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<span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warlord_profiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warlord_profiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Warlord profiles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warlord_profiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warlord_armies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warlord_armies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Warlord armies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Warlord_armies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Warlord armies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Warlord_armies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Finances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Finances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Other forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Factions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Factions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Factions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Factions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Northern_factions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_factions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Northern factions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_factions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_factions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_factions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Southern factions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_factions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>North</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-North-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle North subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-North-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Duan_Qirui_and_Anhui_dominance_(1916–1920)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duan_Qirui_and_Anhui_dominance_(1916–1920)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Duan Qirui and Anhui dominance (1916–1920)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duan_Qirui_and_Anhui_dominance_(1916–1920)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cao_Kun_and_Zhili_dominance_(1920–1924)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cao_Kun_and_Zhili_dominance_(1920–1924)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Cao Kun and Zhili dominance (1920–1924)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cao_Kun_and_Zhili_dominance_(1920–1924)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duan_Qirui_return_as_chief_executive_(1924–1926)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duan_Qirui_return_as_chief_executive_(1924–1926)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Duan Qirui return as chief executive (1924–1926)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duan_Qirui_return_as_chief_executive_(1924–1926)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zhang_Zuolin_and_Fengtian_(1924–1928)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zhang_Zuolin_and_Fengtian_(1924–1928)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Zhang Zuolin and Fengtian (1924–1928)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zhang_Zuolin_and_Fengtian_(1924–1928)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>South</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-South-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle South subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sun_Yat-sen_and_"Constitutional_protection"_military_junta_in_Guangzhou_(1917–1922)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sun_Yat-sen_and_"Constitutional_protection"_military_junta_in_Guangzhou_(1917–1922)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Sun Yat-sen and "Constitutional protection" military junta in Guangzhou (1917–1922)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sun_Yat-sen_and_"Constitutional_protection"_military_junta_in_Guangzhou_(1917–1922)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reorganization_of_military_junta_in_Guangzhou_(1923–1925)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reorganization_of_military_junta_in_Guangzhou_(1923–1925)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Reorganization of military junta in Guangzhou (1923–1925)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reorganization_of_military_junta_in_Guangzhou_(1923–1925)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nanjing-Wuhan_Split_(1927)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanjing-Wuhan_Split_(1927)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Nanjing-Wuhan Split (1927)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanjing-Wuhan_Split_(1927)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reunification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reunification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Reunification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reunification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Warlord Era</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="عصر أمراء الحرب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عصر أمراء الحرب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kun-hoa%CC%8Dt_s%C3%AE-t%C4%81i" title="Kun-hoa̍t sî-tāi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kun-hoa̍t sî-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Ера на местните военачалници – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ера на местните военачалници" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krigsherre-tiden" title="Krigsherre-tiden – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Krigsherre-tiden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warlord-%C3%84ra" title="Warlord-Ära – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Warlord-Ära" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_de_los_se%C3%B1ores_de_la_guerra" title="Era de los señores de la guerra – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Era de los señores de la guerra" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="دوره جنگسالاران – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوره جنگسالاران" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seigneurs_de_la_guerre_chinois" title="Seigneurs de la guerre chinois – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Seigneurs de la guerre chinois" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%B0%EB%B2%8C_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="군벌 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="군벌 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_Panglima_Perang" title="Era Panglima Perang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Era Panglima Perang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodo_dei_signori_della_guerra" title="Periodo dei signori della guerra – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Periodo dei signori della guerra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9D" title="תקופת המצביאים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תקופת המצביאים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karo_vad%C5%B3_laikotarpis" title="Karo vadų laikotarpis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Karo vadų laikotarpis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadurak_kora" title="Hadurak kora – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hadurak kora" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BB%8D%E9%96%A5%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="軍閥時代 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="軍閥時代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krigsherretiden" title="Krigsherretiden – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Krigsherretiden" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_militaryst%C3%B3w" title="Era militarystów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Era militarystów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senhores_da_guerra_da_China" title="Senhores da guerra da China – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Senhores da guerra da China" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B5" title="Эра милитаристов в Китае – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эра милитаристов в Китае" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Warlord Era" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Ера господара рата – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ера господара рата" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotaherrojen_aikakausi" title="Sotaherrojen aikakausi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sotaherrojen aikakausi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%81" title="สมัยขุนศึก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมัยขุนศึก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sava%C5%9F_A%C4%9Falar%C4%B1_D%C3%B6nemi" title="Savaş Ağaları Dönemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Savaş Ağaları Dönemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B2_%D1%83_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%97" title="Доба мілітаристів у Китаї – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period in the history of the Republic of China (1916–1928)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Warlord Era</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_major_Chinese_warlord_coalitions_1925.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Map_of_major_Chinese_warlord_coalitions_1925.png/220px-Map_of_major_Chinese_warlord_coalitions_1925.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Map_of_major_Chinese_warlord_coalitions_1925.png/330px-Map_of_major_Chinese_warlord_coalitions_1925.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Map_of_major_Chinese_warlord_coalitions_1925.png/440px-Map_of_major_Chinese_warlord_coalitions_1925.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="955" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Major Chinese warlord coalitions in 1925. The blue area was controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a>, which later formed the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>.</div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BB%8D%E9%96%A5" class="extiw" title="wikt:軍閥">軍閥</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:時代">時代</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">军阀时代</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language 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lang="zh-Latn">Jyun-fá shíh-dài</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[tɕýn.fǎ ʂɻ̩̌.tâɪ]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Gwan1 fat6 si4 doi6</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">History of the<br />Republic of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="National emblem of the Republic of China"><img alt="National emblem of the Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/150px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/225px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/300px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;font-weight:bold;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Taiwan" title="Economy of Taiwan">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Education</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of the Republic of China">Politics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><span style="font-size:105%;">1912–1949</span><br />Mainland rule</a></div></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Provisional Gov't</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiyang Government">Beiyang Government</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warlord Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Government_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist Government (China)">Nationalist Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Constitutional government</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan_(1945%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Taiwan (1945–present)"><span style="font-size:105%;">1945–present</span><br />Taiwan</a></div></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_of_Taiwan" title="Retrocession of Taiwan">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_28_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="February 28 Incident">February 28 Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Taiwan)" title="White Terror (Taiwan)">White Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Exodus to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Republic of China in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Noes" title="Three Noes">Three Noes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Lily_student_movement" title="Wild Lily student movement">Wild Lily student movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Third Taiwan Strait Crisis">Third Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Secession_Law" title="Anti-Secession Law">Anti-Secession Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/100th_Anniversary_of_the_Xinhai_Revolution_and_Republic_of_China" title="100th Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution and Republic of China">100th anniversary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunflower_Student_Movement" title="Sunflower Student Movement">Sunflower Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Ma%E2%80%93Xi_meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="2015 Ma–Xi meeting">2015 Ma–Xi meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Summer_Universiade" title="2017 Summer Universiade">2017 Summer Universiade</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">History of</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">the PRC</a><br />(1949–present)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">Taiwan</a><br />(geographical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taipei" title="History of Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kaohsiung" title="History of Kaohsiung">Kaohsiung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Beijing" title="History of Beijing">Beijing</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kuomintang" title="History of the Kuomintang">the Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">the Taiwan issue</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Taiwan portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template talk:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Warlord Era</b> was the period in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">history of the Republic of China</a> between 1916 and 1928, when control of the country was divided between former <a href="/wiki/Warlord" title="Warlord">military cliques</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a> and other regional factions. It began after the death of <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, the de facto dictator of China after the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> had overthrown the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> and established the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> in 1912. Yuan's death on 6 June 1916 created a <a href="/wiki/Power_vacuum" title="Power vacuum">power vacuum</a> which was filled by <a href="/wiki/Warlord" title="Warlord">military strongmen</a> and widespread violence, chaos, and oppression. The Nationalist <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (KMT) government of <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>, based in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, began to contest Yuan's <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> for recognition as the legitimate government of China. </p><p>The most powerful cliques were the <a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili clique</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Feng_Guozhang" title="Feng Guozhang">Feng Guozhang</a>, who controlled several northern provinces; the <a href="/wiki/Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui clique</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Duan_Qirui" title="Duan Qirui">Duan Qirui</a>, based in several southeastern provinces; and the <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian clique</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a>, based in <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>. The three cliques often engaged in conflict for territory and hegemony. In mid-1917, after Yuan's successor <a href="/wiki/Li_Yuanhong" title="Li Yuanhong">Li Yuanhong</a> attempted to remove Duan as premier, the general <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xun" title="Zhang Xun">Zhang Xun</a> forced Li to resign and made a brief attempt to <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">restore the Qing dynasty</a>, which was quashed by Duan's troops. Feng became the acting president, but was forced to step down by Duan in late 1918 and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Xu_Shichang" title="Xu Shichang">Xu Shichang</a>. In mid-1920, the new Zhili clique leaders, <a href="/wiki/Cao_Kun" title="Cao Kun">Cao Kun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a>, defeated Duan in the <a href="/wiki/Zhili%E2%80%93Anhui_War" title="Zhili–Anhui War">Zhili–Anhui War</a> in an alliance with Zhang. A power struggle broke out between Cao and Zhang, which ended with Cao's victory in the <a href="/wiki/First_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="First Zhili–Fengtian War">First Zhili–Fengtian War</a> in 1922. Cao became president until 1924, when during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a> he was betrayed by his subordinate <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a>, who joined with Zhang to <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Coup" title="Beijing Coup">stage a coup</a> against Cao. They shared power and brought back Duan to serve as president before Zhang removed them both in 1926; Zhang then led the Beiyang government until 1928. </p><p>The warlords of southern China, who had cooperated against <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Yuan's dictatorship</a> and then Duan's attempt to <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">extend Beiyang control to the south</a>, were divided between the <a href="/wiki/Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Guangxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guizhou_clique" title="Guizhou clique">Guizhou</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_clique" title="Sichuan clique">Sichuan</a> cliques.