to semiconductor technology and his role as a professor of materials science at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNakamura completed his education at the University of Tokushima, obtaining his Bachelor of Engineering in 1977 and a Master of Engineering in electronic engineering by 1979. Shortly after, he joined Nichia Corporation in Tokushima, where he embarked on a project to define his career. At Nichia, Nakamura overcame significant technical challenges to create the first high-brightness gallium nitride (GaN) LED in 1993. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThis LED emits a bright \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/light-color-circadian-rhythm-sleep\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eblue light\u003c/a\u003e, producing white light when combined with a yellow phosphor coating. This method became the basis for commercially viable white LED lighting.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHis breakthrough came when previous attempts by others, including significant efforts by J.I. Pankove and his team at RCA in the 1960s, had failed to yield marketable results primarily due to the challenges in achieving strong p-type GaN. Nakamura drew upon the foundational work of Professor Isamu Akasaki\u0026#8217;s group and innovated a new thermal annealing method to enhance the production process, making it suitable for mass production.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite facing initial resistance within Nichia, including being directed to halt his research, Nakamura persisted independently and succeeded in developing a commercially viable blue LED. This LED was significantly brighter than earlier versions and marked a major leap forward in lighting technology. The success of this invention significantly boosted Nichia’s financials, with the company’s revenue increasing from about 20 billion yen in 1993 to 80 billion yen by 2001, with blue LED products making up a substantial portion of sales.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1994, Nakamura was awarded a Doctor of Engineering degree from the University of Tokushima. Five years later, in 1999, he left Nichia to join UCSB as a professor, continuing his research and innovation in the field of LED technology. His later work expanded beyond blue LEDs to include green LEDs and blue laser diodes, integral to modern optical storage solutions like Blu-ray Discs and HD DVDs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNakamura\u0026#8217;s career was also full of legal battles over compensation for his inventions. In 2001, he initiated a lawsuit against Nichia, claiming that the compensation he received for his patents was insufficient. Although the court initially awarded him a significant sum, the final settlement in 2005 was considerably less, though still the largest payment to a Japanese employee for an invention at the time.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBeyond his technical and legal challenges, Nakamura has continued innovating in the lighting technology field. In 2008, he co-founded Soraa, a company specializing in advanced lighting based on pure gallium nitride substrates. More recently, in 2022, he co-founded Blue Laser Fusion, focusing on commercial fusion technology.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eNakamura has received numerous accolades throughout his illustrious career, including the 2014 \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/3-scientists-win-nobel-physics-prize-for-discovery-of-gravitational-waves\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNobel Prize in Physics\u003c/a\u003e, shared with Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano, for inventing efficient blue LEDs. His work has transformed lighting technology and significantly contributed to energy conservation and sustainability, making him a pivotal figure in the scientific and global community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"d3:Tc15,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eSoichiro Honda started his humble company in a wooden shack where he made motors for bicycles. By the time he passed away at age 84 in 1991, he had established one of the most powerful companies in the world, selling automobiles and motorcycles with one of the most respected brand names on Earth attached to it \u0026#8211; Honda Motor Co. Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHonda was born in Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan, in 1906. His father was a blacksmith who fixed bicycles for a living. He helped his father in the business and used his knowledge of the workshop to make a rubber stamp of his family seal to forge his father’s signature on his report card.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHonda was not interested in school as a child, but loved watching machines at work, including the first car to visit his village and an airplane that he rode one of his father’s bicycles to see a demonstration of. When he was just 15, he left home for Tokyo where he got an apprenticeship in a garage. He worked there for six more years, then started his own auto repair company when he was 22 in 1928. He was building cars, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/20-greatest-innovations-and-inventions-of-automobile-engineering-from-the-first-engine-to-today\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003efixing cars\u003c/a\u003e , and racing cars for most of the next decade.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe sold piston rings to Toyota in the late 1930s, but during World War II, a US bomber destroyed his factory. He sold the rest of his assets to Toyota and used the money to start the Honda Technical Research Institute in 1946. That first build was a 170 square-foot shack with a staff of 12 men as his entire workforce.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1948 he began production of a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/honda-releases-its-first-ever-series-production-v8-engine\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emotorized bicycle with an engine\u003c/a\u003e he had created himself. By 1949, he was selling the first true motorcycle in Japan. Over the next 10 years, Honda motorcycles gained considerable market share and brand recognition around the world, leading to the opening of a subsidiary in the US in 1959. The company has been the largest producer of motorcycles since then, producing 400 million of them in the past six decades. It is also the world’s eighth-largest automobile manufacturer and produces more than 14 million engines per year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1963, Honda expanded to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/cruise-gm-and-honda-unite-for-japans-driverless-transport\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003efour-wheel vehicles\u003c/a\u003e with a miniature pickup truck, followed by a sports car the same year. The company’s cars over the years were lauded for their efficiency, safety, and durability. Honda stepped down as president of the company in 1973 at age 66. In 1986, it added a luxury brand under a different name \u0026#8211; Acura \u0026#8211; that was an instant success and continues to be so.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHonda died at age 84 in 1991. Later in life he continued to take on new adventures \u0026#8211; hang gliding, hot-air ballooning, racing cars, and skiing.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"d4:T94b,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eAn architect and civil engineer with few contemporaries in his time, Dinocrates of Rhodes was the technical adviser to Alexander the Great, and designed the city of Alexandria, reconstructed the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and designed Hephaestion’s funeral pyre during the end of the fourth century BC.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn on the isle of Rhodes, in the South Aegean Sea, he rose to become a technical adviser to Alexander the Great, the king of Macedon who was tutored by Aristotle and created one of the largest empires in the history of the world. His birth and death dates are not known. In 332 BC, however, he was appointed to be the director of survey and planning for the eponymous city of Alexandria, which he would build in Egypt on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The city was founded in 331 BC. It was conceived to be the greatest city in the world, and quickly grew in size and scope of importance as the years passed. He designed it using the Hippodamian grid plan where streets run at right angles to one another, making it easy for even newcomers to find their ways around and allowing key buildings to be set up as wayfinders. Among the great works inside the city were the Lighthouse of Alexandria on the coast, and the Great Library, which is thought to have contained between 40,000-400,000 scrolls at the height of its prowess.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexander had a favorite general named Hephaestion who was said to be the king’s best friend. He had been a personal bodyguard of the king’s and eventually became his second in command. He died of a fever at age 32 and determined that he was divine and worthy of such a tribute in the afterlife. Alexander commissioned Dinocrates to build a stone monument to Hephaestion that was six stories tall, completely gilded, and made of stone, which was not available in Egypt or Greece and had to be transported long miles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe also helped reconstruct the Temple of Artemis, another of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, which had been burned in 356, the same day that Alexander was born. It was located in Ephesus, which is in modern-day Turkey. The temple was rebuilt larger than it had been, 60 feet high and 450 feet in length. It only lasted another 600 years after that, with the site a mystery until the late 1860s.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDinocrates also designed several other cities and temples in Delos and Delphi.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"d5:Ta3c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eThe Seven Wonders of the Ancient World are among the most legendary works the planet has ever known \u0026#8211; with only the Great \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/the-engineering-behind-the-great-pyramids-of-giza\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ePyramid of Giza\u003c/a\u003e still standing among them. One of the oldest was the Lighthouse of Alexandria, built in Ancient Egypt between 280 and 247 BC. Sostratus of Cnidus, a Greek architect, engineer, and financier, designed the lighthouse on the Island of Pharos off the coast of Alexandria. Architects estimate that the lighthouse was at least 330 tall, meaning, along with the Egyptian Pyramids, it was one of the tallest man-made structures in the world for more than a millennium. Pharos is a small island in the delta of the Nile River. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt was first connected to the mainland by an artificially constructed pier. Ptolemy took over as king of Egypt in 305 BC and commissioned its construction, which lasted 12 years and was finished during the reign of his son, Ptolemy II. Sostratus was the son of Dexiphanes, himself an architect who built the Tetra Stadium in Alexandria. He inscribed “Sostratus, son of Dexiphanes of Cnidus to the gods who protect those at sea” on the base of the structure. The lighthouse’s base measured 340 x 340 meters and there was a fire at the top which kept burning at all times with mirrors bouncing its light in all directions reportedly visible up to 54 kilometers away. According to different sources, the lighthouse also had a statue that kept time-based on the movement of its finger and a mechanical figure that played chimes to mark the hours but could also be used to raise an alert if an enemy fleet was spotted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe blocks that constructed the lighthouse were made of sandstone and limestone. There was also a great mirror at the top that reflected sunlight during the day. Unfortunately, Mother Nature saw the eventual loss of the lighthouse. It was damaged by three different earthquakes. The first struck in 956 AD, and the last in 1323 AD. It was abandoned after that, and the last of its stones were hauled down to build the Citadel of Qaitbay, which replaced it on Pharos in 1480. It unfortunately was located where two tectonic boundaries come together.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRuins of the port of Alexandria were first discovered in 1916, and in 1968, the lighthouse was found in pieces at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea. In 1994, a team of French archeologists found enormous blocks of granite in the Alexandria Eastern Harbor, along with pieces of sphinxes, obelisks, and carved columns.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"d6:T18ef,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eValentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova, born on March 6, 1937, in Bolshoye Maslennikovo, a village on the Volga River in Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, is a distinguished Russian aeronautical engineer, member of the State Duma, and a former Soviet cosmonaut renowned as the\u003c/span\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/15-women-who-changed-the-space-exploration-game\"\u003e \u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003efirst woman\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e in space. Following her father\u0026#8217;s death in the Finnish Winter War when she was only two, Tereshkova\u0026#8217;s family moved to Yaroslavl, where her mother found employment in a cotton mill.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTereshkova\u0026#8217;s educational journey began at age eight and concluded with her graduation from the Light Industry Technical School in 1960, balancing her studies with work at a tire factory and later at a textile mill. Her interest in parachuting, which she began at age 22, became a key element of her selection as a cosmonaut.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer deep involvement in her community and early political engagement led her to join the local Komsomol (Communist Youth League) in Yaroslavl, eventually serving as its secretary and becoming a member of the Communist Party in 1962. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eValentina Tereshkova\u0026#8217;s pioneering space career began when she was selected from over 400 candidates in 1962 to join the Soviet female cosmonaut corps, influenced by her skills in skydiving which were crucial for the spacecraft\u0026#8217;s parachute landing protocol.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShe embarked on rigorous training, including isolation tests, centrifuge and thermo-chamber tests, decompression chamber testing, and piloting MiG-15UTI jet fighters. This intense preparation was part of the Soviet strategy to launch the first woman into space. Tereshkova and her cohort started their training before their male counterparts to ensure that a Soviet woman would achieve this milestone first.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eOn June 16, 1963, Tereshkova was launched into space aboard Vostok 6 at the age of 26, making her the first woman to travel in space and the youngest woman ever to do so. She orbited Earth 48 times over almost three days in space during her flight, spending more time in orbit than all American astronauts combined before that date.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTereshkova\u0026#8217;s mission required her to manually operate the spacecraft due to a potential malfunction, showcasing her training and ability to handle unexpected challenges. Her call sign for the mission was \u0026#8220;Chaika,\u0026#8221; Russian for \u0026#8220;seagull.\u0026#8221; Her spacecraft came within 5 kilometers of Vostok 5, piloted by cosmonaut Valery Bykovsky, though it remains unclear if the two were able to confirm each other\u0026#8217;s spacecraft visually.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eUpon completing her spaceflight, Tereshkova was celebrated as a hero of the Soviet Union and received numerous accolades, including the Order of Lenin. Despite the physical challenges she reported, such as severe nausea, her mission was deemed a significant success and provided valuable data on the female body\u0026#8217;s response to spaceflight.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter her historic flight, Tereshkova never returned to space. She continued her involvement in the space program as an instructor and spokesperson. She earned her doctorate in aeronautical engineering and, by 1976, had risen to colonel in the Soviet Air Forces. Although re-qualified for further space missions, she transitioned to more educational and mentoring roles within the cosmonaut community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eFollowing her retirement from the Russian Air Force in 1997, Tereshkova transitioned from her career as a cosmonaut into a prominent political role. Despite losing two elections for the national State Duma in 1995 and 2003, her perseverance paid off when she was elected to her regional parliament, the Yaroslavl Oblast Duma, in 2008. This marked the beginning of her sustained influence in Russian politics.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2011, Tereshkova was elected to the State Duma, the lower house of the Russian legislature, representing the Yaroslavl Oblast as a member of the ruling United Russia party. Her political career was characterized by her advocacy for a range of legislative amendments, including those promoting Orthodox Christianity as a foundational cultural element of Russia, a significant shift from her previously stated atheistic views during the\u003c/span\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/7-interesting-facts-about-soviet-russian-spacesuits\"\u003e \u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eSoviet era\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eShe was appointed as a deputy chairperson of the Committee on the Federal Structure and Local Government, where she served until her re-election in 2016. During her tenure, she was instrumental in drafting the 2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia, famously proposing to lift the presidential term limits.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer political career has not been without controversy. In 2022, following her support for the Russian invasion of Ukraine, international sanctions were imposed on her by the United States and the European Union, resulting in frozen assets and travel bans.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHer political activities were complemented by her ongoing engagement in social causes and her representation of Russia on significant international platforms. Tereshkova also remained a celebrated figure in\u003c/span\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/space\"\u003e \u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003espace exploration\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003e, often speaking at events and continuing to inspire future generations of astronauts and engineers.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThroughout her life, Tereshkova received numerous awards and honors, including Hero of the Soviet Union, Order of Lenin, Joliot-Curie Gold Medal, and even the United Nations Gold Medal of Peace at some point. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"d7:Td26,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eAn immigrant to the US who goes on to help build the largest company in the world. It’s a story right out of a made-for-TV movie that’s 100% true. Sergey Brin co-founded \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/google-first-step-1000-language-ai-model\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eGoogle\u003c/a\u003e with fellow engineer Larry Page and as of the writing of this book was one of the 10-wealthiest people in the world.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1973 in Moscow, Soviet Union, his father was a mathematician and his mother equally gifted. In 1977, his father returned from a conference in Poland and told the family that they needed to leave the Soviet Union and immigrate to the United States. With Communism still ruling the day, this was not a welcome move by the Russian government, and his parents were both fired from their jobs and made to wait eight months before leaving.