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993245–250_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993245–250-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993288_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993288-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sun Yat-sen created an <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Junta" title="Constitutional Protection Junta">alternative government</a> based in Guangzhou to oppose the Beiyang warlords, but <a href="/wiki/Lu_Rongting" title="Lu Rongting">Lu Rongting</a>'s Guangxi clique rivaled him for control, leading Sun to abandon it in 1918. In 1920, the warlord <a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Chen Jiongming</a> invaded Guangdong and ended Lu's control in the <a href="/wiki/Guangdong%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Guangdong–Guangxi War">Guangdong–Guangxi War</a>, after which Sun returned. Chen soon turned on Sun over disagreements on strategy, after which the Yunnan warlord <a href="/wiki/Tang_Jiyao" title="Tang Jiyao">Tang Jiyao</a> helped Sun regain power in 1923. To resolve the problem of being dependent on warlords, Sun accepted Soviet assistance in building a party and military infrastructure of his own, creating the <a href="/wiki/Whampoa_Military_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Whampoa Military Academy">Whampoa Military Academy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> (NRA). After Sun died in 1925, the head of the Whampoa Academy, <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, emerged as the military leader of the NRA.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1926, he launched the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a>, which destroyed the troops of the Zhili and Anhui cliques. Fengtian clique leader <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a> retreated from Beijing, and on 29 December 1928 accepted the leadership of Chiang's Nationalist government, thus reunifying China and beginning the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing decade</a>. </p><p>Despite the official end of the era in 1928, several warlords continued to maintain their influence throughout the 1930s and 1940s, resulting in events such as the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a> of 1929–1930, in which the former warlords <a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a>, Feng Yuxiang, and <a href="/wiki/Li_Zongren" title="Li Zongren">Li Zongren</a> rebelled against Chiang. Continued regional control by former warlords was problematic for the Nanjing government during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>, and contributed to the Communists' final victory in 1949. Other major warlords included the <a href="/wiki/Ma_clique" title="Ma clique">Ma clique</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a>; <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(warlord)" title="Liu Xiang (warlord)">Liu Xiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liu_Wenhui" title="Liu Wenhui">Liu Wenhui</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Long_Yun" title="Long Yun">Long Yun</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jingyao" title="Zhang Jingyao">Zhang Jingyao</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang" title="Zhang Zongchang">Zhang Zongchang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_Fuju" title="Han Fuju">Han Fuju</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Sheng_Shicai" title="Sheng Shicai">Sheng Shicai</a> in <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a> introduced the term <i>Junfa</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">軍閥</span></span>), taken from the Japanese <i><a href="/wiki/Gunbatsu" title="Gunbatsu">gunbatsu</a></i>. It was not widely used until the 1920s, when it was taken up by left-wing groups to excoriate local militarists.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Previously, these militarist leaders were known as a <i>Tuchun</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">督軍</span></span>), or provincial military governor, owing to the system <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> introduced after his centralization of power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beiyang_Army.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Beiyang_Army.jpg/220px-Beiyang_Army.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Beiyang_Army.jpg/330px-Beiyang_Army.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Beiyang_Army.jpg/440px-Beiyang_Army.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1462" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a> in training</figcaption></figure> <p>The origins of the armies and leaders which dominated politics after 1912 lay in the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty#New_Armies" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">military reforms</a> of the late <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> (1850–1864), the Qing dynasty was forced to allow provincial governors to raise their own armies, the <i><a href="/wiki/Yong_Ying" title="Yong Ying">Yong Ying</a></i>, to fight against the Taiping rebels; many of these provincial forces were not disbanded after the Taiping rebellion was over, like <a href="/wiki/Li_Hongzhang" title="Li Hongzhang">Li Hongzhang</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strong bonds, family ties, and respectful treatment of troops were emphasized.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The officers were never rotated, and the soldiers were hand-picked by their commanders, and commanders by their generals, so personal bonds of loyalty formed between local officers and the troops, unlike <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Standard">Green Standard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Banner forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The late Qing reforms did not establish a national army; instead, they mobilized regional armies and <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militias</a> that had neither standardization nor consistency. Officers were loyal to their immediate superiors and formed cliques based upon their place of origins and background. Units were composed of men from the same province. This policy was meant to reduce dialectal miscommunication, but had the side effect of encouraging <a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(politics)" title="Regionalism (politics)">regionalist</a> tendencies. </p><p>Although the post–Taiping Rebellion governors are generally not recognized as the direct predecessors of the warlords, their combined military-civil authority and somewhat greater powers as compared to earlier governors provided a model for Republic-era provincial leaders. The fragmentation of military power due to the late Qing's lack of a unified military force, exacerbated by the rise of provincialism during the revolution, was also a strong factor behind the proliferation of warlords. Apart from administrative and financial obstacles, the late Qing government seemed to have relied on this divided military structure to maintain political control.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rising necessity of military professionalism, with scholars becoming heavily militarized, led to many officers from non-scholarly backgrounds rising to high command and even high office in civil bureaucracy. At this time, the military upstaged the <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">civil service</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influence of German and Japanese ideas of military predominance over the nation, coupled with the absence of national unity amongst the various cliques in the officer class, led to the fragmentation of power.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most powerful regional army was the northern-based <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a> under <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, which received the best in training and modern weaponry.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> in 1911 brought widespread <a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">mutiny</a> across southern China. The revolution began with the <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a> in October 1911, where soldiers began to mutiny and defect to a political opposition. These revolutionary forces established a provisional government in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> the following year under <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>, who had returned from his long exile to lead the revolution. It became clear that the revolutionaries were not strong enough to defeat the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiyang army">Beiyang army</a> and continued fighting would almost certainly lead to defeat. Instead, Sun negotiated with Beiyang commander Yuan Shikai to bring an end to the Qing and reunify China. In return, Sun would hand over his presidency and recommend Yuan to be the president of the new republic. Yuan refused to move to <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> and insisted on maintaining the capital in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, where his power base was secure. </p><p>Reacting to Yuan's growing <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarianism</a>, the southern provinces <a href="/wiki/Second_Revolution_(Republic_of_China)" title="Second Revolution (Republic of China)">rebelled</a> in 1913 but were effectively crushed by Beiyang forces. Civil governors were replaced by <a href="/wiki/Military_governor" class="mw-redirect" title="Military governor">military ones</a>. In December 1915, Yuan stated his intention to become <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperor of China</a> at the head of a <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">new dynasty</a>. The southern provinces rebelled again in the <a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a>; but this time the situation was far more serious because most Beiyang commanders refused to recognize the monarchy. Yuan renounced his plans for restoring the monarchy to woo back his lieutenants; however, by the time of his death in June 1916, China had fractured politically. The <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_southern_China" title="Northern and southern China">North-South split</a> would persist throughout the entire Warlord Era. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China,_1930_(2675972715).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg/220px-Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg/330px-Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg/440px-Nationalist_government_of_Nanking_-_nominally_ruling_over_entire_China%2C_1930_%282675972715%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1451" /></a><figcaption>During the early 1930s, most warlords in China were nominally loyal to the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> in Nanking.</figcaption></figure><p>Yuan Shikai cut back on many government institutions in the beginning of 1914 by suspending parliament, followed by the provincial assemblies. His cabinet soon resigned, effectively making Yuan dictator of China.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Yuan Shikai curtailed many basic freedoms, the country quickly spiraled into chaos and entered a period of warlordism. "Warlordism did not substitute military force for the other elements of government; it merely balanced them differently. This shift in balance came partly from the disintegration of the sanctions and values of China's traditional civil government."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, there was a general shift from a state-dominated civil bureaucracy held by a central authority to a military-dominated culture held by many groups, with power shifting from warlord to warlord. A theme identified by C. Martin Wilbur was "that a great majority of regional militarists were 'static', that is to say that their principal aim was to secure and maintain control of a particular tract of territory."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Warlords, in the words of American political scientist <a href="/wiki/Lucian_Pye" title="Lucian Pye">Lucian Pye</a>, were "instinctively suspicious, quick to suspect that their interests might be threatened, hard-headed, devoted to the short run and impervious to idealistic abstractions".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warlords usually came from strict military background, and were brutal in their treatment toward both their soldiers and the general population. In 1921, the <i><a href="/wiki/North_China_Daily_News" title="North China Daily News">North China Daily News</a></i> reported that in <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, robbery and violent crimes were prevalent and frightened the farmers. <a href="/wiki/Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Zhili" title="Zhili">Zhili</a> clique was known for suppressing strikes by railroad workers by terrorizing them with execution. A British diplomat in <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> witnessed two mutineers being publicly hacked to death with their hearts and livers hung out; another two being publicly burned to death; while others had slits cut into their bodies into which were inserted burning candles before they were hacked to pieces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004104_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004104-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhang_Zuolin_and_Wu_Peifu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Zhang_Zuolin_and_Wu_Peifu.jpg/220px-Zhang_Zuolin_and_Wu_Peifu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Zhang_Zuolin_and_Wu_Peifu.jpg/330px-Zhang_Zuolin_and_Wu_Peifu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Zhang_Zuolin_and_Wu_Peifu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a> (right), two of the most powerful <a href="/wiki/Strongman_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strongman (politics)">strongmen</a> of the era</figcaption></figure> <p>Warlords placed great stress on personal loyalty, yet subordinate officers often betrayed their commanders in exchange for bribes known as "silver bullets", and warlords often betrayed allies. Promotion had little to do with competence, and instead warlords attempted to create an interlocking network of familial, institutional, regional, and master-pupil relationships together with membership in sworn brotherhoods and secret societies. Subordinates who betrayed their commanders could suffer harshly. In November 1925, <a href="/wiki/Guo_Songling" title="Guo Songling">Guo Songling</a>, the leading general loyal to Marshal <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a>—the "Old Marshal" of Manchuria—made a deal with <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a> to revolt, which nearly toppled the "Old Marshal", who had to promise his rebel soldiers a pay increase; that, together with signs that the Japanese still supported Zhang, caused them to go back on their loyalty to him. Guo and his wife were both publicly shot and their bodies left to hang for three days in a marketplace in <a href="/wiki/Mukden" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden">Mukden</a>. After Feng betrayed his ally Wu to seize Beijing for himself, Wu complained that China was "a country without a system; anarchy and treason prevail everywhere. Betraying one's leader has become as natural as eating one's breakfast".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004107_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004107-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Alignment politics" prevented any one warlord from dominating the system. When one warlord started to become too powerful, the rest would ally to stop him, then turn on each other. The level of violence in the first years was restrained, as no leader wanted to engage in too much serious fighting. War brought the risk of damage to one's own forces. For example, when <a href="/wiki/Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a> defeated the army of Zhang Zuolin, he provided two trains to take his defeated enemies home, knowing that if in the future Zhang were to defeat him, he could count on the same courtesy. Furthermore, warlords did not have the economic or logistical capabilities required to achieve decisive victories, and were generally concerned instead with taking over smaller pieces of territory. The violence increased in intense as the 1920s went on, with the object being to damage the enemy and improve one's bargaining power within the "alignment politics".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004107–108_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004107–108-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Locomotives_in_Tangshan_depot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Locomotives_in_Tangshan_depot.jpg/220px-Locomotives_in_Tangshan_depot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Locomotives_in_Tangshan_depot.jpg/330px-Locomotives_in_Tangshan_depot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Locomotives_in_Tangshan_depot.jpg/440px-Locomotives_in_Tangshan_depot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption>Control of railroads was of great importance to warlords.