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThey eventually lived in Vienna, and then Paris, until his father was hired to teach math at the University of Maryland. The family arrived in the US in late 1979 when Brin was six years old. He was naturally gifted in mathematics and took advanced-level classes, allowing him to graduate from the University of Maryland with an honors degree in computer science and math when he was just 19. He went on to pursue a graduate degree at Stanford University after receiving a graduate fellowship from the National Science Foundation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt new student orientation, Brin met fellow newcomer \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/larry-page\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLarry Page\u003c/a\u003e. They initially did not get along at all, but found that they had common interests and big ideas. The pair wrote a paper together called “The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine” with Brin specializing in how to develop systems to accurately mine large sets of data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSearch engines of the day were slow and inaccurate, with Yahoo, Excite, and Altavista the leaders in the industry. The pair created an algorithm they called PageRank that could analyze the backlinks of a website to see how many other links connected to that page and what pages they connected to. Page’s dorm room became their laboratory and Brin’s their office and test center. Their tests consumed so much bandwidth that Stanford’s nascent computer network began to have slowdowns because of their work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn August 1996, they launched the first version of Google onto the Stanford Web site under the name BackRub, which was Page’s initial project before the two started working together. By the two-year mark of its release, they were getting 10,000 searches per day. The two made the decision to drop out of school and start up Google in the garage of a friend, Susan Wojcicki, who wound up working for the company and marrying its director of product management, Dennis Troper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSince his mother was diagnosed with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/pinal-implant-parkinsons-patient-walk\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eParkinson’s disease\u003c/a\u003e in 2008, Brin has donated more than $1 billion to fund research. He has also invested in Space Adventures, a space tourism company.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBrin was the president of Google’s parent company Alphabet Inc. until 2019 but remains a controlling shareholder and board member.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"d8:Tb08,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIn the bustling heart of Vienna, Austria, Ferdinand Piëch, a name destined for the annals of automotive history, was born to Louise and Anton Piëch. From his early days, it was clear that Piëch possessed a remarkable affinity for machines and an unyielding curiosity about their inner workings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFueled by this passion, Piëch embarked on his engineering journey at the Lyceum Alpinum Zuoz, a renowned institution that nurtured young minds. His academic pursuits eventually led him to ETH Zurich in Switzerland, where he honed his skills and graduated in 1962. Little did the world know that this unassuming young man would become a trailblazer in automotive engineering.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis journey indeed took flight when he delved into the world of Formula One racing. In a twist of fate, his master\u0026#8217;s thesis coincided with Porsche\u0026#8217;s venture into F1, resulting in the birth of an innovative 8-cylinder engine for the Porsche 804. This marked the beginning of Ferdinand\u0026#8217;s legacy in shaping high-performance automobiles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis talents found a home at Porsche in Stuttgart, where he spent eight years refining his craft. During his tenure, he played a pivotal role in crafting iconic models like the Porsche 906 and the groundbreaking Porsche 917, both of which left an indelible mark on the racetrack. Ferdinand\u0026#8217;s innovations were not limited to the race circuit; his mind sparked the inception of the Audi Quattro, a revolutionary four-wheel-drive vehicle that would dominate the World Rally Championship.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBut Ferdinand\u0026#8217;s brilliance extended beyond individual brands. His tenure at Audi ushered in an era of transformation. He influenced Audi\u0026#8217;s engineering landscape and pioneered a path into new markets, rescuing Volkswagen from the brink of bankruptcy. His strategic maneuvers and audacious acquisitions, including Lamborghini and Bugatti, reshaped the automotive landscape.In his quest for engineering marvels, Ferdinand envisioned the impossible. He dared to dream of a 16-cylinder engine for the legendary Can-Am series, a vision that later manifested in the awe-inspiring Bugatti Veyron.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePiëch\u0026#8217;s influence stretched across continents, reviving the Bentley brand and shaping the luxury automobile market. His determination and resilience were unparalleled, earning him accolades such as the Man of the Year award from Automobile Magazine in 2011.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn August 25, 2019, Piëch tragically collapsed during dinner with his wife in Aschau near Rosenheim, Oberbayern. He was immediately taken to the hospital and later pronounced dead. As the pages of automotive history turn, Piëch\u0026#8217;s legacy endures, inspiring generations of engineers and enthusiasts. In the world he helped shape, Piëch\u0026#8217;s name resonates as a beacon of excellence.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"d9:Tc68,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIt’s neither a typo nor a misprint, legendary actress \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/hedy-lamarr-the-beauty-behind-the-invention-of-wi-fi-gps-bluetooth\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eHedy Lamarr\u003c/a\u003e was also an engineer, and a brilliant one at that.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe was a skilled \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/who-exactly-invented-math\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emathematician\u003c/a\u003e and loved inventing things, despite her biggest fame being on the silver screen. She was born in Austria in 1914, right as that country plunged into World War I as one of the Central Powers. By the time she hit her teenage years, she was interested in acting, had won a beauty contest, and was also fascinated by inventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer father would take her on daily walks around their city and explain to her how everything worked. Lamarr got exceptionally famous in 1933 as an actress when she appeared in the movie “Ecstasy” that was extremely racy for the day. When she was 18 she married an older man who was a military arms merchant. She eventually fled both him and Austria in 1937, eventually making it to London, then on to New York, then Hollywood in 1938.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe was a leading lady in Hollywood throughout the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, but to the surprise of many, she retained her interests in math and inventing, working on hobbies in her spare time that included a different form of a traffic light. As World War II raged, Lamarr read an article in a magazine about \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/military/heavy-lift-drone-drop-torpedo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eradio-controlled torpedoes\u003c/a\u003e and the fact that enemy vessels could jam them and send them off course.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShe wound up discussing the idea of a signal that jumped frequencies and thus could keep the guidance system from being jammed with a friend of hers, a composer named George Antheil.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAntheil suggested a way of staggering the frequency using the same technology as a player piano, and introduced Lamarr to a professor of radio-electrical engineering at CalTech.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1942, Lamarr received a patent from the US government for her design. She was following in the footsteps of greats like Nikola Tesla, who had envisioned using the same technology in the 1920s. The US and the Allies didn’t have the technology in place in their fight against the Axis Powers in World War II, but by the 1960s, the Navy had adopted it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt didn’t just turn into a Naval invention, however. The principles of Lamarr’s became the foundation for the creation of Wi-Fi technology as well as CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access). A generation later, they were the same principles that generated both \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/are-you-being-tracked-by-bluetooth-beacons-while-shopping\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eBluetooth and GPS technology\u003c/a\u003e. In 1997 Lamarr and Antheil were recognized for their efforts by receiving the Electronic Frontier Foundation Pioneer Award. She passed away at age 85 in Florida in 2000. In 2014, she was posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"da:Tee7,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA man of great accomplishments when it came to \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/ad-astra-the-future-of-propulsion-technology\" target=\"_blank\"\u003erocket technology\u003c/a\u003e, he was a member of the Nazi Party in Germany during World War II who was suspected of being a traitor and arrested, then ultimately surrendered to American forces in 1945, and was almost immediately put to work for the American military, eventually becoming a key figure in the country’s development of ballistic missiles and the US Space Program.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1912 in what was then Prussia and is now Poland, Von Braun’s father was the Minister of Agriculture for the Weimar Republic while his mother had royal blood, a descendant of several kings of Scotland, England, and Denmark. His family moved to Berlin in 1915 and Von Braun’s mother gifted him a telescope, which got him obsessed with astronomy. Only when he realized that he needed to be strong at math and science to have a chance to work with rockets did Von Braun begin to apply himself to his studies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1932, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Institute of Technology in Berlin. He started his own private rocket development company, and within the year had been contacted by the German Army about working for them for purposing weather data and missile capabilities. By 1934, he had added a doctorate in aerospace engineering.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;In 1937, he applied for membership into the Nazi Party, although records indicate he was not particularly passionate about it. In his own words, he was “officially demanded to join.” By then he had begun working with rockets and was one of the top minds in the country. After World War I, Germany had signed the Treaty of Versailles forbidding them from doing weapons ‘research in a number of areas, but \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/different-rockets-spacecraft-developed-by-spacex\" target=\"_blank\"\u003erockets\u003c/a\u003e were not among the listed, giving the Germans something of a loophole.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrespondence with American physicist Robert H. Goddard allowed Von Braun to lead the Germans to build the A-4 rocket, which later took the more famous name the V-2. The V-2 was the first manmade object to fly out of the atmosphere. In 1944, Germany launched more than 3,100 V-2 rockets into Belgium, the UK, France, The Netherlands, and parts of Germany that had fallen to Allied advances. Thousands were killed and tens of thousands injured.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter being arrested, then released by the SS in 1944, Von Braun led the escape of many of his fellow engineers as the Allied troops advanced on Germany and Hitler ordered all scientists in the military to be gassed. He and several of his team members surrendered to American troops in May 1945, just six days before Germany surrendered. Von Braun was debriefed and taken to a US military base in El Paso, TX.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was considered a top “prize” among Germany scientists by the Americans. Von Braun continued working on the V-2 for the US, then began developing the Redstone rocket for use on long-range missiles. After years of doing heavily supervised work on V-2 rockets, he was transferred to Alabama and headed up the Redstone Arsenal missile program for the US Army.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was an early advocate for the US to pursue putting a man in a rocket into space, sketching out ideas for space stations and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/the-first-mission-to-mars-by-2033\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ea trip to Mars\u003c/a\u003e. His work saw him hired by NASA in 1960. He was head of NASA’s engineering program that successfully launched the Apollo series, including the Apollo 11 moon landing. He passed away at age 65 in 1977 of pancreatic cancer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"db:T1064,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIn the bustling city of Tehran, a young girl named Maryam Mirzakhani was born on May 12, 1977. From an early age, her love for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/worlds-hardest-math-problems\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003enumbers and patterns\u003c/a\u003e set her apart. Growing up in a society where opportunities for women in advanced education were limited, Maryam\u0026#8217;s brilliance refused to be contained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer journey began at Tehran Farzanegan School, an institution associated with the National Organization for Development of Exceptional Talents. Here, her mathematical prowess emerged like a radiant beacon. Despite the societal challenges that often discouraged girls from \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/who-exactly-invented-math\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003epursuing mathematics\u003c/a\u003e , Maryam\u0026#8217;s determination knew no bounds. Her exceptional abilities earned her recognition, not just locally but on the international stage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn mathematics competitions, Maryam\u0026#8217;s name became synonymous with excellence. She not only excelled in the Iranian National Olympiad but went on to clinch the gold medal in both her junior and senior years. This remarkable achievement not only underscored her mathematical brilliance but also exempted her from the grueling national college entrance exam.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer talent knew no borders; she represented Iran in the prestigious International Mathematical Olympiad. In 1994, she etched her name, becoming the first Iranian woman to win a gold medal in Hong Kong. The following year, in Toronto, she achieved the unthinkable—a perfect score, winning not one but two gold medals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs Maryam\u0026#8217;s academic journey progressed, she continued to leave an indelible mark. At Sharif University of Technology, she earned her Bachelor of Science degree in mathematics in 1999, earning recognition from esteemed institutions like the American Mathematical Society for her work on the theorem of Schur. Fueled by an insatiable curiosity, she ventured to the United States, landing at the hallowed halls of Harvard University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder the mentorship of the renowned mathematician Curtis T. McMullen, Maryam\u0026#8217;s brilliance found new avenues to explore. She delved deep into the complex world of moduli spaces of Riemann surfaces, unraveling mysteries that had baffled mathematicians for generations. Her doctoral thesis focused on solving intricate problems related to simple closed geodesics on hyperbolic Riemann surfaces, weaving together the realms of dynamics and geometry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the hallowed corridors of Harvard, Maryam\u0026#8217;s innovative spirit thrived, leading to groundbreaking volume formulas and proofs that illuminated the intricacies of these mathematical structures. Maryam\u0026#8217;s exceptional contributions did not go unnoticed. In 2014, the world recognized her genius. She was bestowed with the Fields Medal, the highest honor in mathematics. This momentous occasion was historic, marking Maryam as the first woman to receive this prestigious award. Her work, a fusion of dynamics and geometry, delved into the behavior of billiards on an expansive array of tables. Her insights revealed the profound dynamics underlying the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/creat-music-art-using-brainwaves\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003egeometry fabric\u003c/a\u003e , leaving an indelible imprint on the field.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYet, amidst her soaring achievements, tragedy struck. Maryam was diagnosed with \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/health/her2-breast-cancer-vaccine\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ebreast cancer\u003c/a\u003e in 2013. Undeterred, she faced this formidable adversary with unwavering courage and resilience. She continued her work, her passion for mathematics undiminished, inspiring her peers and admirers with determination.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn July 14, 2017, at the age of 40, Maryam Mirzakhani\u0026#8217;s journey came to a premature end. The world mourned the loss of a brilliant mind, a trailblazer who defied conventions and illuminated the path for future mathematicians. Her legacy reminds the world that passion, determination, and intellect know no gender.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"dc:T1085,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eOne of the greatest masters of innovation in the 20th century, Sergei Korolev was the lead scientist, rocket engineer, and designer of spacecraft for the Soviet Union during the 1950s and 1960s. His work gave Russia the victory in the Space Race between the two world superpowers multiple times over in the early 1960s, including the successful launch and return of the first human being, Yuri Gagarin, into space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in what is now Ukraine in 1907, his father was an Army soldier and his mother from a wealthy family of merchants. His father moved the family to the city of Zhytomyr to become a teacher but his parents soon separated. His father died when he was 22. Korolev learned to read at a young age and was a favorite of his school teachers for his gifts in math, which also led to him being bullied by many of his peers. His mother remarried when he was nine to a German electrical engineer who moved the family to Odessa, a port on the Black Sea. Korolev went to vocational school in Odessa and built a glider, his first attempt at making a vehicle fly. He later joined the Society of Aviation and Aerial Navigation of Ukraine and the Crimea and had his first experiences riding in airplanes. By 1926, he was accepted into the Bauman Moscow State Technical University where he studied under Andrei Tupolev, a famous Russian aircraft designer. He studied aviation until 1929 and began working on designing aircraft for the Russian government soon after. In 1930, he shifted his focus to liquid-fueled \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/rocket-lab-engine-from-space\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003erocket engines\u003c/a\u003e for airplanes and earned his pilot’s license the same year. In 1933, he produced the first hybrid propellant rocket, and shortly thereafter, the first liquid-fueled rocket.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis work stalled in 1937 when Joseph Stalin took control of the Communist Party and started the Great Purge \u0026#8211; removing the influence of his predecessor, Leon Trotsky. At least 700,000 people were killed on Stalin’s orders. Koroklev was arrested in 1938 on false charges and tortured in prison. He was forced to work in a gold mine in Siberia for several months, suffering a heart attack and losing several teeth due to scurvy. He was brought back to Moscow in 1939, then relocated to a prison for scientists and engineers in 1940. His group designed two Russian bombers during World War II. He was finally released from prison in June 1944, but the charges against him were not wiped out until 1957.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was commissioned as an officer of the Red Army in 1945 and given a Badge of Honor for his work during the war. He worked with German scientists after the end of World War II on the creation of V-2 rockets for military purposes. In 1954, he first proposed using a ballistic missile to launch a satellite into space. He wrote articles for local newspapers about the possibility, which were intercepted by the US government, which announced its own intentions to do the same thing in 1955. Koroleve sent another proposal to the Russian government with attached articles from US newspapers about America’s announcement, and three days later, his program was approved.