</figcaption></figure> <p>As the infrastructure in China was very poor, control of the railway lines and rolling stock were crucial in maintaining a <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_China" title="Rail transport in China">Railroads</a> were the fastest and cheapest way of moving large number of troops, and most battles during this era were fought within a short distance of railways. <a href="/wiki/Armoured_train" title="Armoured train">Armoured trains</a>, full of machine guns and artillery, offered fire support for troops going into battle. In 1925–1927, the largest detachment of armored trains, numbering 7 units, was in the service of Marshal Zhang Zongchang. The armored trains were built according to the World War I model by Russian designers who arrived from Harbin to Jinan, where they had railway workshops.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The constant fighting around the railroads caused much economic harm. In 1925, at least 50% of the locomotives being used on the line connecting Nanjing and Shanghai had been destroyed, with the soldiers of one warlord using 300 freight cars as sleeping quarters, all inconveniently parked directly on the rail line. To hinder pursuit, defeated troops tore up the railroads as they retreated; in 1924, damages amounted to 100 million <a href="/wiki/Mexican_silver_dollars" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican silver dollars">Mexican silver dollars</a> (the main currency used in China at the time). Between 1925 and 1927, fighting in eastern and southern China caused non-military railroad traffic to decline by 25%, raising the prices of goods and causing inventory to build up at warehouses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004112_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004112-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>China's disunity during this period resulted in varied political experiments in different regions. Some regions experimented with aspects of democracy, including different mechanisms for election of city and provincial council elections. In Hunan, for example, a constitution and universal suffrage was established, and several levels of council were elected by popular vote. These experiments with partial democracy were not long-lasting.<sup id="cite_ref-:Laikwan_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Laikwan-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 66">: 66 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Warlord_profiles">Warlord profiles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Warlord profiles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Few of the warlords had any sort of ideology. <a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a>, the "Model Governor" of <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, professed a <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretic</a> creed that merged elements of <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militarism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">universalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> <a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">paternalism</a> into one. A friend described Yan as "a dark-skinned, mustached man of medium height who rarely laughed and maintained an attitude of great reserve; Yan never showed his inner feelings." He kept <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a> on a different <a href="/wiki/Railroad_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad gauge">railroad gauge</a> from the rest of China to make it difficult to invade his province, though that tactic also hindered the export of coal and iron, the main source of Shanxi's wealth. <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a>, the "Christian General", promoted <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a> together with a vague sort of left-leaning <a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese nationalism</a>, which led the <a href="/wiki/Soviets" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviets">Soviets</a> to support him for a time. He banned alcohol, lived simply and wore the common uniform of an infantryman to show his concern for his men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004103_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004103-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a>, the "Philosopher General", was a <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(bureaucrat)" title="Mandarin (bureaucrat)">mandarin</a> who passed the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_exam" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial exam">Imperial Civil Service exam</a>, billing himself as the protector of <a href="/wiki/Confucian_values" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian values">Confucian values</a>, usually appearing in photographs with the scholar's brush in his hand (the scholar's brush is a symbol of Confucian culture). Doubters noted, however, that the quality of Wu's <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">calligraphy</a> markedly declined when his secretary died. Wu liked to appear in photos taken in his office with a portrait of his hero <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> in the background to reflect the supposed democratic militarism he was attempting to bring to China. Wu was famous for his capacity to absorb vast quantities of alcohol and still keep drinking.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he sent Feng a bottle of brandy, Feng replied by sending him a bottle of water, a message that Wu failed to take in. An intense Chinese nationalist, Wu Peifu refused to enter the foreign concessions in China, a stance that was to cost him his life when he refused to go to the International Settlement or the <a href="/wiki/French_Concession_in_Shanghai" class="mw-redirect" title="French Concession in Shanghai">French Concession in Shanghai</a> for medical treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhang_Zongchang5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Zhang_Zongchang5.jpg/220px-Zhang_Zongchang5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Zhang_Zongchang5.jpg/330px-Zhang_Zongchang5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Zhang_Zongchang5.jpg/440px-Zhang_Zongchang5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="668" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang" title="Zhang Zongchang">Zhang Zongchang</a>, one of the most infamous Chinese warlords</figcaption></figure> <p>More typical was Marshal <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a>, a "graduate of the University of the Green Forest" (i.e., a bandit), an illiterate who had a forceful, ambitious personality that allowed him to rise up from the leader of a bandit gang, be hired by the Japanese to attack the Russians during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Japanese war">Russo-Japanese war</a> of 1904–05 and become the warlord of Manchuria by 1916. He worked openly for the Japanese in ruling Manchuria. Zhang controlled only 3% of China's population but 90% of its heavy industry. The wealth of Manchuria, the support of the Japanese, and Zhang's hard-hitting, swift-moving cavalry made him the most powerful of the warlords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004103_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004103-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His Japanese patrons insisted that he ensure a stable economic climate to facilitate Japanese investment, making him one of the few warlords who sought to pursue economic growth instead of just plundering.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang" title="Zhang Zongchang">Zhang Zongchang</a>, known as the "Dogmeat General" because of his love for the gambling game of that name, was described as having "the physique of an elephant, the brain of a pig and the temperament of a tiger". Writer <a href="/wiki/Lin_Yutang" title="Lin Yutang">Lin Yutang</a> called Zhang "the most colorful, legendary, medieval, and unashamed ruler of modern China". Former <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Puyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Puyi">Emperor Puyi</a> remembered Zhang as "a universally detested monster" whose ugly, bloated face was "tinged with the livid hue induced by heavy opium smoking". A brutal man, Zhang was notorious for his hobby of smashing in the heads of prisoners with his sword, which he called "smashing melons". He loved to <a href="/wiki/Human_penis_size#Male_self-perception" title="Human penis size">boast about the size of his penis</a>, which became part of his legend. He was widely believed to be the most well endowed man in China, nicknamed "General Eighty-Six" as his penis when erect was said to measure up to a pile of 86 <a href="/wiki/Libertad_(coin)" title="Libertad (coin)">Mexican silver dollars</a> (25.8 cm or 10.16 in). His <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a> consisted of Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Russian and two French women. He gave them numbers, as he could not remember their names, and then usually forgot the numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other notable information on some of the above-mentioned major warlords: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a>, "Warlord of Manchuria", became Japan's ally against Russia during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>. He had also served as the military governor of Mukden since 1911.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a> was a soldier since childhood and like Wu, was a graduate of Paoting. He was baptized by a <a href="/wiki/YMCA" title="YMCA">YMCA</a> leader in 1913; he was known as the "Christian General" as he encouraged his troops to pursue Christianity. He seized Beijing in 1924 and demonstrated how easily a major Chinese city could be overthrown.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muslim_Bandits,_Xinjiang,_China_(c1915)_Marc_Aurel_Stein_(RESTORED)_(4073631151).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Muslim_Bandits%2C_Xinjiang%2C_China_%28c1915%29_Marc_Aurel_Stein_%28RESTORED%29_%284073631151%29.jpg/220px-Muslim_Bandits%2C_Xinjiang%2C_China_%28c1915%29_Marc_Aurel_Stein_%28RESTORED%29_%284073631151%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Muslim_Bandits%2C_Xinjiang%2C_China_%28c1915%29_Marc_Aurel_Stein_%28RESTORED%29_%284073631151%29.jpg/330px-Muslim_Bandits%2C_Xinjiang%2C_China_%28c1915%29_Marc_Aurel_Stein_%28RESTORED%29_%284073631151%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Muslim_Bandits%2C_Xinjiang%2C_China_%28c1915%29_Marc_Aurel_Stein_%28RESTORED%29_%284073631151%29.jpg/440px-Muslim_Bandits%2C_Xinjiang%2C_China_%28c1915%29_Marc_Aurel_Stein_%28RESTORED%29_%284073631151%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1971" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Bandits in northwestern China, around 1915</figcaption></figure> <p>The great ideological flexibility of warlords and politicians during this era can be well exemplified in the activities of <a href="/wiki/Bai_Lang_Rebellion#Bai_Lang:_The_individual" title="Bai Lang Rebellion">Bai Lang</a>, an important bandit leader. Even though he initially fought in support of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> with ultraconservative monarchists as well as warlords, Bai Lang later formed an alliance with republicans,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillingsley198856,_57,_59_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillingsley198856,_57,_59-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> declared himself loyal to <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> and formed a "Citizen's Punitive Army" to rid China of all the warlords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Warlord_armies">Warlord armies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Warlord armies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:246px; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Good iron does not make nails, good men do not make soldiers. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—Chinese proverb<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELary198583_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELary198583-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>Many of the common soldiers in warlord armies were also <a href="/wiki/Banditry" title="Banditry">bandits</a> who took up service for a campaign and then reverted to banditry when the campaign was over. One politician remarked that when the warlords went to war with each other, the bandits become soldiers and when the war ended, the soldiers became bandits.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004104–106,_110–111_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004104–106,_110–111-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warlord armies commonly <a href="/wiki/War_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="War rape">raped</a> or took many women into <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">sexual slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004106_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004106-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system of looting was institutionalized, as many warlords lacked the money to pay their troops. Some took to kidnapping, and might send a hostage's severed fingers along with the ransom demand as a way of encouraging prompt payment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_warlord_soldiers_training_with_swords_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chinese_warlord_soldiers_training_with_swords_1.png/250px-Chinese_warlord_soldiers_training_with_swords_1.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chinese_warlord_soldiers_training_with_swords_1.png/375px-Chinese_warlord_soldiers_training_with_swords_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chinese_warlord_soldiers_training_with_swords_1.png/500px-Chinese_warlord_soldiers_training_with_swords_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>Warlord soldiers train with <a href="/wiki/Dao_(Chinese_sword)" title="Dao (Chinese sword)"><i>dao</i> swords</a> sometime in the 1920s. Some warlord armies, especially those in southern China, were badly armed, paid and supplied, and often lacked even basic necessities, such as guns, ammunition, and food.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJowett201487,_88_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett201487,_88-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <p>Besides bandits, the rank-and-file of the warlord armies tended to be village <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscripts</a>. They might take service in one army, get captured, then join the army of their captors before being captured yet again. Warlords usually incorporated their prisoners into their armies; at least 200,000 men who were serving in the army of Gen. Wu were prisoners he had incorporated into his own army.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A survey of one warlord garrison in 1924 revealed that 90% of the soldiers were <a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_China" title="Literacy in China">illiterate</a>. In 1926 U.S. Army officer <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stilwell" title="Joseph Stilwell">Joseph Stilwell</a> inspected a warlord unit and observed that 20% were less than 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m) tall, the <a href="/wiki/Child_soldiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Child soldiers">average age was 14</a> and most walked barefoot. Stilwell wrote that this "scarecrow company" was worthless as a military unit. A British army visitor commented that, provided they had proper leadership, the men of northern China were "the finest Oriental raw material with a physique second to none, and an iron constitution". However, such units were the exception rather than the rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004110–111_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004110–111-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finances">Finances</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Finances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhang_Zuolin_with_two_sons.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Zhang_Zuolin_with_two_sons.jpg/220px-Zhang_Zuolin_with_two_sons.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Zhang_Zuolin_with_two_sons.jpg/330px-Zhang_Zuolin_with_two_sons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Zhang_Zuolin_with_two_sons.jpg/440px-Zhang_Zuolin_with_two_sons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="1285" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a> with two of his sons, both wearing expensive miniature uniforms </figcaption></figure> <p>In 1916 there were about a half-million soldiers in China. By 1922 the numbers had tripled, then tripled again by 1924; more than the warlords could support. For example, Marshal Zhang, the ruler of industrialized Manchuria, took in $23 million in tax revenues in 1925 while spending some $51 million. Warlords in other provinces were even more hard-pressed. One way of raising funds were taxes called <i>lijin</i> that were often confiscatory and inflicted much economic harm. For example, in Sichuan province there were 27 different taxes on salt, and one shipload of paper that was sent down the Yangtze River to Shanghai was taxed 11 different times by various warlords to the sum total of 160% of its value. One warlord imposed a tax of 100% on railroad freight, including food, even though there was a famine in his province. Taxes owed to the central government in Beijing on stamp and salt were usually taken by regional authorities. Despite all of the wealth of Manchuria and the support of the Japanese army, Marshal Zhang had to raise land taxes by 12% between 1922 and 1928 to pay for his wars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004108_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004108-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The warlords demanded loans from the banks. The other major revenue source besides taxes, loans and looting was the selling of <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>, with the warlords selling the rights to grow and sell opium within their provinces to consortia of gangsters. Despite his ostensible anti-opium stance, Gen. <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a>, "the Christian General", took in some $20 million per annum from opium sales. Inflation was another means of paying for their soldiers. Some warlords simply ran the money printing presses, and some resorted to duplicating machines to issue new Chinese dollars. The warlord who ruled <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> province printed 22 million Chinese dollars on a silver reserve worth only one million Chinese dollars in the course of a single year, while Zhang in Shandong province printed 55 million Chinese dollars on a silver reserve of 1.5 million Chinese dollars during the same year. The illiterate Marshal <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a>, who engaged in reckless printing of Chinese dollars, did not understand it was him who was causing the inflation in Manchuria, and his remedy was simply to summon the leading merchants of Mukden, accuse them of greed because they were always raising their prices, had five of them selected at random publicly shot and told the rest to behave better.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004109–110_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004109–110-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A5%89%E7%B3%BB%E8%BB%8D%E9%96%A5%E7%9A%84FT-17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%E5%A5%89%E7%B3%BB%E8%BB%8D%E9%96%A5%E7%9A%84FT-17.jpg/220px-%E5%A5%89%E7%B3%BB%E8%BB%8D%E9%96%A5%E7%9A%84FT-17.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%E5%A5%89%E7%B3%BB%E8%BB%8D%E9%96%A5%E7%9A%84FT-17.jpg/330px-%E5%A5%89%E7%B3%BB%E8%BB%8D%E9%96%A5%E7%9A%84FT-17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%E5%A5%89%E7%B3%BB%E8%BB%8D%E9%96%A5%E7%9A%84FT-17.jpg/440px-%E5%A5%89%E7%B3%BB%E8%BB%8D%E9%96%A5%E7%9A%84FT-17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Renault_FT" title="Renault FT">Renault FT</a> of the Fengtian clique during Northern Expedition</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite their constant need for money, the warlords lived in luxury. Marshal Zhang owned the world's biggest pearl, while Gen. Wu owned the world's biggest diamond. Marshal Zhang, the "Old Marshal", lived in a lavish palace in <a href="/wiki/Mukden" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden">Mukden</a> with his five wives, old Confucian texts and a cellar full of fine <a href="/wiki/French_wine" title="French wine">French wines</a>, and needed 70 cooks in his kitchen to make enough food for him, his wives and his guests. Gen. Zhang, the "Dogmeat General", ate his meals off a 40-piece Belgian dinner service, and an American journalist described dinner with him: "He gave a dinner for me where sinful quantities of costly foods were served in a starving country. There was French champagne and sound brandy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004104_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004104-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equipment">Equipment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The warlords bought machine guns and artillery from abroad, but their uneducated and illiterate soldiers could not operate or service them. A British mercenary complained in 1923 that <a href="/wiki/Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a> had about 45 European artillery pieces that were inoperable because they had not been properly maintained.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004110_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004110-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC_%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Штурм Урги">Battle of Urga</a>, the army of Gen. <a href="/wiki/Xu_Shuzheng" title="Xu Shuzheng">Xu Shuzheng</a>, which had seized <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Mongolia" title="Occupation of Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a>, was attacked by a Russian-Mongol army under the command of Gen. Baron <a href="/wiki/Roman_von_Ungern-Sternberg" title="Roman von Ungern-Sternberg">Roman von Ungern-Sternberg</a>. The Chinese might have stopped Ungern had they been capable of firing their machine guns properly, to adjust for the inevitable upward jerk caused by the firing; they did not, and this caused the bullets to overshoot their targets. The inability to use their machine guns properly proved costly: after taking Urga in February 1921, Ungern had his <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_horsemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol horsemen">Mongol cavalry</a> hunt down the remnants of Xu's troops as they attempted to flee south on the road back to China.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese forces slaughtered most of a 350 strong White Russian forces in June 1921 under Colonel Kazagrandi in the Gobi desert, with only two batches of 42 men and 35 men surrendering separately as Chinese were wiping out White Russian remnants following the Soviet Red army defeat of Ungern Sternberg, and other Buryat and White Russian remnants of Ungern-Sternberg's army were massacred by Soviet Red Army and Mongol forces.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the crossing of the Russian-Chinese border in November 1922 and the disarmament, the Chinese authorities of Marshal Zhang Zuolin bought or received for free almost all the weapons of the Russian White Army, which left Vladivostok. In the border city of Kirin, the Chinese received a large number of the rifles, the machine guns, the cartridges and the grenades, the artillery pieces were sent immediately to the city of Changchun.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When importing weapons became impractical, warlord armies either used locally-made copies of Western firearms (including ones in uncommon use such as the <a href="/wiki/Beholla_pistol" title="Beholla pistol">Franz Stock Pistol</a>) or indigenous designs.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_forces">Other forces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spirit_Soldier_rebellions_(1920%E2%80%931926)" title="Spirit Soldier rebellions (1920–1926)">Spirit Soldier rebellions (1920–1926)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Armored-train1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Russian armored train in 1926 in Nechaev’s detachment" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Armored-train1.jpg/220px-Armored-train1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Armored-train1.jpg/330px-Armored-train1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Armored-train1.jpg/440px-Armored-train1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="1103" /></a><figcaption>Russian armored train in 1926 in Nechaev’s detachment</figcaption></figure> <p>Because their soldiers were not able to use or take proper care of modern weapons, the warlords often hired foreign <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenaries</a>, who were effective but always open to other offers. <a href="/wiki/Russian_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9s" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian émigrés">Russian émigrés</a> who fled to China after the victory of the Bolsheviks were widely employed. One of the Russian mercenaries claimed that they went through Chinese troops like a knife through butter during one battle. The most highly paid of the Russian units was led by Gen. <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Petrovich_Nechaev" title="Konstantin Petrovich Nechaev">Konstantin Nechaev</a>, who fought for <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang" title="Zhang Zongchang">Zhang Zongchang</a>, the "Dogmeat General" who ruled Shandong province. Zhang Zongchang had Russian women as concubines.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-time2_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time2-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nechaev and his men were much feared. In 1926 they drove three armoured trains through the countryside, gunning down everyone they met and taking everything moveable. The rampage was stopped only when the peasants pulled up the train tracks, which led Nechaev to sack the nearest town.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004111_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004111-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nechaev suffered a huge defeat at the hands of Chinese, when he and one armoured train under his command were trapped near Suichzhou in 1925. Their Chinese adversaries had pulled up the rail, and took this opportunity to massacre almost all Russian mercenaries on board the train. Nechaev managed to survive this incident, but lost a part of his leg during the bitter fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 1926, Nechaev had 6 good armored trains, representing a significant military force.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1926 Chinese warlord Sun Chuanfang inflicted bloody death tolls upon the <a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White Russian</a> mercenaries under Nechaev's brigade in the 65th division serving Zhang Zongchang, reducing the Russian numbers from 3,000 to only a few hundred by 1927 and the remaining Russian survivors fought in armored trains.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> Chinese Nationalist forces captured an armoured train of Russian mercenaries serving Zhang Zongchang and brutalized the Russian prisoners by piercing their noses with rope and marching them in public through the streets in Shandong in 1928, described as "stout rope pierced through their noses".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>White Russian mercenaries defeated Muslim <a href="/wiki/Uighurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Uighurs">Uighurs</a> in <a href="/wiki/Melee" title="Melee">melee</a> fighting when Uighurs tried to take <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi" title="Ürümqi">Ürümqi</a> on 21 February 1933 in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_(1933)" title="Battle of Ürümqi (1933)">Battle of Ürümqi (1933)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wu Aitchen mentioned that 600 Uyghurs were slaughtered in a battle by White Russian mercenaries in the service of the <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_clique" title="Xinjiang clique">Xinjiang clique</a> warlord <a href="/wiki/Jin_Shuren" title="Jin Shuren">Jin Shuren</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jin Shuren would take Russian women as hostages to force their husbands to serve as his mercenaries.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hui Muslims fought brutal battles against White Russians and Soviet <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> Russians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tutung" title="Battle of Tutung">Battle of Tutung</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dawan_Cheng" title="Battle of Dawan Cheng">Battle of Dawan Cheng</a> inflicting heavy losses on the Russian forces.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chinese forces killed many White Russian soldiers and Soviet soldiers in 1944–1946 when the White Russians of Ili and Soviet Red Army served in the <a href="/wiki/Second_East_Turkestan_Republic" title="Second East Turkestan Republic">Second East Turkestan Republic</a> Ili national army during the <a href="/wiki/Ili_Rebellion" title="Ili Rebellion">Ili Rebellion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To defend themselves from the attacks of the warlord factions and armies, <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> organized themselves into militant <a href="/wiki/Secret_society" title="Secret society">secret societies</a> and village associations which served as <a href="/wiki/Self-defense" title="Self-defense">self-defense</a> militias as well as vigilante groups. As the peasants usually had neither money for guns nor military training, these secret societies relied on martial arts, self-made weapons such as swords and spears, as well as the staunch belief in protective magic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChesneaux19725,_6_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChesneaux19725,_6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980203,_204_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980203,_204-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter was especially important, as the conviction of invulnerability was "a powerful weapon for bolstering the resolve of people who possessed few alternative resources with which to defend their meager holdings".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980195_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980195-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Magical rituals practiced by the peasants ranged from rather simple ones, such as swallowing charms,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to much more elaborate practices. For example, elements of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Spear_Society" title="Red Spear Society">Red Spear Society</a> performed secret ceremonies to confer invulnerability from bullets to channel the power of <i><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></i> and went into battle naked with supposedly bulletproof red clay smeared over their bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mourning Clothes Society would perform three <a href="/wiki/Kowtow" title="Kowtow">kowtows</a> and weep loudly before each battle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also all-female self-defense groups, such as the Iron Gate Society<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the Flower Basket Society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The former would dress entirely in white (the color of death in China) and waved fans that they believed would deflect gunfire,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the latter fought with a sword and a magical basket to catch their opponents' bullets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disappointed with the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> and despairing due to the warlords deprivations, many peasant secret societies adopted <a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">millenarian</a> beliefs,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980195_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980195-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and advocated the restoration of the monarchy, led by the old <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>. The past was widely romanticized, and many believed that a Ming emperor would bring a "reign of happiness and justice for all".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENovikov197261–63_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovikov197261–63-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980232_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980232-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Factions">Factions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Factions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_warlords_and_military_cliques_in_the_Warlord_Era" title="List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era">List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_factions">Northern factions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Northern factions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui clique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili clique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian clique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanxi_clique" title="Shanxi clique">Shanxi clique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_clique" title="Ma clique">Ma clique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_clique" title="Xinjiang clique">Xinjiang clique</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_factions">Southern factions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Southern factions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan clique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a> warlords</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Old Guangxi clique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Guangxi_clique" title="New Guangxi clique">New Guangxi clique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> warlords</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuan_clique" title="Sichuan clique">Sichuan clique</a> (Liu Wenhui until 1932 Liu Xiang post <a href="/wiki/Two-Liu_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-Liu war">Two-Liu war</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> warlords</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="North">North</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: North"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beiyang_star.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/220px-Beiyang_star.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/330px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/440px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="571" /></a><figcaption>This military symbol was based on the <a href="/wiki/Five_Races_Under_One_Union" title="Five Races Under One Union">Five Races Under One Union</a> flag.