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe designed and oversaw the launch of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/sputnik-moment-global-order\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eSputnik 1\u003c/a\u003e, which launched into space in October 1957 \u0026#8211; the first artificial satellite of Earth. Korolev pushed forward to send a satellite to the moon, but his early attempts failed, with two missing the target, and the other three crashing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1960, another Koroelv designed spacecraft successfully launched and returned a pair of dogs into space. With those tests accomplished, on April 12, 1961, Koroleve was capsule coordinator as Yuri Gagarin launched into orbit, the first man in space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1960, Korlev suffered either his first or second heart attack. He had a kidney disorder caused by his time in terrible living conditions in Soviet prison camps. He died in the hospital in 1966 at the age of 59. No one in the country knew his name until after he had died, a policy started by Stalin during his rise to power.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"dd:T13c5,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eFew names in the history of the world conjure up the image of speed more potently than that of Ferdinand Porsche, an Austrian-Hungarian engineer who developed the Volkswagen Beetle, the Mercedes-Benz SS/SSK, the first hybrid vehicle, and founded Porsche AG, one of the most legendary \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/20-greatest-innovations-and-inventions-of-automobile-engineering-from-the-first-engine-to-today#:~:text=The%20first%20electric%20starter%20was,produced%20by%20Cadillac%20in%201912\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eautomobile companies\u003c/a\u003e in world history.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis contributions to the automotive world help overshadow his contributions to the Nazi war machine during World War II, but both tales of his life demand to be told.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1875 in Austria-Hungary, land that is now the Czech Republic, Porsche was passionate about technology and electricity from a very young age. He attended classes at the Imperial Polytechnical College a good 3 miles from his home and helped his father work in a mechanical shop when he was not in school.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen he was 18, he moved to Vienna to take a job with an electrical company and enrolled as a part-time student at the Vienna University of Technology. While the classes taught him some formal education, his real learning was being done at the company, where he had begun experimenting in his spare time and ultimately built an electric wheel-hub motor which could be applied to the hub of a bicycle and power it directly. He went on to race on this vehicle in 1897.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1898, he moved to work for Jakob Lohner \u0026amp; Company, which made high-end coaches for royalty through Europe. He started working with Loghner himself on the possibilities of an automobile, but wanted to push beyond the lead-acid batteries that were currently being used. In 1901, the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/porsche-thin-air-water-replace-gasoline\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid\u003c/a\u003e was unveiled, which replaced the batteries with an internal combustion engine that powered a generator that cranked electric wheel hub motors. It was the first-ever electric-petroleum powered vehicle in the history of the world. By 1906, more than 300 of them were sold, and the vehicle clocked in at a top speed of 35 miles per hour, a world record at the time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1902, his brilliant career was interrupted when Porsche was drafted into his country’s military service. He was a chauffeur at one point for Archduke Franz Ferndinand, whose assassination more than a decade later would light the blaze that started World War I. After completing his service, Porsche became a hot commodity for burgeoning automotive companies, moving to work for Austro-Daimler as its chief designer, then moving up to managing director in 1916, and earning a honorary doctorate from his old school in Vienna. Porsche was more frequently building racing cards, and successful ones at that. His vehicles won 43 out of 53 races in 1922. He moved to Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft in 1923, which then merged with Benz \u0026amp; Cie to become Mercedes-Benz in 1926.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe only worked there a few years before setting off on his own, founding a consulting firm in 1931. He struggled to find customers for any sort of vehicle due to the economic depression gripping the entire world. In 1933, his fortunes seemed to change when he was part of an auto union that was formed at the request of German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, who planned to have every German driving a car of their own. Porsche was put in charge of two projects \u0026#8211; a car for the people as well as a high-speed German automotive industry; both sponsored by the government.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe people’s car was the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/the-volkswagen-beetle-you-gotta-love-the-bug\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eVolkswagen Beetle\u003c/a\u003e , which he began work on in 1934. He joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and when Germany invaded Poland in 1939, triggering the start of World War II, Porsche was conscripted into military duty as an engineer. He designed the VK4501 “Tiger” heavy tank, but it was deemed too complicated for the average soldier to drive.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen the war ended, Porsche was initially allowed to continue work on the Beetle in France, but was later arrested as a war criminal. The French government ostensibly held him for a ransom of 1 million francs to be released, which the family eventually raised enough money to pay. Sometime later, Porsche and his sons began work on the Porsche 356, the first car with the family name. He initially struggled after World War II to find financial backing or loans from banks given his friendship with Hitler.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, he was able to sell the 356 to several dealers and was later contracted by Volkswagen for consulting work. He received a royalty for every VW sold and eventually gained his fortune several times over. In 1951, he suffered a stroke and died at the age of 75 in Stuttgart, Germany.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"de:Te87,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA famous name in engineering and physics, the legend of Nikola Tesla seems to grow larger with each passing year as history looks back at his life and series of inventions. He was responsible for numerous breakthroughs in how to use electrical power and is the inventor of the first-ever alternating current (AC) motor.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe is well-known for his rival in the electricity business, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/85-years-of-legacy-how-thomas-edison-illuminated-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eThomas Edison\u003c/a\u003e, and for the fact that despite his brilliance, financial success for his inventions failed to follow his brilliance in the laboratory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in the middle of the 19th century in the former Austro-Hungarian Empire, his father was a Serbian Orthodox priest while his mother managed the family farm. With an infinity for hard facts, Tesla studied both physics and math at the Technical University of Graz, and went on to study philosophy at the University of Prague.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was on a walk in his mid-20s when he first envisioned the idea of a brushless \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/7-sparking-marvels-of-electrical-engineering-that-made-our-current-lives-possible\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eAC motor\u003c/a\u003e, stopping on the path to sketch what its rotating electromagnets might look like in the sand along the way. In order to get more experience and exposure, he moved to Paris in 1884 and soon had a job doing repair work at direct current (DC) power plants with the Continental Edison Company, a French firm that had been established that same year by the legendary American inventor Thomas Edison.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEdison was impressed by the younger engineer and once promised him, apparently in jest, that he would pay Tesla $50,000 for an improved design to Edison’s DC dynamos. After several months, Tesla achieved success, showed it to Edison, asked for his money, and was told it had been a joke. Not long after that, he quit working for Edison and founded the Tesla Electric Light Company, but it struggled. He continued his research into the alternating current and over the next few years racked up more than 30 patents for the technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile speaking to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, he crossed paths with fellow inventor George Westinghouse, a close competitor of Edison’s. Tesla went to work for Westinghouse, producing various inventions and doing well financially as a result. He invented high-voltage transformers, improved on existing electric light designs, and earned more patents for his work on meters and electric oscillators.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/the-20-greatest-engineers-of-all-time\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWestinghouse\u003c/a\u003e installed AC generators at Niagara Falls, effectively creating the world’s first power station. He also dabbled in radio technology a few years before Guglielmo was credited for inventing it. After his lab burned in 1895, destroying decades of work, Tesla moved to Colorado briefly, then returned to New York to partner with financial giant J.P. Morgan.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMorgan bankrolled Tesla’s attempts to build a giant tower in Long Island that would serve as a global communications network. But the funding ran out and the deal went south. Tesla retreated to his permanent home at the Waldorf Astoria hotel, working on further experiments including radio-powered remote controls and X-ray technology. He began to slip into mental illness and passed away at the age of 86 in the Hotel New Yorker. Posthumously he was given credit for many of the radio patents that had originally been granted to Guglielmo.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"df:Te37,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eNot everyone can declare themselves “benevolent dictator for life” of a company, but such was the nature of Guido van Rossum, the Dutch programmer who invented an entire programming language from scratch known the world over as \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/mits-codon-compiles-python\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ePython\u003c/a\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in The Hague, The Netherlands in 1956, he was fascinated by math and computers from an early age. When he turned 18, he won the bronze medal in the 1974 International Mathematical Olympiad, the oldest International Science Olympiad in the world designed to find the best pre-university math students in the world. Van Rossum and the competition took on six problems over two days at the competition in East Berlin and he placed third in the world. He stayed close to home for his education, graduating in 1982 from the University of Amsterdam with a double master’s degree in computer science and mathematics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter college, he went to work at Centrum Wiskunde \u0026amp; Informatica (CWI). There, he began dabbling in writing computer languages, starting with the ABC \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/metas-new-ai-model-can-generate-and-explain-codes-for-you\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eprogramming language\u003c/a\u003e and working on Unix in 1986. Even though the Internet was just starting to take shape in the late 1980s and early 1990s, he also created an early web browser that he called Grail.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1989, during a week when his office was closed for Christmas and he found himself bored, he started working on a new language, which he called Python in honor of the movie “Monty Python’s Holy Grail”.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1991, he released the first version of it, followed by Python 2.0 9 years later in 2000. It was immediately a big hit, with massive upgrades on the first. Instead of demanding users train for months in how to code simple items, python allows for aspect-oriented programming that is more intuitive than anything that had come before it. It uses simple logical statements like “if”, “for”, “while”, “try”, “class”, and “return” to execute different parameters and conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWorking for CWI opened up a lot of doors for Van Rossum, and he went on to work for the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI) as well as the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NST)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1999, he pitched the use of Python to the US Department of Defense in an attempt to get funding for it. In 2000, he jumped ship along with three coworkers from CNRI to join a tech startup called BeOpen.com. Unfortunately, his timing coincided with the Dot Com bubble burst of the same year, as too many tech companies that raised money found they had no market and no net for failure collapsed, taking all their investors’ money with them. BeOpen.com failed just a few months after Van Rossum got there, leading him to the Zope Corporation. He continued to job hop for a few more years, before landing at Google. He stayed at the Internet powerhouse from 2005-2012, and spent at least half of his time working on the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/wolverine-fixes-python-code-ai\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ePython programming language\u003c/a\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter a six-year stint at Dropbox, he left the company in 2019 to retire, only to return to active duty in 2020 to take on a project with Microsoft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough Van Rossum stepped down as the head designer of Python in 2018, it continues to have new releases, including Python 3.11 in 2022.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"e0:Td0c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eIn the heart of Lahore, British India, in the year 1910, a child was born who would one day unravel the mysteries of the universe.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSubrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, later known as Chandra, grew up to become a legendary figure in the realm of theoretical physics. Chandra\u0026#8217;s insatiable curiosity and passion for knowledge led him from the bustling streets of Lahore to the academic corridors of Madras (present-day Chennai), India.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere, at Presidency College, he delved deep into the mysteries of physics, earning his bachelor\u0026#8217;s degree. But his thirst for understanding could not be quenched within the confines of India. So, he set his sights on the esteemed University of Cambridge, where he pursued his PhD, immersing himself in the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/axion-particle-could-reveal-first-second-of-the-universe\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecomplexities of the universe\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUpon completing his education, Chandra ventured across the oceans to the United States, where he embarked on a remarkable journey at the University of Chicago. His brilliance shone brightly as he made groundbreaking contributions to astrophysics. Alongside his colleague William A. Fowler, he was honored with the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for their profound theoretical studies on the structure and evolution of stars.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChandra\u0026#8217;s legacy was defined by his pioneering work on stellar evolution, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/astronomers-observe-white-dwarf-star-transforming-into-massive-celestial-diamond\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ewhite dwarfs\u003c/a\u003e , stellar dynamics, radiative transfer, and quantum theory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of his most significant achievements was the establishment of the Chandrasekhar limit, a crucial concept defining the maximum mass a white dwarf star can bear before its cataclysmic fate. Yet, Chandra\u0026#8217;s path was not without challenges. A fierce scientific dispute with Arthur Eddington tested his resolve. Undeterred, he stood firm, and his groundbreaking theory was eventually validated and embraced by the scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the midst of World War II, Chandra applied his intellect to the field of ballistics research, contributing to wartime efforts. His expertise in various domains, from \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/solar-wind-sun-space-weather\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esolar wind\u003c/a\u003e to gravitational waves, marked him as an unparalleled scientific mind. Throughout his life, Chandra held steadfast to his rigorous approach to research, emphasizing systematization in his scientific pursuits. His influence extended far beyond his discoveries, touching the lives of numerous students and collaborators who were inspired by his dedication. In 1995, at the University of Chicago Hospital, Chandrasekhar\u0026#8217;s brilliant mind was dimmed by a sudden heart attack, marking the end of an era in the world of astrophysics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRemarkably, he had already survived a heart attack two decades earlier, a testament to his resilience and determination. Chandrasekhar may have left this world, but his legacy endured—a legacy of groundbreaking research and contributions that illuminated the darkest corners of the universe, leaving an indelible mark on the world of astrophysics.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"e1:T68a,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBjarne Stroustrup, born in Aarhus, Denmark, went to local schools and graduated from Aarhus University in 1975 with a math and computer science degree. He focused on microprogramming and machine architecture, learning object-oriented programming from its creator, Kristen Nygaard.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe earned his PhD in computer science from the University of Cambridge in 1979, researching distributed computing under David Wheeler.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1979, Stroustrup joined Bell Labs in New Jersey, where he started working on C++. He led the Large-scale Programming Research department until 2002, becoming a Bell Labs Fellow in 1993 and an AT\u0026amp;T Fellow in 1996.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStroustrup is best known for creating C++ (originally called \u0026#8220;C with Classes\u0026#8221;) in 1979. He set the design criteria, defined its major features, and managed extension proposals for the C++ standards committee. C++ was released in 1985, along with his textbook, \u0026#8220;The C++ Programming Language.\u0026#8221;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStroustrup detailed his C++ design principles in his book \u0026#8220;The Design and Evolution of C++\u0026#8221; (1994) and papers for ACM\u0026#8217;s History of Programming Languages conferences. As a founding member of the C++ standards committee, he chaired the Evolution Working Group for 24 years, handling language extension proposals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom 2002 to 2014, Stroustrup was a professor at Texas A\u0026amp;M University, where he became a University Distinguished Professor in 2011. From 2014 to 2022, he worked as a technical fellow and managing director at Morgan Stanley and was a visiting professor at Columbia University. Since July 2022, he has been a full professor at Columbia University.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"e2:T147f,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eDame Zaha Mohammad Hadid was a known Iraqi-British architect\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eBorn in Baghdad, Iraq, in 1950, Hadid was\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ethe first woman to receive the Pritzker Architecture Prize. She is famous for her futuristic architecture designs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHadid\u0026#8217;s father was\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ewealthy industrialist from Mosul and she attended boarding schools in England and Switzerland \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ein the 1960s\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe attended American University of Beirut to study mathematics. Later, she moved to London in 1972 to \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003etake part\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e at the Architectural Association (\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAA\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e) School. She received the Diploma Prize at \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAA\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e School in 1977.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe founded Zaha Hadid Architects in 1979, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/military/robot-dogs-better-sharpshooters-study\"\u003eintroducing\u003c/a\u003e audiences to a new modern architecture style.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe also started teaching at Architectural Association (\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eAA\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e) School.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHadid also held numerous chairs and guest professorships at Cambridge University, Harvard Graduate School of Design, the University of Chicago, the Hochschule für \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ebildende\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Künste in Hamburg, the University of Illinois at Chicago, and Columbia University.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHer futuristic designs and lectures made her popular, bringing \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eearly\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e reputation.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHer pioneering and \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/124-mile-range-in-5-mins-china-firms-launch-fastest-charging-ev-battery\"\u003evisionary \u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003earchitect\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e designs were awarded the Stirling Prize in 2010 and 2011. Stirling Prize is one of architecture’s highest accolades given by the Royal Institute of British Architects.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eUNESCO also named Hadid \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eas\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e an ‘Artist for Peace\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e’.\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eThe Republic of France \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003ehonoured\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e Hadid with the ‘Commandeur de l’Ordre des Arts et des Lettres\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e’,\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e and TIME magazine included her in the ‘100 Most Influential People in the \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eWorld’\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e, naming her the world’s top thinker of 2010.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eShe was also made\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eby Queen Elizabeth II\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003e in 2012, and in February 2016, she received the Royal Gold Medal.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer work was also the subject of critically-acclaimed exhibitions at New York’s Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in 2006, London’s Design Museum in 2007, Saint Petersburg’s State Hermitage Museum in 2015, and London’s Serpentine Galleries in 2016, according to Zaha Hadid Architects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer outstanding contribution to the architectural profession has been acknowledged by professional, academic and civic institutions around the world, including the Forbes List of the ‘World’s Most Powerful Women’ and the Japan Art Association presenting her with the ‘Praemium Imperiale’.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"\u003eHer remarkable projects include Vitra Fire Station, Spittelau Viaducts Housing Project, Bergisel Ski Jump, Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati, Phaeno Science Center, Ordrupgaard Museum extension, Bridge Pavilion in Zaragoza, Spain, National Museum of Arts of the 21st Century (MAXXI Interior), Rome, Italy, Guangzhou Opera House, Guangzhou, China, Sheikh Zayed Bridge, Abu Dhabi.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe architect received the highest honours from civic, academic and professional institutions across the globe before being passed away . Her practice remains one of the world’s most inventive architectural studios—and has been for almost 40 years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of 65, she died of a heart attack on March 31, 2016, at Mount Sinai Medical Center in Miami.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"e3:T2490,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever, born on December 8, 1986, in Gorky, Russian SFSR (now Nizhny Novgorod, Russia), is a prominent Israeli-Canadian computer scientist known for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning. His work has been instrumental in advancing machine learning techniques that underpin many modern AI applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-early-life-and-education\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of five, Sutskever\u0026#8217;s family moved to Jerusalem, where he continued his early education. In 2002, he transferred to the University of Toronto, earning a Bachelor of Science in Mathematics. He remained at the University of Toronto for his graduate studies, obtaining both his Master\u0026#8217;s and Ph.D. in Computer Science under the supervision of\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, a leading figure in neural networks research. His doctoral research focused on training recurrent neural networks, contributing to advancements in sequence modeling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-career-and-machine-learning-research\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCareer and machine learning research\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D. in 2013, Sutskever briefly worked as a postdoctoral researcher with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/andrew-ng-engineer-biography\"\u003e Andrew Ng\u0026#8217;s\u003c/a\u003e group at Stanford University. He then joined the Google Brain team as a research scientist, where he collaborated with Oriol Vinyals and Quoc V. Le to develop the sequence-to-sequence learning algorithm, a foundational technique for tasks like machine translation. He also contributed to the development of TensorFlow, an open-source machine learning framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2015, Sutskever co-founded OpenAI, an AI research organization, with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/samaltman-openaiceo-biography\"\u003e Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e,\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/elon-musk\"\u003e Elon Musk\u003c/a\u003e, and others. As Chief Scientist, he led research efforts that resulted in significant advancements, including the development of the GPT series of language models, which have had a profound impact on natural language processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-development-of-alexnet\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eDevelopment of AlexNet\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever is perhaps best known for his role in developing AlexNet, a deep convolutional neural network that achieved groundbreaking results in the 2012 ImageNet competition. This work, conducted with Alex Krizhevsky and\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, demonstrated the potential of deep learning in computer vision and spurred widespread interest in neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet was a groundbreaking deep convolutional neural network (CNN) that transformed the landscape of computer vision when it was introduced. Its performance in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) of that year was revolutionary, as it dramatically reduced the top-5 error rate compared to previous methods. This impressive achievement not only demonstrated the power of deep learning but also catalyzed a widespread shift toward using deep neural networks for a variety of visual recognition tasks in both academia and industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet’s pioneering design and training strategies laid the groundwork for subsequent advances in deep learning architectures. Its innovative use of convolutional layers, ReLU activations, dropout, and GPU acceleration set new benchmarks in performance and efficiency. Although newer models like VGG, ResNet, and EfficientNet have built upon and refined these ideas, the core principles established by AlexNet remain fundamental to the design of modern CNNs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has also encompassed areas such as generative models, reinforcement learning, and unsupervised learning, contributing to a broader understanding of how machines can learn from data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-co-founding-openai-and-developing-chatgpt\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCo-founding OpenAI and developing ChatGPT\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever was a pivotal figure at OpenAI, serving as one of its co-founders and its Chief Scientist. His technical contributions to the development of models like ChatGPT were rooted in his work on deep neural networks and sequence modeling. Early in his career, Sutskever co-authored influential papers on sequence-to-sequence learning—most notably the 2014 paper \u0026#8220;Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks\u0026#8221;—which demonstrated that recurrent neural networks (RNNs), particularly those enhanced with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) units, could effectively model and generate sequential data. This work laid the conceptual and practical groundwork for later advancements in natural language processing, even though modern language models like ChatGPT have transitioned to transformer-based architectures. The insights gained from managing long-range dependencies and learning effective representations in sequential data have had lasting impacts on how large-scale language models are conceptualized and trained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever was instrumental in shaping the research agenda that underpinned the development of the GPT series. His technical vision helped pivot the research focus towards scaling models with transformer architectures—a framework that leverages self-attention mechanisms to process entire input sequences simultaneously, rather than sequentially as in traditional RNNs. This shift enabled the training of models on vast corpora of data, dramatically improving the quality and coherence of generated text. Under his guidance, OpenAI explored and refined techniques for large-scale optimization that are critical for handling the enormous computational loads associated with training models like ChatGPT.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis early work in sequence modeling and later leadership in guiding large-scale transformer research collectively enabled OpenAI to push the boundaries of what is possible in natural language processing, culminating in sophisticated models like ChatGPT that can generate coherent, contextually rich language responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-internal-struggles-at-openai\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eInternal struggles at OpenAI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, Sutskever was involved in a significant leadership change at OpenAI, participating in the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/sam-altman-let-go-from-openai-due-to-confidence-issues\"\u003e board\u0026#8217;s decision to remove CEO Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e. The move led to internal turmoil, and Sutskever later expressed regret over his role in the decision. Following these events, he\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-co-founder-ilya-sutskever-resigns\"\u003e stepped down from the OpenAI board\u003c/a\u003e and eventually departed the organization in May 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn June 2024, Sutskever announced the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-ilya-sutskever-ssi\"\u003e founding of Safe Superintelligence Inc.\u003c/a\u003e (SSI), an AI company focused on developing advanced AI systems with an emphasis on safety. The startup, co-founded with Daniel Gross and Daniel Levy, aims to create AI that surpasses human capabilities while ensuring safety and ethical considerations. In September 2024, SSI secured $1 billion in funding from prominent venture capital firms, underscoring the confidence in Sutskever\u0026#8217;s vision for safe AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-awards-and-honors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Sutskever has received several accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2015, he was named in MIT Technology Review\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;35 Innovators Under 35.\u0026#8221; In 2022, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, one of the highest honors in the scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever\u0026#8217;s work has been pivotal in advancing deep learning and AI research. His contributions have influenced the direction of AI development and the highlighted the importance of safety and ethical considerations in creating advanced AI systems.\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"e4:T243c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever, born on December 8, 1986, in Gorky, Russian SFSR (now Nizhny Novgorod, Russia), is a prominent Israeli-Canadian computer scientist known for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning. His work has been instrumental in advancing machine learning techniques that underpin many modern AI applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of five, Sutskever's family moved to Jerusalem, where he continued his early education. In 2002, he transferred to the University of Toronto, earning a Bachelor of Science in Mathematics. He remained at the University of Toronto for his graduate studies, obtaining both his Master's and Ph.D. in Computer Science under the supervision of\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, a leading figure in neural networks research. His doctoral research focused on training recurrent neural networks, contributing to advancements in sequence modeling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-career-and-machine-learning-research\"\u003eCareer and machine learning research\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D. in 2013, Sutskever briefly worked as a postdoctoral researcher with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/andrew-ng-engineer-biography\"\u003e Andrew Ng's\u003c/a\u003e group at Stanford University. He then joined the Google Brain team as a research scientist, where he collaborated with Oriol Vinyals and Quoc V. Le to develop the sequence-to-sequence learning algorithm, a foundational technique for tasks like machine translation. He also contributed to the development of TensorFlow, an open-source machine learning framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2015, Sutskever co-founded OpenAI, an AI research organization, with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/samaltman-openaiceo-biography\"\u003e Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e,\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/elon-musk\"\u003e Elon Musk\u003c/a\u003e, and others. As Chief Scientist, he led research efforts that resulted in significant advancements, including the development of the GPT series of language models, which have had a profound impact on natural language processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-development-of-alexnet\"\u003eDevelopment of AlexNet\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever is perhaps best known for his role in developing AlexNet, a deep convolutional neural network that achieved groundbreaking results in the 2012 ImageNet competition. This work, conducted with Alex Krizhevsky and\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, demonstrated the potential of deep learning in computer vision and spurred widespread interest in neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet was a groundbreaking deep convolutional neural network (CNN) that transformed the landscape of computer vision when it was introduced. Its performance in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) of that year was revolutionary, as it dramatically reduced the top-5 error rate compared to previous methods. This impressive achievement not only demonstrated the power of deep learning but also catalyzed a widespread shift toward using deep neural networks for a variety of visual recognition tasks in both academia and industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet’s pioneering design and training strategies laid the groundwork for subsequent advances in deep learning architectures. Its innovative use of convolutional layers, ReLU activations, dropout, and GPU acceleration set new benchmarks in performance and efficiency. Although newer models like VGG, ResNet, and EfficientNet have built upon and refined these ideas, the core principles established by AlexNet remain fundamental to the design of modern CNNs.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has also encompassed areas such as generative models, reinforcement learning, and unsupervised learning, contributing to a broader understanding of how machines can learn from data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-co-founding-openai-and-developing-chatgpt\"\u003eCo-founding OpenAI and developing ChatGPT\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever was a pivotal figure at OpenAI, serving as one of its co-founders and its Chief Scientist. His technical contributions to the development of models like ChatGPT were rooted in his work on deep neural networks and sequence modeling. Early in his career, Sutskever co-authored influential papers on sequence-to-sequence learning—most notably the 2014 paper \"Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks\"—which demonstrated that recurrent neural networks (RNNs), particularly those enhanced with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) units, could effectively model and generate sequential data. This work laid the conceptual and practical groundwork for later advancements in natural language processing, even though modern language models like ChatGPT have transitioned to transformer-based architectures. The insights gained from managing long-range dependencies and learning effective representations in sequential data have had lasting impacts on how large-scale language models are conceptualized and trained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever was instrumental in shaping the research agenda that underpinned the development of the GPT series. His technical vision helped pivot the research focus towards scaling models with transformer architectures—a framework that leverages self-attention mechanisms to process entire input sequences simultaneously, rather than sequentially as in traditional RNNs. This shift enabled the training of models on vast corpora of data, dramatically improving the quality and coherence of generated text. Under his guidance, OpenAI explored and refined techniques for large-scale optimization that are critical for handling the enormous computational loads associated with training models like ChatGPT.