</figcaption></figure> <p>The death of Yuan Shikai split the Beiyang Army into two main factions. The <a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian clique</a> were in alliance with one another, while the <a href="/wiki/Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui clique</a> formed their own faction. International recognition was based on the presence in Beijing, and every Beiyang clique tried to assert their dominance over the capital to claim legitimacy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duan_Qirui_and_Anhui_dominance_(1916–1920)"><span id="Duan_Qirui_and_Anhui_dominance_.281916.E2.80.931920.29"></span>Duan Qirui and Anhui dominance (1916–1920)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Duan Qirui and Anhui dominance (1916–1920)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While <a href="/wiki/Li_Yuanhong" title="Li Yuanhong">Li Yuanhong</a> replaced Yuan Shikai as the President after his death, the political power was in the hands of Premier <a href="/wiki/Duan_Qirui" title="Duan Qirui">Duan Qirui</a>. The government worked closely with the Zhili clique, led by Vice President Feng Guozhang, to maintain stability in the capital. Continuing military influence over the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> led to provinces around the country refusing to declare their allegiance. The debate between the President and the Premier on whether or not China should participate in the First World War was followed by political unrest in Beijing. Both Li and Duan asked Beiyang general <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xun" title="Zhang Xun">Zhang Xun</a>, stationed in Anhui, to militarily intervene in Beijing. As Zhang marched into Beijing on 1 July, he quickly dissolved the parliament and proclaimed a <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a>. The new government quickly fell to Duan after he returned to Beijing with reinforcements from Tianjin. As another government formed in Beijing, Duan's fundamental disagreements over national issues with the new President Feng Guozhang led to Duan's resignation in 1918. The Zhili clique forged an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian clique</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a>, and defeated Duan in the critical <a href="/wiki/Zhili%E2%80%93Anhui_War" title="Zhili–Anhui War">Zhili–Anhui War</a> in July 1920. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cao_Kun_and_Zhili_dominance_(1920–1924)"><span id="Cao_Kun_and_Zhili_dominance_.281920.E2.80.931924.29"></span>Cao Kun and Zhili dominance (1920–1924)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cao Kun and Zhili dominance (1920–1924)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the death of Feng Guozhang in 1919, the Zhili clique was led by <a href="/wiki/Cao_Kun" title="Cao Kun">Cao Kun</a>. The alliance with the Fengtian was only one of convenience and war broke out in 1922 (the <a href="/wiki/First_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="First Zhili–Fengtian War">First Zhili–Fengtian War</a>), with Zhili driving Fengtian forces back to <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>. Next, they wanted to bolster their legitimacy and reunify the country by returning Li Yuanhong to the presidency and restoring the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of the Republic of China">National Assembly</a>. They proposed that <a href="/wiki/Xu_Shichang" title="Xu Shichang">Xu Shichang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> resign their rival presidencies simultaneously in favour of Li. When Sun issued strict stipulations that the Zhili could not stomach, they caused the defection of KMT Gen. <a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Chen Jiongming</a> by recognizing him as governor of <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>. With Sun driven out of <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, the Zhili clique superficially restored the constitutional government that existed prior to Zhang Xun's coup. Cao bought the presidency in 1923 despite opposition by the KMT, Fengtian, Anhui remnants, some of his lieutenants and the public. In the autumn of 1924 the Zhili appeared to be on the verge of complete victory in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a> until <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a> betrayed the clique, <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Coup" title="Beijing Coup">seized Beijing</a> and imprisoned Cao. Zhili forces were routed from the north but kept the center. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duan_Qirui_return_as_chief_executive_(1924–1926)"><span id="Duan_Qirui_return_as_chief_executive_.281924.E2.80.931926.29"></span>Duan Qirui return as chief executive (1924–1926)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Duan Qirui return as chief executive (1924–1926)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feng Yuxiang's defection resulted in the defeat of Wu Peifu and the Zhili clique and forced them to withdraw to the south. The victorious Zhang Zuolin unpredictably named Duan Qirui as the new Chief Executive of the nation on 24 November 1924. Duan's new government was grudgingly accepted by the Zhili clique because, without an army of his own, Duan was now considered a neutral choice. In addition, instead of "President" Duan was now called the "Chief Executive", implying that the position was temporary and therefore politically weak. Duan called on Sun Yat-sen and the Kuomintang in the south to restart negotiations towards reunification. Sun demanded that the "unequal treaties" with foreign powers be repudiated and that a new national assembly be assembled. Bowing to public pressure, Duan promised a new national assembly in three months; however he could not unilaterally discard the "unequal treaties", since the foreign powers had made official recognition of Duan's regime contingent upon respecting these very treaties. Sun died on 12 March 1925 and the negotiations fell apart. </p><p>With his clique's military power in a shambles, Duan's government was hopelessly dependent on Feng Yuxiang and Zhang Zuolin. Knowing that those two did not get along, he secretly tried to play one side against the other. On 18 March 1926, a protest march was held against continued foreign infringement on Chinese sovereignty and a recent incident in Tianjin involving a Japanese warship. Duan dispatched military police to disperse the protesters, and in the resulting melee 47 protesters were killed and over 200 injured, including Li Dazhao, co-founder of the Communist Party. The event came to be known as the 18 March Massacre. The next month Feng Yuxiang again revolted, this time against the Fengtian clique, and deposed Duan, who was forced to flee to Zhang for protection. Zhang, tired of his double dealings, refused to restore him after re-capturing Beijing. Most of the Anhui clique had already sided with Zhang. Duan Qirui exiled himself to Tianjin and later moved to Shanghai where he died on 2 November 1936. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zhang_Zuolin_and_Fengtian_(1924–1928)"><span id="Zhang_Zuolin_and_Fengtian_.281924.E2.80.931928.29"></span>Zhang Zuolin and Fengtian (1924–1928)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Zhang Zuolin and Fengtian (1924–1928)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a> changed his support from Zhili to Fengtian and forced the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Coup" title="Beijing Coup">Beijing Coup</a> which resulted in <a href="/wiki/Cao_Kun" title="Cao Kun">Cao Kun</a> being imprisoned. Feng soon broke off from the Zhili clique again and formed <a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a> and allied himself with <a href="/wiki/Duan_Qirui" title="Duan Qirui">Duan Qirui</a>. In 1926, Wu Peifu from the Zhili clique launched the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Fengtian_War" title="Anti-Fengtian War">Anti-Fengtian War</a>. Zhang Zuolin took advantage of the situation, and entered <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a> from the Northeast and captured Beijing. The Fengtian clique remained in control of the capital until the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>'s <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> forced Zhang out of power in June 1928. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="South">South</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: South"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: More information regarding the '<a href="/wiki/Wuhan_nationalist_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan nationalist government">Nanjing-Wuhan</a>' split and the divisions inside the KMT. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/220px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/330px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/440px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Blue_Sky_with_a_White_Sun" title="Blue Sky with a White Sun">The party emblem of the Kuomintang</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The southern provinces of China were notably against the Beiyang government in the north, having resisted the restoration of monarchy by Yuan Shikai and the subsequent government in Peking after his death. <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> along with other southern leaders had formed a government in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> to resist the rule of the Beiyang warlords, and the Guangzhou government came to be known as part of the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Protection War">Constitutional Protection War</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sun_Yat-sen_and_"Constitutional_protection"_military_junta_in_Guangzhou_(1917–1922)"><span id="Sun_Yat-sen_and_.22Constitutional_protection.22_military_junta_in_Guangzhou_.281917.E2.80.931922.29"></span>Sun Yat-sen and "Constitutional protection" military junta in Guangzhou (1917–1922)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sun Yat-sen and "Constitutional protection" military junta in Guangzhou (1917–1922)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In September Sun was named generalissimo of the military government with the purpose of protecting the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China">provisional constitution of 1912</a>. The southern warlords assisted his regime solely to legitimize their fiefdoms and challenge Beijing. In a bid for international recognition, they also declared war against the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> but failed to garner any recognition. In July 1918 southern militarists thought Sun was given too much power and forced him to join a governing committee. Continual interference forced Sun into self-imposed exile. While away, he recreated the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Nationalist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Nationalist Party">Chinese Nationalist Party</a>, or Kuomintang. With the help of KMT Gen. Chen Jiongming, committee members Gen. <a href="/wiki/Cen_Chunxuan" title="Cen Chunxuan">Cen Chunxuan</a>, Adm. <a href="/wiki/Lin_Baoyi_(admiral)" title="Lin Baoyi (admiral)">Lin Baoyi</a> and Gen. <a href="/wiki/Lu_Rongting" title="Lu Rongting">Lu Rongting</a> were expelled in the 1920 <a href="/wiki/Guangdong%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Guangdong–Guangxi War">Guangdong–Guangxi War</a>. In May 1921 Sun was elected "extraordinary president" by a rump parliament despite protests by Chen and <a href="/wiki/Tang_Shaoyi" title="Tang Shaoyi">Tang Shaoyi</a>, who complained of its <a href="/wiki/Unconstitutionality" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconstitutionality">unconstitutionality</a>. Tang left while Chen plotted with the Zhili clique to overthrow Sun in June 1922 in return for recognition of his governorship over Guangdong. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reorganization_of_military_junta_in_Guangzhou_(1923–1925)"><span id="Reorganization_of_military_junta_in_Guangzhou_.281923.E2.80.931925.29"></span>Reorganization of military junta in Guangzhou (1923–1925)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Reorganization of military junta in Guangzhou (1923–1925)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Chen was driven out of Guangzhou, Sun returned again to assume leadership in March 1923. The party was reorganized along <a href="/wiki/Leninist" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist">Leninist</a> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">democratic centralism</a>, and the alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> came to be known as <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="First United Front (China)">First United Front</a>. The Guangzhou government focused on training new officers through the newly created <a href="/wiki/Whampoa_Military_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Whampoa Military Academy">Whampoa Military Academy</a>. In 1924, the Zhilii clique fell out of power, and Sun travelled to Beiping to negotiate terms of reunification with leaders from <a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a>, Fengtian and Anhui clique. He was unable to secure the terms as he died in March 1925 from illness. Power struggles within the KMT ensued after the death of Sun. The <a href="/wiki/Yunnan%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Yunnan–Guangxi War">Yunnan–Guangxi War</a> broke out as <a href="/wiki/Tang_Jiyao" title="Tang Jiyao">Tang Jiyao</a> tried to claim party leadership. In the north, there were <a href="/wiki/Anti-Fengtian_War" title="Anti-Fengtian War">struggles</a> led by Guominjun against Fengtian-Zhili alliance from November 1925 to April 1926. The defeat of Guominjun ended their reign in Beiping. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanjing-Wuhan_Split_(1927)"><span id="Nanjing-Wuhan_Split_.281927.29"></span>Nanjing-Wuhan Split (1927)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Nanjing-Wuhan Split (1927)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In April 1927, Commander-in-Chief of the NRA (<a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-Shek</a> began a purge of leftists and communists in what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a>. As a result of the massacre the <a href="/wiki/Wuhan_Nationalist_government" title="Wuhan Nationalist government">Wuhan government</a> chose to split from Chiang which resulted in him forming a new nationalist government in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reunification">Reunification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Reunification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg/170px-Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg/255px-Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg/340px-Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="909" data-file-height="1249" /></a><figcaption>Map of the campaigns of the Northern expedition of the Kuomintang</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Central_Plains_War.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Central_Plains_War.png/220px-Central_Plains_War.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Central_Plains_War.png/330px-Central_Plains_War.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Central_Plains_War.png/440px-Central_Plains_War.png 2x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption>In course of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a>, several warlords attempted to overthrow <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>'s newly formed <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a>; despite the defeat of the anti-<a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> forces, warlords continued to remain in power in much of China until the 1940s</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> emerged as the protégé of Sun Yat-sen following the <a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Warship_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhongshan Warship Incident">Zhongshan Warship Incident</a>. In the summer of 1926, Chiang and the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> (NRA) began the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> with the hopes to reunify China. <a href="/wiki/Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Chuanfang" title="Sun Chuanfang">Sun Chuanfang</a> of the Zhili clique were subsequently defeated in central and eastern China. In response to the situation, the Guominjun and <a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a> formed an alliance with Chiang to attack the Fengtian clique together. In 1927, Chiang initiated a <a href="/wiki/April_12_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="April 12 Incident">violent purge</a> of Communists in the Kuomintang, which marked the end of the <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> (NRA) formed by the KMT swept through southern and central China until it was checked in <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict. The conflicts were collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a> of 1928. </p><p>Although Chiang had consolidated the power of the KMT in Nanking, it was still necessary to capture <a href="/wiki/Beiping" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiping">Beiping</a> (Beijing) to claim the legitimacy needed for <a href="/wiki/International_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="International recognition">international recognition</a>. Yan Xishan moved in and captured Beiping on behalf of his new allegiance after the <a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">death of Zhang Zuolin</a> in 1928. His successor, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_reunification_(1928)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese reunification (1928)">accepted the authority</a> of the KMT leadership, and the Northern Expedition officially concluded. </p><p>The politics of the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Decade" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing Decade">Nanjing Decade</a> of Kuomintang leadership over China were deeply shaped by the compromises with warlords that had allowed the victory of the Northern expedition. Most provincial leaders were military commanders who joined the party only during the expedition itself, when the warlords and their administrators were absorbed wholesale by Chiang. Although dictatorial, Chiang did not have absolute power as party rivals and local warlords posed a constant challenge.