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis early work in sequence modeling and later leadership in guiding large-scale transformer research collectively enabled OpenAI to push the boundaries of what is possible in natural language processing, culminating in sophisticated models like ChatGPT that can generate coherent, contextually rich language responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-internal-struggles-at-openai\"\u003eInternal struggles at OpenAI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, Sutskever was involved in a significant leadership change at OpenAI, participating in the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/sam-altman-let-go-from-openai-due-to-confidence-issues\"\u003e board's decision to remove CEO Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e. The move led to internal turmoil, and Sutskever later expressed regret over his role in the decision. Following these events, he\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-co-founder-ilya-sutskever-resigns\"\u003e stepped down from the OpenAI board\u003c/a\u003e and eventually departed the organization in May 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-founding-of-safe-superintelligence\"\u003eFounding of Safe Superintelligence \u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn June 2024, Sutskever announced the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-ilya-sutskever-ssi\"\u003e founding of Safe Superintelligence Inc.\u003c/a\u003e (SSI), an AI company focused on developing advanced AI systems with an emphasis on safety. The startup, co-founded with Daniel Gross and Daniel Levy, aims to create AI that surpasses human capabilities while ensuring safety and ethical considerations. In September 2024, SSI secured $1 billion in funding from prominent venture capital firms, underscoring the confidence in Sutskever's vision for safe AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-awards-and-honors\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Sutskever has received several accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2015, he was named in MIT Technology Review's \"35 Innovators Under 35.\" In 2022, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, one of the highest honors in the scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever's work has been pivotal in advancing deep learning and AI research. His contributions have influenced the direction of AI development and the highlighted the importance of safety and ethical considerations in creating advanced AI systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c/p\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"e5:Teef,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eJohn von Neumann was one of the great \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/7-hardest-mathematics-problems-solved\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emathematicians\u003c/a\u003e of the 20th century, publishing more than 150 papers and making major strides in a host of different fields, including the work that led to the discovery of the structure of human DNA. He was a leader in conceptualizing ideas that led to digital computers, universal constructors, and cellular automata. He also worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II and coined the phrase “kiloton”.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was born in Budapest, Hungary in 1903 to a wealthy family. His father was made a nobleman in 1913. Von Neumann was a child prodigy and could divide eight-digit numbers in his head when he was six, as well as speak Ancient Greek.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen he was eight years old, he could speak English, German, and Italian, and had learned differential and integral calculus. His favorite subject was history. He went to school at an elite academy in Budapest with several other future famous Jewish scientists and mathematicians, and began studying advanced calculus at age 15. By 19, he had published two academic papers and won the national prize for mathematics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstead of studying math in college, he chose chemical engineering at the University of Berlin. But he also studied math at a different college where he was a PhD candidate at an early age. He graduated from Zurich in 1926 with a degree in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/top-3-jobs-highest-chemical-engineer-salary\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003echemical engineering\u003c/a\u003e and got his PhD in mathematics the same year. His schooling was done in 1927, he focused on research, and had published 12 papers by the end of the year, and 32 by the end of 1929. He was invited to Princeton University as a visiting lecturer in mathematical physics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1933, he became a life tenured professor at the Institute for Advanced Study in New Jersey. His family all joined him in the US in 1939. There are multiple things named for him in math and science, including the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/john-von-neumann-human-the-computer-behind-project-manhattan\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003evon Neumann paradox\u003c/a\u003e. He designed the w orld’s first computer virus in 1949, and worked on computational physics, particularly a stability analysis procedure. He contributed to the field of weather prediction and made inroads into warning of the dangers of global warming.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe created the field of cellular automata, which described how cells self-replicate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring World War II, he integrated mathematics into the field of shaped charges during the Manhattan Project and designed the process of compressing the plutonium core for the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/7-explosive-facts-about-atomic-bombs-and-other-nuclear-weapons\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eFat Man bomb\u003c/a\u003e that was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan in 1945.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter the war, he became a consultant to the US government’s Weapons Systems Evaluation Group and a consultant for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). At one point, he was advising every branch of the US military simultaneously. He planned the US intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) program and was also a commissioner for the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe coined the phrase “mutual assured destruction”, which meant that both the US and the Soviet Union knew that any sort of nuclear missile strike against the other superpower would end in both countries being destroyed. In 1955, von Neumann was diagnosed with cancer, possibly caused by radiation exposure while working on the Manhattan Project. He died in 1957 at age 53 in Washington, D.C.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"e6:Tdeb,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eBorn in pre-independent India in the late 1920s, Fazlur Rahman Khan rose from humble roots to become one of the most well-respected innovators of structural engineering and architecture of the 20th century.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhan is known as the “Father of Tubular Designs’ For \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/13-skyscrapers-that-are-totally-an-engineering-wonder\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ehigh-rise buildings\u003c/a\u003e, and also was at the forefront of using computed-aided design (CAD) in his works. He designed the Sears Tower in Chicago, which was the tallest building in the world at the time of its construction in 1973. He also branched out from skyscrapers to design airport terminals, stadiums, and even a solar telescope.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhan’s father was a mathematics teacher and author of textbooks, and Khan went to the Bengal Engineering and Science University, where he studied Civil Engineering, going on to earn a degree from what is now the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe earned a Fulbright Scholarship that brought him to the University of Illinois in 1952, and he went on to earn two masters and a PhD over the next three years. In 1955, he joined a Chicago-area consulting firm, and returned to the US in 1960 after fulfilling obligations in Pakistan. He was named a partner in Skidmore, Owens, and Merrill in 1966.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhan introduced the tubular structural system inside tall buildings that would make them more affordable while turning the construction process on its head. His system used closely-spaced columns on the perimeter of the building that allowed for the interior to have relatively few columns at all. His design was first integrated into the Plaza on DeWitt building in Chicago in 1966, which stood at a height of 43 stories.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThat same year, a tubular design was used in the construction of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/engineering-nycs-iconic-structure-one-world-trade-center\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eWorld Trade Center’s two towers\u003c/a\u003e in New York City. Khan kept redefining his system, upgrading it to the trussed tube system to complete the 100-story John Hancock Center in 1969.Standing 1,128 feet at its highest spot, it was the second-tallest building in the world, trailing only the Empire State Building, when it was opened.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt was the first \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/11-civil-engineering-projects-that-might-define-the-future\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emixed-use skyscraper\u003c/a\u003e in the world, with restaurants, offices and some 700 condominiums as well. The upgraded architectural plan of the Hancock Center used an X-braced exterior and tubular design were incorporated to keep the building safe even in hurricane-force winds and during an earthquake.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhan’s greatest masterpiece came four years later when he was the engineer for the Sears Tower (now the Willis Tower). When it opened in 1973, it surpassed the Empire State Building as the tallest building in the world and held that honor until 1998. Even today, it is the third-tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhan designed the Sears Tower using nine square tubes in a 3\u0026#215;3 matrix with seven of them set back at the upper floors. The building has 110 stories and is 1,451 feet tall. Khan was awarded US citizenship in 1982. Overall, he designed 13 buildings, including the Metrodome in Minnesota, the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado, and the McMath-Pierce solar telescope in Arizona.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"e7:Td7f,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003ehisJensen Huang is the current CEO of Nvidia Corporation, an international technology company located in the US’s Silicon Valley that specializes in graphic processing units (GPUs), application programming interfaces (APIs), and in 2023 announced plans to unleash a new supercomputer that Huang said will make building AI accessible to anyone with basic programming skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Tainan, Taiwan in 1963, he came to the US with his family when he was 9 years old. He graduated from Oregon State University in 1984 with a BS in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-best-websites-for-electrical-engineering-students\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectrical engineering\u003c/a\u003e, and added a master’s degree in electrical engineering from Stanford University in 1992.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was hired out of college by LSI Logic where he worked as a director, then at Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) as a designer of microprocessors. Frustrated by his lack of independent abilities, he left AMD and started his own company, Nvidia, in April 1993 along with two other engineers. The founding theory was that the future of computers was graphic based. The three pooled $40,000 to start the company, and they received $20 million more from capital funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHuang guided the company towards producing graphics hardware, and in 1999, won a contract to develop the hardware for the XBox game platform owned by Microsoft. Nvidia went public in 1999 and began buying up smaller tech companies in the same space over the next seven years. In 2007, it was named Company of the Year by Forbes Magazine. That same year, Huang earned $24.6 billion as CEO.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe owns 3.6% of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/nvidia-unveils-more-ai-based-products\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNvidia’s stock\u003c/a\u003e, which made his net worth some $36 billion as of 2023. He has routinely been on the cutting edge of ‘what comes next’ in the computer realm, and was named among Time Magazine\u0026#8217;s list of its 100 most influential people in 2021. In 2018, he coined a phrase that has become known as “Huang’s Law”, which states that advancements in GPUs are growing far faster than those of central processing units (CPUs). That is why his company made the decision to pursue advancements in graphic interfaces.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn May 2023, Huang introduced the DGX GH200 AI \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-fastest-supercomputer-condor-galaxy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esupercomputer\u003c/a\u003e which allows developers to build AI chatbot language models, analyze data at an incredibly high rate of speed, program complex algorithms for recommendations, and be used in the first round of sales by the likes of Microsoft, Alphabet (Google), and Meta Platforms (Facebook).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe announcement saw Nvidia soar to more than $1 trillion in valuation. In 2022, Huang announced plans to donate $200 million to his alma mater, Oregon State University, to create a supercomputer institute on its campus. He made the initial donation of $50 million that year and also donated $30 million to Stanford to build the Jen-Gsun Huang School of Engineering Center.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, Huang was elected to the National Academy of Engineering for his contribution towards high-powered graphics processing units and artificial intelligence. In the same year, Nvidia became the world\u0026#8217;s fourth most-valuable public company.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"e8:T2194,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eOne of the most polarizing personalities of the 21st century, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/elon-musk-the-story-of-a-maverick\"\u003eElon Musk \u003c/a\u003eis a leading figure in self-driving technology, AI, and space exploration. He is an investor and a global entrepreneur who has repeatedly held the title of the richest person on the planet. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrom Pretoria to Silicon Valley\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk was born in Pretoria, South Africa, in 1971. At 18, he became a Canadian citizen through his mother, Maye, a successful model, allowing him to study at Queen\u0026#8217;s University and avoid South Africa\u0026#8217;s compulsory military service. His father, Errol, was an electromechanical engineer.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHe later transferred to Penn University in the United States to get closer to Silicon Valley and earned concurrent degrees in physics and economics. Musk went to Stanford at age 24 to pursue a master\u0026#8217;s degree. Still, just two days into his college career, he abruptly quit school to begin his entrepreneurial journey alongside his brother, Kimbal Musk. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 1995, he founded the web software company Zip2, which built the foundation for his future success. Zip2 was meant to create online city guides for newspapers, giving local businesses a presence on the nascent Internet. Culminating this venture in a $305 million sale to Compaq in 1999, Musk started working on the online payment system PayPal, which was initially known as X.com. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eAfter disagreements with board members over strategy and management style, in 2002, he sold PayPal to eBay in a $1.5 billion deal and went on to pursue bigger ambitions.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSpaceX\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk founded Space Exploration Technologies Corp, or SpaceX, in 2002, intending to make space travel more affordable and someday even colonize Mars. SpaceX achieved its first successful launch on September 28, 2008, following three failed attempts and two and a half years of relentless perseverance, during which the company nearly faced bankruptcy. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eLed by Musk, SpaceX shook the aerospace industry with the Falcon 9\u0026#8217;s first successful vertical landing of a reusable orbital rocket stage on December 21, 2015. This achievement indicated a significant reduction in space travel costs in the future. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eBy 2020, SpaceX became the first private company to send astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS). Over the past four years, the company has successfully launched thirteen human spaceflight missions, transporting 50 crew members safely to and from Earth\u0026#8217;s orbit. In September 2024, SpaceX announced plans to launch five uncrewed Starship missions to Mars within the next two years.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTesla\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2003, Elon Musk co-founded \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/the-short-but-fascinating-history-of-tesla\"\u003eTesla\u003c/a\u003e with the long-term strategic goal of creating affordable electric vehicles for the mass market. As the CEO of Tesla, Musk redefined the automotive industry and pushed the boundaries of artificial intelligence and renewable energy integration. Being a product architect, he provided significant technical input into designing Tesla\u0026#8217;s first car, the Roadster, which can go 0 to 60 miles per hour in 3.7 seconds with a lithium-ion battery cell. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eIn 2018, the Tesla Model 3 became the world\u0026#8217;s top-selling plug-in electric car and held that title for three years, right before the mid-size crossover SUV, Tesla Model Y, took the spot. In June 2021, the Model 3 became the first electric car to surpass 1 million in global sales. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eThe much anticipated 2025 Tesla Roadster 2.0, developed in partnership with SpaceX, will have rocket thrusters enabling it to sprint from 0 to 60 mph in only one second. With the capacity to manufacture over a million vehicles annually, Tesla supports its production through eight Gigafactories worldwide. While existing Gigafactories are expanding and a new one is already underway in Mexico, speculations indicate that the next site could be in India, Turkey, or the UK. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eUnder Musk\u0026#8217;s leadership, Tesla has gained an unrivaled position as the largest automotive company by market cap, which now stands at a staggering $800 billion. With more than 50,000 Superchargers, Tesla owns and operates the world\u0026#8217;s largest fast-charging network. Tesla\u0026#8217;s aggressive strategy for 2024 includes a $10 billion investment in AI, primarily focused on combined training and inference AI to advance self-driving technology and robot axis. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTesla Energy \u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla acquired SolarCity in 2016 Under Elon Musk\u0026#8217;s directive and rebranded its solar business as Tesla Energy. With the charitable vision of a greener future, Tesla Energy develops, sells, and installs sustainable energy products. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla Virtual Power Plant (VVP) in California demonstrates how residential Tesla batteries can collectively stabilize the state\u0026#8217;s energy grid. This initiative reflects Musk\u0026#8217;s strategy to leverage community resources to achieve larger ecological goals. Similarly, the SunHouse at Easton Park in Austin, Texas, emphasizes the adoption of solar power, which is being developed to become the world\u0026#8217;s most sustainable residential community.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eTesla\u0026#8217;s Powerpack Farm in South Australia is an exemplary renewable energy infrastructure. It includes approximately 129,000 units capable of storing 150 Megawatt-hours of energy. This facility alone can power 30,000 homes for an hour, showcasing Tesla\u0026#8217;s willingness to become a sustainable community development and energy management leader.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eX (Formerly Twitter)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk acquired Twitter for $44 billion in 2022 and rebranded it as X in 2024 in one of history\u0026#8217;s most dramatic tech acquisitions. Since taking charge, he implemented substantial changes, including layoffs that reduced the workforce from around 7,800 to 1,500, revised content moderation policies, and a new subscription-based verification system. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eHe envisions the platform as a multi-functional digital environment, integrating social media with business and potentially banking services, a part of Musk\u0026#8217;s broader vision to innovate digital communications.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003exAI\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eEstablished in 2023, Elon Musk\u0026#8217;s newest venture, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/elon-musk-ai-xai-openai-chatgpt\"\u003exAI\u003c/a\u003e, focuses on developing AI that boosts scientific innovation and helps \u0026#8220;understand the true nature of the universe.\u0026#8221; In August 2024, xAI introduced Grok-2, building on its first AI model, Grok. By September, the xAI Colossus training cluster, equipped with 100,000 H100 Nvidia GPUs, was announced, with an anticipated expansion to 200,000 GPUs, including 50,000 H200s, set for the coming months.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eElon Musk Today\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eMusk\u0026#8217;s net worth, as of late 2024, stands at an estimated $268.4 billion, positioning him as one of the wealthiest individuals globally. His investments in SpaceX and Tesla significantly contribute to his wealth, with SpaceX alone valued at nearly $210 billion. Analysts predict that Musk could become the world\u0026#8217;s first trillionaire by 2027, driven by the potential successes of his various high-stakes ventures. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"\u003eDespite facing personal and professional challenges, like high-profile legal and social controversies, Musk\u0026#8217;s impact on technology remains unmatched. Musk\u0026#8217;s influence goes beyond technology and finance. His public statements and decisions can easily move stock markets and shape public policy regarding technology and space. His vision for a sustainable energy future and multi-planetary human existence continues to fuel public and scientific discourse. \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"e9:Tba4,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eOne of the most decorated generals in the history of the United States Army, George Meade was also a phenomenal \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/all-you-need-to-know-about-your-career-as-a-civil-engineer\"\u003ecivil engineer\u003c/a\u003e, who built lighthouses along pivotal points of the US coast and also took part in the United States Lake Survey from 1857-1861. His short temper led to him earning one of the greatest nicknames of all time \u0026#8211; Old Snapping Turtle.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Cadiz, Spain in 1815, his family were wealthy merchants who traveled internationally quite frequently. He had no designs on academia, instead graduating from the United States Military Academy in 1835. He fought in the Second Seminole War, also known as the Florida War \u0026#8211; between the US and Native American Indians, that lasted for nearly six years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe served in the company of multiple future US presidents including Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, John Tyler, William Henry Harrison, and Zachary Taylor. He also fought in the Mexican-American War between 1846-1848. After that conflict and before the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/live-artillery-shell-from-civil-war\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eCivil War\u003c/a\u003e, he worked for the US Army Corps of Topographical Engineers, which had been founded in 1838.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was one of a handpicked group of officers from West Point whose mission was to map, design, and construct federal civil works including \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/9-illuminating-facts-about-lighthouses-and-their-history\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003elighthouses\u003c/a\u003e and coastal fortifications. As one of the sharpest minds of his time, Meade oversaw construction of lighthouses in Florida and New Jersey over a six-year period, and was one of the leaders of the Lake Survey, which was a hydrographic survey of the Great Lakes, Lake Champlain, the New York Barge Canal, and the boundary waters between the US and Canada. In all, 76 charts were created along with navigation information and studies on lake levels and river flows.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Lake Survey wound down just as the country itself was fracturing, with the secession of several states to form the Confederate States of America and the commencement of the US Civil War. Meade’s prowess as a civil engineer saw him promoted to brigadier general and put in charge of building fortifications around Washington D.C.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInjuries kept him out of action for a time, but he was promoted to Major General, and then commander of the Army of the Potomac just three days before the pivotal Battle of Gettysburg against Robert E. Lee, the most famous and effective general from the South. After the war ended, he helped form new state governments in a host of Southern states as they re-entered the Union.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis likeness was used in a $1,000 treasury note in the 1890s. His war wounds caught up with him and he passed away in 1872 at age 56.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ea:Ta95,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA Greek master of mechanics, to the point where he became known as Philo Mechanicus, he lived in the third century BC and was the authoritative force of his time in envisioning how things worked. He wrote the massive Mechanike Syntaxis (Compendium of Mechanics) that dealt with mechanical toys, siegecraft, artillery, building harbors, using air and/or water pressure for machines, a general introduction to mathematics, and a general introduction to mechanics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong his greatest \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/13-engineers-from-antiquity-and-their-marvels\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eideas\u003c/a\u003e were how to construct a fortress secure against enemy armies, how to build airborne missiles for combat, how to build a water mill, which would have been the first in human history, and how to use a chain drive to build the world’s first repeating crossbow.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhilo was born in roughly 280 BC in Byzantium, a major city in ancient Greece that stood where Istanbul, Turkey now resides. He is thought to have been slightly younger than another famous Greek engineer, Ctesibius, who also wrote on mechanics and the power of air and water to drive machinery.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is no surprise that Philo’s most lengthy writing has to do with warcraft and defense against invading armies. While ancient Greece is often thought of as the birthplace of democracy and a leader in nascent philosophy, its leading city-states were constantly at war with one another. When Philo would have been born, Greece was involved in the Wars of Pyrrhus, which lasted 20 years between 292 and 272 BC. The Galls invaded Greece in 279 BC, and the country was engaged in three different wars with Syria during his lifetime.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor this reason, one of his most famous inventions was the mathematical concept now known as the Philo line. It was a line segment between an angle and a point inside the angle that was used to double a cube, something that couldn’t be done with tools like rulers and compasses. Its specific functionality in his time was to take a catapult capable of hurling one size of rock and then accurately build a catapult capable of hurling a rock twice the size of the first. He also drew up plans for the first gimbal, which allows a device to move on all three axes while the center remains upright. He envisioned an inkpot with eight sides where there was an opening on each side so that a pen could be dipped into it and draw ink, but the ink would never spill out of the pot. The ink was an expensive commodity that took a painstaking procedure to make, so spilling even a few drops was a costly endeavor.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhilo met his end around 210 BC of unknown causes.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"eb:Tc9c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eLinus Torvalds didn’t build an app or a website, he invented a whole new language that brought computer programming to the masses and irrevocably changed the way that people interfaced with computers and built their own visions with the creation of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/here-is-why-linux-is-a-good-choice-of-os-for-software-developers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eLinux kernel\u003c/a\u003e in 1991.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Helsinki, Finland, in 1969 to a pair of journalist parents, Torvalds has plenty of historic figures in his family, including poet Ole Torvalds, statistician Leo Tornqvist, and journalist/soldier Toivo Karanko. Torvalds had high expectations, being named after Linus Pauling, the Nobel Prize winning American chemist. He bought his first computer when he was 11 in 1981 and started experimenting with the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/basic-the-first-computer-language-for-the-masses\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eprogramming language BASIC\u003c/a\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe entered the University of Helsinki in 1988, and spent the next eight years working his way up to a master’s degree in computer science. His education was interrupted by a one-year mandatory stint in Finland’s military, where he served in the country’s navy, rising to the rank of second lieutenant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1990, he was first exposed to the book “Operating Systems: Design and Implementation” and got his first look at Unix, the computer operating system that was developed at Bell Labs in the late 1960s. In 1991 he started a personal project while in school to create a new operating system kernel that would be free to use. Torvalds wanted an independent operating system for his new personal computer. Instead he wound up creating an entirely new system kernel.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn August 25, 1991 when he was 21 years old, he announced his new system in a newsgroup (the precursor to today’s message boards called comp.os.minix. The name is a combination of his own first name and an \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/unix-building-the-most-important-os-in-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ehomage to UNIX\u003c/a\u003e . He posted on the board asking his fellow users to test it out and let him know what they liked and what they didn’t.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following year he published a new version that integrated GNU components to make it a completely functional system that was completely free. Taking off from the one user group, a LInux community sprang up swiftly. Companies began using it for their own projects. In 1996, Torvalds took a job with Silicon Valley company Transmeta, working there for seven years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe then moved to the Open Source Development Lab (OSDL), which merged with Standards Group to become The Linux Foundation. This nonprofit had the purpose of optimizing Linux for use all over the world. Torvalds is a huge believer that all software should be free and open source.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTorvalds followed up Linux with the development of Git, a version controlled software that has also become widely used. In 2011, he created the open-source free software called Subsurface which has the purpose of planning and logging scuba diving trips.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ec:T2145,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eLiang Wenfeng, born in 1985 in Zhanjiang, Guangdong Province, China, is a pioneering entrepreneur and innovator who has significantly influenced the fields of quantitative finance and artificial intelligence (AI). As the co-founder of the quantitative hedge fund High-Flyer and the founder and CEO of the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/deepseek-china-open-source-ai\"\u003e AI company DeepSeek\u003c/a\u003e, Liang has emerged as a transformative figure in China\u0026#8217;s technological landscape.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLiang Wenfeng\u0026#8217;s early life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiang\u0026#8217;s formative years were marked by a deep-rooted emphasis on education. Raised in a modest family, his father, a primary school teacher, instilled in him a passion for learning and problem-solving. From an early age, Liang demonstrated an aptitude for mathematics and engineering.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2007, Liang earned a Bachelor of Engineering degree in Electronic Information Engineering from Zhejiang University. He chose to remain at Zhejiang University to pursue a Master of Engineering degree in Information and Communication Engineering. During this time, Liang worked under the mentorship of Professor Xiang Zhiyu and authored a thesis titled \u0026#8220;Research on Target Tracking Algorithm Based on Low-Cost PTZ Camera,\u0026#8221; a work that laid the foundation for his subsequent interest in machine learning and automation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEarly career and entry into quantitative finance\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile still a graduate student, Liang witnessed the global financial crisis of 2007-2008. Intrigued by the volatility of financial markets, he began collaborating with his classmates to gather data and explore how emerging technologies like machine learning could be applied to quantitative trading. This marked his initial foray into the intersection of finance and technology, a theme that would define much of his professional life.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his graduate studies in 2010, Liang relocated to Chengdu, Sichuan Province, where he experimented with the application of AI across various industries. These years were filled with trials and setbacks, but they ultimately solidified his understanding of how AI could transform traditional sectors. His first major breakthrough came in 2013 when he co-founded Hangzhou Yakebi Investment Management Co., Ltd. alongside Xu Jin, a fellow alumnus of Zhejiang University. This venture served as his formal entry into the financial industry and provided a platform for him to refine his ideas about AI-driven quantitative trading.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo years later, in 2015, Liang and his collaborators established Hangzhou Huanfang Technology Co., Ltd., now known as Zhejiang Jiuzhang Asset Management Co., Ltd. The company focused on integrating advanced algorithms into investment strategies, paving the way for a new era of efficiency in financial decision-making.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn February 2016, Liang co-founded Ningbo High-Flyer Quantitative Investment Management Partnership with two engineering classmates. High-Flyer distinguished itself by its unique approach to portfolio management, utilizing mathematics and AI algorithms to make investment decisions. By eliminating the need for traditional human portfolio managers, High-Flyer was able to achieve remarkable results, managing over 10 billion yuan in assets by 2019. Liang described the firm\u0026#8217;s mission as \u0026#8220;enhancing the efficiency and transparency of China\u0026#8217;s secondary market,\u0026#8221; a goal that resonated with investors and regulators alike.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eTransition to artificial intelligence and founding of DeepSeek\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy 2019, Liang\u0026#8217;s focus began shifting from finance to artificial intelligence. He founded High-Flyer AI, a subsidiary dedicated to the research and development of AI algorithms and foundational applications. Anticipating the growing importance of computational power in AI development, Liang began acquiring thousands of NVIDIA GPUs as early as 2021. At the time, many industry insiders dismissed this move as overly ambitious or even eccentric. However, it soon became clear that Liang\u0026#8217;s foresight was well-founded.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn May 2023, Liang announced an ambitious new initiative to develop artificial general intelligence (AGI), a milestone that many experts consider the \u0026#8220;holy grail\u0026#8221; of AI research. This vision culminated in the establishment of DeepSeek, an AI company funded primarily by High-Flyer. Venture capital firms initially hesitated to invest in the project due to uncertainties about its short-term profitability, but Liang remained steadfast in his belief that AGI represented the future of technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeepSeek adopted a unique hiring strategy, prioritizing talent and passion over conventional experience. The company often recruited recent graduates from top Chinese universities, valuing their innovative perspectives and willingness to tackle complex challenges. This approach allowed DeepSeek to assemble a diverse and dynamic team capable of pushing the boundaries of AI research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eInnovations and impact of DeepSeek\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder Liang\u0026#8217;s leadership, DeepSeek quickly established itself as a formidable player in the AI industry. In May 2024, the company released DeepSeek-V2, a cutting-edge AI model that delivered exceptional performance at a fraction of the cost of its competitors. This release triggered an AI price war in China, forcing major tech companies like ByteDance, Tencent, Baidu, and Alibaba to reduce the prices of their own AI models to remain competitive. Despite its low pricing strategy, DeepSeek maintained profitability, setting it apart from rivals that incurred significant losses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn December 2024, DeepSeek launched its most advanced model yet, DeepSeek-V3, which featured an astonishing 671 billion parameters. Remarkably, the model was trained in approximately 55 days at a cost of under $6 million, a feat that highlighted the company\u0026#8217;s efficiency and resourcefulness. Benchmark tests revealed that DeepSeek-V3 outperformed models like Llama 3.1 and Qwen 2.5, rivaling the capabilities of GPT-4o and Claude 3.5 Sonnet. By January 2025, DeepSeek\u0026#8217;s AI Assistant, powered by the V3 model, had surpassed ChatGPT as the top free app on the iOS App Store in the United States, a milestone that underscored the company\u0026#8217;s global impact.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeepSeek\u0026#8217;s success has been hailed as a game-changer in the AI industry, challenging the dominance of American models and highlighting China\u0026#8217;s rapid advancements in technology. The company\u0026#8217;s efficient use of resources has also demonstrated the limitations of U.S. sanctions aimed at restricting China\u0026#8217;s access to advanced AI chips and other critical technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePhilosophy and vision\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiang Wenfeng\u0026#8217;s approach to AI development is guided by a philosophy of open-source collaboration. He believes that in the realm of disruptive technologies, closed-source methods serve only to delay progress temporarily. DeepSeek has committed to open-sourcing all its models, fostering a culture of shared innovation and collective problem-solving. This commitment has earned the company widespread acclaim and positioned it as a leader in the global AI community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiang has also emphasized the importance of China transitioning from being a follower to a leader in technological innovation. He argues that China\u0026#8217;s challenges in innovation stem not from a lack of capital but from a deficiency in confidence and effective talent organization. By focusing on foundational technologies rather than immediate commercial applications, DeepSeek aims to contribute meaningfully to global advancements in AI.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEngagement with government and industry recognition\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiang\u0026#8217;s contributions to technology and innovation have not gone unnoticed by the Chinese government. On January 20, 2025, he was invited to attend a symposium hosted by Premier Li Qiang in Beijing. As an industry expert, Liang provided valuable insights and suggestions on the 2024 government work report, reflecting his growing influence in shaping China\u0026#8217;s technological and economic policies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThrough his leadership at High-Flyer and DeepSeek, Liang has advanced China\u0026#8217;s position in the global AI landscape and also challenged conventional norms, advocating for open-source development and efficient resource utilization.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ed:T2490,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever, born on December 8, 1986, in Gorky, Russian SFSR (now Nizhny Novgorod, Russia), is a prominent Israeli-Canadian computer scientist known for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning. His work has been instrumental in advancing machine learning techniques that underpin many modern AI applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-early-life-and-education\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of five, Sutskever\u0026#8217;s family moved to Jerusalem, where he continued his early education. In 2002, he transferred to the University of Toronto, earning a Bachelor of Science in Mathematics. He remained at the University of Toronto for his graduate studies, obtaining both his Master\u0026#8217;s and Ph.D. in Computer Science under the supervision of\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, a leading figure in neural networks research. His doctoral research focused on training recurrent neural networks, contributing to advancements in sequence modeling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-career-and-machine-learning-research\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCareer and machine learning research\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D. in 2013, Sutskever briefly worked as a postdoctoral researcher with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/andrew-ng-engineer-biography\"\u003e Andrew Ng\u0026#8217;s\u003c/a\u003e group at Stanford University. He then joined the Google Brain team as a research scientist, where he collaborated with Oriol Vinyals and Quoc V. Le to develop the sequence-to-sequence learning algorithm, a foundational technique for tasks like machine translation. He also contributed to the development of TensorFlow, an open-source machine learning framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2015, Sutskever co-founded OpenAI, an AI research organization, with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/samaltman-openaiceo-biography\"\u003e Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e,\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/elon-musk\"\u003e Elon Musk\u003c/a\u003e, and others. As Chief Scientist, he led research efforts that resulted in significant advancements, including the development of the GPT series of language models, which have had a profound impact on natural language processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-development-of-alexnet\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eDevelopment of AlexNet\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever is perhaps best known for his role in developing AlexNet, a deep convolutional neural network that achieved groundbreaking results in the 2012 ImageNet competition. This work, conducted with Alex Krizhevsky and\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, demonstrated the potential of deep learning in computer vision and spurred widespread interest in neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet was a groundbreaking deep convolutional neural network (CNN) that transformed the landscape of computer vision when it was introduced. Its performance in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) of that year was revolutionary, as it dramatically reduced the top-5 error rate compared to previous methods. This impressive achievement not only demonstrated the power of deep learning but also catalyzed a widespread shift toward using deep neural networks for a variety of visual recognition tasks in both academia and industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet’s pioneering design and training strategies laid the groundwork for subsequent advances in deep learning architectures. Its innovative use of convolutional layers, ReLU activations, dropout, and GPU acceleration set new benchmarks in performance and efficiency. Although newer models like VGG, ResNet, and EfficientNet have built upon and refined these ideas, the core principles established by AlexNet remain fundamental to the design of modern CNNs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has also encompassed areas such as generative models, reinforcement learning, and unsupervised learning, contributing to a broader understanding of how machines can learn from data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-co-founding-openai-and-developing-chatgpt\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eCo-founding OpenAI and developing ChatGPT\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever was a pivotal figure at OpenAI, serving as one of its co-founders and its Chief Scientist. His technical contributions to the development of models like ChatGPT were rooted in his work on deep neural networks and sequence modeling. Early in his career, Sutskever co-authored influential papers on sequence-to-sequence learning—most notably the 2014 paper \u0026#8220;Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks\u0026#8221;—which demonstrated that recurrent neural networks (RNNs), particularly those enhanced with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) units, could effectively model and generate sequential data. This work laid the conceptual and practical groundwork for later advancements in natural language processing, even though modern language models like ChatGPT have transitioned to transformer-based architectures. The insights gained from managing long-range dependencies and learning effective representations in sequential data have had lasting impacts on how large-scale language models are conceptualized and trained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever was instrumental in shaping the research agenda that underpinned the development of the GPT series. His technical vision helped pivot the research focus towards scaling models with transformer architectures—a framework that leverages self-attention mechanisms to process entire input sequences simultaneously, rather than sequentially as in traditional RNNs. This shift enabled the training of models on vast corpora of data, dramatically improving the quality and coherence of generated text. Under his guidance, OpenAI explored and refined techniques for large-scale optimization that are critical for handling the enormous computational loads associated with training models like ChatGPT.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis early work in sequence modeling and later leadership in guiding large-scale transformer research collectively enabled OpenAI to push the boundaries of what is possible in natural language processing, culminating in sophisticated models like ChatGPT that can generate coherent, contextually rich language responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-internal-struggles-at-openai\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eInternal struggles at OpenAI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, Sutskever was involved in a significant leadership change at OpenAI, participating in the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/sam-altman-let-go-from-openai-due-to-confidence-issues\"\u003e board\u0026#8217;s decision to remove CEO Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e. The move led to internal turmoil, and Sutskever later expressed regret over his role in the decision. Following these events, he\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-co-founder-ilya-sutskever-resigns\"\u003e stepped down from the OpenAI board\u003c/a\u003e and eventually departed the organization in May 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn June 2024, Sutskever announced the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-ilya-sutskever-ssi\"\u003e founding of Safe Superintelligence Inc.\u003c/a\u003e (SSI), an AI company focused on developing advanced AI systems with an emphasis on safety. The startup, co-founded with Daniel Gross and Daniel Levy, aims to create AI that surpasses human capabilities while ensuring safety and ethical considerations. In September 2024, SSI secured $1 billion in funding from prominent venture capital firms, underscoring the confidence in Sutskever\u0026#8217;s vision for safe AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"h-awards-and-honors\" class=\"wp-block-heading\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Sutskever has received several accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2015, he was named in MIT Technology Review\u0026#8217;s \u0026#8220;35 Innovators Under 35.\u0026#8221; In 2022, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, one of the highest honors in the scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e \u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever\u0026#8217;s work has been pivotal in advancing deep learning and AI research. His contributions have influenced the direction of AI development and the highlighted the importance of safety and ethical considerations in creating advanced AI systems.\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ee:T243c,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever, born on December 8, 1986, in Gorky, Russian SFSR (now Nizhny Novgorod, Russia), is a prominent Israeli-Canadian computer scientist known for his significant contributions to artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning. His work has been instrumental in advancing machine learning techniques that underpin many modern AI applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-early-life-and-education\"\u003eEarly life and education\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the age of five, Sutskever's family moved to Jerusalem, where he continued his early education. In 2002, he transferred to the University of Toronto, earning a Bachelor of Science in Mathematics. He remained at the University of Toronto for his graduate studies, obtaining both his Master's and Ph.D. in Computer Science under the supervision of\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, a leading figure in neural networks research. His doctoral research focused on training recurrent neural networks, contributing to advancements in sequence modeling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-career-and-machine-learning-research\"\u003eCareer and machine learning research\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing his Ph.D. in 2013, Sutskever briefly worked as a postdoctoral researcher with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/andrew-ng-engineer-biography\"\u003e Andrew Ng's\u003c/a\u003e group at Stanford University. He then joined the Google Brain team as a research scientist, where he collaborated with Oriol Vinyals and Quoc V. Le to develop the sequence-to-sequence learning algorithm, a foundational technique for tasks like machine translation. He also contributed to the development of TensorFlow, an open-source machine learning framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2015, Sutskever co-founded OpenAI, an AI research organization, with\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/samaltman-openaiceo-biography\"\u003e Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e,\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/elon-musk\"\u003e Elon Musk\u003c/a\u003e, and others. As Chief Scientist, he led research efforts that resulted in significant advancements, including the development of the GPT series of language models, which have had a profound impact on natural language processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-development-of-alexnet\"\u003eDevelopment of AlexNet\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever is perhaps best known for his role in developing AlexNet, a deep convolutional neural network that achieved groundbreaking results in the 2012 ImageNet competition. This work, conducted with Alex Krizhevsky and\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/geoffrey-everest-hinton\"\u003e Geoffrey Hinton\u003c/a\u003e, demonstrated the potential of deep learning in computer vision and spurred widespread interest in neural networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet was a groundbreaking deep convolutional neural network (CNN) that transformed the landscape of computer vision when it was introduced. Its performance in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) of that year was revolutionary, as it dramatically reduced the top-5 error rate compared to previous methods. This impressive achievement not only demonstrated the power of deep learning but also catalyzed a widespread shift toward using deep neural networks for a variety of visual recognition tasks in both academia and industry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlexNet’s pioneering design and training strategies laid the groundwork for subsequent advances in deep learning architectures. Its innovative use of convolutional layers, ReLU activations, dropout, and GPU acceleration set new benchmarks in performance and efficiency. Although newer models like VGG, ResNet, and EfficientNet have built upon and refined these ideas, the core principles established by AlexNet remain fundamental to the design of modern CNNs.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis research has also encompassed areas such as generative models, reinforcement learning, and unsupervised learning, contributing to a broader understanding of how machines can learn from data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-co-founding-openai-and-developing-chatgpt\"\u003eCo-founding OpenAI and developing ChatGPT\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever was a pivotal figure at OpenAI, serving as one of its co-founders and its Chief Scientist. His technical contributions to the development of models like ChatGPT were rooted in his work on deep neural networks and sequence modeling. Early in his career, Sutskever co-authored influential papers on sequence-to-sequence learning—most notably the 2014 paper \"Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks\"—which demonstrated that recurrent neural networks (RNNs), particularly those enhanced with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) units, could effectively model and generate sequential data. This work laid the conceptual and practical groundwork for later advancements in natural language processing, even though modern language models like ChatGPT have transitioned to transformer-based architectures. The insights gained from managing long-range dependencies and learning effective representations in sequential data have had lasting impacts on how large-scale language models are conceptualized and trained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutskever was instrumental in shaping the research agenda that underpinned the development of the GPT series. His technical vision helped pivot the research focus towards scaling models with transformer architectures—a framework that leverages self-attention mechanisms to process entire input sequences simultaneously, rather than sequentially as in traditional RNNs. This shift enabled the training of models on vast corpora of data, dramatically improving the quality and coherence of generated text. Under his guidance, OpenAI explored and refined techniques for large-scale optimization that are critical for handling the enormous computational loads associated with training models like ChatGPT.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis early work in sequence modeling and later leadership in guiding large-scale transformer research collectively enabled OpenAI to push the boundaries of what is possible in natural language processing, culminating in sophisticated models like ChatGPT that can generate coherent, contextually rich language responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-internal-struggles-at-openai\"\u003eInternal struggles at OpenAI\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn November 2023, Sutskever was involved in a significant leadership change at OpenAI, participating in the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/sam-altman-let-go-from-openai-due-to-confidence-issues\"\u003e board's decision to remove CEO Sam Altman\u003c/a\u003e. The move led to internal turmoil, and Sutskever later expressed regret over his role in the decision. Following these events, he\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-co-founder-ilya-sutskever-resigns\"\u003e stepped down from the OpenAI board\u003c/a\u003e and eventually departed the organization in May 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-founding-of-safe-superintelligence\"\u003eFounding of Safe Superintelligence \u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn June 2024, Sutskever announced the\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/openai-ilya-sutskever-ssi\"\u003e founding of Safe Superintelligence Inc.\u003c/a\u003e (SSI), an AI company focused on developing advanced AI systems with an emphasis on safety. The startup, co-founded with Daniel Gross and Daniel Levy, aims to create AI that surpasses human capabilities while ensuring safety and ethical considerations. In September 2024, SSI secured $1 billion in funding from prominent venture capital firms, underscoring the confidence in Sutskever's vision for safe AI development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:heading --\u003e\n\u003ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-awards-and-honors\"\u003eAwards and honors\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:heading --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout his career, Sutskever has received several accolades recognizing his contributions to AI. In 2015, he was named in MIT Technology Review's \"35 Innovators Under 35.\" In 2022, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, one of the highest honors in the scientific community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c!-- wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIlya Sutskever's work has been pivotal in advancing deep learning and AI research. His contributions have influenced the direction of AI development and the highlighted the importance of safety and ethical considerations in creating advanced AI systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c!-- /wp:paragraph --\u003e\n\n\u003c/p\u003e"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"ef:Tdca,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eAmerican chemist and educator Helen Murray Free\u0026#8217;s tale is one of groundbreaking contributions, especially in the realm of in vitro self-testing systems for diabetes and various diseases, during her tenure at Miles Laboratories. The heart of Helen\u0026#8217;s story lies in the revolutionary dip-and-read strips she crafted. These strips became the enchanted tools that would transform the testing process, offering not just accuracy but also a touch of magic in the form of enhanced convenience and efficiency. Doctors found a powerful ally, and patients discovered a newfound empowerment as the need for \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/cern-to-supercharge-powerful-atom-smasher\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003etraditional laboratories\u003c/a\u003e diminished. In Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on February 20, 1923, Helen was born to James S. Murray, a coal company salesman, and Daisy Piper Murray, who tragically succumbed to an influenza epidemic when Helen was just six.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHer early years in Youngstown, Ohio, led her to become the valedictorian of the class of 1941 at Poland Seminary High School. Initially aspiring to major in English and Latin at the College of Wooster, her plans shifted dramatically after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941. With young men enlisting in the army, women were urged to pursue careers in science, prompting Helen to redirect her focus to chemistry. She earned a Bachelor of Science degree in 1944, describing the shift as the defining moment of her life. Before completing her college education, Helen ventured into her career, initially drawn to Koppers Chemical Company but eventually finding her place at Miles Laboratories as a quality control chemist. This decision was influenced by contractual obligations despite receiving an offer from the Mellon Institute. A pivotal juncture came when Helen joined the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/science/a-new-plant-cell-discovery-promises-human-anti-aging-potential\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ebiochemistry\u003c/a\u003e research group led by Alfred Free. Their personal and professional partnership blossomed into marriage in 1947. Their research journey began with antibiotics and transitioned to pioneering dry reagent systems. The groundbreaking Clinistix in 1956 marked their foray into diagnostic test strips, followed by innovations like Multistix, enabling multiple tests on a single strip.