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG/220px-Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG/330px-Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG/440px-Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG 2x" data-file-width="888" data-file-height="688" /></a><figcaption>The situation in China in 1929: After the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a>, the KMT had direct control over east and central China, while the rest of China proper as well as Manchuria was under the control of warlords loyal to the Nationalist government.</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the reunification, there were still ongoing conflicts across the country. Remaining regional warlords across China chose to cooperate with the Nationalist government, but disagreements with the Nationalist government and regional warlords soon broke out into the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a> in 1930. Northwest China erupted into a <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Wars" title="Xinjiang Wars">series of wars in Xinjiang</a> from 1931 to 1937. Following the <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a> in 1936, efforts began to shift toward preparation of <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">war against the Japanese Empire</a>. </p><p>The warlords continued posing problems for the National Government up until the communist victory in 1949, when many turned on the KMT and defected to the CCP, such as Yunnanese warlord <a href="/wiki/Lu_Han_(general)" title="Lu Han (general)">Lu Han</a>, whose troops had earlier been responsible for receiving the surrender of the Japanese in Hanoi and had engaged in widespread looting.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Soviet_Zones.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/China_Soviet_Zones.png/220px-China_Soviet_Zones.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/China_Soviet_Zones.png/330px-China_Soviet_Zones.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/China_Soviet_Zones.png/440px-China_Soviet_Zones.png 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="899" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the communist-controlled Soviet Zones of China during and after the encirclement campaigns. These areas were re-controlled by the Nationalist government after 1934.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although Chiang was generally not considered personally corrupt, his power was dependent on balancing between the various warlords. Although he understood and expressed hatred at the fact that KMT corruption was driving the public to the communists, he continued dealing with warlords, tolerating incompetence and corruption while undermining subordinates who became too strong so as to preserve unity. After the Japanese surrender, warlords turned against the KMT.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Nazi_Germany_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="China–Nazi Germany relations">China–Nazi Germany relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aircraft_used_in_China_before_1937" title="List of aircraft used in China before 1937">List of aircraft used in China before 1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of the Republic of China">Military of the Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of the Republic of China">Politics of the Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993245–250-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993245–250_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCord1993">McCord 1993</a>, pp. 245–250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993288-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCord1993288_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCord1993">McCord 1993</a>, p. 288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJordan1976" class="citation book cs1">Jordan, Donald A. (1976). <i>The Northern Expedition: China's National Revolution of 1926–1928</i>. University of Hawaiʻi Press. pp. 4–6, 32–39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824880866" title="Special:BookSources/9780824880866"><bdi>9780824880866</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Northern+Expedition%3A+China%27s+National+Revolution+of+1926%E2%80%931928&rft.pages=4-6%2C+32-39&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=9780824880866&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=Donald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldron1991" class="citation journal cs1">Waldron, Arthur (1991). "The Warlord: Twentieth-century Chinese Understandings of Violence, Militarism, and Imperialism". <i>American Historical Review</i>. <b>96</b> (4): 1085–1086. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2164996">2164996</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Warlord%3A+Twentieth-century+Chinese+Understandings+of+Violence%2C+Militarism%2C+and+Imperialism&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1085-1086&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2164996%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Waldron&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry McAleavy, "China Under The Warlords, Part I". <i>History Today</i> (April 1962) 12#4 pp. 227–233; and "Part II" (May 1962), 12#5 pp 303–311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maochun Yu (2002), "The <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a>: A Military Assessment of Revolution and Counterrevolution", in David A. Graff & Robin Higham (eds.), <i>A Military History of China</i> 149</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwang-ching_LiuRichard_J._Smith1980" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Kwang-ching Liu; Richard J. Smith (1980). "The Military Challenge: The North-west and the Coast". In <a href="/wiki/John_K._Fairbank" class="mw-redirect" title="John K. Fairbank">John King Fairbank</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kwang-Ching_Liu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwang-Ching Liu">Kwang-Ching Liu</a>; <a href="/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Denis Crispin Twitchett</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&q=regional+armies+yung+ying+brave+battalions+hunan+anhwei+honan+shantung+yunnan+szechwan"><i>Late Ch'ing, 1800–1911</i></a>. The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 11, Part 2 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 202–203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3"><bdi>978-0-521-22029-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Military+Challenge%3A+The+North-west+and+the+Coast&rft.btitle=Late+Ch%27ing%2C+1800%E2%80%931911&rft.series=The+Cambridge+History+of+China&rft.pages=202-203&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22029-3&rft.au=Kwang-ching+Liu&rft.au=Richard+J.+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpEfWaxPhdnIC%26q%3Dregional%2Barmies%2Byung%2Bying%2Bbrave%2Bbattalions%2Bhunan%2Banhwei%2Bhonan%2Bshantung%2Byunnan%2Bszechwan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCord1993" class="citation book cs1">McCord, Edward A. (1993). <i>The Power of the Gun: The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 29, 39, 44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+of+the+Gun%3A+The+Emergence+of+Modern+Chinese+Warlordism&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pages=29%2C+39%2C+44&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=McCord&rft.aufirst=Edward+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_King_FairbankKwang-Ching_LiuDenis_Crispin_Twitchett1980" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">John King Fairbank; Kwang-Ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett, eds. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&q=hunan+militarization+of+scholar+class+anhwei+army+liu"><i>Late Ch'ing, 1800–1911</i></a>. The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 11, Part 2 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 540–542, 545. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3"><bdi>978-0-521-22029-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Ch%27ing%2C+1800%E2%80%931911&rft.series=The+Cambridge+History+of+China&rft.pages=540-542%2C+545&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22029-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpEfWaxPhdnIC%26q%3Dhunan%2Bmilitarization%2Bof%2Bscholar%2Bclass%2Banhwei%2Barmy%2Bliu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_King_FairbankKwang-Ching_LiuDenis_Crispin_Twitchett1980" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">John King Fairbank; Kwang-Ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett, eds. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&q=hunan+militarization+of+scholar+class+anhwei+army+liu"><i>Late Ch'ing, 1800–1911</i></a>. The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 11, Part 2 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 547. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3"><bdi>978-0-521-22029-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Ch%27ing%2C+1800%E2%80%931911&rft.series=The+Cambridge+History+of+China&rft.pages=547&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22029-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpEfWaxPhdnIC%26q%3Dhunan%2Bmilitarization%2Bof%2Bscholar%2Bclass%2Banhwei%2Barmy%2Bliu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Fuliang Shan, <i>Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal</i> (University of British Columbia Press, 2018, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-3778-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-3778-1">978-0-7748-3778-1</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbankReischauerCraig1978" class="citation book cs1">Fairbank, John; Reischauer, Edwin; Craig, Albert (1978). <i>East Asia: Tradition and Transformation</i>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 754. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-25812-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-25812-5"><bdi>978-0-395-25812-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+Tradition+and+Transformation&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=754&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-395-25812-5&rft.aulast=Fairbank&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Reischauer%2C+Edwin&rft.au=Craig%2C+Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbankReischauerCraig1978" class="citation book cs1">Fairbank, John; Reischauer, Edwin; Craig, Albert (1978). <i>East Asia: Tradition and Transformation</i>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 758. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-25812-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-25812-5"><bdi>978-0-395-25812-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+Tradition+and+Transformation&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=758&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-395-25812-5&rft.aulast=Fairbank&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Reischauer%2C+Edwin&rft.au=Craig%2C+Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1989" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Roberts, J. A. G. (1989). "Warlordism in China". <i>Review of African Political Economy</i>. 45/46 (45/46): 26–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03056248908703823">10.1080/03056248908703823</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4006008">4006008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+African+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=Warlordism+in+China&rft.volume=45%2F46&rft.issue=45%2F46&rft.pages=26-33&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03056248908703823&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4006008%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=J.+A.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPye1971" class="citation book cs1">Pye, Lucian W. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DvJwAAAAMAAJ"><i>Warlord politics: conflict and coalition in the modernization of Republican China</i></a>. Praeger. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780275281809" title="Special:BookSources/9780275281809"><bdi>9780275281809</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlord+politics%3A+conflict+and+coalition+in+the+modernization+of+Republican+China&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=9780275281809&rft.aulast=Pye&rft.aufirst=Lucian+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDvJwAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004104-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004104_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004104_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004107-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004107_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004107–108-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004107–108_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, pp. 107–108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paris33.org/guide/russian-armored-trains/">"Chinese Civil War Russian Armored Trains - Paris Tour Guide"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chinese+Civil+War+Russian+Armored+Trains+-+Paris+Tour+Guide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fparis33.org%2Fguide%2Frussian-armored-trains%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (November 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004112-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004112_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:Laikwan-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:Laikwan_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaikwan2024" class="citation book cs1">Laikwan, Pang (2024). <i>One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781503638815" title="Special:BookSources/9781503638815"><bdi>9781503638815</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+and+All%3A+The+Logic+of+Chinese+Sovereignty&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9781503638815&rft.aulast=Laikwan&rft.aufirst=Pang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004103-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004103_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004103_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004102_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbankReischauerCraig1978" class="citation book cs1">Fairbank, John; Reischauer, Edwin; Craig, Albert (1978). <i>East Asia: Tradition and Transformation</i>. Boston: Hougton Mifflin Company. pp. 761–762. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-25812-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-25812-5"><bdi>978-0-395-25812-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+Tradition+and+Transformation&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=761-762&rft.pub=Hougton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-395-25812-5&rft.aulast=Fairbank&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Reischauer%2C+Edwin&rft.au=Craig%2C+Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillingsley198856,_57,_59-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillingsley198856,_57,_59_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBillingsley1988">Billingsley (1988)</a>, pp. 56, 57, 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004105–106_26-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, pp. 105–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELary198583-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELary198583_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLary1985">Lary (1985)</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004104–106,_110–111-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004104–106,_110–111_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, pp. 104–106, 110–111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004106-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004106_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett201487,_88-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJowett201487,_88_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJowett2014">Jowett (2014)</a>, pp. 87, 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004110–111-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004110–111_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, pp. 110–111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004108-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004108_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004109–110-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004109–110_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, pp. 109–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004110-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004110_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palmer, James <i>The Bloody White Baron The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Become the Last Khan of Mongolia</i>, New York: Basic Books, 2009 pages 149, 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBisher2006" class="citation book cs1">Bisher, Jamie (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=28iPAgAAQBAJ&dq=1921+350+men+Gobi+fell+in+combat+against+the+Chinese+army&pg=PA339"><i>White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 339. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1135765960" title="Special:BookSources/1135765960"><bdi>1135765960</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+Terror%3A+Cossack+Warlords+of+the+Trans-Siberian&rft.pages=339&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1135765960&rft.aulast=Bisher&rft.aufirst=Jamie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D28iPAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D1921%2B350%2Bmen%2BGobi%2Bfell%2Bin%2Bcombat%2Bagainst%2Bthe%2BChinese%2Barmy%26pg%3DPA339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM.Blinov" class="citation web cs1">M.Blinov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paris33.org/guide/chinese-civil-war-armies/">"Chinese Civil War Armies"</a>. <i>Paris Guide – France in the old photos: famous sights, museums and WW1 – WW2 battlefields</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Paris+Guide+%E2%80%93+France+in+the+old+photos%3A+famous+sights%2C+museums+and+WW1+%E2%80%93+WW2+battlefields&rft.atitle=Chinese+Civil+War+Armies&rft.au=M.Blinov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fparis33.org%2Fguide%2Fchinese-civil-war-armies%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCollum2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Forgotten_Weapons" title="Forgotten Weapons">McCollum, Ian</a> (2021). <i>Pistols of the Warlords: Chinese Domestic Handguns, 1911 – 1949</i>. Headstamp Publishing. pp. 28–515. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781733424639" title="Special:BookSources/9781733424639"><bdi>9781733424639</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pistols+of+the+Warlords%3A+Chinese+Domestic+Handguns%2C+1911+%E2%80%93+1949&rft.pages=28-515&rft.pub=Headstamp+Publishing&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781733424639&rft.aulast=McCollum&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuan2017" class="citation thesis cs1">Duan, Lei (August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220531100741/https://surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1763&context=etd"><i>The Prism of Violence: Private Gun Ownership in Modern China, 1860-1949</i></a> (PhD thesis). <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University" title="Syracuse University">Syracuse University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1763&context=etd">the original</a> on 31 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Prism+of+Violence%3A+Private+Gun+Ownership+in+Modern+China%2C+1860-1949&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=Syracuse+University&rft.date=2017-08&rft.aulast=Duan&rft.aufirst=Lei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsurface.syr.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1763%26context%3Detd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeirather2015" class="citation book cs1">Weirather, Larry (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UM3-CgAAQBAJ"><i>Fred Barton and the Warlords' Horses of China: How an American Cowboy Brought the Old West to the Far East</i></a>. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786499137" title="Special:BookSources/978-0786499137"><bdi>978-0786499137</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fred+Barton+and+the+Warlords%27+Horses+of+China%3A+How+an+American+Cowboy+Brought+the+Old+West+to+the+Far+East&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0786499137&rft.aulast=Weirather&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUM3-CgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-time2-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-time2_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090923031317/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,928072,00.html">"CHINA: Potent Hero"</a>. <i>TIME</i>. 24 September 1928. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,928072,00.html">the original</a> on 23 September 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TIME&rft.atitle=CHINA%3A+Potent+Hero&rft.date=1928-09-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C928072%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004111-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFenby2004111_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFenby2004">Fenby (2004)</a>, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBisher2005" class="citation book cs1">Bisher, Jamie (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t8sdihXN47wC&dq=Nechaev+leg+bisher&pg=PA297"><i>White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 297. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0714656909" title="Special:BookSources/0714656909"><bdi>0714656909</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+Terror%3A+Cossack+Warlords+of+the+Trans-Siberian&rft.pages=297&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0714656909&rft.aulast=Bisher&rft.aufirst=Jamie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt8sdihXN47wC%26dq%3DNechaev%2Bleg%2Bbisher%26pg%3DPA297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paris33.org/guide/russian-armored-trains/">"Chinese Civil War Russian Armored Trains - Paris Tour Guide"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chinese+Civil+War+Russian+Armored+Trains+-+Paris+Tour+Guide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fparis33.org%2Fguide%2Frussian-armored-trains%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwong2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Kwong, Chi Man (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gBu9DgAAQBAJ&dq=actual+number+1927+hundred&pg=PA155"><i>War and Geopolitics in Interwar Manchuria: Zhang Zuolin and the Fengtian Clique during the Northern Expedition</i></a>. Vol. 1 of Studies on Modern East Asian History (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004340848" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004340848"><bdi>978-9004340848</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Geopolitics+in+Interwar+Manchuria%3A+Zhang+Zuolin+and+the+Fengtian+Clique+during+the+Northern+Expedition&rft.pages=155&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-9004340848&rft.aulast=Kwong&rft.aufirst=Chi+Man&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgBu9DgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dactual%2Bnumber%2B1927%2Bhundred%26pg%3DPA155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenby2003" class="citation book cs1">Fenby, Jonathan (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PNJOxyP0SqEC&dq=armoured+train+stout+rope&pg=PA176"><i>Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the China He Lost</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Simon and Schuster. p. 176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0743231449" title="Special:BookSources/0743231449"><bdi>0743231449</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generalissimo%3A+Chiang+Kai-shek+and+the+China+He+Lost&rft.pages=176&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0743231449&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPNJOxyP0SqEC%26dq%3Darmoured%2Btrain%2Bstout%2Brope%26pg%3DPA176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenby2009" class="citation book cs1">Fenby, Jonathan (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s2NKutuUlA8C&dq=armoured+train+stout+rope&pg=PA14-IA69"><i>Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the China He Lost</i></a> (reprint ed.). Hachette Books. p. 176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786739844" title="Special:BookSources/978-0786739844"><bdi>978-0786739844</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generalissimo%3A+Chiang+Kai-shek+and+the+China+He+Lost&rft.pages=176&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Hachette+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0786739844&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds2NKutuUlA8C%26dq%3Darmoured%2Btrain%2Bstout%2Brope%26pg%3DPA14-IA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenby2010" class="citation book cs1">Fenby, Jonathan (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dhuNIR6GKPcC&dq=armoured+train+stout+rope&pg=PA176"><i>The General: Charles De Gaulle and the France He Saved</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0857200679" title="Special:BookSources/978-0857200679"><bdi>978-0857200679</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+General%3A+Charles+De+Gaulle+and+the+France+He+Saved&rft.pages=176&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0857200679&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdhuNIR6GKPcC%26dq%3Darmoured%2Btrain%2Bstout%2Brope%26pg%3DPA176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenby2008" class="citation book cs1">Fenby, Jonathan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VIUAQAAIAAJ&q=armoured+train+stout+rope"><i>Generalissimo: Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850 to the Present</i></a>. HarperCollins. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0061661167" title="Special:BookSources/978-0061661167"><bdi>978-0061661167</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generalissimo%3A+Modern+China%3A+The+Fall+and+Rise+of+a+Great+Power%2C+1850+to+the+Present&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0061661167&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8VIUAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Darmoured%2Btrain%2Bstout%2Brope&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenby2013" class="citation book cs1">Fenby, Jonathan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f6YlUMjpWfUC&q=armoured+train+stout+rope"><i>The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850 to the Present</i></a> (2, illustrated ed.). Penguin Books. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0141975153" title="Special:BookSources/978-0141975153"><bdi>978-0141975153</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+History+of+Modern+China%3A+The+Fall+and+Rise+of+a+Great+Power%2C+1850+to+the+Present&rft.pages=194&rft.edition=2%2C+illustrated&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0141975153&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df6YlUMjpWfUC%26q%3Darmoured%2Btrain%2Bstout%2Brope&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1986" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Andrew D. W. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA101"><i>Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949</i></a> (illustrated ed.). CUP Archive. pp. 101–103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521255147" title="Special:BookSources/0521255147"><bdi>0521255147</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords+and+Muslims+in+Chinese+Central+Asia%3A+A+Political+History+of+Republican+Sinkiang+1911%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=101-103&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0521255147&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Andrew+D.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIAs9AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1986" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Andrew D. W. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&dq=white+russians+turban+heads+600+uighurs+defile&pg=PA294"><i>Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949</i></a> (illustrated ed.). CUP Archive. p. 294. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521255147" title="Special:BookSources/0521255147"><bdi>0521255147</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords+and+Muslims+in+Chinese+Central+Asia%3A+A+Political+History+of+Republican+Sinkiang+1911%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=294&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0521255147&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Andrew+D.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIAs9AAAAIAAJ%26dq%3Dwhite%2Brussians%2Bturban%2Bheads%2B600%2Buighurs%2Bdefile%26pg%3DPA294&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu1984" class="citation book cs1">Wu, Aichen (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kvxwAAAAMAAJ&q=At+the+same+time+the+White+Russians+brought+off+a+fine+piece+of+work+when+,+learning+that+six+hundred+Turban+-+heads+carrying+scaling+-+ladders+were+marching+to+join+the+attackers+,+they+waylaid+them+in+a+defile+outside+the+city+,+and"><i>Turkistan Tumult</i></a>. Oxford in Asia paperbacks (illustrated, reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195838394" title="Special:BookSources/0195838394"><bdi>0195838394</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turkistan+Tumult&rft.series=Oxford+in+Asia+paperbacks&rft.pages=83&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0195838394&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Aichen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkvxwAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DAt%2Bthe%2Bsame%2Btime%2Bthe%2BWhite%2BRussians%2Bbrought%2Boff%2Ba%2Bfine%2Bpiece%2Bof%2Bwork%2Bwhen%2B%2C%2Blearning%2Bthat%2Bsix%2Bhundred%2BTurban%2B-%2Bheads%2Bcarrying%2Bscaling%2B-%2Bladders%2Bwere%2Bmarching%2Bto%2Bjoin%2Bthe%2Battackers%2B%2C%2Bthey%2Bwaylaid%2Bthem%2Bin%2Ba%2Bdefile%2Boutside%2Bthe%2Bcity%2B%2C%2Band&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1986" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Andrew D. W. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA100"><i>Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949</i></a> (illustrated ed.). CUP Archive. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521255147" title="Special:BookSources/0521255147"><bdi>0521255147</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords+and+Muslims+in+Chinese+Central+Asia%3A+A+Political+History+of+Republican+Sinkiang+1911%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=100&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0521255147&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Andrew+D.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIAs9AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1986" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Andrew D. W. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA121"><i>Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949</i></a> (illustrated ed.). CUP Archive. pp. 120–121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521255147" title="Special:BookSources/0521255147"><bdi>0521255147</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords+and+Muslims+in+Chinese+Central+Asia%3A+A+Political+History+of+Republican+Sinkiang+1911%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=120-121&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0521255147&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Andrew+D.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIAs9AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1986" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Andrew D. W. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA178"><i>Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949</i></a> (illustrated ed.). CUP Archive. p. 178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521255147" title="Special:BookSources/0521255147"><bdi>0521255147</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords+and+Muslims+in+Chinese+Central+Asia%3A+A+Political+History+of+Republican+Sinkiang+1911%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=178&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0521255147&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Andrew+D.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIAs9AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChesneaux19725,_6-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChesneaux19725,_6_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChesneaux1972">Chesneaux (1972)</a>, pp. 5, 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980203,_204-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980203,_204_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPerry1980">Perry (1980)</a>, pp. 203, 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980195-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980195_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980195_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPerry1980">Perry (1980)</a>, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980204_60-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPerry1980">Perry (1980)</a>, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENovikov197261–63-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENovikov197261–63_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNovikov1972">Novikov (1972)</a>, pp. 61–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1980232-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1980232_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPerry1980">Perry (1980)</a>, p. 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZarrow2006" class="citation book cs1">Zarrow, Peter (2006). <i>China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949</i>. Routledge. pp. 248–249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134219768" title="Special:BookSources/1134219768"><bdi>1134219768</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+in+War+and+Revolution%2C+1895%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=248-249&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1134219768&rft.aulast=Zarrow&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2011" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, Richard Michael (2011). "1". <i>The Secret Army: Chiang Kai-shek and the Drug Warlords of the Golden Triangle</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470830215" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470830215"><bdi>978-0470830215</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1&rft.btitle=The+Secret+Army%3A+Chiang+Kai-shek+and+the+Drug+Warlords+of+the+Golden+Triangle&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0470830215&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Richard+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurtz-Phelan2019" class="citation book cs1">Kurtz-Phelan, Daniel (2019). "3, 5". <i>The China Mission: George Marshall's Unfinished War, 1945–1947</i>. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393243086" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393243086"><bdi>978-0393243086</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3%2C+5&rft.btitle=The+China+Mission%3A+George+Marshall%27s+Unfinished+War%2C+1945%E2%80%931947&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0393243086&rft.aulast=Kurtz-Phelan&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warlord_Era&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillingsley1988" class="citation book cs1">Billingsley, Phil (1988). <i>Bandits in Republican China</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford,_California" title="Stanford, California">Stanford, California</a>: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bandits+in+Republican+China&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Billingsley&rft.aufirst=Phil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2010" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Anthony B. (1 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T6eXCgAAQBAJ&q=anhui+1919+mongolia&pg=PA69"><i>Arming the Chinese: The Western Armaments Trade in Warlord China, 1920–28, Second Edition</i></a>. UBC Press. pp. 69–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1992-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1992-3"><bdi>978-0-7748-1992-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arming+the+Chinese%3A+The+Western+Armaments+Trade+in+Warlord+China%2C+1920%E2%80%9328%2C+Second+Edition&rft.pages=69-&rft.pub=UBC+Press&rft.date=2010-10-01&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-1992-3&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Anthony+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT6eXCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Danhui%2B1919%2Bmongolia%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChesneaux1972" class="citation book cs1">Chesneaux, Jean (1972). "Secret Societies in China's Historical Evolution". In Jean Chesneaux (ed.). <i>Popular Movements and Secret Societies in China 1840-1950</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford,_California" title="Stanford, California">Stanford, California</a>: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. pp. 1–21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Secret+Societies+in+China%27s+Historical+Evolution&rft.btitle=Popular+Movements+and+Secret+Societies+in+China+1840-1950&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pages=1-21&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Chesneaux&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">McCord, Edward A. (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft167nb0p4;brand=ucpress"><i>The Power of the Gun: The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism</i></a>, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+of+the+Gun%3A+The+Emergence+of+Modern+Chinese+Warlordism&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=McCord&rft.aufirst=Edward+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.escholarship.org%2Feditions%2Fview%3FdocId%3Dft167nb0p4%3Bbrand%3Ducpress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenby2004" class="citation book cs1">Fenby, Jonathan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PNJOxyP0SqEC&q=alignment"><i>Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the China He Lost</i></a>. London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780743231442" title="Special:BookSources/9780743231442"><bdi>9780743231442</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generalissimo%3A+Chiang+Kai-shek+and+the+China+He+Lost&rft.place=London&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780743231442&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPNJOxyP0SqEC%26q%3Dalignment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li>Jowett, Philip. <i>Chinese Warlord Armies 1911–30</i> (Men-at-Arms Series 2010)</li> <li>Lary, Diana. “Warlord Studies.” <i>Modern China</i> 6#4 (1980), pp. 439–470. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/189036">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLary1985" class="citation book cs1">Lary, Diana (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OILZAvZr0lsC"><i>Warlord Soldiers: Chinese Common Soldiers 1911–1937</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-13629-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-13629-7"><bdi>978-0-521-13629-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlord+Soldiers%3A+Chinese+Common+Soldiers+1911%E2%80%931937&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-521-13629-7&rft.aulast=Lary&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOILZAvZr0lsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>McAleavy, Henry. "China Under The Warlords, Part I." <i>History Today</i> (Apr 1962) 12#4 pp 227–233; and "Part II" (May 1962), 12#5 pp 303–311.</li> <li>Michael, Franz H. “Military Organization and Power Structure of China during the Taiping Rebellion.” <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 18#4 (1949), pp. 469–483. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3635664">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovikov1972" class="citation book cs1">Novikov, Boris (1972). "The Anti-Manchu Propaganda of the Triads, ca. 1800–1860". In Jean Chesneaux (ed.). <i>Popular Movements and Secret Societies in China 1840–1950</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford,_California" title="Stanford, California">Stanford, California</a>: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. pp. 49–63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Anti-Manchu+Propaganda+of+the+Triads%2C+ca.+1800%E2%80%931860&rft.btitle=Popular+Movements+and+Secret+Societies+in+China+1840%E2%80%931950&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pages=49-63&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Novikov&rft.aufirst=Boris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheridan1975" class="citation book cs1">Sheridan, James E. (1975). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinaindisintegr0000sher"><i>China in Disintegration: The Republican Era in Chinese History, 1912–1949</i></a></span>. New York: Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0029286104" title="Special:BookSources/978-0029286104"><bdi>978-0029286104</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+in+Disintegration%3A+The+Republican+Era+in+Chinese+History%2C+1912%E2%80%931949&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0029286104&rft.aulast=Sheridan&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinaindisintegr0000sher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldron1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Waldron" title="Arthur Waldron">Waldron, Arthur</a> (1991). "The Warlord: Twentieth Chinese Understandings of Violence, Militarism, and Imperialism". <i>American Historical Review</i>. <b>96</b> (4): 1073–1100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2164996">10.2307/2164996</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2164996">2164996</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Warlord%3A+Twentieth+Chinese+Understandings+of+Violence%2C+Militarism%2C+and+Imperialism&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1073-1100&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2164996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2164996%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Waldron&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldron1995" class="citation book cs1">—— (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MOK2HJ7BHigC"><i>From War to Nationalism: China's Turning Point, 1924–1925</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52332-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52332-5"><bdi>978-0-521-52332-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+War+to+Nationalism%3A+China%27s+Turning+Point%2C+1924%E2%80%931925&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-52332-5&rft.aulast=Waldron&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMOK2HJ7BHigC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Jowett, Philip S. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck6IumJLdPkC&q=old+chinese+silver+dragons+on+their+caps+and+shoulders&pg=PA11"><i>Chinese Civil War Armies 1911–49</i></a>. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-665-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-665-1"><bdi>978-1-85532-665-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Civil+War+Armies+1911%E2%80%9349&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-85532-665-1&rft.aulast=Jowett&rft.aufirst=Philip+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCk6IumJLdPkC%26q%3Dold%2Bchinese%2Bsilver%2Bdragons%2Bon%2Btheir%2Bcaps%2Band%2Bshoulders%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJowett2014" class="citation book cs1">Jowett, Philip S. (2014). <i>The Armies of Warlord China 1911–1928</i>. <a href="/wiki/Atglen,_Pennsylvania" title="Atglen, Pennsylvania">Atglen</a>, Pennsylvania: <a href="/wiki/Schiffer_Publishing" title="Schiffer Publishing">Schiffer Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0764343452" title="Special:BookSources/978-0764343452"><bdi>978-0764343452</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armies+of+Warlord+China+1911%E2%80%931928&rft.place=Atglen%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Schiffer+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0764343452&rft.aulast=Jowett&rft.aufirst=Philip+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJowett2017" class="citation book cs1">Jowett, Philip S. (2017). <i>The Bitter Peace. Conflict in China 1928–37</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stroud" title="Stroud">Stroud</a>: Amberley Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1445651927" title="Special:BookSources/978-1445651927"><bdi>978-1445651927</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bitter+Peace.+Conflict+in+China+1928%E2%80%9337&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=Amberley+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1445651927&rft.aulast=Jowett&rft.aufirst=Philip+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_J._Perry" title="Elizabeth J. Perry">Perry, Elizabeth J.</a> (1980). <i>Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845-1945</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford,_California" title="Stanford, California">Stanford, California</a>: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebels+and+Revolutionaries+in+North+China%2C+1845-1945&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarlord+Era" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em 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.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="22px_Warlord_Era_and_warlordism_during_the_Nanjing_decade_20px" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Warlord_era" title="Template:Warlord era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Warlord_era" title="Template talk:Warlord era"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Warlord_era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Warlord era"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="22px_Warlord_Era_and_warlordism_during_the_Nanjing_decade_20px" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Beiyang_star.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/22px-Beiyang_star.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/33px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/44px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="571" /></a></span> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warlord Era</a> and warlordism during the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing decade</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/20px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/30px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/40px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1915–1924</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1925–1934</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_warlords_and_military_cliques_in_the_Warlord_Era" title="List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era">Factions</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1911–1914</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bai_Lang_Rebellion" title="Bai Lang Rebellion">Bai Lang Rebellion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1913</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Revolution_(Republic_of_China)" title="Second Revolution (Republic of China)">Second Revolution</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915–1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China (Yuan Shikai)</a><br /><a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Death of Yuan Shikai</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">Constitutional Protection Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Golok_rebellions_(1917%E2%80%931949)" class="mw-redirect" title="Golok rebellions (1917–1949)">Golok rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1918–1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">Siberian intervention</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong Problem</a><br /><b><a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Mongolia" title="Occupation of Mongolia">Occupation of Outer Mongolia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Zhili%E2%80%93Anhui_War" title="Zhili–Anhui War">Zhili–Anhui War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Guangdong%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Guangdong–Guangxi War">Guangdong–Guangxi War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Spirit_Soldier_rebellions_(1920%E2%80%931926)" title="Spirit Soldier rebellions (1920–1926)">Spirit Soldier rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/1st_National_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="1st National Congress of the Communist Party of China">1st National CPC Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Conference" title="Washington Naval Conference">Washington Naval Conference</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/First_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="First Zhili–Fengtian War">First Zhili–Fengtian War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923–1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Lincheng_Outrage" title="Lincheng Outrage">Lincheng Outrage</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1924</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Canton_Merchants%27_Corps_Uprising" title="Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising">Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Coup" title="Beijing Coup">Beijing Coup</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Yunnan%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Yunnan–Guangxi War">Yunnan–Guangxi War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/May_Thirtieth_Movement" title="May Thirtieth Movement">May Thirtieth Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fengtian_War" title="Anti-Fengtian War">Anti-Fengtian War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Canton%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_strike" title="Canton–Hong Kong strike">Canton–Hong Kong strike</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Zhongshan Warship Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926–1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_government#Nanjing–Wuhan_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan government">Nanjing–Wuhan Split</a><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Nationalist-Communist Civil War</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanking incident of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/July_15_Incident" title="July 15 Incident">July 15 Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927–1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conflict_in_Gansu_(1927%E2%80%9330)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conflict in Gansu (1927–30)">Muslim conflict in Gansu</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">Huanggutun incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Looting_of_the_Eastern_Mausoleum" title="Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum">Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">Northeast Flag Replacement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Red_Spears%27_uprising_in_Shandong_(1928%E2%80%931929)" title="Red Spears' uprising in Shandong (1928–1929)">Third Red Spears' uprising in Shandong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Chiang-Gui_War" title="Chiang-Gui War">Chiang-Gui War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Rebellion_in_northeastern_Shandong" title="Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong">Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Revolt" title="Beijing Revolt">Beijing Revolt</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930–1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan War">Sino-Tibetan War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_War" title="Qinghai–Tibet War">Qinghai–Tibet War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1931–1935</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Rebellion" title="Kumul Rebellion">Kumul Rebellion</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Liu_War" title="Han–Liu War">Han–Liu War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Two-Liu_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-Liu war">Two-Liu war</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1934</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/War_in_Ningxia_(1934)" title="War in Ningxia (1934)">War in Ningxia</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a>) <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Zhili_Army_(Fengtian_clique)" title="Zhili Army (Fengtian clique)">Zhili Army</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shanxi_clique" title="Shanxi clique">Shanxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ma_clique" title="Ma clique">Ma</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_clique" title="Xinjiang clique">Xinjiang</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sichuan_clique" title="Sichuan clique">Sichuan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Old Guangxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/New_Guangxi_clique" title="New Guangxi clique">New Guangxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Guangdong</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guizhou_clique" title="Guizhou clique">Guizhou</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang <span style="font-size:85%;">(KMT)</span></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party <span style="font-size:85%;">(CCP)</span></a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China (1912–1949)</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" 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