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHelen\u0026#8217;s career evolved with roles in the Growth and Development Department in 1969 and subsequent positions at Bayer Diagnostics post its 1978 acquisition of Miles. In 1978, she earned a Master of Arts in management from Central Michigan University. Retiring in 1982, Helen continued contributing as a consultant for Bayer Diagnostics. Post-retirement, Helen Free passionately advocated for science education, focusing on initiatives like \u0026#8220;Kids \u0026amp; Chemistry\u0026#8221; and \u0026#8220;Expanding Your Horizons,\u0026#8221; particularly empowering female and underprivileged students. The final chapter of Helen\u0026#8217;s remarkable life unfolded on May 1, 2021, as she peacefully passed away at 98 due to complications from a \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/stroke-survivors-regain-grip-on-life-with-game-changing-smart-glove\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003estroke\u003c/a\u003e. The American Chemical Society designated the work of Helen and Al Free as a National Historic Chemical Landmark in 2010, and her legacy persisted with induction into the National Women\u0026#8217;s Hall of Fame in 2011.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"f0:Tb3e,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eA man of many talents and trades, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/35-inventions-that-changed-the-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eThomas Newcomen\u003c/a\u003e came to fame late in life when he invented the world’s first atmospheric engine in 1712, at age 48. Throughout his life, he also saw time as an iron manufacturer and Baptist preacher.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Dartmouth, Devon, England in 1664, he came from a family of merchants. He got into the ironmonger business at an early age, but also was a lay preacher \u0026#8211; meaning he was neither educated nor classically trained as a preacher, but was an upstanding leader of his local Baptist church and taught others informally. It was his presence in the church and network of contacts that later gave him great success in selling his engine.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe engine itself resulted from Newcomen brainstorming ideas of how to help out his community. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, his part of England was dotted by coal and tin mines. The coal was used for fuel, the tin for making things, as it was a fairly malleable metal. But with geology still a very nascent subject, the mines were susceptible to flooding, from heavy rains or from hitting underground aquifers. Not only was this bad for business, but it was life-threatening as well. Thus, Newcomen and many other men of his day were looking for ways to successfully and rapidly pump water out of a flooded mine. Building on work done by Thomas Savery and Denis Papin, Newcomen used steam to draw down a piston that fired an engine designed to lift water out of a tin mine. Instead of mediocre methods of men with buckets, the atmospheric engine could do the work and repeat it as long as the steam kept being introduced. It revolutionized the safety component of the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/how-the-first-and-second-industrial-revolutions-changed-our-world\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003emining industry\u003c/a\u003e and saved countless lives in the process. Newcomen and partner John Calley built the first successful unit at Conygree Coalworks in Dudley. Over the next several years, the engine was sold through a company called “Proprietors of the Invention for Raising Water by Fire.”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOver the next two decades, Newcomen and a team of engineers began installing the engine in mines all over England, and then all over the rest of Europe, giving new life to coal, copper, lead, and tin mines. While Newcomen passed away in 1729 in London, by 1733, 125 of his engines had been installed. Other than replacing its brass cylinders with iron, the model went unchanged for three-quarters of a century. It was eventually replaced by James Watt’s steam engine beginning around 1775. In 1920, the Newcomen Society was founded in London, dedicated to celebrating the history of engineering and technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"f1:Td92,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003ePossibly the greatest American inventor of all time, Thomas Alva Edison was the best of a slew of inventors who populated the US in the second half of the 19th century and into the 20th. He holds the world record for most patents, tallying a staggering 1,093, among them, one of the first motion picture \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/scarf-camera\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecameras\u003c/a\u003e, the incandescent light bulb, and the phonograph. He was nicknamed the “Wizard of Menlo Park” and was known around the world by the time he was in his 30s. He was also an impressive marketer of both his devices and of himself when it came to public notice, a strategy that earned him the ire of many of his contemporaries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEdison was born in 1847 in Milan, Ohio, the youngest of seven children. He suffered from tremendous hearing losses from age 12 on and left school to find work in the railroad industry. He started a business selling newspapers and food to passengers on the train as they stopped along a route through Michigan, and was soon netting a $50-a-week profit, the equivalent of about $2,100 per week in today’s economy. Edison was too young to formally serve during the \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/health/ether-and-chloroform-were-the-anesthetics-of-the-us-civil-war\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eUS Civil War\u003c/a\u003e, but instead traveled through the country learning about telegraphy However, his lack of hearing caused him to struggle with it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1875, with his father’s financial aid, Edison built a combination laboratory and machine shop in Menlo Park, New Jersey. This combination of layouts was credited by man as the world’s first research and development (R\u0026amp;D lab). From there, his inventions came faster and faster, starting with a carbon transmitter that greatly improved the effectiveness of telephones. Working with telephones and telegraphs led him to invent the phonograph in 1877.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis biggest move came the following year when he started researching a way to replace gaslights, a problem that scientists around the world had been battling for half a century. He founded the Edison Electric Light Company and set to work. His breakthroughs were incremental, but by 1882 he had broken through enough to move to New York City. He was in frequent competition with George Westinghouse Jr., who favored the alternate current (AC) generation of electrical power in contrast with Edison’s direct current (DC) design.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile his lightbulb business was making life comfortable, Edison kept inventing, developing the Kinetograph, a motion picture camera, and the Kinetoscope, a way of viewing what was recorded on the camera. In 1892, as AC started to take hold of the electrical power industry, Edison’s company merged with another to form General Electric, which has been in business ever since.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1912, Edison was approached by another incredible inventor, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/engineers-directory/henry-ford\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eHenry Ford\u003c/a\u003e, and asked to help him design a battery for his Model T design. Edison worked well into his 80s and passed away in 1931 in New Jersey. There are cities, colleges, hotels, lakes, mountains, a naval destroyer, a nuclear submarine, and even an asteroid named in Edison’s honor, along with the Edison Medal, the highest award given by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"f2:Td7f,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003ehisJensen Huang is the current CEO of Nvidia Corporation, an international technology company located in the US’s Silicon Valley that specializes in graphic processing units (GPUs), application programming interfaces (APIs), and in 2023 announced plans to unleash a new supercomputer that Huang said will make building AI accessible to anyone with basic programming skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Tainan, Taiwan in 1963, he came to the US with his family when he was 9 years old. He graduated from Oregon State University in 1984 with a BS in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-best-websites-for-electrical-engineering-students\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectrical engineering\u003c/a\u003e, and added a master’s degree in electrical engineering from Stanford University in 1992.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was hired out of college by LSI Logic where he worked as a director, then at Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) as a designer of microprocessors. Frustrated by his lack of independent abilities, he left AMD and started his own company, Nvidia, in April 1993 along with two other engineers. The founding theory was that the future of computers was graphic based. The three pooled $40,000 to start the company, and they received $20 million more from capital funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHuang guided the company towards producing graphics hardware, and in 1999, won a contract to develop the hardware for the XBox game platform owned by Microsoft. Nvidia went public in 1999 and began buying up smaller tech companies in the same space over the next seven years. In 2007, it was named Company of the Year by Forbes Magazine. That same year, Huang earned $24.6 billion as CEO.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe owns 3.6% of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/nvidia-unveils-more-ai-based-products\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNvidia’s stock\u003c/a\u003e, which made his net worth some $36 billion as of 2023. He has routinely been on the cutting edge of ‘what comes next’ in the computer realm, and was named among Time Magazine\u0026#8217;s list of its 100 most influential people in 2021. In 2018, he coined a phrase that has become known as “Huang’s Law”, which states that advancements in GPUs are growing far faster than those of central processing units (CPUs). That is why his company made the decision to pursue advancements in graphic interfaces.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn May 2023, Huang introduced the DGX GH200 AI \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-fastest-supercomputer-condor-galaxy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esupercomputer\u003c/a\u003e which allows developers to build AI chatbot language models, analyze data at an incredibly high rate of speed, program complex algorithms for recommendations, and be used in the first round of sales by the likes of Microsoft, Alphabet (Google), and Meta Platforms (Facebook).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe announcement saw Nvidia soar to more than $1 trillion in valuation. In 2022, Huang announced plans to donate $200 million to his alma mater, Oregon State University, to create a supercomputer institute on its campus. He made the initial donation of $50 million that year and also donated $30 million to Stanford to build the Jen-Gsun Huang School of Engineering Center.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, Huang was elected to the National Academy of Engineering for his contribution towards high-powered graphics processing units and artificial intelligence. In the same year, Nvidia became the world\u0026#8217;s fourth most-valuable public company.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"f3:T107b,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003eFew engineers of the software age compare to the genius of Kevin Systrom, who was passionate about computers from a young age and whose career as a very young man skyrocketed from one peak to the next as he created \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/instagram-is-working-on-an-ai-chatbot-leaked-images-reveal\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eInstagram\u003c/a\u003e, the photo-sharing social media website, and sold it within two years for a cool $1 billion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in 1983 in Massachusetts, Systrom’s mother is a marketing executive at Zipcar who had previously worked at Monster, and his father was a Vice President in Human Resources at TJX Companies. By the time he was at Middlesex School in Concord, Massachusetts, Systrom, he had found a passion in computers through the video game Doom 2, figuring out the game’s code and building his own levels from scratch.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter high school, Systrom headed to Stanford, where he studied management science and engineering. He was one of the top students in his class throughout his four years. After his third year, he was offered by no less than Mark Zuckerberg, \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/history-of-facebook\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003ecreator of Facebook\u003c/a\u003e , to come work for him before even graduating. He turned down the offer to move to Florence, Italy, for a semester to study photography.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe didn’t miss a beat, however, as he returned to Stanford and was one of 12 students to be chosen for the Mayfield Fellows Program, designed to integrate students into high-tech opportunities as interns, giving them high-end training before graduating from college. Systrom’s fellowship got him an internship at Odeo in the summer of 2005. Odeo was in the business of finding RSS-sourced audio and video when Systrom worked there. A few years later, it spun off into Twitter.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHaving spurned Facebook and worked at the precursor to Twitter, Systrom continued his tour de force by taking a job at Google after graduation. Systrom’s brilliance quickly saw him working on multiple projects at Google, including Google Docs, Google Spreadsheets, Google Calendar, and Gmail. He quit after two years when he was not awarded a spot in the company’s Associate Product Manager program.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLike so many great entrepreneurs of the digital age, Systrom decided to leave the comfortable and explore the unknown. His first working prototype was called Burbn and he innovated it while on a vacation with his girlfriend. She didn’t like how she looked in photos and refused to post them online. Systrom’s idea was to create an app that used filters to enhance the quality of any photo. Within two weeks of showing the prototype, he had received $500,000 in seed funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis first model was deemed too complicated, however \u0026#8211; with gamification and ge-location features. His backers told him to simplify and he did, reducing Burbn down to a photo-sharing app that he renamed Instagram. To say it was an instant success was putting it mildly. More than 25,000 users signed up on the day of the launch, and by the end of the week, there were more than 100,000 registered users. Even more staggering, the platform hit 1 million registrations just 66 days after release.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/culture/history-of-facebook\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eZuckerberg and Facebook\u003c/a\u003e missed on the opportunity to recruit Systrom a few years earlier, but didn’t miss again. In 2012, despite having just 13 employees, Instagram was bought by Facebook for $1 billion in cash and stock. Systrom negotiated a deal that earned him $400 million, but also allowed him to remain the leader of Instagram. He led the company for the next six years before stepping down in 2018 under unknown circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the time, Instagram was contributing $20 billion a year of revenue to Facebook. A reported clash between Systrom and Zuckerberg on the latter’s plans for Instagram appears to have been the cause. After laying low for four years, Systrom re-emerged in January 2023 with a new app called Artifact, designed to give users a personalized news feed based on AI.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"f4:Td7f,"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"\u003cp\u003ehisJensen Huang is the current CEO of Nvidia Corporation, an international technology company located in the US’s Silicon Valley that specializes in graphic processing units (GPUs), application programming interfaces (APIs), and in 2023 announced plans to unleash a new supercomputer that Huang said will make building AI accessible to anyone with basic programming skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorn in Tainan, Taiwan in 1963, he came to the US with his family when he was 9 years old. He graduated from Oregon State University in 1984 with a BS in \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/lists/10-best-websites-for-electrical-engineering-students\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eelectrical engineering\u003c/a\u003e, and added a master’s degree in electrical engineering from Stanford University in 1992.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe was hired out of college by LSI Logic where he worked as a director, then at Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) as a designer of microprocessors. Frustrated by his lack of independent abilities, he left AMD and started his own company, Nvidia, in April 1993 along with two other engineers. The founding theory was that the future of computers was graphic based. The three pooled $40,000 to start the company, and they received $20 million more from capital funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHuang guided the company towards producing graphics hardware, and in 1999, won a contract to develop the hardware for the XBox game platform owned by Microsoft. Nvidia went public in 1999 and began buying up smaller tech companies in the same space over the next seven years. In 2007, it was named Company of the Year by Forbes Magazine. That same year, Huang earned $24.6 billion as CEO.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe owns 3.6% of \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/nvidia-unveils-more-ai-based-products\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003eNvidia’s stock\u003c/a\u003e, which made his net worth some $36 billion as of 2023. He has routinely been on the cutting edge of ‘what comes next’ in the computer realm, and was named among Time Magazine\u0026#8217;s list of its 100 most influential people in 2021. In 2018, he coined a phrase that has become known as “Huang’s Law”, which states that advancements in GPUs are growing far faster than those of central processing units (CPUs). That is why his company made the decision to pursue advancements in graphic interfaces.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn May 2023, Huang introduced the DGX GH200 AI \u003ca href=\"https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-fastest-supercomputer-condor-galaxy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003esupercomputer\u003c/a\u003e which allows developers to build AI chatbot language models, analyze data at an incredibly high rate of speed, program complex algorithms for recommendations, and be used in the first round of sales by the likes of Microsoft, Alphabet (Google), and Meta Platforms (Facebook).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe announcement saw Nvidia soar to more than $1 trillion in valuation. In 2022, Huang announced plans to donate $200 million to his alma mater, Oregon State University, to create a supercomputer institute on its campus. He made the initial donation of $50 million that year and also donated $30 million to Stanford to build the Jen-Gsun Huang School of Engineering Center.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, Huang was elected to the National Academy of Engineering for his contribution towards high-powered graphics processing units and artificial intelligence. In the same year, Nvidia became the world\u0026#8217;s fourth most-valuable public company.\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"1a:[[\"$\",\"script\",null,{\"type\":\"application/ld+json\",\"dangerouslySetInnerHTML\":{\"__html\":\"$1c\"}}],[\"$\",\"$L1d\",null,{\"landingData\":{\"title\":\"Engineer Directory\",\"yoast_head\":\"$1e\",\"yoast_head_json\":{\"title\":\"Engineers Directory: Famous Engineers In History\",\"description\":\"Engineers Directory provides biographies of engineers, scientists, and inventors. 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